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25963o
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types of government and their pros/cons
|
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"answer": "This is a rough overview of different systems, it's kinda caricatural, to help get a glimpse of what a government is about. Of course it has to be developed afterwards.\n\nCommunism : In the essence, everyone is equal and gets an equal fraction of what is produced by the workforce.\n\nSocialism : Could not explain, the definition seems different between anglo-saxon countries and others.\nIn Europe, it means that the people is what's most important to the state, and laws are written to protect the people.\n\nCapitalism : Money is a way to get a better life and to rise in the social ladder.\n\nFascism : The state is strong, the state is one man, this one man dictates laws. Fascism is an old Italian political movement, though, a form of dictatorship, as is the Nazism.\n\nNazism : a form of dictatorship, besides the lust for revenge (Triple Entente nations, mostly), I don't know the difference. Sure, there's the Holocaust, but many other dictatorships led genocides and *ethnic cleansings*.\n\nFrom what I know, totalitarism and dictatorship aren't that different. They both rely on one man (one political party) holding all power in the state, totalitarism just goes beyond and sets an ideology of devotion to this political party, a brainwashing process (that goes from propaganda to publicly executing the *opponents of the regime*). \n\nThere's much more systems and sub-systems to discuss, oligarchy, technocracy, antique democracy, and so on... \n\nNow feel free to add anything or correct me if I'm wrong. \n\nEDIT : Added Totalitarism.",
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"answer": "Well first off, it should be noted that capitalism, communism, and socialism generally refer to how the country's economy works, rather than how the government works. \n\nCommunism = Government owns all businesses and provides all services to its people (healthcare, education, welfare, etc.). Advantages are that most people get what they need, and it's all easy to get thanks to the government providing it. Disadvantages are that there are no private companies, no competition in the marketplace.\n\nSocialism = Government owns most large companies, provides all services for its people, but the people also have many economic freedoms and choices. Advantages are that people still have freedom to make economic choices as opposed to communism, generally lower poverty rates, very low income gap between high and low wage workers. Disadvantages are slower economic growth, less entrepreneurial opportunities. \n\nCapitalism = free market, privately owned companies, people own their own businesses, but people must also buy their own services since they are generally not provided by the government. There is always competition in the marketplace, but often companies just strive for profit.\n\nTotalitarianism = Country rules by one political party, and what they say goes. Everyone must follow their orders. Can get things done efficiently, but often with only one party in power, bad decisions get made and they go power-crazy/corrupt.\n\nFascism = A type of totalitarianism in which the government is controlled by an extreme right-wing party (prime example being the Nazi party in WWII Germany)\n\nNazism = basically fascism which resembles WWII Nazi party actions and views.\n\nDemocracy = government by the people for the people. The people get to elect their public officials and who gets to be in power and lead their country. Advantages are that everyone's voice gets heard. Disadvantage is that they tend to be extremely inefficient due to the fact that everyone gets a voice.\n\nTheocracy = Government where rulers rule on behalf of a religion and religious values. Basically, the religion of that country runs the government and dictates the government's actions.\n\nAnarchy = no government.\n\nHope this helped!",
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"answer": "To start, of the 6 examples you gave, three aren't types of government, two are basically the same thing, and one is more of a class of government. But I shall press on.\n\n**Types of government**\n\n* Anarchy [No government. Marxist communism falls here] Pros: The pros are mostly ideological, individualism taken to it's extreme. \nCons- Nothing preventing any crime, impossible to organize more than 20 people toward a common goal\n\n* Direct Democracy [Each citizen votes directly on every issue] - Pros: Everyone gets a voice in the government, which keeps people happy. No leaders to screw over the common man for their own gain. \nCons: Wildly impractical on any relevant scale; people are stupid and might vote for stupid things, 51% of the population can vote to screw over the other 49% however they like.\n\n* Republicanism [Citizens vote for representatives who then in turn vote on issues] - Pros: More conservative, unlikely to take any radical action, Career politicians can make nuances decisions, people can still hold their representatives accountable. \nCons: Career politicians get less accountable the longer they're in office, often unresponsive to change, politics becomes massively convoluted thus requiring career politicians\n\n* Aristocracy/Oligarchy [Small group of people in charge of everything] - Pros: Politicians (Aristocrats) have deep personal interest in the land they rule over, politicians careers not in jeopardy over a single gaffe, politicians can focus on doing what they believe is best rather than what the people want, Politicians can be trained from birth for their job. \nCons: Unavoidable and unalterable class system, Aristocrats can do whatever they want to the lower classes, aristocrats generally don't care about the workers, inevitable and purposeful wealth inequality\n\n* Dictatorship [One person in charge of everything] - Dictator deep personal interest in the land they rule over, dictator can focus on doing what they believe is best rather than what the people want, Dictator can be trained from birth for their job. \nCons: Unavoidable and unalterable class system, Dictator can do whatever he/she wants, dictators generally don't care about the workers, inevitable and purposeful wealth inequality, Generally unhappy people\n\n* Fascism [Very poorly defined. Generally means industries/corporations control government. Nazism was a form of fascism] - Pros: Strong economies \nCons: Stratified class system, usually nationalistic, usually militaristic, usually a police state, usually a dictator\n\n\n",
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"answer": "This question assumes that all socialist systems, or all fascist systems, etc. are the same, this is simply not that case.\n\nSocialism/communism (which are ALMOST the same thing theoretically) in Western Europe, for example worked very well and led to increased living standards, better societies and didnt lead to blood thirsty dictators.\n\nSocialism in places like Russia and China on the other hand led to ruthless dictatorships which look more like fascist states than they do like idealized socialism.\n\nThis really goes for all the ideologies you mentioned, except Nazism, Nazism is always bad. Arguably China has a fascist system now (although you could also call it communist, which proves how useless these terms are) and they are doing pretty well, while other fascist countries are mired in poverty.\n\nIn places like America, Democracy is seen as the obvious best choice for running a society, but in Egypt and other places democracy is seen as an invitation to partisan bloodletting and chaos.\n\nInstead of looking at broad ideologies you should look at places/situations where the ideologies were tried out. All of these systems look good on paper, the cons dont come out until we try them in real life.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "50428722",
"title": "Government trifecta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A government trifecta is a type of government in which the same political party controls both the executive and legislative branch. The situation occurs in governance systems that follow the separation of powers model. Under said model, the state is divided into different branches. Each branch has separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the others. The typical division creates an executive branch that executes and enforces the law as led by a head of state, typically a president; a legislative branch that enacts, amends, or repeals laws as led by a unicameral or bicameral legislature; and a judicial branch that interprets and applies the law as led by a supreme court.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3213598",
"title": "Consultative Council (Bahrain)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Supporters of the system refer to democracies such as the United Kingdom and Canada which operate the same bicameral model with an appointed upper chamber and an elected lower chamber. However, the government which nominates citizens to the upper chamber is accountable to the members of the lower house, and therefore the British and Canadian electorates respectively. Further, while these upper chambers each hold a constitutional veto over legislation, it is heavily restricted by constitutional and political convention.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "360856",
"title": "Family dictatorship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A hereditary dictatorship, or family dictatorship, in political science terms a personalistic regime, is a form of dictatorship that occurs in a nominally or formally republican or socialist regime, but operates in practice like an absolute monarchy or despotate, in that political power passes within the dictator's family. Thus, although the key leader is often called president or prime minister rather than a king or emperor, power is transmitted between members of the same family due to the overwhelming authority of the leader. Sometimes the leader has been declared president for life and uses this power to nominate one of his or her family as successor.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "14743361",
"title": "Malolos Constitution",
"section": "Section::::The document.:Constitutional ideas.:Form of government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "According to Title II, Article 4 the Government of the Republic is to be popular, representative, alternative and responsible, and shall exercise three distinct powers: namely, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Any two or more of these three powers shall never be united in one person or cooperation, nor the legislative power vested in one single individual. The Government of the Republic is a Responsible Government, a very important aspect of parliamentarianism where the executive branch is directly responsible to the legislative branch. This is further emphasized in Title V, Article 50 and Title VII, Article 56.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Society, government, and politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
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"text": "Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship, theocracy, and liberal democracy, the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "542341",
"title": "List of forms of government",
"section": "Section::::Forms of government by power ideology.:Types of republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "15852272",
"title": "Preamble to the Constitution of India",
"section": "Section::::Historic background.:Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "In a republican form of government, the head of state is elected and not a hereditary monarch. Thus, this word denotes a government where no one holds public power as proprietary right. As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on a hereditary basis for life or at least until abdication, a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure.\n",
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] | null |
yv5ec
|
Is ADD a real thing? Is that disorder questionable? Why do so many laymen roll their eyes about ADD?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. It's probably overdiagnosed due to the difficulty of differentiating child behavioral problems (often related to family problems), childhood onset bipolar disorder, and ADHD, as well as a whole slew of other learning disorders like auditory processing problems. Exacerbated by the fact that it is often initially diagnosed and treated by primary care physicians instead of specialists, but it is a real thing.",
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"answer": " > Is ADD a real thing?\n\nYes.\n\n > Is that disorder questionable?\n\nIt's more complex than people realized when it first became a mainstream concept. There are variations in what causes the behaviors associated with the diagnosis, as well as variations in the behaviors themselves depending on differences between people, and other elements at work in an individual. Someone who experiences ADD can also suffer from other ailments which result in a unique response to the combination of effects.\n\n > Why do so many laymen roll their eyes about ADD?\n\nIt's still being studied and understood, and the rapid pace of change in the field, coupled with a large influx of new diagnoses due to its recent pop culture prominence has led a lot of people to be automatically suspicious about the idea. Add to that the fact that many parents see solving the ADD problem as the key to solving all their child's problems, and it's understandable that there is more skepticism in the public at large.",
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"answer": "i have ADD and it's a very real disorder. most people don't really understand it, so you cant expect people that aren't familiar with it to understand it. i don't use medication b/c i've developed coping mechanisms and am smart, so i can hide it well.\n\nthe biggest reason to doubt it is the rapid rise in diagnoses in the last ~30 years. obesity has also seen a rapid rise over the last 30 years. the problem is you cant look at someone and tell they have ADD whereas you can tell if they're overweight.\n\nthere's new research that the cause of ADD is sugar (same with obesity) and after quitting sugar, things just seem easier for me.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "70705",
"title": "Aphrodisiac",
"section": "Section::::Assessment of aphrodisiac qualities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Throughout human history, food, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief by their users that they would be effective (placebo effect). Likewise, many medicines are reported to \"affect\" libido in inconsistent or idiopathic ways: enhancing or diminishing overall sexual desire depending on the situation of the subject. For example, Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is known as an antidepressant that can counteract other co-prescribed antidepressants having libido-diminishing effects. However, because Wellbutrin only increases the libido in the special case that it is already impaired by related medications, it is not generally classed as an aphrodisiac.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36805698",
"title": "Anismus",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Anismus could be thought of as the patient \"forgetting\" how to push correctly, i.e. straining against a contracted pelvic floor, instead of increasing abdominal cavity pressures and lowering pelvic cavity pressures. It may be that this scenario develops due to stress. For example, one study reported that anismus was strongly associated with sexual abuse in women. One paper stated that events such as pregnancy, childbirth, gynaecological descent or neurogenic disturbances of the brain-bowel axis could lead to a \"functional obstructed defecation syndrome\" (including anismus). Anismus may develop in persons with extrapyramidal motor disturbance due to Parkinson's disease. This represents a type of focal dystonia. Anismus may also occur with anorectal malformation, rectocele, rectal prolapse and rectal ulcer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20949376",
"title": "Citizens Commission on Human Rights",
"section": "Section::::Documentaries.:\"The Marketing of Madness: Are We All Insane?\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "However, a substantial volume of research does support the prevailing view among experts, which is that monoamines do in fact play a role in various mental disorders (see also Biology of depression, and Causes of mental disorders).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1988622",
"title": "Female sexual arousal disorder",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Another criticism, for example, is that \"the meaningful benefits of experimental drugs for women's sexual difficulties are questionable, and the financial conflicts of interest of experts who endorse the notion of a highly prevalent medical condition are extensive.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18834674",
"title": "Erection",
"section": "Section::::Medical conditions.:Erectile dysfunction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Erectile dysfunction can occur due to both physiological and psychological reasons, most of which are amenable to treatment. Common physiological reasons include diabetes, kidney disease, chronic alcoholism, multiple sclerosis, atherosclerosis, vascular disease -including arterial insufficiency and venogenic erectile dysfunction-, and neurologic disease which collectively account for about 70 percent of ED cases. Some drugs used to treat other conditions, such as lithium and paroxetine, may cause erectile dysfunction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1655285",
"title": "David Keirsey",
"section": "Section::::ADHD controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Keirsey asserted that Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) was an altogether different matter, in that these children were inactive and paid no attention to the teacher's agenda, and that ADD was defined exclusively by stating what they do not do, and in no way defined their observable behavior. Thus, in his opinion, ADD was a misleading label assigned to children who ignored the teacher while bothering nobody, unlike the children who are actually disruptive. Keirsey referred to the practice of medicating children with ADD as \"The Great ADD Hoax\". His main claim was that children labeled ADHD or ADD, typically, have an SP, or Artisan temperament, meaning concrete in thought and speech/utilitarian in implementing goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25614856",
"title": "Health of Robert E. Howard",
"section": "Section::::Mental health.:Possibility of depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In 1930, Howard went to a hospital in Temple complaining of a varicocele, gas in the stomach and an abnormally small penis. The working diagnosis at the time was sexual neurasthenia but the symptoms may instead point towards neurotic depressive disorder. The doctor concluded that \"We do not think there is anything wrong with Robert. We can find no varicocele of any consequence, and his organs are normally developed and he tests out good in every respect. His trouble, in our judgment, is due to his thinking there is something wrong. After he has dispelled this thought from his mind he will be in fine shape.\"\n",
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8w51o4
|
how can someone physically consume 74 hot dogs and what is the "aftermath" like?
|
[
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"answer": "For the consumption, practice. They need to eat progressively larger amounts of food or liquids per a period of time so their stomach can (somewhat) comfortably stretch to hold it all and they can get used to eating/drinking way past their body’s ‘I feel full’ point. I don’t know about the rest, it isn’t talked about much.\n\n\nEdit: Liquids too.",
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"answer": "It’s a process of gradually eating more and more food to help expand your stomach. Also being able to chew and break up the food is important as well. Smaller pieces of food will pack inside a stomach a lot more efficiently. Having strong monster jaws helps a lot. \n\nAll competitive eaters purge after these competitions. That’s the aftermath, lots of puke. \n\nEdit: most competitions don’t let you puke or make you hold it in for a certain amount of time. During training they will puke a lot. ",
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"answer": "There was an episode of some TV show, I think it was MTV's True Life that followed competitive eaters preparing for the Nathan's hot dog competition in New York. The reigning champ was some tiny Japanese guy. He basically just worked out all day, and when he wasn't working out he was stretching his stomache by eating pounds of food. Obviously he worked up to that point, but that's the general idea.\n\nEat a ton of food every day and exercise enough to maintain your health.",
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"answer": "In a way it's like a lot of other sports at a professional level. It takes an insane amount of time, commitment, and practice to be able to eat that much in ten minutes. It's not like you just get there. Chestnut had to gradually work his way up to being able to eat that many hot dogs in ten minutes.\n\nAKA Mr. Chestnut probably writes Oscar Meyer a lot of checks ",
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"answer": "You can be genetically suited to eating more. It's dependent on how low your stomach is allowing it to expand more. There are records of professional eater's stating that they do not throw up. They train to eat more each time to increase their capacity. If they throw up, that attempt is a fail. The body didn't \"improve\".",
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"answer": "Competitive eaters (at least, the successful ones) have expanded their stomachs over time, so they can fit way more inside. Instead of the stomach being a pouch, for them it’s more like a bag. There’s space in your abdomen, so that’s what it’s expanding into and using.",
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"answer": "Mates a competitive eater. He trains regularly for it by eating lots of tough, filling food so that he can fit more in and chew easier. There’s a whole lot of strategy involved as well with how you eat the meal and what you eat first. Afterwards he usually just doesn’t eat for a day then is fine.",
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"answer": "Furious Pete, a pretty well known Canadian competitive eater and one of the best iirc, said in one of his videos that most of the food he forces down his throat doesn't even get chewed up and digested properly, so his poop comes out with half digested food. I guess that's the aftermath. ",
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"answer": "ELI5: Why would someone spend time learning how to eat 74 hot dogs? ",
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"answer": "There are far worse things than \"just\" eating 74 hot dogs. Take this guy for example:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "If I eat one hot dog, I get diarrhea, so my guess would be that you would get 74 diarrheas.",
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"answer": "Is this 8 seconds per hotdog for 10 minutes or is my math off?",
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"answer": "I actually know a lot about this! \n\nTraining involves eating a high volume of low calorie foods and letting it pass naturally. A common thing would be eating an entire head of cabbage and drinking a gallon of water in an hour. This is a large volume that doesn’t put much into the body in terms of calories, so they can do it fairly often and maintain their health.\n\nOne reason that everyone up there was so skinny is because of the “fat belt” phenomenon. This is where the larger you are, the more your fat belt restricts the expansion of your stomach. Many of the gurgitators (the unofficial name of professional eaters) are pretty athletic people and go to the gym often.\n\nAs far as the aftermath, it’s somewhat of a pride point to not throw the food back up. It doesn’t disqualify you to do so after the time frame, but most of the top eaters pass it all naturally. \n\nIf you have continued interest in the topic, read “Eat This Book” published about 12 years ago. It talks about many of the famous eaters, how the circuit got started, and the other glorious adventures of professional eaters.",
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"answer": "Those guys eat tons of lettuce and drink tons of water to expand their stomachs. They also dip bread in water to make it go down easier.",
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"answer": "My husband put away a 12 pack of dogs in one day ONCE. Thank goodness, only once. Granted, he is not a competitive eater, but the aftermath was FOUL & SOCIALLY UNACCEPTABLE. Oh boy, it was bad. So bad. For about two or 3 days. ",
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"answer": "I don't have an answer but at my job we had a contest of our own. Same rules, buns, dogs, 10 mins. Let me tell you, it isn't fun, but I won.\n\n\n\nWith 7....",
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"answer": "Professional eating is just that, professional. It's a real sport that requires real training, that being gradual growing and stretching of the stomach, usually through drinking copious amounts of water, (like gallons a day), accompanied by a healthy diet and exercise regimen. As for the aftermath I've heard about stomach aches but unless they *really* Puch themselves that's about the and of it.",
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"answer": "I take it this post was made with the thought of the Nathan hotdog eating competition today on tv. Probably explains why all Nathan's aside from the jumbo were sold out at my HEB. Won't lie though.. Bought the Jumbo's and they taste good but I could use a nap now. \n\nAnyone who watched it...did you hear the intro to the 70 year old man about coffee and dying? Lol",
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"answer": "I’ve gone drinking with them after the big hot dog eating contest and Krystal burger contests a few years back. After the Nathan’s contest they go to a bar on Coney Island and drink... then go to another bar later that night and drink a whole lot more. ",
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"answer": "Wow! A reddit thread that I can sorta relate too. I have witness and partaken In eating 16 of the 74 Hot dogs my friend bought at a cantine in Quebec, needless to say he got up to 35 before throwing up and then gave the rest to his dog which then puked after eating the rest",
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"answer": "One time I let my dog eat 15 hot dogs in one sitting. Then he took a nap. That night he wet the bed. The next day his poop was normal. I was mostly boggled that his poop was normal.",
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"answer": "They should have a competitive corn eating contest. There's some aftermath for ya, visualize that!",
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"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nWatch this. It’s about mukbangs or people who eat a lot of food in front of the camera \nThis girl is kinoshita Yuka and shows you how her stomach expands to fit all the food ",
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"answer": "ESPN has an interesting [article](_URL_0_) that highlights how Chestnut prepares for his competitions.",
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"answer": "Joey chestnut fasts for 36 hours before this event. Then chugs a shit ton of water to stretch his stomach. It’s insane to eat 73 hotdogs in 10 mins but I guess there is always a strategy when your the best in the world at anything",
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"answer": "I've always been curious how is competitors can eat 69 hot dogs in a row or 80 tacos and not gain any weight but I had a cheeseburger on Wednesday in a gain 5 pounds by Thursday.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "811086",
"title": "Sonya Thomas",
"section": "Section::::Training and competition notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "BULLET::::- She had difficulty eating a hot dog in less than a minute when she first started training for her first contest, the 2003 Nathan's qualifier. After practicing, she was able to consume 18 hot dogs in 12 minutes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3668845",
"title": "Tim Janus",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
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"text": "On May 16, 2009, Janus became the third person in the history of the world to eat 50 or more hot dogs and buns in a Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, consuming exactly 50 in his qualifier in Hartford, Connecticut. In the finals on July 4, he ate 53 hot dogs.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "43491588",
"title": "L.A. Beast",
"section": "Section::::Competitive eating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In June 2012, Strahle consumed 25 hot dogs in 10 minutes at the Nathan’s Famous Hot Dog Eating Contest qualifier in Cleveland, Ohio. Though Strahle lost to eating veteran Crazy Legs Conti, he was beaten by only a quarter of a hot dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23802505",
"title": "Donald Kaul",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "He suffered a heart attack on the Fourth of July, 2012, after detouring from his semi-vegan ways to eat a hotdog. He still met a deadline, filing a column three days later, but observed, “Life is full of little ironies, some of which will kill you.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811086",
"title": "Sonya Thomas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "On July 4, 2005 she ate 37 hot dogs in 12 minutes at Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, setting a then-record for American competitors (which was also the female record). On August 8, 2005, she consumed 35 bratwursts in 10 minutes, beating the previous 10-minute record of 19.5 bratwursts, although her record was beaten in 2006 by Takeru Kobayashi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5783222",
"title": "Takako Akasaka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In 2000, she, along with fellow Japanese eaters Arai and Misao Fujita, entered an annual Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, where she became the first woman to do \"The Deuce\", eating more than 20 hot dogs with buns in 12 minutes. She finished at third place by eating 22 hot dogs, while Arai won the contest at 25, breaking the previous world record, and Fujita finished second at 24.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5783222",
"title": "Takako Akasaka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Her women's world record for hot dog eating was bested by Sonya Thomas, a Korean-born American. Ms. Akasaka remains one of three women to have eaten more than 20 hot dogs at Nathan's (Carlene LeFevre is the other).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
399fc7
|
why does ac´s have hot and cold mode, if it lets you select the temperature?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you select a temperature, you're not setting what temperature the air coming out of the AC is. The AC can only produce two temperatures of air: warm and cold.\n\nThe temperature setting is called a \"setpoint\". It's the temperature than the thermostat needs to move past before the AC turns on, and whether the AC turns on when moving above or below the temperature is determined by whether you select \"heat\" or \"cool\".\n\nFor example, you set the AC to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and set it to cool. If the temperature of the air near the thermostat raises above 70 degrees, the AC will start blowing cold air until the temperature falls back below 70 degrees, and then it will shut off.\n\nIf you set the AC to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and set it to *heat*, the AC will turn on if the temperature in the house falls *below* 70 degrees, and will blow warm air until the temperature rises back up to 70.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "223356",
"title": "Power inverter",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Induction heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. Due to the reduction in the number of DC sources employed, the structure becomes more reliable and the output voltage has higher resolution due to an increase in the number of steps so that the reference sinusoidal voltage can be better achieved. This configuration has recently become very popular in AC power supply and adjustable speed drive applications. This new inverter can avoid extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4045710",
"title": "Computer fan",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:PSU fan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "While the power supply (PSU) contains a fan with few exceptions, it is not to be used for case ventilation. The hotter the PSU's intake air is, the hotter the PSU gets. As the PSU temperature rises, the conductivity of its internal components decrease. Decreased conductivity means that the PSU will convert more of the input electric energy into thermal energy (heat). This cycle of increasing temperature and decreased efficiency continues until the PSU either overheats, or its cooling fan is spinning fast enough to keep the PSU adequately supplied with comparatively cool air. The PSU is mainly bottom-mounted in modern PCs, having its own dedicated intake and exhaust vents, preferably with a dust filter in its intake vent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7072506",
"title": "Ignition timing",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical ignition systems.:Vacuum timing advance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "On some vehicles, a temperature sensing switch will apply manifold vacuum to the vacuum advance system when the engine is hot or cold, and ported vacuum at normal operating temperature. This is a version of emissions control; the ported vacuum allowed carburetor adjustments for a leaner idle mixture. At high engine temperature, the increased advance raised engine speed to allow the cooling system to operate more efficiently. At low temperature the advance allowed the enriched warm-up mixture to burn more completely, providing better cold-engine running.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14255531",
"title": "Automotive thermoelectric generator",
"section": "Section::::Operation principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "The temperature difference between the two surfaces of the thermoelectric module(s) generates electricity using the Seebeck Effect. When hot exhaust from the engine passes through an exhaust ATEG, the charge carriers of the semiconductors within the generator diffuse from the hot-side heat exchanger to the cold-side exchanger. The build-up of charge carriers results in a net charge, producing an electrostatic potential while the heat transfer drives a current. With exhaust temperatures of 700 °C (≈1300 °F) or more, the temperature difference between exhaust gas on the hot side and coolant on the cold side is several hundred degrees. This temperature difference is capable of generating 500-750 W of electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910727",
"title": "Programmable thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Construction and features.:Commercial thermostats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In commercial applications, the thermostat may not contain any clock mechanism. Instead, another means may be used to select between the \"hotter\" and \"colder\" settings. For example, if the thermostat uses pneumatic controls, a change in the air pressure supplied to the thermostat may select between the \"hotter\" and \"colder\" settings, and this air pressure is determined by a central regulator. With electronic controls, a specific signal may indicate whether to operate at the \"hotter\" or \"colder\" setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310597",
"title": "Thermoelectric cooling",
"section": "Section::::Operating principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect (which also goes by the more general name thermoelectric effect). The device has two sides, and when a DC electric current flows through the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the other gets hotter. The \"hot\" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains at ambient temperature, while the cool side goes below room temperature. In some applications, multiple coolers can be cascaded together for lower temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26441626",
"title": "Electro Thermal Dynamic Stripping Process",
"section": "Section::::Difference between ERH and ET-DSP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The difference between Electrical Resistance Heating (ERH) and ET-DSP is heat transfer due to convection. Water injected around the ET-DSP electrodes is heated and flows radially toward the vacuum extraction wells heating the formation in the process. The difference between ERH and ET-DSP is shown in the governing equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
244kzj
|
Are there any documented battles between Greek style Hoplite Armies (or something resembling them) and Roman javelin and sword type armies?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends how close to hoplite army you want to be \n\nThe [Hoplite period](_URL_3_) of Greece ended shortly after the end of the Peloponnesian War, between 400 and 350, when there was an increased reliance on mercenaries, a less hierarchical formation, and less formality in conflict (i.e., more sacking of cities, and noncombatant involvement, less ransom and mercy). \n\nSkip forward to 191 BCE, when the Achaean League incorporates Sparta and Messene, covering the whole region of Achaea (generally the lower half of Greece as we know it today). In Second and First centuries the Achaean army was primarily mercenary light infantry and cavalry. The portion of the army that was conscripted from the citizens of each of the cities mainly consisted of light infantry, which may have been partly javelin or spear throwers, and cavalry. There were also conscripts of heavy infantry called hoplites, but were a small portion of the army and were similar to the Classical hoplites in name only. \n\nSecond century Rome is in the middle republic. Around 160 Polybius wrote Histories, part of which details the middle republican [army.](_URL_1_) \n\n > The second rank, the Hastati, are ordered to have the\ncomplete panoply. This to a Roman means, first, a large shield (scutum), the surface of which is curved outwards, its breadth two and a half feet, its length four feet,—though there is also an extra sized shield in which these measures are increased by a palm's breadth. It consists of two layers of wood fastened together with bull's-hide glue; the outer surface of which is first covered with canvas, then with calf's skin, on the upper and lower edges it is bound with iron to resist the downward strokes of the sword, and the wear of resting upon the ground. Upon it also is fixed an iron boss (umbo), to resist the more formidable blows of stones and pikes, and of heavy missiles generally. With the shield they also carry a sword (gladius） hanging down by their right thigh, which is called a Spanish sword. It has an excellent point, and can deal a formidable blow with either edge, because its blade is stout and unbending. In addition to these they have two pila, a brass helmet, and greaves (ocreae). Some of the pila are thick, some fine. Of the thicker, some are round with the diameter of a palm's length, others are a palm square. The fine pila are like moderate sized hunting spears, and they are carried along with the former sort. The wooden haft of them all is about three cubits long; and the iron head fixed to each half is barbed, and of the same length as the haft. They take extraordinary pains to attach the head to the haft firmly; they make the fastening of the one to the other so secure for use by binding it half way up the wood, and riveting it with a series of clasps, that the iron breaks sooner than this fastening comes loose, although its thickness at the socket and where it is fastened to the wood is a finger and a half's breadth. Besides these each man is decorated with a plume of feathers, with three purple or black feathers standing upright, about a cubit long. The effect of these being placed on the helmet, combined with the rest of the armour, is to give the man the appearance of being twice his real height, and to give him a noble aspect calculated to strike terror into the enemy. The common soldiers also receive a brass plate, a span square, which they put upon their breast and call a breastpiece (pectorale), and so complete their panoply. Those who are rated above a hundred thousand asses, instead of these breastpieces wear, with the rest of their armour, coats of mail (loricae). The Principes and Triarii are armed in the same way as the Hastati, except that instead of pila they carry long spears (hastae).\n\nRome took Corinth, the last holdout polis of the Achaeans, in 146, effectively taking Greece until Mithridates and the [Mithridatic Wars.](_URL_4_)\n\nPolybius wrote a lot about middle republican armies, and Livy wrote about the Mithridatic Wars in Ad Urbe Condita starting around Book [70.](_URL_0_)\n\nOther sources\n\n[Timeline of Greece and Rome for references](_URL_6_)\n\n[A nice paper on the Achaean League and its politics](_URL_7_)\n\n[Military history of Middle to Late Republican Rome](_URL_5_)\n\n[More on the Achaean League](_URL_2_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55074801",
"title": "Warfare in ancient Greek art",
"section": "Section::::Archaic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "During the Archaic period many artists began to depict the hoplite formation in art. Representations of the hoplite phalanx give historians a look into how the Greeks used this style of warfare in battle. Hoplites can be identified by their spear and their shield as well as their position next to other soldiers. One of the most popular representations of the hoplite phalanx is in the Chigi Vase. The hoplite formation is portrayed on many different types of pottery such as the Dinos, the Krater, and the Alabastron; and it many different styles such as black figure and white ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1353452",
"title": "Phalanx",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The hoplite phalanx of the Archaic and Classical periods in Greece (c. 800–350 BC) was the formation in which the hoplites would line up in ranks in close order. The hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults against it very difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55139644",
"title": "Bilingual kylix by the Andokides painter",
"section": "Section::::Elite soldiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "The hoplite warriors depicted in the bilingual kylix were Greek warriors who fought in closed ranks, or a phalanx. Hoplites were the most common type of soldier in the 7th through 4th centuries BC. These soldiers carried long thrusting spears (doru) in their right hands and shields in their left with a short sword (xiphos) on the hip. The shields would protect the soldier's own body and the right side of the warrior to his left. This set-up of soldiers allowed all but the ones on the ends of rows to be fully protected during battle. The phalanx formation didn't allow for much movement but the Greeks were the best warriors around regardless of any mobility issues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2830044",
"title": "Ancient Greek warfare",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greek military campaigns.:The Greco-Persian Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "This was the first true engagement between a hoplite army and a non-Greek army. The Persians had acquired a reputation for invincibility, but the Athenian hoplites proved crushingly superior in the ensuing infantry battle. To counter the massive numbers of Persians, the Greek general Miltiades ordered the troops to be spread across an unusually wide front, leaving the centre of the Greek line undermanned. However, the lightly armored Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armored hoplites, and the Persian wings were quickly routed. The Greek wings then turned against the elite troops in the Persian centre, which had held the Greek centre until then. Marathon demonstrated to the Greeks the lethal potential of the hoplite, and firmly demonstrated that the Persians were not, after all, invincible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198436",
"title": "Second Persian invasion of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Tactical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "The Greek style of warfare had been honed over the preceding centuries. It revolved around the hoplite, members of the middle-classes (the \"zeugites\") who could afford the armour necessary to fight in this manner. The hoplite was, by the standards of the time, heavily armoured, with linothorax or a breastplate (originally bronze, but probably by this stage made of organic materials such as linen (possibly linothroax) and leather, greaves, a full helmet, and a large round shield (the \"aspis\"). Hoplites were armed with a long spear (the \"doru\"), which was evidently significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword (the \"xiphos\"). Hoplites fought in the phalanx formation; the exact details are not completely clear, but it was a close-knit formation, presenting a uniform front of overlapping shields, and spears, to the enemy. Properly assembled, the phalanx was a formidable offensive and defensive weapon; on occasions when it is recorded to have happened, it took a huge number of light infantry to defeat a relatively small phalanx. It is also possible that the \"leather armor\" was actually untanned or partially tanned rawhide rather than fully tanned leather, because modern tests have concluded that plain or treated rawhide is a significantly better material for making armor than leather. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13298",
"title": "Hoplite",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hellenistic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "The Greek armies of the Hellenistic period mostly fielded troops in the fashion of the Macedonian phalanx. Nonetheless many armies of mainland Greece stuck with hoplite warfare. Besides classical hoplites Hellenistic nations began to field two new types of hoplites, the \"Thureophoroi\" and the \"Thorakitai\". They developed when Greeks adopted the Celtic \"Thureos\" shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword and, if needed, javelins. While the Thorakitai were similar to the Thureophoroi, they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing a mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4806",
"title": "Battle of Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
70lz4y
|
why do manufacturers have english and metric nuts and bolts in the same system? isn't is cheaper to be consistent?
|
[
{
"answer": "This happens when an American company uses European suppliers or even is jointly owned along with a European sister company and they share parts.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US is still on its own measurements system despite (almost) every other country on Earth switching to metric decades ago. \n\nThis causes problems and confusion any time there is an insistence on using US measurements. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20905960",
"title": "Nut (hardware)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A wide variety of nuts exists, from household hardware versions to specialized industry-specific designs that are engineered to meet various technical standards. Fasteners used in automotive, engineering, and industrial applications usually need to be tightened to a specific torque setting, using a torque wrench. Nuts are graded with strength ratings compatible with their respective bolts; for example, an ISO property class 10 nut will be able to support the bolt proof strength load of an ISO property class 10.9 bolt without stripping. Likewise, an SAE class 5 nut can support the proof load of an SAE class 5 bolt, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20691673",
"title": "Screw",
"section": "Section::::Differentiation between bolt and screw.:United States government standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "The federal government of the United States made an effort to formalize the difference between a bolt and a screw, because different tariffs apply to each. The document seems to have no significant effect on common usage and does not eliminate the ambiguous nature of the distinction between screws and bolts for some threaded fasteners. The document also reflects (although it probably did not originate) significant confusion of terminology usage that differs between the legal/statutory/regulatory community and the fastener industry. The legal/statutory/regulatory wording uses the terms \"coarse\" and \"fine\" to refer to the tightness of the tolerance range, referring basically to \"high-quality\" or \"low-quality\", but this is a poor choice of terms, because those terms in the fastener industry have a different meaning (referring to the steepness of the helix's lead).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42617872",
"title": "Dual coupling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Different types of railroad rolling stock have different couplers depending on the purpose and type of equipment being used and its intended destination. European rolling stock tend to use buffers and chain couplers while American rolling stock uses a Janney coupler or \"knuckle coupler\". These are incompatible with each other, but where some railroads have obtained older, less expensive used rolling stock from different countries or regions, instead of having to standardize on one form of coupler, it may be useful to be able to use either type of coupler on a piece of rolling stock without having to remove anything.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2637701",
"title": "End mill",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "End mills are sold in both imperial and metric shank and cutting diameters. In the USA, metric is readily available, but it is only used in some machine shops and not others; in Canada, due to the country's proximity to the US, much the same is true. In Asia and Europe, metric diameters are standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385509",
"title": "Pin compatibility",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Although devices which are pin-compatible share a common footprint, they are not necessarily electrically or thermally compatible. As a result, manufacturers often specify devices as being either \"pin-to-pin\" or \"drop-in\" compatible. Pin-compatible devices are generally produced to allow upgrading within a single product line, to allow end-of-life devices to be replaced with newer equivalents, or to compete with the equivalent products of other manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877127",
"title": "Fastener",
"section": "Section::::Standards & traceability.:For military hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "American screws, bolts, and nuts were historically not fully interchangeable with their British counterparts, and therefore would not fit British equipment properly. This, in part, helped lead to the development of numerous United States Military Standards and specifications for the manufacturing of essentially any piece of equipment that is used for military or defense purposes, including fasteners. World War II was a significant factor in this change. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2349541",
"title": "British Standard Whitworth",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "With the adoption of BSW by British railway lines, many of which had previously used their own standard both for threads and for bolt head and nut profiles, and improving manufacturing techniques, it came to dominate British manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5oz66q
|
why do presidents wait until the very last week of their presidency to pardon convicted inmates, rather than doing it earlier on?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pardons are the most politically controversial thing a president can do. He's probably doing them for the right reason, but it would've made his re-election/presidency far more complicated if he'd done the pardons earlier.\n\nAlso, tradition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two reasons.\n\nOne it's a bit of a tradition to grant some clemency as part of the final acts.\n\nSecondly an out going president is basically immune from political blow back so it's an opportune moment.\n\nFor one it will get mostly ignored what with the big news of having a new president, and even if people do notice you can't exactly punish the prez for it since they are entering retirement and don't need to win a popularity contest anymore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pardons tend to be somewhat to very unpopular with at least one of the President's constituents (usually at least the victim/their relatives but sometimes a much larger group). That means each pardon will make it incrementally harder to accomplish anything that requires congressional support or approval (some of the upset people will lobby congress to oppose the President's agenda). So most presidents wait until they have no time left for other Presidential goals to begin the pardon/clemency process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1020018",
"title": "Bill Clinton pardon controversy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Former U.S. President Bill Clinton was criticized for some of his pardons and acts of executive clemency. Pardoning or commuting sentences is a power granted by the U.S. Constitution to all sitting U.S. Presidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26346138",
"title": "Murder (Finnish law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Until 2006, a life sentence could be pardoned only by the president. However, since the 1960s, presidents have regularly given pardons to practically all offenders after a period of 12–15 years. In 2006, the legislation was changed so that all life sentences are reviewed by an appellate court after they have been executed for 12 years. If the convict is still deemed a danger to society, his or her case will be reviewed every two years after this. Involuntary confinement to a psychiatric institution may also result, sometimes after the sentence is served. The involuntary treatment ends when the psychiatrist decides, or when a court decrees it no longer necessary in a periodical review.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467744",
"title": "List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Though pardons and reprieves have been challenged in the courts, and the power to grant them challenged by Congress, the Court has consistently declined to put limits on the president's discretion. The president can issue a full pardon, reversing a criminal conviction (along with its legal effects) as if it never happened. A pardon can be issued from the time an offense is committed, and can even be issued after the full sentence has been served. The president can issue a reprieve, commuting a criminal sentence, lessening its severity, its duration, or both while leaving a record of the conviction in place. Additionally, the president can make a pardon conditional, or vacate a conviction while leaving parts of the sentence in place, like the payment of fines or restitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54636577",
"title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Pardons granted by presidents from George Washington until Grover Cleveland's first term (1885–1889) were hand written by the president; thereafter, pardons were prepared for the president by administrative staff requiring only that the president sign them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196964",
"title": "President of Finland",
"section": "Section::::Duties and powers.:Presidential pardon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The power of pardon has effectively become the instrument to limit life imprisonment to 12 years or more, since successive Presidents have eventually given pardon to all felons. The President, however, retains the power to deny pardon. In autumn 2006, the regular paroling of convicts serving a life sentence power was transferred to the Helsinki Court of Appeals, and the peculiar arrangement, where the President exercises judicial power, ended. The presidential power of giving pardon is, however, retained. Its use has diminished under the current President, Sauli Niinistö, who exercises the power particularly sparingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015257",
"title": "Powers of the president of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Executive clemency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55032002",
"title": "List of people granted executive clemency by Donald Trump",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mz4gd
|
Is there any documentation of the death of Jesus in Rome at the time of his crucifixion? Or was he considered a petty criminal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Supporters of the [mythical Jesus theory](_URL_0_) point out that we don't know of any non-biblical corroboration of his existence. We have a mention in currently known transcriptions of Flavius Josephus' history book, but there are very good reasons to think that those were added much later by a copist. \n\nKeep in mind that most ancient texts have only survived through milleniums in a very limited number of copies, and even then, mostly as fragments, palimpsests, or quotations. In this case, it looks like all the modern copies are descendants of a single copy made by a monk in one monastery. Imagine that monk, a fervent believer, ... how could a text of that era not mention our Lord, Jesus Christ! Surely, it must have been a mistake ... well you get the idea. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2546655",
"title": "Stolen body hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Historicity and gospel account.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The primary sources of details about Jesus are the Gospels. Roman records are spottier - there is no extant contemporary record of the execution of Jesus, for example, not that such a thing would be expected, and thus no details about what was done with the body afterward. As such, accounts of the days between Jesus's execution and the discovery of the empty tomb are almost exclusively based on the Gospel accounts and knowledge of society at the time, and it is difficult to say more than scenarios such as the stolen body hypothesis are \"plausible\" or \"unlikely,\" rather than \"proven\" or \"disproven\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2518274",
"title": "Swoon hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Counter-arguments.:Medical arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Referencing the famed Romano-Jewish historian Josephus, scholar William Lane Craig argues: \"Josephus tells of how he had three acquaintances who had been crucified removed from their crosses, but despite the best medical attention two of three died anyway (Life 75:420-21). The extent of Jesus' tortures was such that He could never have survived the crucifixion and entombment. The suggestion that a man so critically wounded then went on to appear to the disciples on various occasions in Jerusalem and Galilee is pure fantasy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20787",
"title": "Mary Magdalene",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Witness to Jesus's crucifixion and burial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Virtually all reputable historians agree that Jesus was crucified by the Romans under the orders of Pontius Pilate. Nonetheless, the gospels' accounts of Jesus's crucifixion differ considerably and most secular historians agree that some of the details in the accounts have been altered to fit their authors' theological agendas. Ehrman states that the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other women at the cross is probably historical because Christians would have been unlikely to make up that the main witnesses to the crucifixion were women and also because their presence is independently attested in both the Synoptic Gospels and in the Gospel of John. Maurice Casey concurs that the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other women at the crucifixion of Jesus may be recorded as a historical fact. According to E. P. Sanders, the reason why the women watched the crucifixion even after the male disciples had fled may have been because they were less likely to be arrested, because they were braver than the men, or because of some combination thereof.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22852566",
"title": "Crucifixion of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::New Testament narrative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels. There are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate places. All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus' arrest, initial trial at the Sanhedrin and final trial at Pilate's court, where Jesus is flogged, condemned to death, is led to the place of crucifixion initially carrying his cross before Roman soldiers induce Simon of Cyrene to carry it, and then Jesus is crucified, entombed, and resurrected from the dead. His death is described as a sacrifice in the Gospels and other books of the New Testament. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22852566",
"title": "Crucifixion of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::New Testament narrative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "According to all four gospels, Jesus was brought to the \"Place of a Skull\" and crucified with two thieves, with the charge of claiming to be \"King of the Jews\", and the soldiers divided his clothes before he bowed his head and died. Following his death, Joseph of Arimathea requested the body from Pilate, which Joseph then placed in a new garden tomb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22852566",
"title": "Crucifixion of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Other accounts and references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by Tacitus, generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians. Writing in \"The Annals\" (\"c.\" 116 AD), Tacitus described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated () that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32783",
"title": "Antisemitism and the New Testament",
"section": "Section::::New Testament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The New Testament records that Jesus' disciple Judas Iscariot, the Roman governor Pontius Pilate along with Roman forces and the leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8138rh
|
why do blood drives collect all types of blood, instead of prioritizing o- and o+ donors?
|
[
{
"answer": "If there were an unlimited supply, it would make sense to prioritize the donors whose blood is the most compatible. But that's not the case; donations generally keep pace with the demand for blood but in the United States, there's not a large surplus. So it's more practical to collect and use blood of the same type when possible, and to save the most compatible blood for when no other match is available. Why turn away a willing and eligible blood donor?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There isn't a massive supply of O donors, blood banks already have shortages. In an ideal world, they'd have an unlimited supply of type O blood from donors. So having a decent supply of the other types lets them save the O types for situations where they are unable to find sufficient A, B or AB. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all blood goes into random accident victims. Those random victims are the ones you have to give O- blood to.\n\nIf you're going into a surgery why would you waste O- blood when you can just use another matching blood type? Even O+ blood (The most common type) doesn't go into everyone. So you'd much rather use those rarer blood types if you have them on hand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are more blood groups than ABO and the Rh groups as well. Some patients who receive transfusion to stay alive (transfusion dependant) will constantly be exposed to some of the smaller blood groups (eg K, M, S, Fya/b, Jka/b, Kpa) that they don't have.\n\nSometimes our bodies will recognise these as foreign and launch a full immune response against them, and they can't have that blood anymore. Anyone from a stab victim, pregnant lady, cancer patient can have this response.\n\nSo take an A Pos patient. They can have A Pos, A Neg, O Pos and O Neg blood. It is a great blood group to have. They have a 2 unit transfusion at some point in their life and are exposed to say the Kell (K) blood group antigen which they don't have. They develop an immune response to it.\n\nThey now can't have K+ blood..... and the second unit they got also has Fya antigen which they don't have - their immune system responds to that as well. They can't have that anymore either. \n\n3% of the population has K+ blood. Their available pool shrinks. \n87.4% of people are Fya+. Their available pool shrinks.\n\nSo now you have someone who requires a blood bag that is K-,Fya- in order to not hurt/kill them. Their ABO blood group already restricts the blood they can have (they can't have B or AB blood) and now these antibodies are there too.\n\nRed Cross (or whoever does it where you are) have no idea what they are getting every time they do a blood run (or even a new donor). Every person's donation is precious because it COULD be the only unit in the bank that is negative to seven different antigens that some poor chemo patient has an immune response to and they need that specific unit of blood to say alive. \n\nBlood banking can be a complex logic puzzle and you don't always have the pieces available on hand... banks need all the donations they can get which is why they don't block based on ABO group.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3324299",
"title": "Autotransplantation",
"section": "Section::::Autologous blood donation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In blood banking terminology, autologous blood donation refers to a blood donation marked for use by the donor, typically for a scheduled surgery. (Generally, the notion of \"donation\" does not refer to giving to oneself, though in this context it has become somewhat acceptably idiomatic.) They are commonly called \"Autos\" by blood bank personnel, and it is one major form of the more general concept of autotransfusion (the other being intraoperative blood salvage).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6617694",
"title": "Bloodmobile",
"section": "Section::::How to organise a blood drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The first step in organising any blood drive is to contact the nearest blood bank or blood donation centre. A blood drive representative is assigned to help the person organising the drive. The representative assesses whether the organising company meets the requirements for the drive to proceed. The representative and organiser then plan the actual drive together, establishing mutual goals based on the size of the group and how many people are expected to donate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3324299",
"title": "Autotransplantation",
"section": "Section::::Autologous blood donation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Autologous blood is not routinely tested for infectious diseases markers such as HIV antibodies. In the United States, autologous blood is tested only if it is collected in one place and shipped to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4374365",
"title": "Intraoperative blood salvage",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "As a result, some in the global medical community have moved from allogenic blood (blood collected from another person) towards autologous transfusion, in which patients receive their own blood. Another impetus for autologous transfusion is the position of Jehovah's Witnesses on blood transfusions. For religious reasons, Jehovah's Witnesses may choose not to accept any allogeneic transfusions from a volunteer's blood donation, but may accept the use of autologous blood salvaged during surgery to restore their blood volume and homeostasis during the course of an operation, although not autologous blood donated beforehand. It must be noted that each Jehovah's Witness patient must be individually counseled as to all the possible blood products that are available as they may choose to accept some and not others (ie, some may accept products containing plasma, but not those containing red blood cells; others may accept platelets, etc); it is an individual choice for each patient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586721",
"title": "ABO blood group system",
"section": "Section::::Alteration of ABO antigens for transfusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In April 2007, an international team of researchers announced in the journal \"Nature Biotechnology\" an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B, and AB blood into type O. This is done by using glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the Rh blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rh positive individuals, and so blood from Rh negative donors must be used. The sort of blood is named \"enzyme converted to O\" (ECO) blood. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations. One such Phase II trial was done on B-to-O blood in 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67158",
"title": "Red blood cell",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Transfusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Red blood cells may be given as part of a blood transfusion. Blood may be donated from another person, or stored by the recipient at an earlier date. Donated blood usually requires screening to ensure that donors do not contain risk factors for the presence of blood-borne diseases, or will not suffer themselves by giving blood. Blood is usually collected and tested for common or serious Blood-borne diseases including Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV. The blood type (A, B, AB, or O) or the blood product is identified. This relates to the presence of antigens on the cell's surface. After this process, the blood is stored, and within a short duration is used. Blood can be given as a whole product or the red blood cells separated as packed red blood cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Recovery and time between donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. During whole blood donation, blood is drawn from the inner forearm venipuncture area from the right or left arm. The blood goes to the main collection bag located on the shaker which is next to the donor bed and this bag holds one pint of whole blood. After collection the blood bag along with three tubes of blood for testing and typing is sent to the laboratory. Here, the blood bag is separated into its different component parts in a centrifuge process (red cells, platelets, and plasma).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gikro
|
What was Hamiltonianism and what did it become between 1790-1850?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hamiltonanism was a political/economic belief in a Strong central government, encouragment of national industries and commercial economy and a distrust of the common man. The ideas of it still have no left us according to Michael Lind. It has been a persistent battle between Jeffersonian agriculturalists vs Hamiltonian commercialists. Its platform was carried by prominent politicans like Henry Clay in the 1830s and was somewhat carried out by the Presidency of John Quincy Adams. \n\n_URL_0_\nMichael Lind: *Land of Promise: An economic history of the United States*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:On economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 205,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 205,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Hamilton has been portrayed as the \"patron saint\" of the American School of economic philosophy that, according to one historian, dominated economic policy after 1861. He firmly supported government intervention in favor of business, after the manner of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, as early as the fall of 1781. Hamilton opposed the British ideas of free trade, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, in favor of protectionism, which he believed would help develop the fledgling nation's emerging economy. Henry C. Carey was inspired by his writings. Hamilton influenced the ideas and work of the German Friedrich List. In Hamilton's view, a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, could become the linchpin of an administrative republic. The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was essential to resist the deterioration of republican government. Ian Patrick Austin has explored the similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of Meiji Japan after 1860.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Religion.:Hamilton's religious faith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. During the French Revolution, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as \"the atheist,\" and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible. After 1801, Hamilton further asserted the truth of Christianity; he proposed a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802, to take hold of \"some strong feeling of the mind\" to elect \"\"fit\" men\" to office, and he wrote of \"Christian welfare societies\" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of the Treasury.:Manufacturing and industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Hamilton's next report was his \"Report on Manufactures\". Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, 1790, for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States' independence, the report was not submitted until December 5, 1791. In the report, Hamilton quoted from \"Wealth of Nations\" and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory; respectively. Hamilton also refuted Smith's ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries. Hamilton also thought of the United States being a primarily agrarian country would be at a disadvantage in dealing with Europe. In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists' interest would be advanced by manufactures, and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25094166",
"title": "F. S. Oliver",
"section": "Section::::Major writings and political thought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "In 1906 Oliver published the biography \"Alexander Hamilton\", which used the example set by the federalists of the early United States to argue for a federal arrangement for the British Empire. The book came to the attention of Lord Alfred Milner and the members of \"Milner's Kindergarten,\" who were then engaged in the reconstruction of South Africa following the Boer War of 1899-1902. According to Leo Amery, a friend of the kindergarten, \"\"Alexander Hamilton\" became the Bible of the young men of Milner’s Kindergarten.\" In 1934 \"The Times\" asserted, \"The book had probably more influence than any other political book of the decade.\" Novelist John Buchan, another friend of the Kindergarten, believed that Oliver had \"a real and enduring influence on political thought.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Hamilton entered King's College (now Columbia) in New York City in the autumn of 1773 \"as a private student\", and officially matriculated in May 1774. His college roommate and lifelong friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining the patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance, on July 6, 1774, at the Liberty Pole at King's College. Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2653890",
"title": "Federalist No. 67",
"section": "Section::::Anti-Federalist criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1167,
"text": "Hamilton's arguments are a response to anti-federalist arguments against the new constitution and the strong general government that it implied. The anti-federalists feared that the national government would weaken their individual states and that national debts would burden the country, and were particularly concerned with the executive branch, arguing that it would eventually become a monarchy or dictatorship. People questioned why Hamilton and the Federalists would propose a constitution that created an executive branch that seemed to have too much power. America was coming off the revolution where they fought England to gain independence from an oppressive government who they believed had too much power. People were concerned that this new executive branch would destroy the freedom that they just fought and died for. Another major fear was that the executive would have too much say in the Senate. They thought the executive would be controlling from behind the scenes and appointing whoever they wanted to Congress. Hamilton set out to prove that these fears were something not to worry about because the executive branch would be tightly regulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of the Treasury.:Report on a National Bank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Hamilton's Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779, he had gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith, extensive studies on the Bank of England, the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York. He also used American records from James Wilson, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant Treasury secretary Tench Coxe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wr9pe
|
I've heard Islam and the Arab Caliphates were heavily influenced by Persian culture and traditions. Why is that and what are some examples?
|
[
{
"answer": "An interesting read on this issue, mainly is about women's position in Islamic societies but gives quite a good idea about Persian (actually, Mesopotamian) influence over Islam and Islamic states: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Persians dramatically outnumbered Arabs. They were vastly wealthier, had a tremendously larger cultural tradition, including literacy, and they were more urban and sophisticated. The Umayyads tried hard to keep the Arabs ruling the Near East segregated from local populations in order to maintain Arab cultural unity, but in the far-flung areas of Khorasan (what is today Uzbekistan) this proved impossible, and Arabs and Persians mingled a great deal. The Persians had more wealth and culture, so they tended to make the Arabs more Persian than the converse.\n\nA good example of this is when al-Mansour built Baghdad in the 760s. The city was arranged in such a way as to conform to Persian obsessions with astrology, and when Mansour was installed, he had it done in the manner of a Persian king.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll speak mainly within the purview of Al-Tabari's texts and the Abbasid Dynasty as that is within my.area of familiarity. \n\nTo understand why the Persians had such an influence on the Abbasids we can start at the placement of the new capital of the Caliphate in Baghdad. Given its close proximity near the former Sassanid capital, this hints that at least geographically, the Abbasids had grown to rely on Persian bureaucracy and governance as a model. Furthermore, some theorize (though Al-Tabari highly suggests this) that the Abbasid connection to Persian rule was a way to cement legitimacy beyond the immediate area. Notably we see a large sponsorship of scientific and literary works from the Abbasids that were not written or translated to not only Arabic, but also Persian. Similar to the Byzantines at the time who continued the tradition of writing and producing literature in Greek, its possible that much of the Persian influence that the Abbasids borrowed from were products of a teleological justification.\n\nLiterary continuity commentaries aside, quite a lot of works that comes from the Abbasid Caliphate ended up being written in Persian and Arabic and the large projects translation of Greek and Roman philosophical works resulted in both Arabic and Persian transcriptions. Perhaps more pertinently, the political rise of the Abbasids depended on cooperation of the Persians against the Umayyads and though there was political friction afterwards, the prevalence of Persian political figures and people within the Abbasid Caliphate resulted in a much more inclusive rule.\n\nI'm fairly certain there are many aspects I've missed, so if anyone has any addons, feel free to add addendums.",
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"answer": "Let me start of with a bit of a generalization, and then I'll try my best to support it. The society of the Arabian Peninsula was one that was constituted of a a largely oral cultural tradition, governed with tribal affiliation rather than the bureaucracy and politics we are familiar with, and without the same sheer infrastructure that we see in the Byzantine, Sassanid, and Old Roman Empires. This means that when they powerful Arab armies took over lands outside the Arab peninsula, they began to borrow from them on a cultural level, and administrative level, and on an architectural/structural level. They would be quite impressed by the way that foreign emperors would live, the massive architecture of these different civilizations, and they would find a great deal of use in the bureaucratic structures that helped other empires govern their multiethnic domains (much like the Arabs were, as you can't structure your politics around tribal relations completely when there are people that don't fit into that tribal mosaic.). I am not much of an Art Historian, or one too well versed in Architecture, so I will focus on the administrative/political level (art and architecture is important, and I could talk about it, but I only know about it inasmuch as I can relate it to the political and administrative so I don't really want to start taking authority in that area.) \n\nSo the first work I'd like to introduce you to is \"The Administration of Abbasids Caliphate: A Fateful Change in the Muslim History\" by Mohammed Tahir, a great Pakistani academic, in *The Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences*. In the beginning of his article, he actually conceptualizes the defeat of the Umayyads and the Rise of the Abbasids, as well as the change of capital from Damascus to Baghdad as a battle of influences. The Capital had already been moved from Medina to Damascus, because of the centralization, and in a sense to also remove the Capital from its semi-nomadic roots in the desert to the high culture of the Byzantine/Levantine cultural sphere, though they retained a largely Arab-Centric Society and leadership. He argues that much of the ways that the Caliphs would begin to present themselves and operate during the Umayyad Caliphate was influenced by the way the Byzantine emperor operated, and it greatly influenced the more political nature of the Caliph ul-Islam. This influence would be changed when the Abbasids would adopt a far more Persianised point of view. They would move the capital towards Baghdad, and create a sort of Second person capital, and a new more persian empire on the remains of the more Arab Kingdom that they had vanquished to the far ends of Al-Andalus. (Although to be fair the Capital was actually moved to Kufa, then to Baghdad, then it had a stint in Ar-Raqqah and Samarra for short periods in between being in Baghdad as well). The Abbasids used the discontent of the Arabic centric politics that didn't really work with the growing diversity of the empire, to take control of it -- much of this misbalance was owed to what was effectively the swallowing of Persia and in turn its people and their culture. \n\nIt is also important to consider linguistic politics here as well. The Persian language, unlike many others in the region, took on a really important role. The language adopted an arabic writing system, and there was actually a great deal of patronage for works in the Persian language -- entire bodies of work and poetry in the Persian language flourished and the language itself would interact a great deal with Arabic and help create Arabic vernaculars. Much of these details can be discussed in Hayrettin Yucesoy's work \"Language of Empire: Politics of Arabic and Persian in the Abbasid World.\", he is a professor of the Medieval Middle East at WUStL. \n\nThe Abbasids would employ Persian methods of administration and bureaucracy, and even had many persians occupy important positions in government, marking a movement away from the ethnic rulership of the Arabs over all others (actually one of the Reasons the Umayyad fell in the first place). They also would adopt, from the Sassanid emperor, the idea of a Caliph who ruled with the divine sanctioning of God, a concept that would forever mark the position. The court life of the Caliphate would look much like that of the Persians, and the Caliph would wear a black turban, carry a staff of the prophet, and have the Quran before him on his throne as every one of his attendants and officials would kiss his hand when greeting him. They borrowed their system of investiture from the Persians as well. \n\nThey would also institute the Wazirate, a Wazir being a sort of prime minister, someone invested with all the sovereign powers to help the Caliph rule. They were often Persian, and would help in this transformation of administration. In addition other offices, such as that of an Executioner, and a diplomatic corps. The position of Wazir would exist and die with the Abbasid caliphate. So to conclude, the Abbasid Caliphate was emerged in a way as a more persianised alternative to the Umayyads, and they would go onto use Persian administration and language (and also artistic culture that I hope someone will be able to discuss more than I could.) I hope that gives you some insight, and if you'd like to know more, feel free to ask! ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8461673",
"title": "Turco-Persian tradition",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "After the Muslim conquest of Persia, Middle Persian, the language of Sassanids, continued in wide use well into the second Islamic century (eighth century) as a medium of administration in the eastern lands of the Caliphate. Despite Arabization of public affairs, the peoples retained much of their pre-Islamic outlook and way of life, adjusted to fit the demands of the Islamic religion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "370256",
"title": "Timurid dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols adopted the Persian literary and high culture which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32240",
"title": "Uzbeks",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Islamic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "As the Abbasid Caliphate began to weaken and local Islamic Iranian states emerged as the rulers of Iran and Central Asia, the Persian language continued its preeminent role in the region as the language of literature and government. The rulers of the eastern section of Iran and of Mawarannahr were Persians. Under the Samanids and the Buyids, the rich Perso-Islamic culture of Mawarannahr continued to flourish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32240",
"title": "Uzbeks",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Islamic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Despite brief Arab rule, Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic, remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion. Mawarannahr continued to be an important political player in regional affairs, as it had been under various Persian dynasties. In fact, the Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled the Arab world for five centuries beginning in 750, was established thanks in great part to assistance from Central Asian supporters in their struggle against the then-ruling Umayyad Caliphate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24187128",
"title": "Persian Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Sasanians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The Persian Empire in the Sasanian era was interrupted by the Arab conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic caliphate, and later by the Mongol invasion. The main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh century, it was slowly replaced by Islam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13306",
"title": "History of Islam",
"section": "Section::::Islamic Golden Age.:Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate.:Rise of regional powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks. In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great. The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31854",
"title": "History of Uzbekistan",
"section": "Section::::Early Islamic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "As the Abbasid Caliphate began to weaken and local Islamic Iranian states emerged as the rulers of Iran and Central Asia, the Persian language continued its preeminent role in the region as the language of literature and government. The rulers of the eastern section of Iran and of Transoxiana were Persians. Under the Samanids and the Buyids, the rich Perso-Islamic culture of Transoxiana continued to flourish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
145dsi
|
How did Japan end up calling itself by China's name for the country: "Land of the Rising Sun"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interesting question, and I don't know the answer, but I'd guess during the 700s-800s. That was when Japan imported Chinese culture wholesale, from the writing system to the architecture to Buddhism to entire sections of the language. (even today, Japanese use Chinese prononciation in some cases; for instance, the \"shin\" in \"Shinto\" is the same word as the \"kami\" in \"Kamikaze\"; in the latter case it's pronounced in native Japanese, in the former it's pronounced as the Chinese did [modern Chinese: \"shen\"]).\n\nAlso, Australia does call itself \"Down Under,\" which only makes sense from a non-Australian perspective.",
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"answer": "I was seriously just wondering about this a couple hours ago. The word \"Japan\" is also etymologically related to \"Nihon/Nippon\" as well as to the modern Mandarin name /ʐɿ.pən/. After all these years I'd only just today put that together, the connection to the English name I mean.\n\n/u/Tiako ought to show up and answer your question. That guy knows his shit.",
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"answer": "No, \"Ni-hon\" (日本, sun origin, or sun root) was not China's original name for Japan. In the early Chinese dynastic histories, the Japanese islands and the people there were reffered to as \"Wa\" (倭), which means \"land of the dwarves\" or \"land of the stunted rice plants\". How the name changed, so to speak, is somewhat confusing.\n\nThe following is a passage from the New Tang History:\n\"In the first year of Hsien-heng [670] an embassy came to the court from Japan to offer congratulations upon the conquest of Koguryo. About this time, the Japanese who had studied Chinese came to dislike the name Wa and changed it to Nippon. According to the words of the Japanese envoy himself, that name was chosen because the country was so close to where the sun rises. Some say... that Nippon was a small country which had been subjugated by the Wa, and that the latter took over its name. As this envoy was not truthful, doubt still remains.\"\n\nThis passage raises some questions - who were the Wa, then? And who are these people who suddenly conquered a territory from the Wa? Nevermind that we're looking through the distorted lens of the Tang dynastic histories, with its Sinocentric perspective.\n\nThere's another interesting exchange between China (more specifically, the Sui) and the Japanese court at Yamato. The Japanese sent a diplomatic message to the Sui which read, \"The Son of Heaven of the land where the sun rises sends this letter to the Son of Heaven of the land where the sun sets. [I] wish you well.\" Wang Zhenping argues that the Sui court accidentally accepted this message from Japan, inadvertently legitimizing Japan's claims of sovereignty and equality with the Sui emperor. This isn't covered in the Tang histories and seems relevant as well in the \"approval\" of Japan's new, less diminutive moniker.",
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{
"answer": "It reminds me of the meaning of \"Ukraine\", \"borderland\".",
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{
"answer": "While your question has already been answered pretty well, I just wanted to add one little piece of trivia that might be tangentially related. Japans' oldest religion involved them worshipping Amaterasu, who is both their sun god and the creator of the universe. So the sun already played a large role in their society (not that it doesn't in others), so I would imagine being \"the place where the sun rises\" has a sort of appeal for them.",
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"answer": "I wonder how common it is for a country to choose its name. After all, its inhabitants will call it \"The Country\" or, like Chinese, \"the country that is in the middle\" (I personally find it hilarious) but in a place like Europe, you can't have 20 countries called \"Center\"",
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"answer": "On a side note, I've always been curious why we call it \"Japan\" if the name of the country is actually \"Ni-hon\". In case anyone else was wondering, here is what [Wikipedia has to say about it.](_URL_0_)\n\n > The word \"Japan\" (or \"Japon\") is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by a large number of languages.\n\n > The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin Chinese or possibly Wu Chinese word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. The modern Shanghainese (a dialect of the Wu Chinese language (呉語) or topolect) pronunciation of characters 日本 (Japan) is still Zeppen [zəʔpən]. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang (modern spelling Jepun, although Indonesian has retained the older spelling), was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled Giapan. \n\n > Though Nippon or Nihon are still by far the most popular names for Japan from within the country, recently the foreign words Japan and even Jipangu (from Cipangu, see below) have been used in Japanese mostly for the purpose of foreign branding.\n\n > As mentioned above, the English word \"Japan\" has a circuitous derivation; but linguists believe it derives in part from the Portuguese recording of the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese word for Japan: Cipan (日本), which is rendered in pinyin as Rìběn, and literally translates to \"sun origin\". Guó is Chinese for \"realm\" or \"kingdom\", so it could alternatively be rendered as \"Japan-guó\".\nCipangu was first mentioned in Europe in the accounts of the travels of Marco Polo. It appears for the first time on a European map with the Fra Mauro map in 1457, although it appears much earlier on Chinese and Korean maps such as the Kangnido. Following the accounts of Marco Polo, Cipangu was thought to be fabulously rich in silver and gold, which in Medieval times was largely correct, owing to the volcanism of the islands and the possibility to access precious ores without resorting to (unavailable) deep-mining technologies.\n\n > The modern Shanghainese pronunciation of Japan is Zeppen [zəʔpən]. In modern Japanese, Cipangu is transliterated as ジパング which in turn can be transliterated into English as Jipangu, Zipangu, Jipang, or Zipang. Jipangu (ジパング) as an obfuscated name for Japan has recently come into vogue for Japanese films, anime, video games, etc.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11535807",
"title": "Rising Sun Flag",
"section": "Section::::History and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The flag of Japan and the rising sun had symbolic meaning since the early 7th century in the Asuka period (538–710 CE). The Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland, and is thus where the sun \"rises\". In 607 CE, an official correspondence that began with \"from the Emperor of the rising sun\" was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui. Japan is often referred to as \"the land of the rising sun\". In the 12th-century work, \"The Tale of the Heike\", it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the sun on their fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "972085",
"title": "Shina (word)",
"section": "Section::::Early modern usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Japan rejected the terms \"\" and its short form for four different reasons: (1) the term referring to China as \"the Middle Kingdom\" (a literal translation of \"\"/\"\") or \"the center of the world\" was deemed arrogant; (2) Western countries used \"China\"; (3) Shina was the common name in Japan for centuries; (4) Japan already has a Chūgoku region, in the west of its main island Honshu. The name \"Chūka Minkoku\" was officially adopted by Japan in 1930 but \"Shina\" was still commonly used by the Japanese throughout the 1930s and 1940s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16278867",
"title": "Outline of Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Japan – an island nation in East Asia, located in the Pacific Ocean. It lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean \"sun-origin\" (because it lies to the east of nearby countries), which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the \"Land of the Rising Sun\". Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku, which together comprise about ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1497175",
"title": "Son of Heaven",
"section": "Section::::History and adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1260,
"text": "The title carried widespread influence across East Asia as the ancient Han Chinese imperial title, , \"Son of Heaven\", was later adopted by the Emperor of Japan during the Asuka period. Japan sent diplomatic missions to China, then ruled by the Sui dynasty, and formed cultural and commercial ties with China. Japan's Yamato state modeled its government after the Chinese Confucian imperial bureaucracy. A Japanese mission of 607 CE delivered a message from \"the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises ... to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets.\" But the Japanese emperor's title was less contingent than that of his Chinese counterpart; there was no divine mandate that would punish Japan's emperor for failing to rule justly. The right to rule of the Japanese emperor, descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu, was absolute. Based on epitaphs dating to the 4th and 5th centuries in medieval Korea, the kingdom of Goguryeo had concepts of Son of Heaven (天帝之子) and independent \"tianxia\". The rulers of Goryeo used the titles of emperor and Son of Heaven and positioned Goryeo at the center of the \"Haedong\" \"East of the Sea\" \"tianxia\", which encompassed the historical domain of the \"\"Samhan\"\", another name for the Three Kingdoms of Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1806671",
"title": "Names of Japan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Both \"Nippon\" and \"Nihon\" literally mean \"the sun's origin\", that is, where the sun originates, and are often translated as the \"Land of the Rising Sun\". This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastern position relative to China. Before \"Nihon\" came into official use, Japan was known as or . \"Wa\" was a name early China used to refer to an ethnic group living in Japan around the time of the Three Kingdoms Period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1806671",
"title": "Names of Japan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 870,
"text": "In English, the modern official title of the country is simply \"Japan\", one of the few nation-states to have no \"long form\" name. The official Japanese-language name is \"Nippon-koku\" or \"Nihon-koku\" (), literally \"\"State of Japan\"\". From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II, the full title of Japan was the \"Empire of Greater Japan\" ( \"Dai Nippon Teikoku\"). A more poetic rendering of the name of Japan during this period was \"Empire of the Sun.\" The official name of the nation was changed after the adoption of the post-war constitution; the title \"State of Japan\" is sometimes used as a colloquial modern-day equivalent. As an adjective, the term \"Dai-Nippon\" remains popular with Japanese governmental, commercial, or social organizations whose reach extend beyond Japan's geographic borders (e.g., Dai Nippon Printing, Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11535807",
"title": "Rising Sun Flag",
"section": "Section::::History and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The Japanese word for Japan is , which is pronounced \"Nihon\" or \"Nippon\" and literally means \"the origin of the sun\". The character means \"sun\" or \"day\"; means \"base\" or \"origin\". The compound therefore means \"origin of the sun\" and is the source of the popular Western epithet \"Land of the Rising Sun\". The red disc symbolizes the sun and the red lines are light rays shining from the rising sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ptv1j
|
why am i only bald on the top of my head and not the sides?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a lot of great articles online that go into the exact science behind it if you'd like to read up on it, but the basic version goes like this:\n\n\n1) The hair on the top of your head is genetically slightly different to the hair on the sides of your head. The hair on the sides of your head are \"closer\" to pubic hair - this is also the reason male pattern baldness (MPB)doesn't generally occur in the armpits / genital region / back / chest etc.\n\n2) The actual hair loss issue is when a hormone testosterone changes into another molecule dihydrotesterone (DHT) which \"attacks\" the hair follicles on the top of your head, causing them to gradually shrink then disappear.\n\nSidebar: Typically MPB is treated by two methods - orally taking a pill of finasteride (marketed as Propecia) which acts to \"disable\" the formation of DHT, combined with topically applied lotions of Minoxodil (marketed as Regaine or the like) which helps stop DHT from attacking the hair follicles directly.\n\nDisclaimer: I'm not a doctor and you should definitely have a chat to your local GP if you're having issues with MPB - they can save you a fortune you would spend with any of those hair clinics!!\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6553523",
"title": "Wagner's viper",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The top of the head usually has two black elongated blotches that form a large dark open V marking, but without an apex. The arms of the V end on the neck. There is usually a dark stripe that runs from the corner of the eye to the angle of the mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232062",
"title": "Plagiocephaly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Plagiocephaly, also known as flat head syndrome, is a condition characterized by an asymmetrical distortion (flattening of one side) of the skull. It is characterized by a flat spot on the back or one side of the head caused by remaining in a supine position for prolonged periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56674715",
"title": "Boltonimecia",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "The head is small and wider than long, with a generally triangular outline in dorsal view. The upper surface is thickened into a shield with a curved and raised profile and two elongated processes extend out and slightly forward from the rear of the head. The eyes are either reduced to such a degree that they are not visible, or are possibly lost all together, and no ocelli are visible. The clypeus is small and strongly curved, with the front margin that faces the inner sides of the mandibles covered in 25, long, peg-like setae. Each mandible is curved almost 90˚ with the bases covered by the edges of the clypeus lobes. On the mandible's ends are two teeth, a smaller sub-apical one and a larger apical one with a groove that likely matches the position of the opposite mandible placement when they are closed. The antennae are distinctly 11-segmented, with a curved scape that just reaches the rear margin of the head capsule when reclined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9925",
"title": "Eubulides",
"section": "Section::::Paradoxes of Eubulides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::5. The Bald Man (\"phalakros\") paradox:brA man with a full head of hair is obviously not bald. Now the removal of a single hair will not turn a non-bald man into a bald one. And yet it is obvious that a continuation of that process must eventually result in baldness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155140",
"title": "Hair removal",
"section": "Section::::Cultural and sexual aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Some men shave their heads, either as a fashion statement, because they find a shaved head preferable to the appearance of male pattern baldness, or in order to attain enhanced cooling of the skull – particularly for people suffering from hyperhidrosis. A much smaller number of Western women also shave their heads, often as a fashion or political statement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41942826",
"title": "Henson horse",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The head is preferably refined, expressive and as light as possible; it is generally medium-sized with relatively deep jaws, and a straight or slightly concave profile. The ears are short and well-sculpted, with a darker tip than base. The eyes, sharp but with a sweet expression, are surrounded by black skin. The neck is preferred sufficiently long and without heaviness, well oriented on a strong base, but it is usually relatively short and wide. The chest is broad, the desired shoulder long and sloping. The body is stocky, the back often short and wide but sought-after in medium length. The hindquarters are large, the pasterns are short, legs solid and muscular with a hoof wall as strong as that of the Fjord, which should not be light coloured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414721",
"title": "Forehead",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "In human anatomy, the forehead is an area of the head bounded by three features, two of the skull and one of the scalp. The top of the forehead is marked by the hairline, the edge of the area where hair on the scalp grows. The bottom of the forehead is marked by the supraorbital ridge, the bone feature of the skull above the eyes. The two sides of the forehead are marked by the temporal ridge, a bone feature that links the supraorbital ridge to the coronal suture line and beyond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sjmkx
|
What would happen if someone were to take a glass container out into space, close it, seal it, then take it back onto earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the container was strong enough, you'd have a glass container with a vacuum inside. If not, the container would implode when it returned to normal atmospheric pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere outside would push the walls of the container in, and there'd be nothing inside to push back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depending on the strength of the container, it would either implode or do nothing. You would have a container with nothing in it, not even air. Now it's hard to say what the chances are of having, say, *one* particle of something in there.\n\nAlso, depending on the mechanism used to open/close the container, it would be very hard to open, and once it was open, would immediately fill with atmosphere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the container was strong enough, it would simply contain a very high quality vacume. Depending on how deep space you were in, and how long you left the container in space unsealed for it to establish a pressure equilibrium.\n\nHowever, for a glass container, the outside pressure on the surface of the earth would almost certainly cause it to implode. Due to the difference in pressure between the inside and outside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question: how cold would the container be assuming it doesn't implode?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a followup to this question I was wondering:\n\nWould it be possible to make a vacuum chamber large enough that it would displace enough air to float, or would it always end up imploding under the pressure?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10915042",
"title": "Hayabusa2",
"section": "Section::::Sample-return.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Once on Earth, any volatile substance will be collected before the sealed containers are opened. The samples will be curated and analyzed at JAXA's Extraterrestrial Sample Curation Center, where international scientists can request a small portion of the samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2398723",
"title": "Porthole",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft portholes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Portholes on spacecraft must be made from glass that can survive rapid temperature changes, without suffering the cracking that can result from thermal shock. Those on the International Space Station were made from quartz glass mounted on titanium frames, covered with enamel. Of course, these are not designed to be opened. The windows also have shrouds or doors to protect them from micro-meteorites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31028310",
"title": "Interplanetary contamination",
"section": "Section::::Back contamination issues.:Suggested precautions for sample-returns.:Chain of contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "A sample-return mission would be designed to break the chain of contact between Mars and the exterior of the sample container, for instance, by sealing the returned container inside another larger container in the vacuum of space before it returns to Earth. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute failure, the capsule could fall at terminal velocity and the impact would be cushioned by the capsule's thermal protection system. The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of the impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35786896",
"title": "Guided missiles of India",
"section": "Section::::Indian Missile Projects.:Anti-Satellite Missile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "We don't want to weaponise space but the building blocks should be in place. Because you may come to a time when you may need it. Today, I can say that all the building blocks (for an ASAT weapon) are in place. A little fine tuning may be required but we will do that electronically. We will not do a physical test (actual destruction of a satellite) because of the risk of space debris affecting other satellites.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27920225",
"title": "Operation Burnt Frost",
"section": "Section::::Operation Burnt Frost Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "General Cartwright stated that if the satellite came down in one piece that nearly one half of the spacecraft would survive re-entry, which would spread the toxic cloud of hydrazine gas roughly over the size of two football fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216362",
"title": "Biosphere 2",
"section": "Section::::Second mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1554,
"text": "At 3 a.m. on April 5, 1994, Abigail Alling and Mark Van Thillo, members of the first crew, allegedly vandalized the project from outside, opening one double-airlock door and three single door emergency exits, leaving them open for about 15 minutes. Five panes of glass were also broken. Alling later told the Chicago Tribune that she \"considered the Biosphere to be in an emergency state... In no way was it sabotage. It was my responsibility.\" About 10% of the biosphere's air was exchanged with the outside during this time, according to systems analyst Donella Meadows, who received a communication from Alling saying that she and Van Thillo judged it their ethical duty to give those inside the choice of continuing with the drastically changed human experiment or leaving, as they didn't know what the crew had been told of the new situation. “On April 1, 1994, at approximately 10 AM ... limousines arrived on the biosphere site ... with two investment bankers hired by Mr. Bass ... They arrived with a temporary restraining order to take over direct control of the project ... With them were 6-8 police officers hired by the Bass organization ... They immediately changed locks on the offices ... All communication systems were changed (telephone and access codes), and [we] were prevented from receiving any data regarding safety, operations, and research of Biosphere 2.\" Alling emphasized several times in her letter that the “bankers” who suddenly took over “knew nothing technically or scientifically, and little about the biospherian crew.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34457630",
"title": "List of reentering space debris",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "List of large reentering space debris is a list of man made objects reentering Earth's atmosphere by mass (see space debris). They are typically destroyed by reentry heating, but some components can survive. Most of these objects are relatively small; larger objects have survived but usually break up into smaller pieces during reentry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24fqge
|
What were relations between Pinochet's Chile and the military regime of Argentina like?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know the specifics of this question and it was one that I would like to explore myself when I have a bit more free time. Both were brutal regimes and cooperated with each other (along with other nations of the Southern Cone) in Operation Condor, which was essentially a transnational repressive campaign against \"subversives.\" For more on Operation Condor, see John Dinges *[The Condor Years](_URL_1_).* One specific incident was the assassination of General Carlos Prats, who was a Chilean general who went into exile after the coup and was later killed in a car bombing in Argentina. Another interesting chapter was the Malvinas/Falklands War. Pinochet was a big supporter and admirer of Margaret Thatcher and allowed British planes to refuel in Chile, which didn't sit well with Argentina. I don't know of one specific book that explains this deeper, but it is mentioned (I believe) in Mary Helen Spooner's *[The General's Slow Retreat](_URL_0_),* which I highly recommend! I really enjoyed it, Spooner is a journalist and also has another book called *Soldiers in a Narrow Land.* The latter explains the Pinochet regime, while the former is what happened after Pinochet was out of power through Michele Bachelet's first presidency. I hope this helped! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17805779",
"title": "Direct negotiations between Chile and Argentina in 1977–78",
"section": "Section::::Internal politics of both countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Argentina and Chile were both ruled by military governments at the time of the negotiations. The Chilean and Argentine governments shared common interests: internal war against subversion, annihilating the opposition; external war against communism, remaining nonetheless part of the non-aligned movement; modernisation and liberalisation of the economy; a conservative approach towards social and class relations. By the end of 1977, the war against subversion and opposition was substantially over in both countries, as the Operation Condor had lost momentum and détente had improved East-West relations. The two countries maintained good economic relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338758",
"title": "Juan Antonio Ríos",
"section": "Section::::Presidency.:Foreign relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Up to 1943, Chile and Argentina had declined to sever relations with the Axis powers, and the Chilean election was viewed by many as critical during World War II. A bitter disagreement sprung up between the president and its supporting Democratic Alliance. Initially, Ríos' government was committed to neutrality during the war, but the left-wing parties of his coalition were in favor of an immediate and total rupture with the Axis as well as for the recognition of the USSR, which they saw as their contribution to the world-struggle against fascism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18733593",
"title": "Americans and Canadians in Chile",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "\"Americo-Chilean\"s played a role in international diplomacy between the two countries (see United States-Chile relations). The relationship turned tense during the Salvador Allende era (1970–73), in which the American CIA-backed bloody coup replaced him with general Augusto Pinochet to head a right-wing military regime (1973–89).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52589868",
"title": "Chilean expansionism",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In 1978, amid direct negotiations attempting to settle the Beagle conflict, Chilean President Augusto Pinochet assured that Chile had no expansionist intentions, but that his government would \"defend the patrimony that belongs to it by right.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23486968",
"title": "Juan Perón",
"section": "Section::::Third term (1973–1974).:Relationship with Allende and Pinochet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "On 14 May 1974 Perón received Augusto Pinochet at the Morón Airbase. Pinochet was heading to meet Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay so the encounter at Argentina was technically a stop over. Pinochet and Perón are both reported to have felt uncomfortable during the meeting. Perón expressed his wishes to settle the Beagle conflict and Pinochet his concerns about Chilean exiles in Argentina near the frontier with Chile. Perón would have conceded on moving these exiles from the frontiers to eastern Argentina, but he warned \"Perón takes his time, but accomplishes\" (\"Perón tarda, pero cumple\"). Perón justified his meeting with Pinochet stating that it was important to keep good relations with Chile under all circumstances and with whoever might be in government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1107462",
"title": "Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)",
"section": "Section::::Foreign relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The new junta quickly broke diplomatic relations with Cuba and North Korea, which had been established under the Allende government. Shortly after the junta came to power, several communist countries, including the Soviet Union, North Vietnam, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia, severed diplomatic relations with Chile however, Romania and the People's Republic of China both continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chile. Pinochet has nurtured his relationship with China. The government broke diplomatic relations with Cambodia in January 1974 and renewed ties with South Korea in October 1973 and with South Vietnam in March 1974. Pinochet attended the funeral of General Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain from 1936–75, in late 1975.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51207281",
"title": "Kalman H. Silvert",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The 11 September 1973 military coup in Chile overthrowing the democratically elected government of Salvador Allende was deeply distressing to Silvert, much of whose academic work concerned Chile. In 1974, he participated in the Commission on U.S.-Latin American Relations, chaired by U.S. Ambassador Sol M. Linowitz. The report advocated the normalization of U.S. relations with Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
doatrm
|
Communications (post, radio, red cross etc) between allies and axis during WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the general situation of post and parcels, from a [previous answer of mine](_URL_4_):\n\nFor signatories of the 1929 Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, [Article 77](_URL_6_) stated: \n\n\"At the commencement of hostilities, each of the belligerent Powers and the neutral Powers who have belligerents in their care, shall institute an official bureau to give information about the prisoners of war in their territory.\n\nEach of the belligerent Powers shall inform its Information Bureau as soon as possible of all captures of prisoners effected by its armed forces, furnishing them with all particulars of identity at its disposal to enable the families concerned to be quickly notified, and stating the official addresses to which families may write to the prisoners.\"\n\nThe official bureau was the International Committee of the Red Cross in Geneva, who worked in conjunction with a Protecting Power (for British prisoners the United States, until their declaration of war when Switzerland became the Protecting Power), various national organisations (the American Red Cross, Australian Red Cross, British Red Cross Society and Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, etc.), and government bodies who held e.g. next-of-kin information. Families would typically be informed by the military that their relatives were missing, then prisoners of war once that information was confirmed; the Red Cross would also contact the family with information on how to send letters and parcels. A Red Cross card, often pre-printed, might also be sent by the prisoners themselves shortly after capture where available, to let their family know they were alive and safe; the Germans used a bogus form (initially labelled \"Red Cross\", later changed to not specifically name the Red Cross but marked \"Printed in Geneva\"), telling prisoners that if they completed it then it would greatly speed up the process of contacting their family. It asked for much more information than the standard name, rank and serial number (e.g. names of units, objectives, comrades etc.), and once word filtered back Allied personnel were warned not to complete it.\n\nSome idea of the scale of the undertaking can be seen in this [picture of records at the Central Prisoners of War Agency, Geneva](_URL_7_), from a University of Melbourne [blog post](_URL_3_) about their holding of Australian Red Cross cards relating to Missing, Wounded and Prisoner of War Enquiries.\n\nThere was no particular difference in sending packages to different branches of the services, but the circumstances were quite different between prisoners of Germany and those of Japan. There are some example online of family members who have published the various telegrams, letters etc. connected with a prisoner of war such as [Ken Fenton](_URL_2_), a Britsh airman held by Germany, and [Frank Larkin](_URL_5_), an Australian held by the Japanese. They both include Red Cross documents with guidance on how to send letters and parcels to prisoners. Guidance could also be found in Red Cross magazines that were published and sent to relatives of prisoners such as [\"Prisoners of War Bulletin\"](_URL_1_) in the US and \"The Prisoner of War\" in the UK, and the Great Britain Philatelic Society also has Post Office leaflets on communications with prisoners of war in [Europe](_URL_8_) and [Japan](_URL_0_). \n\n*****\n\nIn terms of Bader’s leg, the British were notified by radio. The radio station at North Foreland received a clear text message stating that Bader had lost his right leg and requested a new one, and granted permission for a leg to be dropped with the day and time to be communicated by radio. The RAF felt that such an arrangement would be used as a public relations opportunity by the Germans, though, so did not arrange safe passage, but rather dropped a replacement leg as part of Circus 81, a standard bombing operation. Andy Saunders’ *Bader’s Last Flight* has details of the operation, including a reproduction of the original telegram to Fighter Command HQ from North Foreland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29042385",
"title": "AUSCANNZUKUS",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Early in World War II communications interoperability between Allied forces was poor. During March 1941 the first high-level proposals to formally structure combined operations between the United States and the United Kingdom were considered; these discussions were the genesis of the current Combined Communications Electronics Board (CCEB).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1256051",
"title": "Grimeton Radio Station",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "During the Second World War 1939-1945, the station experienced a heyday, when it was Scandinavia’s gateway to the outside world. Underwater communication cable connections had once again been quickly severed by nations at war and the radiotelegraphy transmissions were a link to the outside world. It continued to be used for naval transmissions until 1960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11366213",
"title": "Nauen Transmitter Station",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "During the early years of the 20th century industrial nations began building networks of powerful longwave transoceanic radiotelegraphy stations to communicate with other countries and keep in touch with their overseas colonies. These transmitted telegram traffic with Morse code at high speed using paper tape machines. During World War I long distance radio communication became a strategic technology; not only was it necessary to keep in contact with oversees armies and naval fleets, but a nation that didn't have radio could be isolated by an enemy cutting its submarine telegraph cables (as happened to Germany during both world wars).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82272",
"title": "Electronic warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "During World War II, the Allies and Axis Powers both extensively used EW, or what Winston Churchill referred to as the \"Battle of the Beams\". Navigational radars had gained in use to vector bombers to their targets and back to their home base. The first application of EW in WWII was to defeat those navigational radars. Chaff was also introduced during WWII to confuse and defeat tracking radar systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11447629",
"title": "Radio communication station",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- Transmission lines - Transmission lines are used to transfer the radio signals from one location to another. For example, a transmission line was used in Luftwaffe, Germany during WW II to send information from camps back to their base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60245762",
"title": "Electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Specialist uses.:Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In World War I, the telegraph was recognised as being of crucial importance. Both sides tried to damage the international telegraph lines of the other. Post Office cable ships were involved in the action. Just a few hours after the declaration of war on 4 August 1914, CS \"Alert\" cut the German cables in the English Channel, almost completely isolating Germany from the rest of the world. In 1915, CS \"Monarch\" was sunk by a German mine off Folkstone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1280053",
"title": "History of radar",
"section": "Section::::World War II radar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "At the start of World War II in September 1939, both the United Kingdom and Germany knew of each other's ongoing efforts in radio navigation and its countermeasures – the \"Battle of the beams\". Also, both nations were generally aware of, and intensely interested in, the other's developments in radio-based detection and tracking, and engaged in an active campaign of espionage and false leaks about their respective equipment. By the time of the Battle of Britain, both sides were deploying range and direction-finding units (radars) and control stations as part of integrated air defense capability. However, the German \"Funkmessgerät\" (radio measuring device) systems could not assist in an offensive role and was thus not supported by Adolf Hitler. Also, the \"Luftwaffe\" did not sufficiently appreciate the importance of British Range and Direction Finding (RDF) stations as part of RAF's air defense capability, contributing to their failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cwxbb
|
Why haven't we discovered prehistoric art as well rendered as some of today's modern art?
|
[
{
"answer": "It might be to do with awareness, education, intellectual development, available time/labour, but that is all speculative. There are of course some famous Modern (20th century) art that looked to reclaim some of the value of cave art, not only that the history of art was not a linear progression of time, but the drawings and marks weren't that simple. There are examples of religious iconography that were painted after the renaissance that ignore the mathematical principles of perspective, even though they would have been aware of it. Symbolism, as different to accurate, \"realistic\" representation has been seen by some as an attempt to represent non-explicit or more abstract stories and ideas.\n[edit:expansion]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The hypothesis I recall from the intro Art History class I took freshman year of college, and that I think makes sense, has to do with the function of the art. When you look at art from the Enlightenment, Renaissance, and so on, you're seeing stuff that was created with the purpose of being regarded as art. Its function is form, style, technique, etc. By contrast, the hypothesis I learned in Art History was that prehistoric cave art was more for functional purposes. Animals are painted to show other members of the tribe where to aim the spears and arrows (prehistoric targets) and to illustrate which animals are good for hunting and which should be avoided. Humans might be painted for self-reflection, to identify members of the tribe or friendly tribes, or to represent gods. The accuracy of the drawing isn't as important as the message attached to it, so it's less-emphasized.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have. \"After [Chauvet](_URL_0_)\" said Picasso, \"all is decadence.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39243517",
"title": "Prehistoric art in Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and meanings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The ability to study prehistoric art is dependent on surviving artifacts. Art created in mediums such as sand, bark, hides and textiles has not normally endured, while less-perishable materials, such as rock, stone, bone, ivory (and to a lesser extent wood), later pottery and metal, are more likely to be extant. Whether all these artifacts can be defined as works of art is contested between scholars. Alexander Marshack argued that the earliest, non-representational incisions on rock mark the beginnings of human art. More cautiously, Paul Mellars suggests that the relative rarity of these works means they cannot be seen as integral to early human society and evidence of an artistic culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376041",
"title": "History of aesthetics before the 20th century",
"section": "Section::::Cultural history before the 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. An indirect concern with aesthetics can be inferred from ancient art in many early civilizations, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, China, the Etruscans, Rome, India, the Celtic peoples, and the Maya, as each of them developed a unique and characteristic style in its art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985263",
"title": "History of art",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:Mayan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Ancient Maya art is renowned for its aesthetic beauty and narrative content. Of all the media in which Maya artists worked, their paintings on pottery are among the most impressive because of their technical and aesthetical sophistication. These complex pictoral scenes accompanied by hieroglyphic texts recount historic events of the Classic period and reveal the religious ideology upon which the Maya built a great civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752",
"title": "Art",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49823773",
"title": "Archaeo-optics",
"section": "Section::::Palaeolithic archaeological optics.:Implications.:Art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "The origins of art have been a significant mystery, because art, as a form of communication, is largely a social construct. The core issue is that there can be no intention to represent an object or scene without first knowing that such a depiction is possible. Researchers have encountered great difficulty coming up with explanations of how prehistoric people first stumbled upon the idea of the possibility of representation. The archaeo-optical explanation is that images projected inside a dwelling space provided, according to Cambridge professor Nigel Spivey, “… a prototypical visual experience that triggers the concept of representation…” In addition, the images would be shared experiences, visible by everyone in the tent or structure at the same time. The group could thus collectively experience, discuss, verify, confirm, investigate, and interpret the images projected on the surfaces before them. It is the communal aspect of the images that makes the development of visual art socially feasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3432120",
"title": "Damascening",
"section": "Section::::Toledo, Spain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Some of these reproductions are \"so expertly produced that even knowledgeable Toledeans admit the difficulty of recognizing them as such.\" However, many shops still offer handcrafted damascened work following the tradition of ancient times, and it is possible to see artisans at work creating these painstaking and time-consuming works of art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24386914",
"title": "Hardstone carving",
"section": "Section::::History.:Asia and the Islamic world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The art is very ancient, going back to the Indus Valley Civilization and beyond, and major traditions include cylinder seals and other small carvings in the Ancient Near East, which were also made in softer stones. Inlays of semi-precious stones were often used for decoration or highlights in sculptures of other materials, for example statues often had eyes inlaid with white shell and blue lapis lazuli or another stone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tnj49
|
What is the "ceiling" for perceivable video resolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "In part, wouldn't this depend on the size of the screen we're talking about? Conventional wisdom claims that most people can't discern the difference between 720p and 1080p on a screen smaller than 40\", for example.\n\nI know YouTube has a few 4k videos now. How big does the screen need to be to be able to tell 4k from 1080p?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apple's marketing team makes the claim that the \"Retina Display\" for their new iPad has such a high pixel density that further improvements wouldn't result in a higher perceived resolution (at normal viewing distances). \n\nHowever: \"For raster graphics, Apple Inc asserts that a display of approximately 300 ppi at a distance of 12 inches (305 mm) from one's eye, or 57 arcseconds per pixel[9] is the maximum amount of detail that the human retina can perceive.[10] Raymond Soneira, president of DisplayMate Technologies, however, stated that the resolution of the human retina is higher than claimed by Apple, working out to 477 ppi at 12 inches (305 mm) or 36 arcseconds per pixel.[11]\"\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As it turns out there's some physical limitations to the ability of an optical system (your eye) to resolve detail, so lets take an extreme example and see how many pixels it would take.\n\nSo lets say you've got perfect vision and really big pupils. Lets also assume you're watching a relatively dim screen in a dark room so you're pupils are fully dilated. This gives us a 1cm aperture for your eye. Kind of insane really...\n\nSince you're in a dark room, you'd be getting the low light adjusted photopic response out of your eyes, but lets assume a fairly short wavelength of light to keep things interesting: The screen is a kinda bluish green of about 500 nm. The scotopic curve is still up around 30% here so its not completely out of the question.\n\nSo how close could those two blue-green dots get before they blend together? The resolving power of an error free optical system is limited by the wavelength of light and diameter of the aperture via:\n\n(smallest discernible angle between two bright spots) = (wavelength of light)/(aperture diameter)\n\nSome folks append a 1.22 multiplier to this equation, but that has to do with the depth of hte dip in intensity between the two bright lights and is kinda up for debate, so I'm going with the sharpest recognized limiting resolution for the sake of this calculation. Anyway, for your crazy huge eyes the smallest perceptible angle is going to be 5E-5 radians, or 10.3 arcseconds (much smaller than the rule of thumb limitation of the human eye of 60 arcseconds).\n\nTo compare to the present convention of describing a screen's resolution by its horizontal line count, we have to figure out how much of your field of view you would like to fill with screen. I'm going to go with ALL of your forward looking vertical field of view just for giggles. The Wikipedia indicates this is ±60°, so you've got a maximum of 41,888 rows. For simplicity's sake lets call this 42000P.\n\nNow a more reasonable aperture for the light adapted eye is about 4 mm, giving a maximum resolution of 25.8 arcseconds and a maximum screen resolution of 16755 rows, or something like 16800P.\n\nAlso, obviously it might be a little intimidating to completely fill a viewer's field of view, so perhaps something as small as half these numbers would be more appropriate. Taking 50% of the vertical extent of a person's field of view and using the looser \"rule of thumb\" resolution of the human eye of 60 arcseconds, you'd still get to 3600P.\n\nIn any case there's plenty of room for improvement beyond 1080P.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56687142",
"title": "Volumetric video",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Volumetric video is a video technique that captures a three-dimensional space, such as a location or performance. This type of videography acquires data that can be viewed on flat screens as well as using 3D Displays and VR goggles. Consumer-facing formats are numerous and the required motion capture techniques lean on computer graphics, photogrammetry, and other computation-based methods. The viewer generally experiences the result in a real-time engine and has direct input in exploring the generated volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14682695",
"title": "Technology of television",
"section": "Section::::Terminology and specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Display resolution is the number of pixels of one row on a given screen. Before the year 2000 \"horizontal lines of resolution\" was the standard method of measurement for analog video. For example, a VHS VCR might be described as having 250 lines of resolution as measured across a circle circumscribed in the center of the screen (approximately 440 pixels edge-to-edge). With analog signals, the number of vertical lines and the frame rate are directly proportional to the bandwidth of the signal transmitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2072223",
"title": "Mezame No Hakobune",
"section": "Section::::Pavilion version.:Video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The visual part consisted of a two level multidisplay. The first part was a floor panel linking ninety-six 50\" plasma screens. It was suitable for 1:33 video which could be individually displayed by each monitor or as a synchronized 10 m x 9 m large screen. It was made of a horizontal row of 8 monitors and a vertical row of 12 monitors, which gave a 90m² floor screen and was the world's largest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1167787",
"title": "Volumetric display",
"section": "Section::::Technical Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1370,
"text": "One other consideration is the very large amount of bandwidth required to feed imagery to a volumetric display. For example, a standard 24 bits per pixel, 1024×768 resolution, flat/2D display requires about 135 MB/s to be sent to the display hardware to sustain 60 frames per second, whereas a 24 bits per voxel, 1024×768×1024 (1024 \"pixel layers\" in the Z axis) volumetric display would need to send about three orders of magnitude more (135 GB/s) to the display hardware to sustain 60 volumes per second. As with regular 2D video, one could reduce the bandwidth needed by simply sending fewer volumes per second and letting the display hardware repeat frames in the interim, or by sending only enough data to affect those areas of the display that need to be updated, as is the case in modern lossy-compression video formats such as MPEG. Furthermore, a 3D volumetric display would require two to three orders of magnitude more CPU and/or GPU power beyond that necessary for 2D imagery of equivalent quality, due at least in part to the sheer amount of data that must be created and sent to the display hardware. However, if only the outer surface of the volume is visible, the number of voxels required would be of the same order as the number of pixels on a conventional display. This would only be the case if the voxels do not have \"alpha\" or transparency values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14039326",
"title": "IAC Video Wall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "The IAC Video Wall, located in the Frank Gehry-designed headquarters for IAC in Chelsea, Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest high-resolution video walls in the world, wide and high. The installation features the world’s largest high-resolution video wall, built by Prysm, using their proprietary Laser Phosphor Display (LPD) technology, a new display technology that uses low-power, solid–state lasers. The two walls will deliver more than 50 million pixels combined. The large-scale projection wall is visible from the West Side Highway/11th Avenue to tens of thousands of commuters each day, building brand awareness for IAC's online businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13953901",
"title": "Glass Pyramid Sabancı Congress and Exhibition Center",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Toros Hall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The largest of the halls is named after the close running Taurus Mountains. It has a 2,400-seat capacity with telescopic platforms when used for conferences, and an exhibition area of 3,036 m². The hall is equipped with multi-purpose audio, lighting, and visual systems and a mobile simultaneous interpretation cabin. On the plasma screens in the hall, various graphical views and animations can be shown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43333858",
"title": "Composite artifact colors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The limitations of composite video regarding horizontal resolution were also exploited on other systems. Adjacent pixel values got averaged horizontally, producing solid colors or generating transparency effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2127vq
|
what is the tl;dr of terms and conditions that i always i agree to?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is our stuff. You have to use our stuff the way we say. If our stuff breaks your stuff, it's not our fault. You can't give other people this stuff unless we say you can. That's the basics. There are some other nuances, but not many. I would highly recommend reading through one T & C all the way. Following that you can skim and look for anything fishy with relative ease.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33239102",
"title": "South African contract law",
"section": "Section::::Obligations and terms.:Terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 261,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 261,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "There is a distinction, then, between South African and English law, where terms and conditions are synonymous, and where they are used interchangeably. In South Africa, a condition is a very special type of contractual term, operating in a specific way; for example, ‘I will pay you R3,000 if you climb Table Mountain’.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2183979",
"title": "Universal default",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Universal default is the term for a practice in the financial services industry in the United States for a particular lender to change the terms of a loan from the normal terms to the \"default\" terms (i.e. the terms and rates given to those who have missed payments on a loan) when that lender is informed that their customer has defaulted with another lender, even though the customer has not defaulted with the first lender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29905147",
"title": "Standard Ethics Aei",
"section": "Section::::Standard Ethics Rating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The Standard Ethics Rating (SER) is a Solicited Sustainability Rating (SSR). It combines ‘solicited’, ‘standard’, and ‘independent’ characteristics. It is assigned upon a client’s request through a direct and regulated bilateral relationship. It is a rating that intends to deliver an evaluation of the level of compliance by companies and sovereign nations in the field of sustainability and corporate governance as indicated by documents and guidelines published by the United Nations (UN), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), The European Union (EU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22268208",
"title": "Implied terms in English law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Implied terms in law refers to the practice of setting down default rules for contracts, when terms that contracting parties expressly choose run out, or setting down mandatory rules which operate to override terms that the parties may have themselves chosen. The purpose of implied terms is often to supplement a contractual agreement in the interest of making the deal effective for the purpose of business, to achieve fairness between the parties or to relieve hardship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4636744",
"title": "Australian contract law",
"section": "Section::::Terms.:Implied terms.:Terms implied in fact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "A term may be implied ‘in fact’ into a contract, to give full effect to the presumed intentions of the contracting parties. Terms implied in fact are terms that are ‘tailored’, and therefore unique, to the particular contract in question. Terms implied in fact are traditionally said to be based on the ‘presumed’ intentions of the parties concerned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22632577",
"title": "Innominate term",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The classification of terms is fundamental in contract law as it affects the legal rights of a party in the event of a breach of contract. Innominate terms of contracts are one of the three categories of terms of contract, the others being warranties and conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19280537",
"title": "Contract",
"section": "Section::::Contract terms: construction and interpretation.:Implied terms.:Terms implied in fact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "Terms may be implied due to the factual circumstances or conduct of the parties. In the case of \"BP Refinery (Westernport) Pty Ltd v Shire of Hastings\", the UK Privy Council, on appeal from Australia, proposed a five-stage test to determine situations where the facts of a case may imply terms. The classic tests have been the \"business efficacy test\" and the \"officious bystander test\". Under the \"business efficacy test\" first proposed in \"The Moorcock\" [1889], the minimum terms necessary to give business efficacy to the contract will be implied. Under the officious bystander test (named in \"Southern Foundries (1926) Ltd v Shirlaw\" [1940] but actually originating in \"Reigate v. Union Manufacturing Co (Ramsbottom) Ltd\" [1918]), a term can only be implied in fact if an \"officious bystander\" listening to the contract negotiations suggested that the term be included the parties would promptly agree. The difference between these tests is questionable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
100bwe
|
Does Splenda have an effect on the teeth similar to other forms of dietary sugar?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply, no. \n\nDietary sugars are very dangerous simply because of their very high energy density, and persistence in the mouth (stickiness).\n\nBacteria metabolise these sugars into instant energy for themselves, but also secrete oligosaccharide chains (sugar molecules around 10 units long called *dextrans* units) in order to achieve a number of things:\n\n1. Aid adhesion to the tooth surface for themselves\n2. Store energy extraneously for other bacteria and itself to use when more sugar molecules are not readily available\n3. Aid other bacteria to stick to the tooth surface, thickening the plaque layer\n4. To create an oxygen-sparse \"anaerobic zone\" close to the tooth surface where more virulent strains can populate and breed\n5. To create an isolated environment on the surface of the tooth that increases the acidity on the tooth surface, and protects the bacteria from salivary products that inhibit them (e.g. carbonate, antibodies, etc.)\n\nSucrose (refined sugar, a joined glucose/fructose disaccharide) is the most dangerous sugar we know of, simply because of its potential energy being even higher than the seperate units of fructose and glucose combined - the bond between the units is also energy available to the bacteria for harvest!\n\nThe molecules in sweeteners are far, far more difficult for bacteria to metabolise, and they cannot easily create these dextrans chains. Sweeteners are chemically distinct molecules! Usually aspartame is the main ingredient, which I believe is simply 2 amino acids joined together. Interestingly this binds to our \"sweet\" receptors about 1000 times stronger than sucrose does. Sucrose solution is surprisingly bitter! (Glucose syrup tastes *horrid*)\n\nOn an interesting aside, the sugar *xylitol* is literally glucose with one of the molecule combinations around a carbon atom flipped. Bacteria can't metabolise this at all! It inhibits bacterial growth because they *try* to metabolise it, and internalise it, but they can't! Amazing stuff. Chewing gum has loads of xylitol.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Sugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g. crisps/potato chips, may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to glucose by salivary amylase (an enzyme in the saliva) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as toffee, are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of chocolate or most fruits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Sucrose (table sugar) is most commonly associated with cavities. The amount of sugar consumed at any one time is less important than how often food and drinks that contain sugar are consumed. The more frequently sugars are consumed, the greater the time during which the tooth is exposed to low pH levels, at which point demineralisation occurs (below 5.5 for most people). It is important therefore to try to encourage infrequent consumption of food and drinks containing sugar so that teeth have a chance to be repaired by remineralisation and fluoride. Limiting sugar-containing foods and drinks to meal times is one way to reduce the incidence of cavities. Sugars from fruit and fruit juices, e.g., glucose, fructose, and maltose can also cause cavities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1935068",
"title": "Enamel organ",
"section": "Section::::Abnormalities.:Enamel Defect and Coeliac Disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Gliadins are highly hydrophobic proteins in wheat gluten. The antibodies are produced to interact with this protein. Therefore, a gluten-free diet may lead to normalisation of tooth development as circulating antibodies for enamel defect may decrease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "Section::::Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.:Impact on oral health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Frequency of sugar sweetened beverages results in dental caries, which are caused by Streptococcus bacteria. Dental caries is an infectious oral disease and is the breakdown of the teeth due to the bacteria in the mouth. It occurs when bacteria within the plaque metabolize the sugar, releasing various acids as waste compounds. As the acids are released, they form holes in the teeth which dissolve the enamel. The sugars, therefore provide a passageway for the activities of the oral bacteria, lowering salivary pH. The bacteria alone are not the sole cause of tooth decay, as it is the presence of these sugars that inhibit the production of acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Cavities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Candy generally contains sugar, which is a key environmental factor in the formation of dental caries (cavities). Several types of bacteria commonly found in the mouth consume sugar, particularly \"Streptococcus mutans\". When these bacteria metabolize the sugar found in most candies, juice, or other sugary foods, they produce acids in the mouth that demineralize the tooth enamel and can lead to dental caries. Heavy or frequent consumption of high-sugar foods, especially lollipops, sugary cough drops, and other sugar-based candies that stay in the mouth for a long time, increases the risk of tooth decay. Candies that also contain enamel-dissolving acids, such as acid drops, increase the risk. Cleaning the teeth and mouth shortly after eating any type of sugary food, and allowing several hours to pass between eating such foods, reduces the risk and improves oral health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314628",
"title": "Tooth enamel",
"section": "Section::::Enamel loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Sugars and acids from candies, soft drinks, and fruit juices play a significant role in tooth decay, and consequently in enamel destruction. The mouth contains a great number and variety of bacteria, and when sucrose, the most common of sugars, coats the surface of the mouth, some intraoral bacteria interact with it and form lactic acid, which decreases the pH in the mouth. The critical pH for tooth enamel is generally accepted to be pH 5.5. When acids are present and the critical pH is reached, the hydroxyapatite crystals of enamel demineralize, allowing for greater bacterial invasion deeper into the tooth. The most important bacterium involved with tooth decay is \"Streptococcus mutans\", but the number and type of bacteria varies with the progress of tooth destruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50563",
"title": "Sucrose",
"section": "Section::::Consumption.:Metabolism of sucrose.:Tooth decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to \"Streptococcus sanguinis\" (formerly \"Streptococcus sanguis\") and \"Streptococcus mutans\". Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes. These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable \"S. mutans\", \"S. sanguinis\" and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dq7itx
|
Can you harvest the spin energy of an object? Can objects be spun up in 0 gravity to serve as batteries?
|
[
{
"answer": "What you're proposing is called a [flywheel](_URL_0_) and currently exists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1027654",
"title": "Levitron",
"section": "Section::::The device.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "To levitate the top, a plastic plate is placed on top of the magnetic base, and the top is spun on the plate at between 25-50 rotations per second (1500-3000 rpm). If too slow, the top falls over and slides off sideways; if too fast it does not orient itself to follow magnetic flux as it moves, and slides off. Since it can be difficult to spin the top fast enough by hand, Creative Gifts makes a battery-powered, hand held device to spin the top with an electric motor. Next, the plate is lifted by hand until, if conditions are right, the top rises above it to an equilibrium point. The top must also be weighted with washers of various sizes supplied in the kit. If too heavy it will not rise above the plate; if too light it flies off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218994",
"title": "Compensated pulsed alternator",
"section": "Section::::Description and operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The kinetic energy of a rotating object depends on the mass of the object, the shape of the object, and the square of the speed of rotation. Therefore, compulsators tend to have very light rotors spinning very fast in order to store the most energy in the available mass, and because too much mass in the rotor causes problems with the magnitude of centripetal force required to prevent the rotor from flying apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1082841",
"title": "Fictitious force",
"section": "Section::::Examples of fictitious forces.:Fictitious forces and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Fictitious forces can be considered to do work, provided that they move an object on a trajectory that changes its energy from potential to kinetic. For example, consider a person in a rotating chair holding a weight in their outstretched hand. If they pull their hand inward toward their body, from the perspective of the rotating reference frame, they have done work against the centrifugal force. When the weight is let go, it spontaneously flies outward relative to the rotating reference frame, because the centrifugal force does work on the object, converting its potential energy into kinetic. From an inertial viewpoint, of course, the object flies away from them because it is suddenly allowed to move in a straight line. This illustrates that the work done, like the total potential and kinetic energy of an object, can be different in a non-inertial frame than an inertial one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "931064",
"title": "Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "An object with some \"windmill\" asymmetry can therefore be subjected to minuscule torque forces that will tend to spin it up or down as well as make its axis of rotation precess. The YORP effect is zero for a rotating ellipsoid \"if\" there are no irregularities in surface temperature or albedo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "BULLET::::- Kinetic energy and angular momentum: Spinning up (or down) parts or all of the habitat requires energy, while angular momentum must be conserved. This would require a propulsion system and expendable propellant, or could be achieved without expending mass, by an electric motor and a counterweight, such as a reaction wheel or possibly another living area spinning in the opposite direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25494798",
"title": "Magnetorquer",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Any spinning satellite made of a conductive material will lose rotational momentum in Earth's magnetic field due to generation of eddy currents in its body and the corresponding braking force proportional to its spin rate. Aerodynamic friction losses can also play a part. This means that the magnetorquer will have to be continuously operated, and at a power level which is enough to counter the resistive forces present. This is not always possible within the energy constraints of the vessel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5326179",
"title": "Polhode",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "If energy is dissipated while an object is rotating, this will cause the polhode motion about the axis of maximum inertia (also called the major principal axis) to damp out or stabilize, with the polhode path becoming a smaller and smaller ellipse or circle, closing in on the axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bt03lt
|
why do stop lights make you press the walk sign button?
|
[
{
"answer": "The only stop lights I've seen with that button, are stop lights in places like highways or with high speed traffic that don't need a stop light due to a low amount of people needing to cross.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it like the turn arrow. If there’s no car in the turn lane the sensor will never be tripped and the arrow will never turn green. The button is the simplest way to let the system know someone wants to cross so the walk sign turns on rather than the don’t walk staying illuminated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If no-one needs to cross the road, it would be pointless to stop the traffic. By requiring pedestrians to press the button you can keep the traffic interruptions to a minimum and only when there is actually someone who needs to cross.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "163395",
"title": "Traffic light",
"section": "Section::::Pedestrian and cyclist crossing lights.:Auditory and tactile signals for impaired people.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "In some states in the United States, at some busy intersections, buttons will make a beeping sound for blind people. When the light changes, a speaker built into the button will play a recording to notify blind people that it is safe to cross. When the signal flashes red, the recording will start to count down with the countdown timer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "557643",
"title": "Stop sign",
"section": "Section::::Placement and standardization.:In Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "In the UK, stop signs may be placed only at sites with severely restricted visibility, and each must be individually approved by the Secretary of State for Transport. Section 79 of the Highways Act 1980 enables the government to improve visibility at junctions, as by removing or shortening walls or hedges, in preference to placing a stop sign. The former UK practice of using \"Halt\" or \"Slow\" at Major Road Ahead signs was discontinued in 1965 at the recommendation of the Worboys Committee. Instead of replacing all the old \"Halt\" signs with the new Vienna Convention \"Stop\" sign, \"Give Way\" became the standard sign at UK priority junctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21717959",
"title": "HAWK beacon",
"section": "Section::::Design and operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "As at conventional signalized crossings, the pedestrian signals display flashing \"don't walk\" indications when typical pedestrians no longer have enough time to cross before the HAWK beacon releases cross traffic. At the same time as the flashing \"don't walk\" indication, the HAWK beacon displays an alternating flashing red indication to vehicular traffic (the equivalent of a stop sign). During this interval, vehicles on the roadway must stop, and may proceed after yielding to pedestrians in the crosswalk. When vehicle traffic is about to restart, the pedestrian signal goes to steady \"don't walk\". Then, the HAWK beacon goes dark and the pedestrian signal remains in \"don't walk\" mode until the signal is activated by another pedestrian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Distinctions by region.:North America.:Signalized intersections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1613,
"text": "Regardless of whether pictograms or words are used, the MUTCD defines a steady \"upraised hand\" or \"don't walk\" signal as an indication that a pedestrian cannot enter the street in that signal's direction, while a steady \"walking man\" or \"walk signal\" indicates that pedestrians can start crossing the street toward that signal. The upraised hand or \"don't walk\" signals begin to flash during the pedestrian clearance interval when the transition to \"don't walk\" is imminent. This normally occurs several seconds before the light turns yellow, usually going solid orange when the traffic light turns yellow or red; however, the display can be turned into a steady hand or \"don't walk\" sign while the vehicular light is yellow, or while the vehicular signal is still displaying a green light. In intersections with \"leading pedestrian intervals,\" the upraised hand or \"don't walk\" sign will continue flashing as the vehicular lights turn red and the other crossing(s) in the intersection display a walking man or \"walk\" sign. The vehicular traffic is then stopped in all directions for a short period of time before cross traffic is allowed to proceed. The 2009 MUTCD states that the flashing walking man or \"walk\" signals do not have meaning. The \"flashing walk\" indication was formerly used to delineate \"watch out for turning vehicles\" and is still in use in Washington, D.C.; however, as of the 2003 MUTCD, this was replaced by an optional \"animated eyes\" indication within the pedestrian signal display, which was placed in the MUTCD following a study that recommended the usage of the \"animated eyes\" signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Distinctions by region.:North America.:Signalized intersections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "On fully actuated signals, or semi-actuated traffic signals, pressing the button to cross a smaller side street will cause an \"instant walk signal\". In most states, drivers only have to wait until the pedestrian has finished crossing the half of the crosswalk that the driver is driving on, after which the driver may proceed. However, in some states (such as Utah), if the driver is in a school zone with the lights flashing, the driver must wait until the entire crosswalk is clear before he may proceed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "557643",
"title": "Stop sign",
"section": "Section::::Placement and standardization.:In North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "Stop signs are often used in North America to control conflicting traffic movements at intersections that are not busy enough to justify the installation of a traffic signal or roundabout. In the United States, the stop sign is not intended for use as a traffic calming device; it is intended to be installed mainly for safety and/or to assign right-of-way for a certain direction. Nevertheless, in the United States, Mexico and Canada, stop signs are commonly deployed as supposed safety measures in residential areas and near places where children play or walk (such as schoolyards), or that experience frequent automobile collisions, making extra precautions necessary. Stop signs may be erected on all intersecting roads, resulting in three- and four-way stops. However, studies have confirmed that stop signs do not offer measurable safety benefits over the Yield approach adopted in the countries listed above based on original European research dating back many decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Pedestrian call buttons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Call buttons are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian \"walk\" indication in locations where they function correctly. In the majority of locations where call buttons are installed, pushing the button does not light up the pedestrian walk sign immediately. One Portland State University researcher notes of call buttons in the US, \"Most [call] buttons don’t provide any feedback to the pedestrian that the traffic signal has received the input. It may appear at many locations that nothing happens.\" However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the \"walk\" indications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tbu8w
|
If evolution has emotionally rewarded beneficial actions, such as sex feeling good, why do I hate exercising?
|
[
{
"answer": "You should keep in mind that our modern society is not at all a reflection of how humans have lived for the majority of our history. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "336",
"title": "Altruism",
"section": "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Evolutionary explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11924",
"title": "Game theory",
"section": "Section::::General and applied uses.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "One such phenomenon is known as biological altruism. This is a situation in which an organism appears to act in a way that benefits other organisms and is detrimental to itself. This is distinct from traditional notions of altruism because such actions are not conscious, but appear to be evolutionary adaptations to increase overall fitness. Examples can be found in species ranging from vampire bats that regurgitate blood they have obtained from a night's hunting and give it to group members who have failed to feed, to worker bees that care for the queen bee for their entire lives and never mate, to vervet monkeys that warn group members of a predator's approach, even when it endangers that individual's chance of survival. All of these actions increase the overall fitness of a group, but occur at a cost to the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1157291",
"title": "Darwinian Happiness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "As to the first principle, humans may actually have been equipped with more powerful positive and negative sensations, compared to other mammals, due to our capacity for free will. That is, evolution might tend to add stronger incentives for behavior benefiting the genes in an individual with a powerful free will; as otherwise, the free will could easily result in maladaptive behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880880",
"title": "Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::General evolutionary theory.:Inclusive fitness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Furthermore, the organism that benefited from that altruistic act and only acted on behalf of its own fitness would increase its own chance of survival and/or reproduction, thus increasing its chances of passing on its \"selfish\" traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2021591",
"title": "Altruism (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Reciprocity mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Altruism in animals describes a range of behaviors performed by animals that may be to their own disadvantage but which benefit others. The costs and benefits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness, or expected number of offspring. So by behaving altruistically, an organism reduces the number of offspring it is likely to produce itself, but boosts the likelihood that other organisms are to produce offspring. There are other forms of altruism in nature other than risk-taking behavior, such as reciprocal altruism. This biological notion of altruism is not identical to the everyday human concept. For humans, an action would only be called 'altruistic' if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. Yet in the biological sense there is no such requirement. Instead, until we can communicate directly with other species, an accurate theory to describe altruistic acts between species is Biological Market Theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31711387",
"title": "History of evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::Modern use of the term \"evolutionary psychology\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "In contrast to sociobiology and behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology emphasizes that organisms are \"adaptation executors\" rather than \"fitness maximizers.\" In other words, organisms have emotional, motivational and cognitive adaptations that generally increased inclusive fitness in the past but may not do so in the present. This distinction may explain some maladaptive behaviors that are the result of \"fitness lags\" between ancestral and modern environments. For example, our ancestrally developed desires for fat, sugar and salt often lead to health problems in modern environment where these are readily available in large quantities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39373526",
"title": "Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals",
"section": "Section::::Proximate causes.:Reward system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Evolutionary principles have predicted that the reward system is part of the proximate mechanism underlying the behavior. Because animals possess a brain reward system they are motivated to perform in different ways by desire and reinforced by pleasure. Animals establish security of food, shelter, social contact, and mating because proximate mechanism, if they do not seek these necessities they will not survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s49c1
|
How did early humans deal with Neanderthals?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question is better asked of /r/askanthropology since it is clearly pre-history. Emerging genetic [data](_URL_0_) indicates that there was some contact that involved the exchange of genetic information, but the nature (and relative enthusiasm) of that exchange is lost to a time before records. [Breaking news](_URL_1_) indicate that the exchange of genetic information between archaic species and our direct lineage goes back for some time. But you didn't get any of these insights here since this is restricted to historical periods. Go to /r/askanthropology.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29129468",
"title": "Hominid dispersals in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Archaic humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Neanderthals evolved from a branch of \"Homo heidelbergensis\" that migrated to Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Neanderthal populations date back at least as far as 400,000 years ago in the Atapuerca Mountains, Spain. While lacking the robustness attributed to west European Neanderthal morphology, other populations did inhabit parts of eastern Europe and western Asia. Between 45,000–35,000 years ago, modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\") replaced all Neanderthal populations in Europe anatomically and genetically. This is evident in the transfer and combination of technology and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29219",
"title": "Stone Age",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.:Three-age chronology.:Middle Paleolithic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "This period is best known as the era during which the Neanderthals lived in Europe and the Near East (c. 300,000–28,000 years ago). Their technology is mainly the Mousterian, but Neanderthal physical characteristics have been found also in ambiguous association with the more recent Châtelperronian archeological culture in Western Europe and several local industries like the Szeletian in Eastern Europe/Eurasia. There is no evidence for Neanderthals in Africa, Australia or the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6578583",
"title": "Genetic history of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.:Palaeolithic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Neanderthals inhabited much of Europe and western Asia from as far back as 130,000 years ago. They existed in Europe as late as 30,000 years ago. They were eventually replaced by anatomically modern humans (AMH; sometimes known as Cro-Magnons), who began to appear in Europe circa 40,000 years ago. Given that the two hominid species likely coexisted in Europe, anthropologists have long wondered whether the two interacted. The question was resolved only in 2010, when it was established that Eurasian populations exhibit Neanderthal admixture, estimated at 1.5–2.1% on average. The question now became whether this admixture had taken place in Europe, or rather in the Levant, prior to AMH migration into Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Interbreeding with archaic and modern humans.:Genetic evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Eastern Neanderthals from the Altai show evidence of an introgression from modern humans not seen in western Neanderthals. This contribution to their genome derived from a modern human population that diverged from most other modern humans about 120 kya and expanded into Eurasia, but was later largely replaced by a second expansion of modern humans out of Africa after 75,000 years ago that gave rise to modern Eurasians, although 2% of the genome of New Guineans derives from this earlier dispersal. Kuhlwilm et al. argue that the admixture between this early modern human group, modern Eurasians, and Neanderthals took place in Southern Arabia or the Levant and that the introgressed Siberian Neanderthals had spread there from the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335645",
"title": "Neanderthal extinction",
"section": "Section::::Possible cause of extinction.:Violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Some authors have discussed the possibility that Neanderthal extinction was either precipitated or hastened by violent conflict with \"Homo sapiens\". Violence in early hunter-gatherer societies usually occurred as a result of resource competition following natural disasters. It is therefore plausible to suggest that violence, including primitive warfare, would have transpired between the two human species. The hypothesis that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals was first proposed by French palaeontologist Marcellin Boule (the first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal) in 1912. Several finds in both Homo-sapiens and Neanderthal bones indicate inter-species aggression from injuries (grooves in the bones themselves) that could only have come from spear or other projectile tips crafted with prevalent tool-making methods contemporary to the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335645",
"title": "Neanderthal extinction",
"section": "Section::::Possible cause of extinction.:Competitive replacement.:Division of labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In 2006, two anthropologists of the University of Arizona proposed an efficiency explanation for the demise of the Neanderthals. In an article titled \"What's a Mother to Do? The Division of Labor among Neanderthals and Modern Humans in Eurasia\", it was posited that Neanderthal division of labor between the sexes was less developed than Middle paleolithic \"Homo sapiens\". Both male and female Neanderthals participated in the single occupation of hunting big game, such as bison, deer, gazelles and wild horses. This hypothesis proposes that the Neanderthal's relative lack of labor division resulted in less efficient extraction of resources from the environment as compared to \"Homo sapiens\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Neanderthals were a separate species from modern humans, and became extinct (because of climate change or interaction with modern humans) and were replaced by modern humans moving into their habitat between 45,000 and 40,000 years ago. Jared Diamond has suggested a scenario of violent conflict and displacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
56kb7i
|
what credit rating actually is
|
[
{
"answer": "The most important thing to remember about your credit rating is that it is **not** for your benefit. It is for the benefit of those you want to borrow money from.\n\nYour credit rating is a conventient way for money lenders to know what kind of risk is associated with lending you money. Basically, how likely are you to pay back the debt you owe? That's why you can't build a good credit score by paying for things out of a bank account: you're not borrowing money, so they have no way to know how you'll handle that.\n\nIt's also important to know that your credit is not adjusted manually by someone looking at your actions. It's handled by a complex, mostly secret algorithm. It has nothing to do with what your intentions are or what they think your intentions are, it just has to do with what the actions you take are associated with statistically. That's why, for instance, checking your credit score lowers your score. Statistically, people who check their score do so because they are about to take out a big loan, to buy a car or a house, and they need to know how much they can afford. Taking out one loan means you're less likely to pay someone *else* back back you already owe money to the first person.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194146",
"title": "Credit rating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A credit rating is an evaluation of the credit risk of a prospective debtor (an individual, a business, company or a government), predicting their ability to pay back the debt, and an implicit forecast of the likelihood of the debtor defaulting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194146",
"title": "Credit rating",
"section": "Section::::Corporate credit ratings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Credit ratings can address a corporation's financial instruments i.e. debt security such as a bond, but also the corporations itself. Ratings are assigned by credit rating agencies, the largest of which are Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings. They use letter designations such as A, B, C. Higher grades are intended to represent a lower probability of default.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194146",
"title": "Credit rating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The credit rating represents an evaluation of a credit rating agency of the qualitative and quantitative information for the prospective debtor, including information provided by the prospective debtor and other non-public information obtained by the credit rating agency's analysts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4318357",
"title": "Bond credit rating",
"section": "Section::::Credit rating tiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The credit rating is a financial indicator to potential investors of debt securities such as bonds. These are assigned by credit rating agencies such as Moody's, Standard & Poor's and Fitch to have letter designations (such as AAA, B, CC) which represent the quality of a bond. Moody's assigns bond credit ratings of Aaa, Aa, A, Baa, Ba, B, Caa, Ca, C, with WR and NR as withdrawn and not rated. Standard & Poor's and Fitch assign bond credit ratings of AAA, AA, A, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC, C, D. Currently there are only two companies in the United States with an AAA credit rating: Microsoft and Johnson and Johnson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193034",
"title": "Credit rating agency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "A credit rating agency (CRA, also called a ratings service) is a company that assigns credit ratings, which rate a debtor's ability to pay back debt by making timely principal and interest payments and the likelihood of default. An agency may rate the creditworthiness of issuers of debt obligations, of debt instruments, and in some cases, of the servicers of the underlying debt, but not of individual consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49770",
"title": "High-yield debt",
"section": "Section::::Risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "A credit rating agency attempts to describe the risk with a credit rating such as AAA. In North America, the five major agencies are Standard & Poor's, Moody's, Fitch Ratings, Dominion Bond Rating Service and A.M. Best. Bonds in other countries may be rated by US rating agencies or by local credit rating agencies. Rating scales vary; the most popular scale uses (in order of increasing risk) ratings of AAA, AA, A, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC, C, with the additional rating D for debt already in arrears. Government bonds and bonds issued by government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) are often considered to be in a zero-risk category above AAA; and categories like AA and A may sometimes be split into finer subdivisions like \"AA−\" or \"AA+\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32681648",
"title": "United States federal government credit-rating downgrades",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Several credit rating agencies around the world have downgraded their credit ratings of the U.S. federal government, including Standard & Poor's (S&P) which reduced the country's rating from AAA (outstanding) to AA+ (excellent) on August 5, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19fghf
|
Are measurements of an object's radioactivity affected by background levels in the environment?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Are measurements of an object's radioactivity affected by background levels in the environment?\n\nSure, but this is the first thing you correct for. At work I measure the output of a radiation treatment device for cancer. The first thing I do is just take a measurement with the treatment device off, and measure the level of ambient radiation. Then when I do a measurement with the machine on, I subtract the background out of the measurement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3192041",
"title": "Radiophobia",
"section": "Section::::Radiophobia and health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "The term \"radiophobia\" is also sometimes used in the arguments against proponents of the conservative LNT concept (Linear no-threshold response model for ionizing radiation) of radiation security proposed by the U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in 1949. The \"no-threshold\" position effectively assumes, from data extrapolated from the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that even negligible doses of radiation increase ones risk of cancer linearly as the exposure increases from a value of 0 up to high dose rates. The LNT model therefore suggests that radiation exposure from naturally occurring background radiation may be harmful. However, the biological and health effects of low doses of radiation remains a controversial issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41105736",
"title": "Nepal Academy of Science and Technology",
"section": "Section::::Physical Science Laboratory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "BULLET::::- Environmental Radioactivity: A network of radioactivity monitors has been established to measure terrestrial radioactivity in environmental samples and in the air. The assessment of radioactivity due to Uranium and Thorium series, Potassium-40 along with total radioactivity will provide baseline information on the radiation environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22228846",
"title": "Environmental monitoring",
"section": "Section::::Water quality monitoring.:Parameters.:Radiological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS–G-1.8 and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Stochastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Quantitative data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is relatively limited compared to other medical conditions because of the low number of cases to date, and because of the stochastic nature of some of the effects. Stochastic effects can only be measured through large epidemiological studies where enough data has been collected to remove confounding factors such as smoking habits and other lifestyle factors. The richest source of high-quality data comes from the study of Japanese atomic bomb survivors. In vitro and animal experiments are informative, but radioresistance varies greatly across species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429954",
"title": "Edward B. Lewis",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "At the scientific level of the debate, the crucial question was whether the \"threshold theory\" was valid or whether, as Lewis insisted, the effects of radioactivity were \"linear with no threshold\", where every exposure to radiation had a long-term cumulative effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9934503",
"title": "Radiation damage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "This article deals with radiation damage due to the effects of ionizing radiation on physical objects. Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, including health effects of radiation in humans. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4882",
"title": "Background radiation",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the background radiation, and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
353y11
|
A Song of Ice and Fire depicts medieval warfare as devastating the countryside, crop harvests, and peasant population with widespread abuses of non-combatants. Is this accurate of what warfare was really like during the War of Roses time period?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, and for a much longer period than just the Wars of the Roses (ie. mid-to-late fifteenth-century). The encastellation of Europe in the eleventh- and twelfth-centuries made violent marches through enemy territory, known as [the chevauchée](_URL_3_), a highly popular and essential military tactic. The purpose of this form of warfare was to damage your opponent's financial income and their reputation - since one of the features of good lordship was the ability to protect and nothing demonstrated bad lordship like hiding in a castle while your land was ravaged. The treatment of non-combatants is [a central topic to the study of chivalry](_URL_0_) (side-note: Gillingham has several fantastic papers available through _URL_1_, I highly recommend taking advantage of this and his other freely available articles), often romantacised by the idyllic imagination that noble warriors would spare those not explicitly involved in the combat, has been comprehensively demonstrated as untrue, [see this post for more information](_URL_2_). \n\nIn this Martin is accurate, but this does not mean, of course, that all knights were bloody sadistic torturers (ie. they were not all Mountains that Ride or the Bloody Mummers) but that such actions were a widely accepted part of warfare and only condemned within certain moral contexts or because they might contravene accepted norms or desired (quasi-idealised) standards but usually not explicit legal structures. \n\nHowever, even the standards of chivalric conduct have been noted as being thrown out the window during periods of civil conflict. As Philip de Commynes, writing about the Battle of Towton (1461), noted King Edward 'shouted to his men that they must spare the common soldiers and kill the lords, of which none or few escaped'. As demonstrated by the violence of the Anarchy of the mid twelfth-century; the Baronial Movements of the thirteenth-century; the deposing of Edward II in the fourteenth-century; and the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth-century, it is clear that chivalric conduct often did not withstand the force of civil strife (and these examples just restricting us to England and Normandy).\n\nTraditional non-combatants usually lacked even this thin veil of protection, and when the aim was to better yourself at the expense of your enemy (and doubly so when you knew you would be unlikely to keep hold of any territory you might ride through) it was a fairly vicious time to not have a set of walls to hide behind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You'll find an excellent first-hand source for this in the form of the Paston Letters. They're the surviving correspondence between members of some of the Norfolk gentry from 1422 to 1509. Although they deal with all sorts of issues (most notably how the lady Paston thinks her sons are all idiots. A fine woman indeed,) it makes references to warfare in the countryside and the devastation it could inflict.\n\nI recall one instance (I am paraphrasing here since I don't have a copy of the letters with me anymore, alas,) where a group of mounted soldiers apparently raided an estate, murdered everybody and set fire to the local church when a group of people sheltered inside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5997647",
"title": "Cry Havoc (board game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "\"Cry Havoc\" is a wargame with a medieval setting. Several scenarios are included in the game that set up a variety of combatants on each side, including peasants, sergeants, billmen, men-at-arms, knights and various other \"character\" classes. For example, in the scenario called \"Peasant Revolt\", 11 peasants, 19 yeoman and six pack mules are arrayed against 13 mounted and heavily armoured knights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12988135",
"title": "Eßweiler",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The wars of the 17th and 18th centuries wrought great destruction and losses to the population. In the Thirty Years' War, there was no great amount of fighting, but many times various armies marched through the area, plundering and destroying; one mill in Eßweiler fell victim to their destructive ways (it was restored in 1661). Between 1635 and 1638, the villagers also had the Plague to deal with, which had cropped up sporadically before this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5404967",
"title": "Bully-les-Mines",
"section": "Section::::History.:Misfortunes of Bully.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "From 1709 to 1712, Bully was buffeted by the advances and retreats of armies fighting in the War of the Spanish Succession, a situation aggravated by an epidemic that killed 24 villagers. In 1796, a fire destroyed half the village, an event commemorated by the present-day \"Chemin brûlé.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6517501",
"title": "Swiss peasant war of 1653",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Modern historians generally agree that the peasant war was an important event in Swiss history, and also in comparison to other popular revolts in late medieval Europe. Such revolts were rather common at the time and often were motivated by excessive taxation. The peasant war of 1653 stands out as a culminative end point in Switzerland for three reasons:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1013716",
"title": "Ronneby",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In 1564, Ronneby was the location of a bloody battle during the Northern Seven Years' War between the Swedish and the Danish armies during which the Swedes under King Erik XIV besieged the city, killed many inhabitants (Ronneby Bloodbath) and burnt it to the ground. Erik later reported that \"The Water was red from blood of the Danes.\" The number of victims was heavily exaggerated, for different propagandistic reasons, by both sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060546",
"title": "Early thermal weapons",
"section": "Section::::\"Fire and sword\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The tactics were replicated by England during the Hundred Years' War; fire became their chief weapon as they laid waste to the French countryside during lightning raids called chevauchées, in a form of economic warfare. One estimate records the destruction of over 2000 villages and castles during one raid in 1339.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154376",
"title": "Ingelmunster",
"section": "Section::::History.:Religious conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "During the religious wars of the 16th century, Ingelmunster became the victim of both warring parties. In August 1566, the Beeldenstormers passed by the village and pillaged and destroyed the church. The church was rebuilt with a tower in its center. In 1739, that tower would be torn down and a new one rebuilt in front of the church. The new tower remains standing to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4wivpn
|
Were cannonballs considered "reusable" after being fired? or would they be deformed/ damaged after impacting a target.
|
[
{
"answer": "**Occasionally, but typically under only specific circumstances.**\n\nIn the first centuries after the development of the cannon, stone shot was used in most cases. Stone is frangible; it tends to shatter upon impact, and even if a stone cannonball did not shatter, it was easily converted to peaceful use as building material. Both of these factors tended to work against the recovery and re-use of stone cannonballs. During [excavations at Edinburgh Castle between 1988 and 1991](_URL_1_) archaeologists discovered a handful of never-fired stone cannonballs and fragments from rounds that had clearly been used and shattered. \n\nThe use of iron shot began to take off in the 16th century and by the 17th century, they were almost ubiquitous. The issue here, as with stone, is that poor-quality iron (endemic in this period) is brittle and will shatter upon impact just as stone will. Given that cannon shot were designed to be destroyed, they were typically constructed of the cheapest iron possible, which increased the likelihood that they would fracture or deform.\n\nNow, allow me to divert you into the question of **why** and **when** solid shot would be recovered. Solid cannon shot, whether iron or stone, tends to be *extraordinarily* heavy for its size and is difficult to handle because of its shape. You have to have a *reason* to go through the effort of recovering a particular solid shot. It is much easier to get new shot from your logistical train than to go through the effort of recovering shot. Large-scale shot recovery only makes sense if your own supplies are limited.\n\nYou might need a block and tackle setup to lift the shot. You'll need wagons and horses to carry the shot away. All this is expensive in both time and labor, which means you typically see shot recovery take place only where large concentrations of artillery have fought in a confined area. The effort of mustering a shot-recovery detail is offset by the ability to collect large amounts of shot.\n\nRemember, too, that you have to cope with matching the shot's caliber ─ something not always easy if both sides in a battle aren't using compatible ammunition.\n\nSo to recap: In order for shot-recovery to be feasible, you need to have a shortage of ammunition that forces you to recover shot. You need to have the manpower to be able to recover the shot. You need to be fighting between approximately 1500 and 1870. You need to be at a place where large amounts of artillery were used in a confined area.\n\nThis checklist limits how often cannon shot was reused, but it did happen time and again. Stephen Bull, in his book *The Furie of the Ordnance* about artillery in the English civil wars, writes, \"It is likely that the largest number (of 17th century cannon shot) were picked up and reused, or scrapped, within a relatively short period of the time they were fired or lost. Shot are recorded as having been removed from many of the major battlefields, notably Marston Moor and Naesby, over a very long period of time.\"\n\nMark Thomson's book, *Wellington's Engineers* about military engineering during the Peninsular War, references an account from Alexander Dickson: \"the soldiers were offered a bounty for every roundshot they could recover for re-use and so as not to discourage them, even roundshot of calibres which were of no use were paid for.\"\n\nDuring the Crimean War, when vast amounts of artillery were leveled against the Russian defenders along the Black Sea, the practice of round shot recovery [was captured on camera](_URL_0_), with the cannonballs in the ditch having been rolled down a hill by soldiers seeking to collect them.\n\nFinally, during the American Civil War, the logistically-strapped Confederacy's quartermaster department [mined the Seven Days battlefields for almost a year afterward](_URL_2_), recovering supplies and spent cannon shot to be used in the war effort. At isolated places like Ship Island, in Texas, and elsewhere, Confederate artillerymen recovered Union-fired round shot in order to keep their guns fed. \n\nThe development of exploding shot and artillery shells brought an end to the era of recovering round shot. Even by the time of the American Civil War, round shot was on the way out of circulation.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am amazed I have something to contribute for this very specific question, but it was only for one specific circumstance. And I apologize because in order to get the exact quote I will need to interlibrary loan a diary /memoir that is held at Rice University that I took notes from some 20 years ago. And since these were handwritten notes -- long before I was digitizing things -- I don't know the woman's name from memory. Hopefully in describing this particular memoir -- because it's story was so unique -- perhaps one of my fellow colonialists will recognize the woman's name in question and I can find the original source again.\n\nAt Rice when I was doing research on southern beliefs I came across a rather remarkable journal / memoir of a woman who had been a refugee after the Revolutionary War. She and her husband were Tories, he was a doctor, and they would eventually after the war flee to Jamaica. (Again I hope this will trigger some memories in any of my colleagues to help me dredge up a name -- this woman's story was so fascinating that years later it stays with me.)\n\nAnyway, in discussing the events that led to their abandoning the British North American colonies, she described how she and her husband were present during a siege of a southern city. And again, I apologize, I do not recall which city, though it may have been Yorktown. \n\nWhat was remarkable in her narrative was something she mentioned in passing that -- and it struck me to this day -- an event I hadn't even thought about happening. She described how the streets were part sand in places and how they had been bombarded by the Patriots. And she described how young black children would run into the streets -- while bombardment was still happening -- to cover cannonballs that had landed but not broken into pieces with sand. She then described the children digging these up later and selling them back to soldiers on her side -- Tories.\n\nAs I had never run across a story even similar to this, even though it had nothing to do with the research I was doing, it struck me as so singular -- I hadn't even thought about the idea that someone would try to recovered shot solid cannonballs, much less the idea of children \"selling\" them -- it stuck in my memory. (I also wondered if how she reported the events were quite accurate, as her perception of what the children were doing -- or the fact that they were enterprising versus if they were somehow being coerced into doing so -- but obviously when you only have a single source you have no way to know that.)\n\nI always meant to go back and re-read this diary, so I have to thank you for your question for triggering this distant memory. And reading The Alaskan's excellent post, above (I am no expert with military pieces, I just happened to have read a firsthand account of the practice by a civilian bystander in my research along the way) it appears the account from the journal I had read matches the circumstances under which he noted that recovery might have occurred.\n\nI did a causal search of the Fondren Library holdings electronic catalog just now without success to try and see if I could identify the source. I will call them this week and see if they can help me trace it down. If any of my colleagues knows the source I am talking about please chime in, it was a pretty unique set of circumstances, so I would have a hard time believing we may not be able to identify the specific name and hopefully in a week or two I might get the source back in my possession so I can pull the original quote. (I will warn that some of the language in the original quote in reference to the children may contain language that would not be as appropriate to today's sensibilities, so if I get the source and reprint the quote I note in advance some language may be, well, colorful.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One particularly interesting example of cannonballs being repurposed was during the on-again, off-again Siege of Candia. The Ottomans wanted the city, the Venetians had the naval power necessary to keep the port open and thus prevent a proper siege, and the native Cretans were hostile to both sides (the Venetians tended to ruthlessly exploit them and the Ottomans were foreign invaders who wanted their island; neither was really a good option for the Cretans). The Ottomans were also plagued by truly abysmal morale: such a long-running affair required home leave and when home leave was granted exclusively to Janissaries in 1649-1650, against the advice of the commander (Deli Huseyn Pasha), the reaction from the regular Ottoman troops roughly mirrors that of the French mutinies in WWI -- they refused to fight, except on the defensive, and stubbornly resisted all attempts to convince them to fall back in line. At least until they finally got their leave. \n\nOver the course of the siege, the Ottomans and Venetians shot cannonballs at one another. Late in the siege, the Ottomans looked at this enormous pile of Venetian cannonballs they had been collecting and presumably said, \"wouldn't it be funny if we shot these things back at them?\" And so the Ottomans casted new cannon in the field (this wasn't *terribly* common in the 17th century but when you've got a 21-year siege you tend to get creative), loaded them with Venetian cannonballs, and shot the Venetians' own cannonballs back at them. \n\nIt's not a coincidence that the Ottomans casted three new cannon in 1668 for the approximately 30,000 Venetian cannonballs they had on hand and that the siege, which had by then dragged on for two decades, would end the next year. \n\nAs for why the they're explicitly mentioned as having \"collected\" this frankly ridiculous number of previously useless cannonballs fired from enemy guns, I can't even begin to guess. Rhoads Murphey, who generally offers all sorts of explanations for weird events like this, is regrettably silent on the issue (and the quote in Turkish he cites doesn't appear to offer much more information, though my Turkish is probably about as good as a three year old's). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3762147",
"title": "King & Balloon",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The cannon is destroyed by collision with balloons or their shots, but is replaced after a brief delay with no effect on the number of remaining lives. One life is lost whenever a balloon carries the King off the top of the screen; the game ends when all lives are lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16345197",
"title": "The Purchase of the North Pole",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "The cannon is fired as planned, and the explosion causes huge damage in the immediate vicinity. However, the Earth's axis retains its tilt and position, and not the slightest tremor is felt in the rest of the world. Alcide, shortly before the cannon was fired, had discovered that J. T. Maston, while computing the size of the cannon, had made a calculation error — the first of his life. Indeed, he had accidentally erased three zeros from the blackboard when he was struck by lightning during a telephone call from Ms. Scorbitt. Because of that single mistake in the data, twelve zeros got omitted from the result. Because Maston's calculations were undoubtedly considered correct when they were discovered, this error was not discovered early enough. The cannon he designed was indeed far too small: a trillion of them would have had to be fired to achieve the intended effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2277590",
"title": "Brass monkey (colloquialism)",
"section": "Section::::Supposed etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "BULLET::::4. Shot was not left exposed to the elements where it could rust. Such rust could lead to the ball not flying true or jamming in the barrel and exploding the gun. Indeed, gunners would attempt to remove as many imperfections as possible from the surfaces of balls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7053",
"title": "Cannon",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "When a cannon had to be abandoned such as in a retreat or surrender, the touch hole of the cannon would be plugged flush with an iron spike, disabling the cannon (at least until metal boring tools could be used to remove the plug). This was called \"spiking the cannon\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314677",
"title": "Human cannonball",
"section": "Section::::Risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "More than 30 human cannonballs have died during the performance of this stunt. Among the latest was that which occurred in Kent, United Kingdom on April 25, 2011, where a human cannonball died as a result of the failure of the safety net. Landing is considered to be the most dangerous aspect of the act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337004",
"title": "Shell (projectile)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Solid cannonballs (\"shot\") did not need a fuse, but hollow munitions (\"shells\") filled with something such as gunpowder to fragment the ball, needed a fuse, either impact (percussion) or time. Percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism contacted the target. Therefore, shells needed a time fuse that was ignited before or during firing and burned until the shell reached its target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8119561",
"title": "Santa Rita Jail",
"section": "Section::::Bomb range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "On December 6, 2011, while conducting an experiment on the effectiveness of various projectiles when fired out of a cannon, a \"MythBusters\" television crew sent a cannonball through the side of a house and into a minivan in a nearby Dublin, California neighborhood. The projectile had missed its intended target and instead soared , striking a house and leaving a hole, before striking the roof of another house and smashing through a window of a parked minivan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2avk6y
|
What effect does the arctic summer sun have on plant life?
|
[
{
"answer": "In theory, it would certainly help plants grow. In reality, though, it has very little effect, because the limiting factor of plants in the arctic is nutrient availability. The soil there has a layer of permafrost that prevents anything big and vascular from growing. It's why most plants in the arctic are low-growing shrubs and mosses",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26722200",
"title": "Indre Wijdefjorden National Park",
"section": "Section::::Nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Both fauna and flora are affected by the cold temperatures and the extreme light conditions. Activity is at a stand-still during the polar night, which lasts for many months. During the summer, months of midnight sun help accelerate the natural processes. The nature in the area is especially susceptible to global warming. Models show that the winter temperatures will increase more than the summer temperatures, resulting in more precipitation. Because the vegetation requires little rain and much wind, this may result in major changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21200802",
"title": "Polar seas",
"section": "Section::::Arctic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The Arctic ocean has relatively abundant plant life. Nutrients from rivers along with mixing and upwelling from storms contribute mixed layer nutrients which are essential for Arctic phytoplankton development. During summer, nearly continuous solar insolation encourages phytoplankta blooms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18951556",
"title": "Arctic Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Animal and plant life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic, where they feed on nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter when they struggle to get enough light to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952479",
"title": "Xerophyte",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Plants that live under arctic conditions also have a need for xerophytic adaptations, since water is unavailable for uptake when the ground is frozen, such as the European resurrection plants \"Haberlea rhodopensis\" and \"Ramonda serbica\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22115620",
"title": "Regional effects of global warming",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation and vegetation changes.:Arctic and Alpine regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Polar and alpine ecosystems are assumed to be particularly vulnerable to climate change as their organisms dwell at temperatures just above the zero degree threshold for a very short summer growing season. Predicted changes in climate over the next 100 years are expected to be substantial in arctic and sub-arctic regions. Already there is evidence of upward shifts of plants in mountains and in arctic shrubs are predicted to increase substantially to warming \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11295837",
"title": "Arctic vegetation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In the Arctic, the low tundra vegetation clothes a landscape of wide vistas, lit by the low-angle light characteristic of high latitudes. Much of the Arctic shows little impact from human activities, making it one of the few places on earth one can see intact ecosystems. Arctic plants are adapted to short, cold growing seasons. They have the ability to withstand extremely cold temperatures in the winter (winter hardiness), but what is even more important is the ability to be able to function in limiting summer conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79274",
"title": "Climate of the Alps",
"section": "Section::::Glacial region.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "There is reason to think, however, that it is the lack of soil rather than climatic conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found flowering up to a height of 3650 m (12,000 ft), nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are very different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 27 °C (80 °F), alternates with severe frost by night. There, the Sun, which never sets is only able to send feeble rays that maintain a low temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33xt8p
|
How accurate are the common pronunciations of Biblical names (i.e. Daniel)? Are they dead on, or have the pronunciations evolved? Are the names even original?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi.. you might get something out of these related posts\n\n* [Luke is short for Lucas. Why does the bible Luke only have the short form?](_URL_3_) - /u/vhcngh traces John, Jonathan, Luke, Mark and Matthew from English to Latin to Greek\n\n* [Which came first, the name 'John' or 'Johnathan' (or similar spellings?) Were the Johns of biblical times simply called John or were they less famously named Johnathan? If John came first, how did it evolve to become the short version of Johnathan?](_URL_1_) - various respondents provide the original Hebrew names for John, Jonathan, Adam, Matthew and Paul\n\n* [Was Jesus a common name when the biblical Jesus was alive?](_URL_0_) - lots of comments and links to other posts discussing the Hebrew name for Jesus\n\n* [Biblical names like John,Paul,Gabriel or Peter have different pronunciations in other languages like Juan (John ,Spanish) or Paolo ( Paul, Italian). How were these names pronounced during biblical times?](_URL_2_) - very scanty information here, but a few more names are given",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "167083",
"title": "Yeshua",
"section": "Section::::Original name for Jesus.:East Syriac Ishoʕ.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1458,
"text": "Aramaic and Classical Syriac render the pronunciation of the same letters as ' ' and ' ' . The Aramaic Bibles and the Peshitta Syriac preserve these same spellings. Current scholarly consensus posits that the NT texts were translated from the Greek, but this theory is not supported directly at least by the name for Jesus, which is not a simple transliteration of the Greek form as would otherwise be expected, as Greek did not have an \"sh\" sound, and substituted ; and likewise lacked and therefore omitted the final \"‘ayin\" sound . Moreover, Eusebius (early fourth century) reports that Papius (early second century) reports that Jesus's disciple Matthew wrote a gospel \"in the Hebrew language\". (Note: Scholars typically argue the word \"Hebrew\" in the New Testament refers to Aramaic; however, others have attempted to refute this view.) The Aramaic of the Peshitta does not distinguish between \"Joshua\" and \"Jesus\", and the Lexicon of William Jennings gives the same form ' for both names. The Hebrew final letter ayin ' is equivalent to final in Classical Syriac and East Syriac and West Syriac. It can be argued that the Aramaic speakers who used this name had a continual connection to the Aramaic-speakers in communities founded by the apostles and other students of Jesus, thus independently preserved his historical name \"Yeshuuʕ\" and the Eastern dialectical \"Ishoʕ\". Those churches following the East Syriac Rite still preserve the name \"Ishoʕ\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6885488",
"title": "Helon",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- Potts, Cyrus Alvin. Dictionary of Bible Proper Names: Every Proper Name in the Old and New Testaments Arranged in Alphabetical Order; Syllabified and Accented; Vowel Sounds Diacritically Marked; Definitions Given in Latin and English. The Abingdon Press: New York, 1922; p. 110.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636105",
"title": "Hebrew name",
"section": "Section::::Hebræo-English names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Even so, many KJV Old Testament names were not entirely without New Testament Greek influence. This influence mostly reflected the vowels of names, leaving most of the consonants largely intact, only modestly filtered to consonants of contemporary English phonology. However, all KJV names followed the Greek convention of not distinguishing between soft and \"dāḡeš\" forms of ב \"bêṯ\". These habits resulted in multilingually fused Hebræo-Helleno-English names, such as Judah, Isaiah and Jeremiah. Additionally, a handful of names were adapted directly from Greek without even partial translations from Hebrew, including names such as Isaac, Moses and Jesse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27930380",
"title": "Protestant Bible",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "These Old Testament, Apocrypha and New Testament books of the Bible, with their commonly accepted names among the Protestant Churches, are given below. Note that \"1\", \"2\", or \"3\" as a leading numeral is normally pronounced in the United States as the ordinal number, thus \"First Samuel\" for \"1 Samuel\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9754319",
"title": "Messianic Bible translations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "These elements include, but are not limited to, the use of the Hebrew names for all books, the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) ordering for the books of the Old Testament, both testaments being named their Hebrew names (\"Tanakh\" and \"Brit Cadasha\"). This approach also includes the New Testament being translated with the preference of spelling names (people, concepts and place names) in transliterated Hebrew rather than directly translated from Greek into English. Some Sacred Name Bibles such as the \"Hallelujah Scriptures\", conform to these elements and are therefore may be considered Messianic Bibles as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19236433",
"title": "Sacred Name Bible",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Aramaic primacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Although no early manuscripts of the New Testament contain these names, some rabbinical translations of Matthew did use the tetragrammaton in part of the Hebrew New Testament. Sidney Jellicoe in \"The Septuagint and Modern Study\" (Oxford, 1968) states that the name YHWH appeared in Greek Old Testament texts written for Jews by Jews, often in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet to indicate that it was not to be pronounced, or in Aramaic, or using the four Greek letters \"PIPI\" (Π Ι Π Ι) that physically imitate the appearance of Hebrew יהוה, \"YHWH\"), and that \"Kyrios\" was a Christian introduction. Bible scholars and translators such as Eusebius and Jerome (translator of the \"Latin Vulgate\") consulted the Hexapla, but did not attempt to preserve sacred names in Semitic forms. Justin Martyr (second century) argued that YHWH is not a personal name, writing of the \"namelessness of God\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19236433",
"title": "Sacred Name Bible",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Aramaic primacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Some translators of Sacred Name Bibles hold to the view that the New Testament, or significant portions of it, were originally written in a Semitic language, Hebrew or Aramaic, from which the Greek text is a translation. This view is colloquially known as \"Aramaic primacy\", and is also taken by some academics, such as Matthew Black. Therefore, translators of Sacred Name Bibles consider it appropriate to use Semitic names in their translations of the New Testament, which they regard as intended for use by all people, not just Jews. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2g2lrc
|
how do tv shows with multiple writers avoid the "too many cooks spoil the broth" syndrome?
|
[
{
"answer": "A head writer makes final decisions ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's important to understand that for any team to function well they HAVE to get over their individual egos to at least a certain level, or they will not be able to get along and the team approach doesn't actually work. Then it's just a bunch of individuals working together and the odds of a great result decline drastically. \n\nProfessionals that work in teams learn to acknowledge and defer to other professionals. If they don't, either they're a problem or they're really the leader that everyone else simply defers to and executes the orders of (I'd guess trying to act in a movie with Bill Murray would be something like this), or they're effectively a team of one that has to be specially managed around because they bring a very specific skill, or some combination of these. And the team itself usually needs some form of leader that acts as an authority or tiebreaker when others within the team get trapped on some point, which is why there's usually a head-writer for each episode.\n\nPlease don't assume that those writers don't have their own headaches. Collaboration among highly creative people that are trying to develop something new and brilliant takes a lot of management and compromise and is often highly unpleasant for at least some of them and often all of them. But they have to suck it up to reach that goal. \n\nOr occasionally, something *really* clicks, various quirks line up in amazing ways, and magic happens and you get Monty Python's Flying Circus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually it's a bunch of people writing a few episodes each, not a bunch of people on every episodes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simple answer is that they each work on separate chunks of the show, and work as a team to stay co-ordinated across chunks.\n\nThe situation varies show to show and is obviously more complicated with something like Lost or Breaking Bad (where a continuous story has to progress episode to episode) than with something like The Simpsons (where virtually every episode is completely and totally unrelated to others).\n\nThe most typical situation is to have a writers' room headed by someone informally called the showrunner. The showrunner is an executive producer and the highest-ranking member of the crew. The roster of permanent writers, which can be anywhere from 3 to 15, sit around a table together and take turns giving 'pitches' for story ideas. These can be as little as one-sentence concepts (\"What if Homer became an astronaut?\") but are usually 2 or 3 paragraphs outlining a story and maybe some key scenes. The other writers then give their feedback on it, criticise it, suggest improvements. If everyone likes the idea as it develops, it goes on the board. This goes on until there are a decent number of outlines on the board, then those outlines are assigned to specific writers (sometimes in pairs) to turn into episode scripts, and everyone goes off to work. After a period they return to the writer's room and read out their scripts; at this point, all the other writers will start brainstorming jokes and one-liners and funny situations that can be added. They're incorporated into the draft and then the episode is performed at a 'table read' where the voice actors sit at the table with the script and perform it out loud to get an idea of how the episode will go. Then the writer of the script might go and tighten the episode, remove stuff that fell flat, write in jokes people improvised during the reading, etc, before turning it in as complete. You'll notice that even though episodes are attributed to one or two writers, they actually involve the work of the full team: this is just a necessity of the system, and if you tune into any DVD commentary for The Simpsons, Futurama, Seinfeld, or any other show like this, the writers will always point out details that the other writers added and contributed, thank whoever provided the idea for the episode they wrote, etc. There were writers on staff who pitched thousands of jokes but rarely sat down to write scripts, so there wasn't really a good way to credit them. It's messy.\n\nThat's the simplest scenario. It works for The Simpsons because there doesn't have to be any coordination between different episodes, for the most part the episodes can come in any random order and be fine. The Simpsons writers weren't very cross-coordinated between these meetings; the most prolific writer the show ever had, John Swartzwelder, famously started working from home so he could chainsmoke and drink while working, and would just drive up, leave his script with the receptionist while the car was still running, and go home. (This guy was basically Ron Swanson in real life, they call him at home in the DVD commentary for one episode and he is tipsy and cooking steaks at 9AM.)\n\nShows with continuous stories are where the showrunner becomes vital and force the writers to communicate more.\n\nWith shows like The Office or Arrested Development, where there's some level of continuation between episodes, more attention paid to character development and story arcs, etc, the episodes have to be in a specific order and have to be co-ordinated. That's what the showrunner handles. They will often personally draft the story arc for the season (sometimes with the help of the other writers, sometimes alone), and then sit down with the writers in the writers' room to hear their story pitches. The difference is that all those pitches must fit into the showrunner's dictated arc: episode 5 must end with Jenny having a heart attack, episode 8 must feature a breakup, the season finale must end with Jack's car exploding and the police finding the recording device. When the ideas for individual episodes accumulate, the showrunner puts them into a specific order and orders changes to them to make them fit better together.\n\nShows with *very* continuous stories, like Lost, have the showrunners acting as total dictators. With Lost and with Dexter and other shows in that style, the showrunner(s, Lost had two) would write out episode summaries for almost every single episode. Specific writers were hired to flesh them out, add side stories, write the dialogue, etc -- but the actual plot was all laid out by the showrunner and the episode writers didn't have much freedom to actually change the story. Meetings between the various writers were relatively rare and writers *could* pitch, but they didn't hold pitch meetings like The Simpsons did. This style of writing is closer to the British and Australian styles (where TV shows are often entirely written by one person or partnership) and was historically very unusual in the US, but became popular starting in the early 2000s with the success of The Sopranos (run and dictated by David Chase), The Wire (David Simon), Oz (Tom Fontana), Lost (Damon Lindelof & Carlton Cuse) and The Shield (Shawn Ryan). Shows that use this model often have coherent serialised stories at the expense of shorter runs (rarely more than 12 episodes a year), because an American 'full season order' (24-25 episodes) is too much for one person to do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3406016",
"title": "List of Garfield characters",
"section": "Section::::Cartoons.:\"The Garfield Show\" characters.:Eddie Gourmand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "A chef who's usually seen in a televised cooking show. His show nearly got canceled because most people find it tedious, though its ratings improved when a cake monster invaded the studio. He opened a theme park made of cheese which wasn't well-liked. He once became violent and used a rolling pin in an attempt to strike Garfield that tasted one of his dishes. He was fired from his job once by Mr. Station Manager Sir for showing the viewers what unhealthy foods to eat, but he was rehired after Mr. Station Manager Sir's new show got the least ratings. The reason for his morbid obesity comes from his horrible childhood years. He is voiced by Frank Welker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6438937",
"title": "Throwdown! with Bobby Flay",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Each episode ends with a challenge from Flay looking directly into the camera and saying, \"All you chefs keep doing what you do, but ask yourself this...\" Finished by the featured chef saying \"are you ready for a Throwdown?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2366469",
"title": "Paul Scheer",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Podcasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "\"How Did This Get Made?\" is a podcast on Earwolf hosted by Scheer, June Diane Raphael, and Jason Mantzoukas. Each episode has a celebrity guest/comedian and features the deconstruction and mockery of terrible films. In 2011, iTunes selected \"How Did this Get Made?\" as its favorite comedy podcast of the year. In 2012, \"LA Weekly\" named the show \"The Best Comedy Podcast\". Guests have included Kevin Smith, Damon Lindelof, \"Weird\" Al Yankovic, Danny Trejo, Vanilla Ice, Adam Scott, Nick Kroll, and Amy Schumer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28890581",
"title": "Downton Abbey",
"section": "Section::::Other media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such as \"[[Family Guy]]\" episode \"[[Chap Stewie]]\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, and \"[[How I Met Your Mother]]\" episode \"[[The Fortress (How I Met Your Mother)|The Fortress]]\", where the gang watch a television show called \"Woodworthy Manor\", which is remarkably similar to \"Downton Abbey\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18580803",
"title": "Hell's Kitchen (American TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Accusations of staging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The series has drawn numerous online and editorial accusations of staging and dramatic license, mostly due to editing techniques of the producers, who splice together several hours of footage from a dinner service, in order to make certain contestants appear as poor performers, later justifying their elimination. This was most obvious when one episode featured clips showing an already eliminated contestant in the background, still cooking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33320347",
"title": "Ass Burgers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Trey Parker and Matt Stone considered alternative storylines, but decided it would be best if the show \"reset\" back to normal. They both noted that doing the opposite would have put too much emphasis on drama, rather than comedy. The writers had the idea to center an episode on the \"Ass Burgers\" pun for several years, but did not think discussion and awareness of the disorder had entered pop culture to the extent that enough people would understand the joke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29502933",
"title": "Soldiers Three (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "[The cast and story] should have made a good picture, but the miscasting of one principal, which I failed to recognize until it was too late, threw the show completely out of balance. Trying to restore equilibrium with jokes and gags was like trying to cure bubonic plague with warm beer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34kunh
|
What did escapees from East Germany have to go through upon arrival in West Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can answer the follow-up question: They were imprisoned according to paragraph 213 of the GDR criminal code.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, I'm sorry if significant portions of this answer lack good, reliable English cites. I'll at least give English wikipedia links, for all the good they are, for some answers.\n\nEast Germans arriving in West Germany as refugees had one significant advantage over refugees from other nations. Since West Germany did not fully acknowledge East Germany, instead insisting on an [exclusive mandate](_URL_0_) for Germany as a whole, the refugees were considered German citizens, with all rights. So, for example, they couldn't just be sent back because they had a right of residence in West Germany. So, in a way, the West German official view was that the arrivers did not *get* the West German citizenship, because they already *had* them. It was just officially recognized when they arrived.\n\nHowever, here's where things get a bit more complicated and not as clear-cut. Especially in the early years before the border was closed off effectively, large numbers of East Germans relocated to West Germany. To channel those refugees, the West German legislature passed a law (the [Bundesnotaufnahmegesetz](_URL_1_), sorry German link only), which limited the right of abode for East Germans relocating to West Germany. In the following, several large central refugee camps were created. I would imagine, though I don't know for sure, that in those refugee camps, people were interviewed to (a) make sure that they actually were German, and not members of other nations, and to (b) to at least a rough prescreening for potential spies. This didn't always succeed. The maybe most famous example would be [Günter Guillaume](_URL_2_), who relocated to West Germany as a Stasi (the East German secret service) spy, and eventually managed to install himself as personal assistant to West German Chancellor Willy Brandt, leading to the [Guillaume Affair](_URL_3_) and Brandt's eventual resignation.\nIn any case, from those refugee camps, East German arrivers were eventually relocated to different areas of Germany. I assume that if they had family, they would be allowed to relocate there; otherwise, they would be distributed over the area of West Germany, so that no area had too many refugees to support. That support, at a bare minimum, would be the standard social security services available to every German in need. In addition, there seems to have been support from the Bundesausgleichsamt, which was created in 1952 especially with the goal of supporting the integration of German refugees arriving in West Germany. However, I cannot really tell you what amount of help they would receive from there; we're getting into a very specialized and obscure area here, and for a good answer would need an expert on that specific field of research, which I am not.\n\nAs to your final question, I can't say for sure, but I cannot imagine anybody being deported back to East Germany against their will. There were people who relocated from West to East Germany, and there were spy exchanges, but both of these were not deportations to East Germany against the will of those relocated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32842267",
"title": "List of deaths at the Berlin Wall",
"section": "Section::::Locations, demographics and motivations of the victims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Their motives for escaping evolved over time. Those who fled in the years shortly after the Wall was built had experienced the formerly open border first-hand and often had relatives in the West or had traveled there. By contrast, later escapees had grown up with the closed border, desired greater freedom and were dissatisfied with conditions in East Germany. Their attempts to escape were often triggered by specific events such as a wish to avoid conscription, repression by the authorities or the refusal of a request to emigrate. Many escapees had previously clashed with the state authorities and had been imprisoned for political offenses, often related to earlier unsuccessful escape attempts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5155986",
"title": "Republikflucht",
"section": "Section::::\"Republikflucht\".:Berlin Wall and illegal migration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1537,
"text": "Between 1961 and 1989 several thousand East German citizens emigrated by obtaining temporary exit visas and subsequently failing to return, or by engaging in dangerous attempts to cross the Berlin Wall, the Inner German border, or the borders of other Eastern Bloc countries. Those who fled across the fortified borders did so at considerable personal risk of injury or death (see: List of deaths at the Berlin Wall), with several hundred \"Republikflüchtlinge\" dying in accidents or by being shot by the GDR Border Troops, while some 75,000 were caught and imprisoned. West Germany allowed refugees from the Soviet sector of Berlin, the Soviet zone, or East Germany to apply to be accepted as \"Vertriebene\" (expellees) of the sub-group of Soviet Zone Refugees (\"Sowjetzonenflüchtlinge\") under the Federal Expellee Law (BVFG § 3), and thus receive support from the West German government. They had to have fled before 1 July 1990 in an attempt to rescue themselves from an emergency situation – especially one posing a threat to health, life, personal freedom, or freedom of conscience – created by the political conditions imposed by the regime in the territory from which they had escaped (BVFG § 3). The law did not apply to influential former supporters of the eastern political system or to offenders against legality and humanity during the period of Nazi rule or thereafter within East Berlin or East Germany, and finally it was applicable to any who had fought against the democracy in West Germany or West Berlin (BVFG § 3 (2)).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24815929",
"title": "Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border",
"section": "Section::::Refugee flows and escape attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "Escapees had various motives for attempting to flee East Germany. The vast majority had an essentially economic motive: they wished to improve their living conditions and opportunities in the West. Some fled for political reasons, but many were impelled to leave by specific social and political events. The imposition of collective agriculture and the crushing of the 1953 East German uprising prompted thousands to flee to the West, as did further coercive economic restructuring in 1960. Thousands of those who fled did so to escape the clearance of their villages along the border. By the 1980s, the number of escape attempts was rising again as East Germany's economy stagnated and living conditions deteriorated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849186",
"title": "Inner German border",
"section": "Section::::Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border.:Refugee flows and escape attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Between 1950 and 1988, around 4 million East Germans migrated to the West; 3.454 million left between 1950 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall constructed, the number of illegal crossings fell dramatically and continued to fall as the defences were improved over the subsequent decades. However, escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany. During the 1980s, only about 1% of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border. Far more people left the country after being granted official permits, by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed by the West German government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661867",
"title": "Hof, Bavaria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In 1989 thousands of East German citizens, who had demanded the right to travel or emigrate to West Germany and had been allowed to do so, first arrived on western soil at Hof's railway station, having been placed on a special train and officially \"expelled\" by the East German government. Hof is located near the old Berlin-Munich autobahn, which was thought to be a possible invasion route by Warsaw Pact forces had the Cold War ever escalated into armed conflict (see Fulda Gap).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48322587",
"title": "History of the Berlin U-Bahn",
"section": "Section::::Phase 3.:Reunification and reformation of the Berlin U-Bahn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 231,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 231,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "On 9 November 1989, following months of unrest, the travel restrictions placed upon East Germans were lifted. Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard the statement live on television and flooded the border checkpoints, demanding entry into West Berlin. Jannowitzbrücke, a former ghost station, was reopened two days later as an additional crossing point. Rosenthaler Platz and Bernauer Straße on the U8 soon followed suit, and by 1 July 1990, all border controls were removed. The ghost stations took three months to clean up the dirt, remove all the border guard posts/transport police areas, and complete interior refurbishment before the reopening on 1 July 1990.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21936384",
"title": "Eastern Bloc emigration and defection",
"section": "Section::::End of restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1155,
"text": "A wave of refugees left East Germany for the West through Czechoslovakia, which was tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the Czechoslovak government. In order to ease the complications, the Krenz-led Politburo had decided on 9 November to allow East Germans to travel directly to West Berlin the next day. However the government spokesman misstated the news and stated that East Germans could leave for the West effective immediately. As rumors spread, before the regulations were to go effect, on the night of 9 November, tens of thousands of Eastern Berliners flooded Checkpoint Charlie and other checkpoints along the wall, crossing into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors, but it became clear that there was no one among the East German authorities who would dare to take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so there was no way for the vastly outnumbered soldiers to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Therefore, the border checkpoints were opened, although it is disputed who was the first to issue the order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5b0uag
|
if life were such a probable event, we don’t have evidence of multiple origins?
|
[
{
"answer": "There could have originally been many potential self-replicating molecules or molecular systems, but likely one type was better at replication than others and there was a molecular form of natural selection. It is thought that RNA preceded DNA, and that the first life was RNA-based. RNA is simpler and capable of storing genetic information just like DNA. However, we don't see any RNA based life (although there are some RNA viruses), probably because DNA is more stable, and was a better mechanism for encoding genetic information. All RNA based life would have gone extinct because it couldn't compete with DNA (or RNA could've formed symbiotic relationships with DNA, but cease to exist as its own life form).\n\nWe have no idea how many forms of life existed, we just know that the \"LUCA\" (last universal common ancestor) had a DNA structure resembling all current life. The LUCA however is in no way considered to be the first living thing... It's just the first living thing to produce a lineage that is not extinct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "957529",
"title": "The Ancestor's Tale",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "There is a single concestor of all surviving life forms and its evidence is that all that have ever been examined share the same genetic code and the genetic code is too complex to have been invented twice. There is no sign of other independent origins of life and if new ones arise, they would probably be eaten by bacteria. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349161",
"title": "Cambrian explosion",
"section": "Section::::History and significance.:Phylogenetic techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "From the relationships, it may be possible to constrain the date that lineages first appeared. For instance, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated \"family tree\" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved more than X million years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "Section::::History of research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1859: The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously (\"generatio spontanea\") was contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2076198",
"title": "Polygenism",
"section": "Section::::Main beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "With the development of the evolutionary paradigm of human origins, it has become widely recognized within the scientific community that at no point did there exist a single \"first man\" and a single \"first woman\" who constituted the first true humans and to whom all lineages of modern humans ultimately converge. If Adam and Eve ever existed as distinct historical persons, they were members of a much larger population of the same species. However, a common scientific explanation of human origins asserts that the population directly ancestral to all modern humans remained united as a single population by constant gene flow. Therefore, on the level of the entire human population, this explanation of human origin is classified as monogenism. All modern humans share the same origin from this single ancestral population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299472",
"title": "Multicellular organism",
"section": "Section::::Origin hypotheses.:The symbiotic theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "This kind of severely co-dependent symbiosis can be seen frequently, such as in the relationship between clown fish and Riterri sea anemones. In these cases, it is extremely doubtful whether either species would survive very long if the other became extinct. However, the problem with this theory is that it is still not known how each organism's DNA could be incorporated into one single genome to constitute them as a single species. Although such symbiosis is theorized to have occurred (e.g., mitochondria and chloroplasts in animal and plant cells—endosymbiosis), it has happened only extremely rarely and, even then, the genomes of the endosymbionts have retained an element of distinction, separately replicating their DNA during mitosis of the host species. For instance, the two or three symbiotic organisms forming the composite lichen, although dependent on each other for survival, have to separately reproduce and then re-form to create one individual organism once more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034339",
"title": "Most recent common ancestor",
"section": "Section::::Time to MRCA estimates.:TMRCA of all living humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "A mathematical, but non-genealogical study by mathematicians Joseph T. Chang, Douglas Rohde and Steve Olson calculated that the MRCA lived remarkably recently, possibly as recently as 300 BCE. This model took into account that people do not truly mate randomly, but that, particularly in the past, people almost always mated with people who lived nearby, and usually with people who lived in their own town or village. It would have been especially rare to mate with somebody who lived in another country. However, Chang et al found that a rare person who mates with a person far away will in time connect the worldwide family tree, and that no population is truly completely isolated. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841890",
"title": "Haldane's dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Substitution cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Another potential problem is that if \"ten other independently inherited characters had been subject to selection of the same intensity as that for colour, only formula_1, or one in 1024, of the original genotype would have survived.\" The species would most likely have become extinct; but it might well survive ten other selective periods of comparable selectivity, if they happened in different centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dy67z6
|
why are you required to wear specialized eyewear when welding, and in what way the light emitted differs from another light source?
|
[
{
"answer": "The quality and color of the light varies depending on the materials being welded and type of welding. However, almost all forms are so bright that they'd damage the eye and more practically so bright that they you can't actually see the weld area because all you see is a glowing orb around the work area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The brightness of the arc form an arc welder is bright enough to cause damage to your retina if you looked directly at it. How it differs from other light sources, is intensity. Like the sun, the brightness is so intense that direct exposure will damage your vision. In fact, arc welders are brighter than the light from the sun entering your eye (of course it's travelling much shorter distance, and not through miles of atmosphere).\n\nExposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Welding arcs give off radiation over a broad range of wavelengths. The UV C and UV B are absorbed in the cornea of the eye while UV A passes through the cornea and is absorbed in the lens of the eye. Ultra violet light can produce an injury to the surface of the eye, also called arc flash or flashburn. I've had flashburn numerous times and it can be extremely painful for the eyes until it goes away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a welder I can tell you that the arc and puddle are so bright, you can't see anything with out filter. Now you instagram welders can come boast all uou want, but I can't, maybe I'm just weak and a coward because I wear my PPE.\n\nBut biggest issue is the UV radiation, how much you get depends on what and how you weld. TIG aluminium being the worst thing for you. Welder's eye is basically a sunburn, but on your eyes, it can even burn inside your eyes. It can cause harmful mutations. (which is why you should wear your PPE american instagram welders).\n\nOther thing is Infrared radiation. It will burn you a lot. \n\nRod welding is kinda like old school lime light, little UV, but really bright white light and lots of infrared. Imagine looking at a camera flash, but it is constant, or magnesium flare. \n\nWhile TIG, And Mig/mag cause this electric blue light, heavy in UV. Even reflections are really harmful to you, so the fact you can't see the arc, doesn't mean your are protected from it.\n\nOxyacetylene mean while is a bright gas flame. No UV. But powerful white light and lots of infrared. Imagine looking at a bright gas torch. For this you only need gas googles, DIN3, basically powerful sunglasses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As everyone here has stated, you can obviously burn your eyes if you don’t wear your mask. I also wanted to point out how welding works a little bit. First and foremost, the “arc” in arc welding is essentially a tiny lightning bolt. This tiny lightning bolt heats the metal around it to a high enough temperature to literally melt it. When you are actively welding and have a mask on you can actually see this little melted pool of metal around it, which is commonly referred to as the “puddle”. The “welding” part is exactly what it sounds like. You are joining two pieces or parts of metal together, and you do this by making the little puddles on each piece of your metal combine into one puddle right in the middle of them. Then you add your filler metal by dipping it into that little puddle, move the puddle a little bit, then add more filler metal. This creates that overlapping circle pattern that you can see on pretty much any type of weld. In order to create a strong weld that’s not going to be porous or crack, you need to be able to see all of that clearly. Without the dark mask, you would just see a bright light, so even if you didn’t need eye protection somehow, you would still be working essentially blind, and have a poor product.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1448709",
"title": "Gas tungsten arc welding",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "Welders wear protective clothing, including light and thin leather gloves and protective long sleeve shirts with high collars, to avoid exposure to strong ultraviolet light. Due to the absence of smoke in GTAW, the electric arc light is not covered by fumes and particulate matter as in stick welding or shielded metal arc welding, and thus is a great deal brighter, subjecting operators to strong ultraviolet light. The welding arc has a different range and strength of UV light wavelengths from sunlight, but the welder is very close to the source and the light intensity is very strong. Potential arc light damage includes accidental flashes to the eye or arc eye and skin damage similar to strong sunburn. Operators wear opaque helmets with dark eye lenses and full head and neck coverage to prevent this exposure to UV light. Modern helmets often feature a liquid crystal-type face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to the bright light of the struck arc. Transparent welding curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6871841",
"title": "Piping and plumbing fitting",
"section": "Section::::Connection methods.:Welding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Adequate ventilation is essential to remove metal fumes from welding operations, and personal protective equipment must be worn. Because the high temperatures during welding can often generate intense ultraviolet light, dark goggles or full face shields must be used to protect the eyes. Precautions must also be taken to avoid starting fires caused by stray sparks and hot welding debris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27490199",
"title": "Welding goggles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Welding goggles provide a degree of eye protection while some forms of welding and cutting are being done. They are intended to protect the eyes not only from the heat and optical radiation produced by the welding, such as the intense ultraviolet light produced by an electric arc, but also from sparks or debris. A full facemask may be required for arc welding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741823",
"title": "Optical filter",
"section": "Section::::Arc welding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "An arc source puts out visible light that may be harmful to human eyes. Therefore, optical filters on welding helmets must meet ANSI Z87:1 (a safety glasses specification) in order to protect human vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12414930",
"title": "Oxy-fuel welding and cutting",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:The importance of eye protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "Proper protection such as welding goggles should be worn at all times, including to protect the eyes against glare and flying sparks. Special safety eyewear must be used—both to protect the welder and to provide a clear view through the yellow-orange flare given off by the incandescing flux. In the 1940s cobalt melters’ glasses were borrowed from steel foundries and were still available until the 1980s. However, the lack of protection from impact, ultra-violet, infrared and blue light caused severe eyestrain and eye damage. Didymium eyewear, developed for glassblowers in the 1960s, was also borrowed—until many complained of eye problems from excessive infrared, blue light, and insufficient shading. Today very good eye protection can be found designed especially for gas-welding aluminum that cuts the sodium orange flare completely and provides the necessary protection from ultraviolet, infrared, blue light and impact, according to ANSI Z87-1989 safety standards for a Special Purpose Lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41098",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation and health",
"section": "Section::::Effects by frequency.:Infrared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Another important factor is the distance between the worker and the source of radiation. In the case of arc welding, infrared radiation decreases rapidly as a function of distance, so that farther than three feet away from where welding takes place, it does not pose an ocular hazard anymore but, ultraviolet radiation still does. This is why welders wear tinted glasses and surrounding workers only have to wear clear ones that filter UV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1101848",
"title": "Laser safety",
"section": "Section::::Safety measures.:Protective eyewear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1464,
"text": "Protective eyewear in the form of appropriately filtering optics can protect the eyes from the reflected or scattered laser light with a hazardous beam power, as well as from direct exposure to a laser beam. Eyewear must be selected for the specific type of laser, to block or attenuate in the appropriate wavelength range. For example, eyewear absorbing 532 nm typically has an orange appearance (although one should never rely solely on the lens color when selecting laser eye protection), transmitting wavelengths larger than 550 nm. Such eyewear would be useless as protection against a laser emitting at 800 nm. Furthermore, some lasers emit more than one wavelength of light, and this may be a particular problem with some less expensive frequency-doubled lasers, such as 532 nm \"green laser pointers\" which are commonly pumped by 808 nm infrared laser diodes, and also generate the fundamental 1064 nm laser beam which is used to produce the final 532 nm output. If the IR radiation is allowed into the beam, which happens in some green laser pointers, it will in general not be blocked by regular red or orange colored protective eyewear designed for pure green or already IR-filtered beam. Special YAG laser and dual-frequency eyewear is available for work with frequency-doubled YAG and other IR lasers which have a visible beam, but it is more expensive, and IR-pumped green laser products do not always specify whether such extra protection is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aa5kzx
|
how will the upcoming hospital pricing requirements help consumers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Who knows, people may start bringing their own medications and nursing staff, many are already opting for an Uber over an ambulance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It'll be helpful for a few different reasons.\n\nFirst, it brings transparency to the process. You'll know *before* you get the bill what everything will cost. \n\nSecondly, it will help to regulate healthcare costs. When Hospital A sees less business because Hospital B is 30% cheaper, Hospital A will have to adjust. That does raise the issue of corner cutting, but we'll see about that when it happens.\n\nTransparency almost *always* helps the consumer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4085676",
"title": "Health care prices in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the healthcare markets.:Price transparency issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Recently, some insurance companies have announced their intention to begin disclosing provider pricing as a way to encourage cost reduction. Other services exist to assist physicians and their patients, such as Healthcare Out Of Pocket, Accuro Healthcare Solutions, with its CarePricer software. Similarly, medical tourists take advantage of price transparency on websites such as MEDIGO and Purchasing Health, which offer hospital price comparison and appointment booking services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7304558",
"title": "Consumer-driven healthcare",
"section": "Section::::Price and quality transparency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Healthcare markets are known for a lack of price transparency, which affects the health care prices in the United States. Consumers are unable to make health care decisions based on cost due to a lack of free market, a system in which price transparency is essential. CDHPs cannot effectively decrease health care costs without the ability for consumers to compare prices prior to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23270522",
"title": "Health insurance marketplace",
"section": "Section::::History.:Comparable tiers of plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Proponents of health care reform believe that allowing comparable plans to compete for consumer business in one convenient location will drive prices down. Having a centralized location increases consumer knowledge of the market and allows for greater conformation to perfect competition. Each of these plans will also cap liabilities for consumers with out-of-pocket expenses at $6,350 for individuals and $12,700 for families.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51369596",
"title": "Reference price",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Some insurers use reference pricing to reduce their provider costs. The insurer announces prices that it is willing to pay for specific surgical procedures, pharmaceuticals and other services. If the provider charges a higher price, the patient is responsible for the balance. One study estimated that about 40 percent of health care spending is for services for which patients could shop. Appropriate services include hip and knee replacement, colonoscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the spine, computerized tomography (CT) scan of the head or brain, nuclear stress test of the heart, and echocardiogram because they have relatively uniform protocols and are less likely to experience variation in quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18637552",
"title": "Health administration informatics",
"section": "Section::::Relevance within the health care industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "“The government and private insurers are beginning to pay hospitals more for higher quality care–and the only way to measure quality, and then improve it, is with more information technology. Hospital spending on such gear is expected to climb to $30.5 billion next year, from $25.8 billion in 2004, according to researcher Dorenfest Group” (Mullaney and Weintraub, 2005).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1444743",
"title": "For-profit hospital",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A conceptually related institution is the for-profit HMO, which now comprises the predominant means of delivering medical services in the United States. Advocates of such institutions claim they are able to provide better care at lower cost due to higher efficiency. It is also said that, in the free market, hospitals have an incentive to do better due to competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10916458",
"title": "Healthcare reform in China",
"section": "Section::::Healthcare Provider Reforms.:Changes in hospitals (2010–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "However, several problems posts challenges to accessible and affordable hospital healthcare. To begin with, prices of medicine are set unreasonably high to make up for low service price. Doctors are also dissatisfied about their income. Secondly, great tension in patient-doctor relationships sometimes causes conflicts or even violence against doctors (yinao). Furthermore, patients are not distributed by seriousness among hospitals and lower health facilities, which leads to over-consumption of high-level medical resources in hospitals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
96hsq1
|
What is Einstein Tensor, and how it is implemented in Physics?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Einstein tensor **G** is a tensor that quantifies the curvature of spacetime. It is a function of the metric tensor **g** and partial derivatives of the metric tensor and in fact the only tensor-function of **g** to be divergenceless. It appears on the left-hand side of the Einstein field equations\n\n**G** \\+ Λ**g** = 8**π**T,\n\nwhere **G** = **R** \\- 1/2**g**R. The above equation may be read as curvature + expansion = energy, mass, momentum.\n\nI wouldn't say it had any special meaning and that more fundamental tensors such as **R** and scalars such as R are more useful to understand a spacetime's properties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29965",
"title": "Tensor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Tensors are important in physics because they provide a concise mathematical framework for formulating and solving physics problems in areas such as mechanics (stress, elasticity, fluid mechanics, moment of inertia, ...), electrodynamics (electromagnetic tensor, Maxwell tensor, permittivity, magnetic susceptibility, ...), or general relativity (stress–energy tensor, curvature tensor, ... ) and others. In applications, it is common to study situations in which a different tensor can occur at each point of an object; for example the stress within an object may vary from one location to another. This leads to the concept of a tensor field. In some areas, tensor fields are so ubiquitous that they are simply called \"tensors\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29965",
"title": "Tensor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "In mathematics, a tensor is an algebraic object related to a vector space and its dual space that can be defined in several different ways, often a scalar, tangent vector at a point, a cotangent vector (dual vector) at a point, or a multi-linear map from vector spaces to a resulting vector space. Euclidean vectors and scalars (which are often used in elementary physics and engineering applications where general relativity is irrelevant) are the simplest tensors. While tensors are defined independent of any basis, the literature on physics often refers to them by their components in a basis related to a particular coordinate system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256738",
"title": "Tensor field",
"section": "Section::::Via coordinate transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Following and , the concept of a tensor relies on a concept of a reference frame (or coordinate system), which may be fixed (relative to some background reference frame), but in general may be allowed to vary within some class of transformations of these coordinate systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1057638",
"title": "Einstein tensor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In differential geometry, the Einstein tensor (named after Albert Einstein; also known as the trace-reversed Ricci tensor) is used to express the curvature of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. In general relativity, it occurs in the Einstein field equations for gravitation that describe spacetime curvature in a manner consistent with energy and momentum conservation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30844",
"title": "Tensor product",
"section": "Section::::Intuitive motivation and the concrete tensor product.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1123,
"text": "The intuitive motivation for the tensor product relies on the concept of tensors more generally. In particular, a tensor is an object which can be considered a special type of multilinear map, which takes in a certain number of vectors (its \"order\") and outputs a scalar. Such objects are useful in a number of areas of application, such as Riemannian geometry, famous for its use in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity in modern physics, where the metric tensor is a fundamental concept: in particular, the metric tensor takes in two vectors, conceived of roughly as small arrows emanating from a specific point within a curved space, or manifold, and returns a \"local\" dot product of them relative to that particular point—an operation which encodes roughly the vectors' lengths as well as the angle between them. As the dot product is a scalar, the metric tensor is thus seen to deserve its name. There is one metric tensor at each point of the manifold, and variation in the metric tensor thus encodes how that distance and angle concepts, and so the laws of analytic geometry, vary throughout the manifold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and gravitation.:Einstein's equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Einstein's equations are the centerpiece of general relativity. They provide a precise formulation of the relationship between spacetime geometry and the properties of matter, using the language of mathematics. More concretely, they are formulated using the concepts of Riemannian geometry, in which the geometric properties of a space (or a spacetime) are described by a quantity called a metric. The metric encodes the information needed to compute the fundamental geometric notions of distance and angle in a curved space (or spacetime).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29965",
"title": "Tensor",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "In the 20th century, the subject came to be known as \"tensor analysis\", and achieved broader acceptance with the introduction of Einstein's theory of general relativity, around 1915. General relativity is formulated completely in the language of tensors. Einstein had learned about them, with great difficulty, from the geometer Marcel Grossmann. Levi-Civita then initiated a correspondence with Einstein to correct mistakes Einstein had made in his use of tensor analysis. The correspondence lasted 1915–17, and was characterized by mutual respect:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
314i9e
|
why does everybody know the phrase "the mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell?"
|
[
{
"answer": "It's simply a statement to remember what it does and people find it to be effective in teaching. Kinda like how Roy G Biv and Please excuse my dear aunt sally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60283999",
"title": "Mitochondrial theory of ageing",
"section": "Section::::Molecular basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Mitochondria are thought to be organelles that developed from endocytosed bacteria which learned to coexist inside our cells. These bacteria maintained their own DNA, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which codes for components of the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and functions to produce energy in the form of ATP molecules. The process is called oxidative phosphorylation, because ATP is produced from ADP in a series of redox reactions. Electrons are transferred through the ETC from NADH and FADH to oxygen, reducing oxygen to water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4576928",
"title": "Parasite Eve",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Mitochondria are the \"power house\" of biological cells. It is thought that they were originally separate organisms, and a symbiotic relationship between them and early cellular life has evolved into their present position as cell organelles with no independent existence (see endosymbiotic theory).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497481",
"title": "Hormesis",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Mitochondria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Mitochondria are sometimes described as \"cellular power plants\" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a source of chemical energy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been regarded as unwanted by-products of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria by the proponents of the free-radical theory of aging promoted by Denham Harman. The free-radical theory suggests that the use of compounds which inactivate ROS, such as antioxidants, would lead to a reduction of oxidative stress and thereby produce an increase in lifespan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "374215",
"title": "Programmed cell death",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary origin of mitochondrial apoptosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Biologists had long suspected that mitochondria originated from bacteria that had been incorporated as endosymbionts (\"living together inside\") of larger eukaryotic cells. It was Lynn Margulis who from 1967 on championed this theory, which has since become widely accepted. The most convincing evidence for this theory is the fact that mitochondria possess their own DNA and are equipped with genes and replication apparatus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60426",
"title": "Symbiogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Endosymbiosis of Protomitochondria.:Mitochondria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Mitochondria are organelles that synthesize ATP for the cell by metabolizing carbon-based macromolecules. The presence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in mitochondria and proteins, derived from mtDNA, suggest that this organelle may have been a prokaryote prior to its integration into the proto-eukaryote. Mitochondria are regarded as organelles rather than endosymbionts because mitochondria and the host cells share some parts of their genome, undergo mitosis simultaneously, and provide each other means to produce energy. Endomembrane system and nuclear membrane were derived from the protomitochondria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34736281",
"title": "Eidouranion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The word \"eidouranion\" derives from the Greek compound \"eid + ouranos\". The combining elements are \"eidos\", which means \"what is seen, shape, form\", and \"ouranos\", which was the name of the god of the heavens. Thus, the combined form means \"shaped like the heavens\" or \"formed like the heavens\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19588",
"title": "Mitochondrion",
"section": "Section::::Origin and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "There are two hypotheses about the origin of mitochondria: endosymbiotic and autogenous. The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells, capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells; they became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote. In the autogenous hypothesis, mitochondria were born by splitting off a portion of DNA from the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell at the time of divergence with the prokaryotes; this DNA portion would have been enclosed by membranes, which could not be crossed by proteins. Since mitochondria have many features in common with bacteria, the endosymbiotic hypothesis is more widely accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dw7y2k
|
Is the sea level "flat" across the oceans? Or are there water "mountains"?
|
[
{
"answer": "your assumption is correct, the water level varies around the globe.\n\nthere are some fun stories about bridge projects that almost failed because the engineers didn't think about that and as a result built from both sides with different heights",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sea level is generally split into \"mass\" and \"steric\" terms. Mass is the amount of water molecules, and geographical variations in mass are influenced by gravitational variations as others have said.\n\n\"Steric\" is about the density that water molecules are packed together, and is further split into \"halosteric\" - more salt content increases density - and \"thermosteric\" - warmer water reduces density - terms. Generally speaking I think the deeper oceans below a few hundred meters are fairly well mixed so there is less influence on the base state height distribution than from mass and gravity. However, the upper few hundred meters have a close relationship with what's going on at the surface so variability there can cause fairly significant high frequency steric sea level variations.\n\nFor example, during a strong El Nino event the Western tropical Pacific cools sharply and sea level there drops by about 25cm over the course of a year while the Eastern tropical Pacific warms and sea level there rises by about 25cm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37754",
"title": "Mountain",
"section": "Section::::Superlatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than less than that of Everest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1821694",
"title": "List of highest mountains on Earth",
"section": "Section::::Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km less than that of Everest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387440",
"title": "Physical oceanography",
"section": "Section::::Physical setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The oceans are far deeper than the continents are tall; examination of the Earth's hypsographic curve shows that the average elevation of Earth's landmasses is only , while the ocean's average depth is . Though this apparent discrepancy is great, for both land and sea, the respective extremes such as mountains and trenches are rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15117322",
"title": "Tales from the Flat Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geography of the Flat Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The Flat Earth appears to include temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical zones, including many deserts. Since \"polar\" regions would be impossible on a flat world, they are not mentioned in the series. There are many seas, but bodies of water large enough to be called \"oceans\" do not appear to be present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "The total surface area of Earth is about . Of this, 70.8%, or , is below sea level and covered by ocean water. Below the ocean's surface are much of the continental shelf, mountains, volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or , not covered by water has terrain that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. Tectonics and erosion, volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape the Earth's surface over geological time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176813",
"title": "Physical geodesy",
"section": "Section::::Disturbing potential and geoid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "As mean sea level is physically realized by tide gauge bench marks on the coasts of different countries and continents, a number of slightly incompatible \"near-geoids\" will result, with differences of several decimetres to over one metre between them, due to the dynamic sea surface topography. These are referred to as \"vertical\" or \"height datums\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2624383",
"title": "Inland sea (geology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "An inland sea (also known as an epeiric sea or an epicontinental sea) is a shallow sea that covers central areas of continents during periods of high sea level that result in marine transgressions. In modern times, continents stand high, eustatic sea levels are low, and there are few inland seas, the largest being Hudson Bay. Modern examples might also include the recently (less than 10,000 years ago) reflooded Persian Gulf, and the South China Sea that presently covers the Sunda Shelf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bgmdrj
|
When pollen reaches the stigma, how does it get to the ovules?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the most interesting details of plant biology is the fact that they have life cycles which involve [alternation of generations](_URL_4_). Unlike humans and most other animals, which are multicellular diploids for our entire lives (with the exception of an extremely brief unicellular bottleneck at fertilization), plants go through [multicellular diploid and haploid phases](_URL_0_). The haploid gametophyte phase produces gametes through mitosis, while the diploid sporophyte produces spores through meiosis. To make an analogy, is sort of like if humans gave birth to testes and ovaries that became self-sufficient entities rather than parts of our bodies, and then these went on to make new humans by themselves. In the earliest plants that colonized land, like mosses, the haploid gametophyte phase dominates the life cycle, with the [sporophyte depending on it](_URL_6_) for nutrients. Later plants like ferns developed separate [gametophytes](_URL_3_) and [sporophytes](_URL_7_ that are both more self-sufficient, and this became a general [trend towards increasing dominance of the diploid sporophyte](_URL_5_) stage in more derived groups of plants. Ultimately, this trend has reached a peak with angiosperms (flowering plants), in which the pollen produced in male flowers is actually a large number of extremely reduced and simplified gametophytes that are incapable of surviving on their own.\n\nThat probably seems like a lot of build-up before getting to your actual question, but it's an interesting topic and I wanted to provide some background. The point of everything I just explained is that pollen is *not* actually a plant's gametes (which would make it equivalent to sperm), but is in fact more accurately thought of as a multicellular (though very small) individual plant which *produces* gametes. So, just like any larger plant, pollen is capable of germinating and growing in a way that a single-celled gamete like sperm cannot, and this is exactly what it does upon reaching the stigma of a compatible plant of the same species. It grows a [pollen tube](_URL_1_) which travels down the stigma to the ovule and connects with it. Then, the pollen releases not one but *two* individual male gametes down this tube, in a process called [double fertilization](_URL_9_). One of the male gametes [fertilizes the female gamete](_URL_2_) to produce a diploid zygote that will grow into an embryo, while the other one merges with two additional haploid cells to make a *triploid* cell that develops into the endosperm. The endosperm is basically the equivalent of a yolk that sustains the embryo while it develops, and for many plants with edible seeds (e.g., cereal crops like corn, wheat, rice, etc.), this is actually the [main part that is consumed](_URL_8_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46828",
"title": "Fertilisation",
"section": "Section::::Fertilisation in plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "In seed plants, after pollination, a pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a micropyle.The sperm are transferred from the pollen through the pollen tube to the ovule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233609",
"title": "Pollination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "In angiosperms, after the pollen grain has landed on the stigma, it develops a pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches an ovary. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the pollen tube, enter an ovum cell through the micropyle and fertilise it, resulting in the production of a seed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46980",
"title": "Pollen",
"section": "Section::::Pollination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube, which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it hasn't already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen tube. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise during pollen tube growth appear to be efficiently repaired in the generative cell that carries the male genomic information to be passed on to the next plant generation. However, the vegetative cell that is responsible for tube elongation appears to lack this DNA repair capability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2637500",
"title": "Stigma (botany)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The stigma receives pollen and it is on the stigma that the pollen grain germinates. Often sticky, the stigma is adapted in various ways to catch and trap pollen with various hairs, flaps, or sculpturings. The pollen may be captured from the air (wind-borne pollen, anemophily), from visiting insects or other animals (biotic pollination), or in rare cases from surrounding water (hydrophily). Stigma can vary from long and slender to globe shaped to feathery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193031",
"title": "Stamen",
"section": "Section::::Pollen production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The pollen is eventually released when the anther forms openings (dehisces). These may consist of longitudinal slits, pores, as in the heath family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry family (Berberidaceae). In some plants, notably members of Orchidaceae and Asclepiadoideae, the pollen remains in masses called pollinia, which are adapted to attach to particular pollinating agents such as birds or insects. More commonly, mature pollen grains separate and are dispensed by wind or water, pollinating insects, birds or other pollination vectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325963",
"title": "Pollen tube",
"section": "Section::::Angiosperms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The male reproductive organ of the flower, the stamen produces pollen. The opening of anthers makes pollen available for subsequent pollination (transfer of pollen grains to the pistil, the female reproductive organ). Each pollen grain contains a vegetative cell, and a generative cell that divides to form two sperm cells. Abiotic vectors such as wind, water, or biotic vectors such as animals carry out the pollen distribution. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35591316",
"title": "Coprosma rotundifolia",
"section": "Section::::Life Cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Pollen is produced by the male flowers. The flowers predominantly cross pollinate via wind dispersal. Pollen then comes into contact with the ova (female part of the flower) to fertilse it. From this stage, if compatible, the fertilized flower will produce a drupe containing two fertile seeds within the flesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18x622
|
How does ice actually form from liquid water? Need a physics explanation!
|
[
{
"answer": "Its not magic, its thermodynamics! Any system that is not in equilibrium will tend to minimize its total energy. Specifically, for crystallization, there are two steps. \n\nStep 1: Density fluctuations in an unstable system lead to a nucleus. If these fluctuations result in a cluster of a critical size, then the nucleus grows. If the fluctuations result in a cluster that is smaller than the critical nucleus then the cluster shrinks. The critical size is dictated by the surface energy of the cluster, which acts to negate cluster formation, and the energetic gain by a the formation of a new phase. When these two effects are equal (the energetic cost by forming an interface=energetic gain by phase separation), the cluster is said to be of critical size. For clusters greater than this size, the energetic gain by phase separation (cluster growth) outweighs the energetic cost of forming an interface. For clusters smaller than the critical size, the energetic cost of forming an interface prohibits growth and the cluster shrinks.\n\nStep 2: Growth. The nucleates grow by addition of water to one of the faces of the crystal. \n\nOverall, the system's energy is minimized by the phase change. In these types of systems (unstable liquid phases) the crystalline structure is lowest energy state and thus favored.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24027000",
"title": "Properties of water",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.:Geochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Water ice can form clathrate compounds, known as clathrate hydrates, with a variety of small molecules that can be embedded in its spacious crystal lattice. The most notable of these is methane clathrate, 4 , naturally found in large quantities on the ocean floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690861",
"title": "Flash freezing",
"section": "Section::::How water freezes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24027000",
"title": "Properties of water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Within the Earth's atmosphere and surface, the liquid phase is the most common and is the form that is generally denoted by the word \"water\". The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard, amalgamated crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow. Aside from common hexagonal crystalline ice, other crystalline and amorphous phases of ice are known. The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor (or steam). Visible steam and clouds are formed from minute droplets of water suspended in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32833685",
"title": "Ice cap climate",
"section": "Section::::Ice sheets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The extreme pressure exerted by the ice allows for the formation of liquid water at low temperatures that would otherwise result in ice, while the ice sheet itself insulates liquid water from the cold above. The causes the formation of sub-glacial lakes, the largest being Lake Vostok in Antarctica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1477806",
"title": "Rime ice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Rime ice forms when supercooled water liquid droplets freeze onto surfaces. Meteorologists distinguish between three basic types of ice forming on vertical and horizontal surfaces by deposition of supercooled water droplets. There are also intermediate formations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1195115",
"title": "Frazil ice",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "When the water surface begins to lose heat rapidly, the water becomes supercooled. Turbulence, caused by strong winds or flow from a river, will mix the supercooled water throughout its entire depth. The supercooled water will already be encouraging the formation of small ice crystals (frazil ice) and the crystals get taken to the bottom of the water body. Ice generally floats, but due to frazil ice's small size relative to current speeds, it has an ineffective buoyancy and can be carried to the bottom very easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690861",
"title": "Flash freezing",
"section": "Section::::How water freezes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "The surface environment does not play a decisive role in the formation of ice and snow. The density fluctuations inside drops result in that the possible freezing regions cover the middle and the surface regions. The freezing from the surface or from within may be random. However, in the strange world of water, tiny amounts of liquid water theoretically still are present, even as temperatures go below minus 48 C (minus 55 F) and almost all the water has turned solid, either into crystalline ice or amorphous water. Below minus 48 C (minus 55 F), ice is crystallizing too fast for any property of the remaining liquid to be measured. The freezing speed directly influences the nucleation process and ice crystal size. A supercooled liquid will stay in a liquid state below the normal freezing point when it has little opportunity for nucleation; that is, if it is pure enough and has a smooth enough container. Once agitated it will rapidly become a solid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8emqi0
|
Everything in space spins it seems, so how could an enormous cloud of spinning dust and gas ever condense to form a star?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're right, some gas clouds don't collapse! But others clearly do, and *exactly* how that happens and why is a topic of much research. First off, though, the main thing preventing collapse is the cloud's *temperature*, not its spin, though that also is very important to the process. Whereas **viscosity** can serve to remove angular momentum by placing most of it in a fairly small portion of the material, the cloud has to either remove it's thermal energy (an aggregated microscopic version of kinetic energy) by radiation, which is quite slow, or bring together enough mass into a small enough space for the gravitational forces inward to become stronger than the thermal pressure outward (e.g. by turbulence). The amount of mass you need to concentrate to start this collapse happening is called the \"[Jeans Mass](_URL_0_)\". This is still something of an oversimplification, since the gas cloud can *also* be supported by magnetic fields lacing the gas and dust, but it's a close enough picture to get on with, and anyway the exact relative importance of turbulence vs magnetic support is not really settled (you can google \"hierarchical\" vs \"competitive accretion\" star formation if you feel like falling in a rabbit hole). ",
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"answer": "Hi ! This question has been a hot topic in star formation for a long time now. What I say is valid for low-mass star formation (lighter than 10 solar masses), but we are not sure to which extent it applies for heavier stars.\n\n/u/Imxbftw has already given some elements, for example the fact that star formation involve a lot of different processes whose energies ar all the same order of magnitude. But I want to tell you the story of the angular momentum in star formation, since this is almost exactly your question.\n\nIndeed, the star-forming clouds (called dense cores) have a spin. I don't know if you are familiar with the concept of angular momentum, but you can think of it as a \"rotation inertia\" that is supposed to be conserved. As a consequence, when a spinning object condeses, its rotation accelerates (like in figure skating). From observation, we can determine the angular momentum of dense cores, and calculations show that their collapse increases the rotation so much that no star would be formed because of the centrifugal force. The surface of the sun would have a rotation velocity of nearly the speed of light ! \nHowever, it is also observed that the angular momentum of young star is 1000 times lower that those of dense cores, so a large fraction is removed during the process. That was the \"angular momentum problem\".\n\nNow we have an excellent candidate : the magnetic field. A process called [magnetic braking](_URL_2_) (I can explain if you wish) is able to transport the angular momentum away and significantly slow the rotation.\n\nYou can stop there to have the big picture, now I will add some details and the continuation of the story.\n\nTo test the hypothesis of the magnetic braking, numerical simulations have been performed. They showed that indeed, rotation was significantly slowed which allowed the formation of a star. BUT ! the rotation was so slow that it was impossible to form a [protoplanetary disk](_URL_1_), structure orbiting around the young star in which planets form. This is known as \"the magnetic braking catastrophe\".\nAnother problem comes from the magnetic field itself : the magnetic field in the young star is several order of magnitudes higher than what is observed. With these models, we would predict that the magnetic field of the sun would be 10 millions times larger. This is known as the magnetic flux problem.\n\nThe two problems have a common origin : the model to describe the behavior of a fluid in a magnetic field is simplified. It assumes a perfect coupling between the magnetic field and the fluid. This is known as \"ideal magnetohydrodynamics\". Since recently (last ten years), people have started to refine the models and take into account decoupling terms. This has not been done before because they are difficult to handle in numerical simulations. The question still have no clear-cut answer, but the results are extremely promising.\n\nSources : _URL_0_ (abstract in French but content in English. You can find in the introduction all these elements and the associated references.).\n\n",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48782005",
"title": "Astrophysical fluid dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "When they are formed, neutron stars rotate in space. As they compress and shrink, this spinning speeds up because of the conservation of angular momentum—the same principle that causes a spinning skater to speed up when she pulls in her arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Spinning neutron stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "As noted above, a mass distribution will emit gravitational radiation only when there is spherically asymmetric motion among the masses. A spinning neutron star will generally emit no gravitational radiation because neutron stars are highly dense objects with a strong gravitational field that keeps them almost perfectly spherical. In some cases, however, there might be slight deformities on the surface called \"mountains\", which are bumps extending no more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) above the surface, that make the spinning spherically asymmetric. This gives the star a quadrupole moment that changes with time, and it will emit gravitational waves until the deformities are smoothed out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17052696",
"title": "History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses",
"section": "Section::::Formation hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In 1755, Immanuel Kant speculated that observed nebulae may in fact be regions of star and planet formation. In 1796, Laplace elaborated by arguing that the nebula collapsed into a star, and, as it did so, the remaining material gradually spun outward into a flat disc, which then formed the planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "48782005",
"title": "Astrophysical fluid dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "These stars gradually slow down over the eons, but those bodies that are still spinning rapidly may emit radiation that from Earth appears to blink on and off as the star spins, like the beam of light from a turning lighthouse. This \"pulsing\" appearance gives some neutron stars the name pulsars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11965603",
"title": "Stellar rotation",
"section": "Section::::Rotation braking.:During formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Stars are believed to form as the result of a collapse of a low-temperature cloud of gas and dust. As the cloud collapses, conservation of angular momentum causes any small net rotation of the cloud to increase, forcing the material into a rotating disk. At the dense center of this disk a protostar forms, which gains heat from the gravitational energy of the collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177174",
"title": "Orion Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Star formation.:Stellar wind and effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Once formed, the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a stellar wind. Massive stars and young stars have much stronger stellar winds than the Sun. The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula, which then shapes the gas clouds. The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds, creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36094064",
"title": "Kepler-1520",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Simulations show that the density of dust falls off rapidly with increasing distance from the planet. Calculations conducted by Rappaport et al. show that the dust tail, in addition to absorbing light directly, may scatter some of the light which reaches it, contributing to a small apparent rise in stellar flux before the planet and its tail pass in front of the star, and a small apparent reduction in the stellar flux as the planet exits the plane of the stellar disk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e8m7xu
|
I recently read in my anatomy textbook that recent studies have found that there is no correlation between cholesterol in the diet and serum cholesterol levels. How did we get this wrong for so many years and what causes high serum cholesterol then?
|
[
{
"answer": "Very much an over simplified answer from a person unqualified to give much more: the liver (which produces cholesterol within your body) & genetics. \n\nAs for how we got this wrong for so long:\n*Snarky answer:* as humans we've been getting things wrong for thousands of years. \n*Serious answer:* my understanding is that dietary intake does play some role in cholesterol levels. However that role is significantly smaller than the role of other variables.",
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"answer": "How did we get this wrong? Time for a history lesson.\n_URL_0_\nYou can look up more details about this. But in short, major sugar companies had funded research in order to move the blame for the rise of heart diseas from the correlated and increased sugar intake to the fat and cholesterol consumption, either by cherry picking data, or by publishing research focusing solely on the effect of fat intake and increased cholesterol levels and their relation with heart disease.\n\nAs for what causes high serum cholesterol levels, first. Plaque buildup. We don't know how plaque builds up in arteries but we have some clues that it is caused by inflamation of the arterial walls. (We don't know exactly what causes such inflamation. But the main risk indicators currently are high LDL levels, high blood pressure and increased waste products in the blood) Such inflamation that the body tries to contain by covering it with fat, cholesterol, fibrin, ane calcium. \nThe point here is cholesterol. Cholesterol isn't the cause but is merely the result. The body's natural response to contain the inflamation for a short enough notice so that the body is able to find the cause, in the case of continous inflamation the body then proceeds to cover plaque buildup with calcium. Which is why coronary calcium scans are the most reliable in detection of heart desease. Rather than cholesterol which can be in high levels due to an increased intake or due to increase in hormones or cell production.",
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{
"answer": "There's some indication as I recall that it's more the lack of vegetables in the diet than the cholesterol intake. Could be fiber, could be gut bacteria related, but if you give a damn about your body then eat vegetables.",
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"answer": "This video rails against sugar pretty hard, but what I find most fascinating is the [biochemistry section](_URL_0_) where he breaks down the differences between consuming 120 cal of glucose, ethanol, and fructose, and exactly how the liver processes in each case.\n\nShort answer, the cholesterol in your blood is made in your liver, and the composition of your diet is a huge factor in determining how much of each type of cholesterol you liver produces.",
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{
"answer": "First off, science is difficult. It's not like you burn some incense and say a prayer and answers are revealed to you completely and correctly. People make hypotheses, test them, and see what happens. Sometimes you make a hypothesis, do a test, and things look good because your hypothesis was almost good enough and your test had a hell of a lot of error in it. As far as science is concerned, that's the current truth until somebody else comes along with a better hypothesis or a better test. It's an iterative process and we only approach real truth over time.\n\nHere's another problem: Testing people's diets is extremely hard. You can't exactly do a double-blind study because there's no way for people to be eating food and not know what they're eating. You also can't have a study with a real control group. Let's say we want to narrow down the cause of high blood cholesterol. You can't ask 100 people of diverse background to only eat cholesterol and not eat any sugar (and another group only eat sugar and no cholesterol). Too many foods have these things mixed together, and too many people are set in their ways over diet.\n\nSo here's the chain: We know that people who die from heart problems tend to have a lot of cholesterol in their blood. We also know that these same people tend to have a lot of cholesterol in their diets (because most people who aren't vegetarians do). Then we know that we can't really isolate any other causes because there's no way to control people's diets. Combine this with, as other people have pointed out, efforts from the food industry to keep their own profits up, and you get stuck with incorrect results being treated as the truth for a long time.\n\n(And it's not that companies are \"evil\" as some will claim. They have a legal responsibility to protect themselves and their shareholders. If food industry companies didn't do what they had to do to keep profits up, they would be legally liable. It's an imperfect system with a lot of people doing their best with the hand they are dealt.)",
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"answer": "A heart surgeon I discussed this with stated, every arterial plaque deposit he removed was found to contain a micobacteria similar the the ones found in tooth decay.\n\nThere is a strong correlation between those with many cavities, and those with heart disease. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20838746",
"title": "Chronic endothelial injury hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Implications for diet: Dietary lipids and LDL levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "An early incarnation of the lipid hypothesis which focused on hypercholesterolemia lead to the suggestion that mortality from CHD might be reduced by controlling dietary input of cholesterol. Studies have demonstrated that increasing dietary cholesterol leads to an increase in both total cholesterol (TC) and LDL Cholesterol (LDL-C), however it also leads to increases in the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), offsetting the effect of the increase in LDL-C. Epidemological studies which attempted to correlate dietary cholesterol with risk of mortality in CHD have produced mixed results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1907985",
"title": "Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Given that the function of cholesterol encompasses a very wide range, it is unlikely that the symptoms of SLOS are due to a single molecular mechanism. Some of the molecular effects are yet unknown, but could be extrapolated based on the role of cholesterol. In general, the negative effects are due to decreased levels of cholesterol and increased levels of cholesterol precursors-most notably, 7DHC. Although 7DHC is structurally similar to cholesterol, and could potentially act as a substitute, the effects of this are still being studied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193276",
"title": "Margarine",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Cholesterol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "High levels of cholesterol, particularly low-density lipoprotein, are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis and atheroma formation. The narrowing of blood vessels can cause reduced blood flow to the brain, heart, kidneys and other parts of the body. Cholesterol, though needed metabolically, is not essential in the diet, because the body's production increases as needed when dietary intake falls. The human body makes cholesterol in the liver, adapting the production according to its food intake, producing about 1 g of cholesterol each day or 80% of the needed total body cholesterol. The remaining 20% comes directly from food intake (in those who eat animal products).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264746",
"title": "Saturated fat",
"section": "Section::::Association with diseases.:Cardiovascular disease.:Dyslipidemia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol. In a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637177",
"title": "Cerivastatin",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The location of cholesterol biosynthesis and inhibition of HMG-CoA is of significance, since most circulating cholesterol originates from internal production, rather than the diet. If the liver cannot produce more cholesterol, the cholesterol levels in the blood will decrease. Also, HMG-CoA-reductase inhibitors cause secondary up-regulation of hepatic LDL receptors, with increased LDL-cholesterol clearance and reduction of both total and LDL cholesterol in the serum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178197",
"title": "Statin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "The role of cholesterol in the development of cardiovascular disease was elucidated in the second half of the 20th century. This lipid hypothesis prompted attempts to reduce cardiovascular disease burden by lowering cholesterol. Treatment consisted mainly of dietary measures, such as a low-fat diet, and poorly tolerated medicines, such as clofibrate, cholestyramine, and nicotinic acid. Cholesterol researcher Daniel Steinberg writes that while the Coronary Primary Prevention Trial of 1984 demonstrated cholesterol lowering could significantly reduce the risk of heart attacks and angina, physicians, including cardiologists, remained largely unconvinced. Scientists in academic settings and the pharmaceutical industry began trying to develop a drug to reduce cholesterol more effectively. There were several potential targets, with 30 steps in the synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-coenzyme A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6437",
"title": "Cholesterol",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Hypercholesterolemia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "According to the lipid hypothesis, elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood lead to atherosclerosis which may increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Since higher blood LDL – especially higher LDL concentrations and smaller LDL particle size – contributes to this process more than the cholesterol content of the HDL particles, LDL particles are often termed \"bad cholesterol\". High concentrations of functional HDL, which can remove cholesterol from cells and atheromas, offer protection and are commonly referred to as \"good cholesterol\". These balances are mostly genetically determined, but can be changed by body composition, medications, diet, and other factors. A 2007 study demonstrated that blood total cholesterol levels have an exponential effect on cardiovascular and total mortality, with the association more pronounced in younger subjects. Because cardiovascular disease is relatively rare in the younger population, the impact of high cholesterol on health is larger in older people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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kn3qn
|
This was posted in R/Conspiracy earlier. My BS meter went through the roof. Can AskScience provide some arguments for/against this please?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think something like this warrants a serious response (hair emitting \"electromagnetic energy\"?) So, I'll just correct the fact that, in the Biblical account, Delilah never cut Samson's hair - she called for a servant to do it for her.",
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"answer": " > Hair is an extension of the nervous system, it can be correctly seen as exteriorized nerves, a type of highly evolved \\’feelers\\’ or \\’antennae\\’ that transmit vast amounts of important information to the brainstem, the limbic system, and the neocortex.\n\nThis has enough grounding in truth to be good at confusing people. Hairs allow small motions to be detected easily. Things like insects crawling on your arm. But they don't directly transmit any information. Instead, the nerve cells at the base of the hair respond when the hair is physically moved.\n\n > hair also emits energy, the electromagnetic energy emitted by the brain into the outer environment\n\nThis is just completely ridiculous.\n\n > This has been seen in Kirlian photography\n\nKirlian photography involves applying a voltage to an object. So applying voltage to hair causes the resulting electrical discharge to expose a photographic plate? Nothing surprising or supernatural about that at all. \n\n > When hair is cut, receiving and sending transmissions to and from the environment are greatly hampered.\n\nWhat transmissions? What precise EM frequency do they use? What is the mechanism for their transmission and reception? These things can (and should, if they're serious about their claims) be measured. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "\"it can be correctly seen as exteriorized nerves\"\n\nNo. Nerves are nerves. Hair is hair. These words have actual meanings. Nerve cells can receive information from the external movement of hair just as muscle contraction can move hair. You wouldn't say \"hair is exteriorized muscles\". \n\nYou can use that article to calibrate your BS meter for \"maximum possible BS content\".",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Even better advice is to stop going into that subreddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Grow your hair out. Try it. Let us know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think something like this warrants a serious response (hair emitting \"electromagnetic energy\"?) So, I'll just correct the fact that, in the Biblical account, Delilah never cut Samson's hair - she called for a servant to do it for her.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Hair is an extension of the nervous system, it can be correctly seen as exteriorized nerves, a type of highly evolved \\’feelers\\’ or \\’antennae\\’ that transmit vast amounts of important information to the brainstem, the limbic system, and the neocortex.\n\nThis has enough grounding in truth to be good at confusing people. Hairs allow small motions to be detected easily. Things like insects crawling on your arm. But they don't directly transmit any information. Instead, the nerve cells at the base of the hair respond when the hair is physically moved.\n\n > hair also emits energy, the electromagnetic energy emitted by the brain into the outer environment\n\nThis is just completely ridiculous.\n\n > This has been seen in Kirlian photography\n\nKirlian photography involves applying a voltage to an object. So applying voltage to hair causes the resulting electrical discharge to expose a photographic plate? Nothing surprising or supernatural about that at all. \n\n > When hair is cut, receiving and sending transmissions to and from the environment are greatly hampered.\n\nWhat transmissions? What precise EM frequency do they use? What is the mechanism for their transmission and reception? These things can (and should, if they're serious about their claims) be measured. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"it can be correctly seen as exteriorized nerves\"\n\nNo. Nerves are nerves. Hair is hair. These words have actual meanings. Nerve cells can receive information from the external movement of hair just as muscle contraction can move hair. You wouldn't say \"hair is exteriorized muscles\". \n\nYou can use that article to calibrate your BS meter for \"maximum possible BS content\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even better advice is to stop going into that subreddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Grow your hair out. Try it. Let us know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47010598",
"title": "Charleston church shooting",
"section": "Section::::Criminal investigation.:Legal proceedings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Roof's trial began on December 7, 2016; witnesses gave testimony describing the shooting in graphic detail. On December 15, 2016, Roof was found guilty of all 33 federal charges against him. For the sentencing phase of the federal trial, Roof dismissed his attorneys and insisted on representing himself. In a statement to the court at his sentencing hearing on January 4, 2017, Roof offered no apology or explanation, saying \"There's nothing wrong with me psychologically.\" At the hearing, prosecutors introduced into evidence a two-page excerpt from journal written by Roof from jail six weeks after his arrest, in which Roof composed a white supremacist manifesto, writing: \"I would like to make it crystal clear, I do not regret what I did. I am not sorry. I have not shed a tear for the innocent people I killed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2240917",
"title": "November 1989 tornado outbreak",
"section": "Section::::Huntsville, Alabama tornado.:Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "According to information shared with the National Weather Service by Duane Stiegler with Dr. Ted Fujita's group from the University of Chicago, the initial point of damage occurred one mile south-southwest of Madkin Mountain on the Redstone Arsenal near the intersection of Fowler Road and Mills Road. Trees were downed and some roof gutters damaged. From eyewitness accounts of the wall cloud, circulating air may have reached the ground without a visible funnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15816118",
"title": "Dan Kapanke",
"section": "Section::::Wisconsin Senate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "During the 2011 Wisconsin protests, Kapanke reported that he had received death threats from his vote, and claimed that the windshield of his car had been vandalized, causing him to cancel public appearances. However, a police report had previously concluded that the damage was instead caused by a stray rock. Nevertheless, Kapanke persisted in publicly blaming it on protesters; according to PolitiFact, \"Kapanke allowed the myth of the smashed windshield to run wild and uncorrected for almost three weeks after he knew it was not true.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11445488",
"title": "Paul McCarthy",
"section": "Section::::Work.:\"Complex shit\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "During the summer of 2008, Paul McCarthy's inflatable \"Complex Shit\", installed on the grounds of the Paul Klee Centre in Bern, Switzerland, took off in a wind, bringing down a power line, breaking a greenhouse window and a window at a children's home. This incident was widely reported internationally via news outlets in several languages with headlines like \"Huge turd catastrophe for museum\" and \"Up in the sky: is it a turd or a plane?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4323079",
"title": "Ógra Shinn Féin",
"section": "Section::::Notable actions and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Attack on SDLP councillor's office - In January 2002, SDLP councillor P. J. Bradley claimed members of ÓSF were responsible for an attack on his offices in Warrenpoint during which eleven windows were smashed and paint was poured over the building and in through the windows. Caitríona Ruane disputed Bradley's comments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23787888",
"title": "Horizon Group v. Bonnen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Michael later stated that Bonnen's Twitter post emerged from an earlier lawsuit by Bonnen that Horizon violated the Chicago Residential Landlord Tenant Ordinance, although Michael denied his suit was a strategic lawsuit against public participation. The exact cause of Bonnen's lawsuit was not discussed by Michael, but he acknowledged a leaky roof at the apartment complex caused by a contractor in March 2009. Court documents revealed that Bonnen originally sued Horizon for failing to pay interest on security deposits and failing to provide tenants with required porch safety disclosures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12221679",
"title": "Space Coast Junior/Senior High School",
"section": "Section::::Notable Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In the end of the semester of 2014, a group of students put a picnic table on the roof. It is widely assumed the culprits Justin Hoelke, Jon Gerris, Jade Gartz and Ryan MacAdam put a stapler on the roof a few years prior. The only proof of this event is an obscure Instagram post by a r_moneys \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vhihj
|
why am i able to listen to any song i want on spotify for free as many times as i want but can only skip 5 songs on pandora
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they're different companies that operate under different business models.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22266111",
"title": "Blinkbox Music",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The main feature of the site was for streaming full tracks without requiring registration. However as of 2011, users have to register for free to listen to a song, otherwise just a 30-second preview is provided. Registration is also required for advanced features such as making playlists, and purchasing music. Due to technical problems, however, a small minority of visitors are getting full tracks for nothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20148343",
"title": "Spotify",
"section": "Section::::Platforms.:Listening limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "In April 2018, Spotify began to allow Free users to listen on-demand to whatever songs they want for an unlimited number of times, as long as the song is on one of the user's 15 personalized discovery playlists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38720150",
"title": "Google Play Music",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Standard accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Google Play Music offers all users storage of up to 50,000 files for free. Users can listen to songs through the service's web player and mobile apps. The service scans the user's collection and matches the files to tracks in Google's catalog, which can then be streamed or downloaded in up to 320 kbit/s quality. Any files that are not matched are uploaded to Google's servers for streaming or re-download. Songs purchased through the Google Play Store do not count against the 50,000-song upload limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33169638",
"title": "8tracks.com",
"section": "Section::::Online radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "8tracks and other Internet radio sites, such as Pandora, allow users to explore a variety of songs and artists based on their musical preferences. Listeners are able to discover new artists and songs that they would have never encountered otherwise. Based on the users music interest, these Internet radio stations randomly select songs that are similar to the users' initial choice. Like Pandora, 8tracks's music license limits the number of songs that users can skip every hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38720150",
"title": "Google Play Music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Users with standard accounts can upload and listen to up to 50,000 songs from their personal libraries at no cost. A paid Google Play Music subscription entitles users to on-demand streaming of any song in the Google Play Music catalog, as well as access to YouTube Music Premium. Users in Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom also have access to YouTube Premium. Users can purchase additional tracks for their library through the music store section of Google Play. In addition to offering music streaming for Internet-connected devices, the Google Play Music mobile apps allow music to be stored and listened to offline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216683",
"title": "Open music model",
"section": "Section::::Industry adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- in 2012, Google Play Music launched unlimited music streaming for a subscription price of $9.99 per month. Users can upload their own MP3s to the service and download them, but cannot download songs they have not uploaded themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426504",
"title": "Playlist",
"section": "Section::::Computers and the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Pandora is another music streaming service that is available on the Internet. Pandora is one of the few music services that is free (no subscription required) to users. The user can select genres that are played back at random on Pandora's playlists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
crue9h
|
how can nuclear launches be detected and identified?
|
[
{
"answer": "Between satellites and radar, it is pretty easy to track anything that flies like a rocket. Rocket exhaust is really hot, and infrared cameras in space can spot them launching. Once it is airborne, an ICBM flies up to the edge of space and then flies unpowered over to its target. During this phase, it is a large metal object sitting in the middle of a big empty area, and radar has no trouble spotting it. From here, we can extrapolate its target based on its current path, since its engine has turned off. It is difficult to figure out if the payload is nuclear or not, but usually if an ICBM is launched at anything other than a military base, it is probably going to be nuclear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here is a rocket launch, seen from the International Space Station](_URL_0_). You can see it with the naked eye (or a regular camera, in this case) over something like 1000 kilometers. Sure, it was the night side of Earth, but you can imagine how easy it is for a network of specialized satellites to pick up such a launch. Radar works very well, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a few arrays of satellites in orbit watching for bright or hot spots on the ground.\n\nA rocket launch is this intensely bright and hot spot for about a minute, far far brighter than anything around which makes it easy to spot. All rocket launches and missile tests are publicized in advance because they'll trip this warning system\n\nThese same satellites can also detect a nuclear detonation on the surface. They work in conjunction with the seismographs around the world which are used to detect earthquakes but were initially installed to detect underground nuclear tests.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53815147",
"title": "Nuclear detonation detection system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "There are many different ways to detect a nuclear detonation, these include seismic, hydroacoustic, and infrasound detection, air sampling, and satellites. Each have been used separately but at present the best results occur when data is used in tandem, since the energy caused by an explosion will transfer over to different mediums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53815147",
"title": "Nuclear detonation detection system",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "Another way of detecting a nuclear detonation is through air sampling; in nuclear explosions there are radioactive isotopes that get released into the air which can be collected by plane. Radionuclides include Americium-241, Iodine-131, caesium-137, krypton-85, strontium-90, plutonium - 239, tritium, and xenon. By sending planes over an area equipped with sensors they could reveal if there was a nuclear detonation but most air samples are taken at one of many radionuclide stations set throughout the world. Even underground detonations will eventually release radioactive gases most notably xenon to be detected. Although there are some flaws to this method; depending on where the explosion was air currents could move the gases or radionuclides in another direction. The process involves taking in air samples with a filter paper and the radioactive material is counted by a machine and analyzed by a computer. Which means if there is outside “noise” (other forms of radiation like some released from factories or nuclear plants) it can throw off the results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18342427",
"title": "Iron Dome",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The system's radar is referred to as EL/M-2084. It detects the rocket's launch and tracks its trajectory. The BMC calculates the impact point according to the reported data, and uses this information to determine whether the target constitutes a threat to a designated area. Only when that threat is determined, is an interceptor missile fired to destroy the incoming rocket before it reaches the predicted impact area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630088",
"title": "Vela (satellite)",
"section": "Section::::Instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "The Advanced Vela satellites were additionally equipped with two non-imaging silicon photodiode sensors called \"bhangmeters\" which monitored light levels over sub-millisecond intervals. They could determine the location of a nuclear explosion to within about 3,000 miles. Atmospheric nuclear explosions produce a unique signature, often called a \"double-humped curve\": a short and intense flash lasting around 1 millisecond, followed by a second much more prolonged and less intense emission of light taking a fraction of a second to several seconds to build up. The effect occurs because the surface of the early fireball is quickly overtaken by the expanding atmospheric shock wave composed of ionised gas. Although it emits a considerable amount of light itself it is opaque and prevents the far brighter fireball from shining through. As the shock wave expands, it cools down becoming more transparent allowing the much hotter and brighter fireball to become visible again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1350293",
"title": "Vela Incident",
"section": "Section::::Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "Other systems data, such as Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) and Missile Impact Location System (MILS), that were established by the United States and NATO to detect Soviet submarines and the locations where used missile test warheads splashed down, respectively, was searched in an effort to gain more knowledge on the possibility of a nuclear detonation in the region. This data was found not to have enough substantial evidence of a detonation of a nuclear weapon. United States Air Force surveillance aircraft flew 25 sorties over that area of the Indian Ocean from 22 September to 29 October 1979 to carry out atmospheric sampling. Studies of wind patterns confirmed that fall-out from an explosion in the southern Indian Ocean could have been carried from there to southwestern Australia. It was reported that low levels of iodine-131 (a short-half-life product of nuclear fission) were detected in sheep in the southeastern Australian States of Victoria and Tasmania soon after the event. Sheep in New Zealand showed no such trace. The Arecibo ionospheric observatory and radio telescope in Puerto Rico detected an anomalous ionospheric wave during the morning of 22 September 1979, which moved from the southeast to the northwest, an event that had not been observed previously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191323",
"title": "Corona (satellite)",
"section": "Section::::Discoverer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "At least two launches of \"Discoverers\" were used to test satellites for the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS), an early missile-launch-detection program that used infrared cameras to detect the heat signature of rockets launching to orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43298598",
"title": "Eglin AFB Site C-6",
"section": "Section::::Background and mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "We can launch nuclear missiles not only over the North Pole, but in the opposite direction too. Global rockets can fly from the oceans or other directions where warning facilities cannot be installed. Given global missiles, the warning system has lost its importance. Global missiles cannot be spotted in time to prepare any measures against them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ap1c1
|
why do my pubes itch after i shave them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the ends of the hairs are sharper than they were before you shaved, the hair curls around and irritates your skin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "412822",
"title": "Folliculitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Bacterial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sycosis vulgaris, Sycosis barbae or Barber's itch is a staphylococcus infection of the hair follicles in the bearded area of the face, usually the upper lip. Shaving aggravates the condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326481",
"title": "Irritation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Vaginal irritation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Another cause of irritation in women is post menopausal vaginitis. The decline in the female sex hormones leads to development of dryness and itching in the vagina. This is often accompanied by painful sexual intercourse. Cracks and tears often develop on outer aspects of the labia which becomes red from chronic scratching. Post menopausal vaginitis can be treated with short term use of vaginal estrogen pessary and use of a moisturizer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2235613",
"title": "Anal bleaching",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Anal bleaching is the process of lightening the color of the skin around the anus. It is done for cosmetic purposes, to make the color of the anus more uniform with the surrounding area. Some treatments are applied in an office or salon by a cosmetic technician and others are sold as cream that can be applied at home. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3221454",
"title": "Pubic piercing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "A pubic piercing is a body piercing in the pubic area, on the mons pubis in females, or at the base of the penis in males. Healing times are at around 3–4 months. The rejection rate is around the same as well - that is, higher than most \"conventional\" (nose, ear, tongue) piercings, because it is a surface piercing. Some get this piercing because it can offer direct stimulation to the clitoris during intercourse. The placement is at the bottom of the pubic mound just above the penile shaft. Usually, the jewelry inserted is a custom-made surface bar, used to give the best chance of healing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196455",
"title": "Douche",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "Many health-care professionals state that douching is dangerous, as it interferes with both the vagina's normal self-cleaning and with the natural bacterial culture of the vagina, and it might spread or introduce infections. Douching is implicated in a wide variety of dangers, including: adverse pregnancy outcomes including ectopic pregnancy, low birth weight, preterm labor, preterm birth, and chorioamnionitis; serious gynecologic outcomes, including increased risk of cervical cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, endometritis, and increased risk for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV; it also predisposes women to develop bacterial vaginosis (BV), which is further associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and increased risk of sexually transmitted infections. Due to this, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services strongly discourages douching, citing the risks of irritation, bacterial vaginosis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Frequent douching with water may result in an imbalance of the pH of the vagina, and thus may put women at risk for possible vaginal infections, especially yeast infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445871",
"title": "Bikini waxing",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Pubic hair can be removed in a number of ways, such as waxing, shaving, sugaring, electrolysis, laser hair removal or with chemical depilatory creams. Waxing involves applying melted, usually hot, wax to the pubic hair that an individual would like to remove. The wax, which adheres to the hair as it hardens, is then covered with small strips of cloth. When the wax hardens sufficiently, the cloth is pulled off quickly, removing the hair from its roots as the wax is pulled away. Waxing can be performed on oneself privately using a home kit or by a cosmetologist at a salon or spa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137218",
"title": "List of types of tinea",
"section": "Section::::\"Tinea barbae\" (beard).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "\"Tinea barbæ\" (also known as \"Barber's itch,\" \"Ringworm of the beard,\" and \"Tinea sycosis\") is a fungal infection of the hair. Tinea barbae is due to a dermatophytic infection around the bearded area of men. Generally, the infection occurs as a follicular inflammation, or as a cutaneous granulomatous lesion, i.e. a chronic inflammatory reaction. It is one of the causes of folliculitis. It is most common among agricultural workers, as the transmission is more common from animal-to-human than human-to-human. The most common causes are \"Trichophyton mentagrophytes\" and \"T. verrucosum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aw120r
|
What did East Germany do well and West Germany do poorly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, between 1968 and 1988, East German athletes won a total of 409 Olympic medals at the Summer Games and 110 at the Winter Games. West Germany won 204 Summer Games medals and 39 Winter Games medals. Twice the medal count, when West Germany had four times the population. \n\nThe answer that springs immediately to mind for many is doping, and the East Germans absolutely relied heavily on a [systematic doping regime for its athletes](_URL_0_). This was just part of the regime's focus on sport as a cost-effective way to gain prestige and cement a separate East German identity. (The entangled questions of East German acceptance of nudism and how all of this descends from Nazi ideas of the physical ideal, I'll leave to a specialist.) Physical fitness was a large part of the curriculum in East Germany, which started with compulsory (and heavily ideological) preschool. Students were regularly assessed for athletic potential, and promising children were pulled out of school at an early age for rigorous training. (Another question I'll leave for a specialist is the parallel between this and the other various Communist sports programs, as well as how this model has evolved in modern-day Russia and China.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "97477",
"title": "Eastern Bloc",
"section": "Section::::Economies.:Economic growth.:Growth rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "While official statistics painted a relatively rosy picture, the East German economy had eroded because of increased central planning, economic autarky, the use of coal over oil, investment concentration in a few selected technology-intensive areas and labor market regulation. As a result, a large productivity gap of nearly 50% per worker existed between East and West Germany. However, that gap does not measure the quality of design of goods or service such that the actual per capita rate may be as low as 14 to 20 per cent. Average gross monthly wages in East Germany were around 30% of those in West Germany, though after accounting for taxation the figures approached 60%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56469827",
"title": "Erich Apel",
"section": "Section::::Life.:German Democratic Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "The economic challenges facing East Germany were already formidable by 1960. The mandate Walter Ulbricht gave to the new Economic Commission was summed up in the mantra which the leader liked to repeat. East Germany should \"overtake without catching up\" (\"\"uberholden ohne einzuholen\"\"). East Germans must be able to eat more butter and meat than West Germans. One day they must be able to travel in faster cars and live in better apartments. This must be accomplished without having to copy \"capitalist production methods\". Erich Apel must make it happen, not \"someday ... never\", but by creating and following a plan. If it was a dream, it was a dream in which many comrades evidently believed. In July 1961 Apel was promoted to candidate membership of the politburo and secretaryship of the Central Committee. There were other appointments which combined to stress his importance in the wider government project. In 1960 he received a doctorate in return for a dissertation on the so-called East German Chemistry Programme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1368450",
"title": "Wirtschaftswunder",
"section": "Section::::West Germany.:Marshall Plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "From the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the world's strongest economies. The East German economy also showed strong growth, but not as much as in West Germany, due to the bureaucratic system, emigration of working-age East Germans to West Germany and continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources. Unemployment hit a record low of 0.7–0.8% in 1961–1966 and 1970–1971.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9483",
"title": "East Berlin",
"section": "Section::::East Berlin today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "After reunification, the East German economy suffered significantly. Many East German factories were shut down due to inability to comply with West German pollution and safety standards, as well as inability to compete with West German factories. Because of this, a massive amount of West German economic aid was poured into East Germany to revitalize it. This stimulus was part-funded through a 7.5% tax on income, which led to a great deal of resentment toward the East Germans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46712232",
"title": "Ingeborg Rapoport",
"section": "Section::::Views on East Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Also, Rapoport said that, despite its faults, East German society was superior with respect to its health system, social network, and education system to what she experienced in the Weimar Republic (Germany), United States, and currently in Germany. In particular, she praised the healthcare system of East Germany for guaranteeing everybody the same treatment, irrespective of social background or wealth. Rapoport claimed that even modern society can learn from East Germany and said that \"I'm nostalgic for certain aspects of the GDR. Even with the mistakes it (East Germany) was an important experiment\" and that East Germany was \"the best society I have seen.\" She contends that \"in the future, I think they will think about us (East Germany) quite differently from how they do now.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4337123",
"title": "Economic history of Germany",
"section": "Section::::German reunification and its aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Germany invested over 2 trillion marks in the rehabilitation of the former East Germany helping it to transition to a market economy, and cleaning up the environmental degradation. By 2011 the results were mixed, with slow economic development in the East, in sharp contrast to the rapid economic growth in both west and southern Germany. Unemployment was much higher in the East, often over 15%. Economists Snower and Merkl (2006) suggests that the malaise was prolonged by all the social and economic help from the German government, pointing especially to bargaining by proxy, high unemployment benefits and welfare entitlements, and generous job security provisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491236",
"title": "Economy of East Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "East Germany had higher standards of living than other Eastern Bloc countries or the Soviet Union, and enjoyed favorable duty and tariff terms with the West German market. The East German economy was one of the largest and one of the most stable economies in the \"Second World\" until the revolutions of 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jy3wk
|
Are swimming pools breeding chlorine-resistant organisms?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you think of microbial resistance in human terms, it makes more sense. If you send out a plague that kills a lot of people, some will survive and will likely be more resistant. The plague is a very specific, complicated way of killing an individual. Now if instead, you threw every human in lava, nobody would survive to develop resistance. Lava is simple and direct, and you can't have a \"lava doesn't kill me\" gene.\n\nThink of antibiotics (specific, complicated, potentially survivable) as the plague, and the chlorine as lava (non-specific, simple, very difficult to survive).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thing about chlorine is that it kills all the organisms, not just \"bad\" ones. Think of it like fire. Taking a blowtorch to a petri dish over and over will not breed fire resistant bacteria.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the one hand, no, we are not creating evolutionary pressure for pathogenic chlorine-resistant microbes. On the other hand, cryptosporidium oocysts are already quite resistant to chlorine. \n\nTL;DR - Don't poop in the pool. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have said that resistant microbes aren't an issue because chlorine can kill everything, but that's not entirely true. [Biofilm](_URL_0_) can form, which gives the microbes a protective layer that can allow them to survive. I don't know the degree to which microbes may be becoming more adept at forming a biofilm layer, or whether that's as much of a concern as actual resistance to chlorine, but it's still something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The resistant organisms already exist nd have a cyst form. They cause diahrea, so easy for them to become prolific.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm no microbiologist, but I do have a _URL_0_. and a quick googlescholar search revealed a number of articles examining chlorine resistant organisms. While I can't comment on whether pools have contributed to this yet, I can at least falsify the top comments that say that an organism in chlorine is like a human in lava. \n\nFor example:\n > Results of our experiments showed that the attachment of bacteria to surfaces provided the greatest increase\nin disinfection resistance. Attachment of unencapsulated Klebsiella pneumoniae grown in medium with high\nlevels of nutrients to glass microscope slides afforded the microorganisms as much as a 150-fold increase in\ndisinfection resistance. Other mechanisms which increased disinfection resistance included the age of the\nbiofilm, bacterial encapsulation, and previous growth conditions (e.g., growth medium and growth temperature). These factors increased resistance to chlorine from 2- to 10-fold. The choice of disinfectant residual was\nshown to influence the type of resistance mechanism observed. Disinfection by free chlorine was affected by\nsurfaces, age of the biofilm, encapsulation, and nutrient effects. Disinfection by monochloramine, however, was\nonly affected by surfaces. Importantly, results showed that these resistance mechanisms were multiplicative\n(i.e., the resistance provided by one mechanism could be multiplied by the resistance provided by a second\nmechanism).\n\n- LECHEVALLIER et al 1988\n\nor \n\n > nactivation experiments of seven strains of chlorine-resistant bacteria, isolated from a drinking water distribution system, were conducted with four kinds of disinfectants. All the bacteria showed high resistance to chlorine, especially for Mycobacterium mucogenicum. The CT value of 99.9% inactivation for M. mucogenicum, Sphingomonas sanguinis and Methylobacterium were 120 mg x (L x min)(-1), 7 mg x (L x min)(-1) and 4 mg x (L x min)(-1), respectively. The results of inactivation experiments showed that chlorine dioxide and potassium monopersulfate could inactive 5 lg of M. mucogenicum within 30 min, which showed significantly higher efficiency than free chlorine and monochloramine. Free chlorine was less effective because the disinfectant decayed very quickly. Chloramination needed higher concentration to meet the disinfection requirements. The verified dosage of disinfectants, which could effectively inactivate 99.9% of the highly chlorine-resistant M. mucogenicum within 1 h, were 3.0 mg/L monochloramine, 1.0 mg/L chlorine dioxide (as Cl2), and 1.0 mg/L potassium monopersulfate (as Cl2). It was suggested that the water treatment plants increase the concentration of monochloramine or apply chlorine dioxide intermittently to control the disinfectant-resistant bacteria.\n\n- Chen et al., 2012\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a pool guy I've noticed algae is already fairly resistant to chlorine, most varieties I encounter have a slimy outer layer that helps it withstand even a heavy dose of chlorine. This is easily countered by brushing of course, or just keeping the water shocked for an excessively long time. But without a brush most algae's will survive a shock or two. I don't know if this is evolved or not but it does kinda seem that way to me. Black algae is especially resistant to chlorine death, as its outer shell is thick and sometimes difficult to brush off by normal means.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What if the water has a very low concentration of chlorine? Would bacteria be able to evolve to survive it's pretense in the environment",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would have to be both an extremophile and pathogenic. Not impossible but not probable due to the very different conditions the bacteria would have to thrive in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chlorine (and ozone, hydrogen peroxide, chloramine -- which is ammonia and chlorine in some molecule) are common strong oxidizers used for water treatment/disinfection.\n\nBacteria, protozoa and viruses all have an outer layer that they rely on to isolate themselves from the surrounding environment. Bacteria have something akin to a phospho-lipid bylayer (cell wall), virus have a strong protein coat to contain their viral DNA (or RNA? not biology major), protozoa have something as well.\n\nA strong oxidizer like chlorine likes to chemically react by tearing electrons away from other molecules forming negative chloride ions in solution. With lots of chlorine, peroxide or chloramine molecules around anything with electrons to donate is fair game for oxidization. The stronger the oxidizer the more it will want to destroy other molecules (in protein coats or cell walls).\n\nSo the protein coat, cell wall or whatever gets chemically oxidized, damaged or completely broken down which then exposes the innards of the bacteria, virus or protozoa to the surrounding environment or chlorine and that pretty much is destruction.\n\nHow would resistance develop? To small amounts of oxidizer perhaps -- maybe bacteria could form a bacterial slime that protects them (works for other things like antibiotics) -- I'm not sure a cell wall could be evolved that can protect a single individual bacteria. Probably the bacterial slime colony secretes a slime that can protect them from the harsh oxidizer -- with enough concentration though even that will get attacked and diffusion over time would get enough oxidizer to the bacteria killing them.\n\nWith oxidizers, sanitisation strength is measured in either contact time or solution strength. Want more sanitized water? Add more chlorine or increase the amount of time chlorine is in contact with bacteria-containing water (prior to consumption).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Black spot Algae\" as we call it in Western Australia is a particular type of chlorine resistant algae that forms a wax layer over it to prevent chlorine penetration. Its very hard to kill and remove. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "667810",
"title": "Cuatro Ciénegas",
"section": "Section::::Cuatro Ciénegas Biosphere Reserve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The pools are an oligotrophic environment with little available phosphate, leading one local bacterial species, \"Bacillus coahuilensis\", to acquire the genes necessary to partially replace its membrane phospholipids with sulfolipids through horizontal gene transfer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "628811",
"title": "Chlorella",
"section": "Section::::Aquaria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "\"Chlorella\" can create green and opaque water problems in aquaria. \"Chlorella\" can grow due to high nitrate and phosphate levels or by direct sunlight. Decreasing phosphate and nitrate by partial water change and moving the aquarium to shade can help alleviate the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10831865",
"title": "Swimming pool sanitation",
"section": "Section::::Systems and disinfection methods.:Chlorine and bromine methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Swimming pools can be disinfected with a variety of chlorine-releasing compounds. The most basic of these compounds is molecular chlorine (Cl); however, its application is primarily in large commercial public swimming pools. Inorganic forms of chlorine-releasing compounds frequently used in residential and public swimming pools include sodium hypochlorite commonly known as liquid bleach or simply bleach, calcium hypochlorite and lithium hypochlorite. Chlorine residuals from Cl and inorganic chlorine-releasing compounds break down rapidly in sunlight. To extend their disinfectant usefulness and persistence in outdoor settings, swimming pools treated with one or more of the inorganic forms of chlorine-releasing compounds can be supplemented with cyanuric acid—a granular stabilizing agent capable of extending the active chlorine residual half-life (t) by four to sixfold. Chlorinated isocyanurates, a family of organic chlorine-releasing compounds, are stabilized to prevent UV degradation due to the presence of cyanurate as part of their chemical backbone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2710834",
"title": "Shock chlorination",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "While \"shocking\" pools to reduce the buildup of chloramines works with inorganic, ammonia-based chloramines, in two studies it was found ineffective with the organic chloramines present in all pool water e.g. with creatinine, an organic component in human sweat. Indeed, superchlorination produces free chlorine that reacts with organic contaminants to form a variety of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) which are hazardous to swimmer health e.g. one of the worst DBPs is the noxious and volatile trichloramine (NCl), well known for irritating the eyes nearby a pool. It has been pointed out that ozone is an excellent alternative, a much more effective oxidizer than chlorine shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22773987",
"title": "Pink algae",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Prevention of pink algae is the easiest way to deal with the problem. To ensure that pink algae does not grow in a pool, the owner must manually brush and clean all pool surfaces weekly, and regularly expose all pools surfaces to sunlight (pink algae thrives in a dark environment, particularly in areas with slow moving water). Regular doses of certain chemicals are also recommended in a preventative plan against pink algae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8449418",
"title": "Siamese algae-eater",
"section": "Section::::Aquarium care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The hardy red algae-eater \"Crossocheilus langei\" is commonly found in the aquarium trade and is one of the most popular and effective tank algae cleaners. They are active and fast swimmers that will school together if kept in a group, but some individuals may display aggression to their own kind or related fish. In general, the red algae-eater can be kept in most community tanks and is reportedly much less aggressive than similar fish such as the Chinese algae-eater or the red-tailed black shark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13212512",
"title": "Egeria densa",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "It grows well in the cooler aquarium and is suitable for the beginner. It is easily propagated by cuttings. According to reports it secretes antibiotic substances which can help prevent blue-green algae. It grows best in a nutrient-rich, high light environment, but has shown an ability to outcompete other species when it is introduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cvmsx
|
morals and values
|
[
{
"answer": " > Why do people feel the need to push their own values and morals onto other people?\n\nWhy do you?\n\nIf you see someone murdering someone else in front of you, surely you are going to stop him and tell him this is *wrong*. So, why are you trying to push your morals onto other people?\n\nYes, most often their morals are not welcomed and you wish they kept it for themselves. But this is the general logic as to WHY people feel the need to push their moral to other people. Because they truly believe that they are right and that they are helping.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two ways to come at this question - from the direction of psychology and the direction of philosophy. Lots of research has been done in psychology about how morals work, where our ethical ideas come from and how we apply those ideas to different situations. On the other hand, philosophy has been trying to work out what 'the good' *actually is*, whether there's any such thing, and if we can know it even if there is, since the time of Plato.\n\nSome interesting psychology research has come out in the last few years which suggests that we can identify a number of 'foundations' of morality. People across different cultures and of different political persuasions place different weights on these different foundations and this, I think, can explain many of our moral disagreements.\n\nThe foundations they identify are:\n\n* **Harm/care** - it is inherently wrong to harm another (for no good reason)\n\n* **Fairness** - it is inherently wrong to preferentially treat someone better or worse (for no good reason)\n\n* **Purity** - this one's a bit more complex (and a little more controversial) but the idea is that many cultures have a notion that there are certain things (like having lots of sex, having sex in a particular way, being gay) which are inherently wrong, regardless of the harm they may or may not cause\n\n* **Loyalty** - it is inherently right to preferentially treat members of your 'in-group', whether that be your family, your tribe, ethnicity, country, etc\n\n* **Authority** - it is inherently morally wrong to disobey or disrespect people in certain positions. An example commonly given is to imagine that you and your father are both part of a play, and your part involves pretending to slap your father across the face, and he has agreed to this. For many people, in many cultures, this would seem very wrong, regardless of the fact no harm is caused, because you are disrespecting an authority figure\n\n* **Liberty** - it is inherently morally wrong to stop someone doing something they want to do (for no good reason). The freedom of the individual to act as they wish is one that should be morally respected\n\nIt's been noted that political conservatives and political liberals disagree about which of these foundations are important. Liberals tend to not have much time for Authority, Loyalty or Purity, whereas these things do apparently matter far more to conservatives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42976239",
"title": "Criminal justice ethics",
"section": "Section::::Values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Values are the ideas and behaviors that shape ethical ideals. Personal values are things that are important to individuals that are shaped by one's specific upbringing, religious beliefs, cultural background, and personal experiences. Societal values are things that are comprehensively held by a broader number of people, like a community, that align closely to the society's culture and beliefs. Personal values are unique to individuals and thus are not an appropriate basis for professional ethics. Ethics can be defined as a system of moral values that distinguish rules for behavior based on an individual's or groups' ideas of what is good and bad. Police ethics are the rules for behavior that guide law enforcement officials based on what society deems as right and wrong. Ethics remain constant while definitions of right and wrong may change over time, yet what may be considered ethically right or wrong can be different than what is legally considered right and wrong. For police officials, ethical standards further include values such as integrity, courage and allegiance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954797",
"title": "Bernard Gert",
"section": "Section::::Normative ethics.:Moral ideals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "\"Moral ideals\", according to Gert, are objectives to lessen the amount of harm or evil in the world. These differ from moral rules, which are requirements that people avoid performing certain kinds of actions which produce harms to others. Morality encourages, but does not require, people to live up to moral ideals. Examples of moral ideals are the objectives of reducing the incidence of domestic violence or of breast cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76176",
"title": "Pride",
"section": "Section::::Psychological views.:In economic psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In the field of economic psychology, pride is conceptualized in a spectrum ranging from \"proper pride\", associated with genuine achievements, and \"false pride\", which can be maladaptive or even pathological. Lea et al. have examined the role of pride in various economic situations and claim that in all cases pride is involved because economic decisions are not taken in isolation from one another, but are linked together by the selfhood of the people who take them. Understood in this way, pride is an emotional state that works to ensure that people take financial decisions that are in their long-term interests, even when in the short term they would appear irrational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33295056",
"title": "Moral development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The interest in morality spans many disciplines (e.g., philosophy, economics, biology, and political science) and specializations within psychology (e.g., social, cognitive, and cultural). In order to investigate how individuals understand morality, it is essential to consider their beliefs, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors that contribute to their moral understanding. Additionally, researchers in the field of moral development consider the role of peers and parents in facilitating moral development, the role of conscience and values, socialization and cultural influences, empathy and altruism, and positive development, in order to understand what factors impact morality of an individual more completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4095924",
"title": "Value (ethics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what \"ought\" to be. \"Equal rights for all\", \"Excellence deserves admiration\", and \"People should be treated with respect and dignity\" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be classified as vices or virtues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33295056",
"title": "Moral development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Moral development focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood. Morality develops across a lifetime and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods' physical and cognitive development. In short, morality concerns an individual's growing sense of what is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young children have different moral judgement and character than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a synonym for \"rightness\" or \"goodness\". It refers to a certain code of conduct that is derived from one's culture, religion or personal philosophy that guides one's actions, behaviors and thoughts.This term is related to psychology .There are other types of development such as social development , physical development and cognitive development \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32361",
"title": "Value theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Ethics is mainly focused on moral goods rather than natural goods, while economics has a concern in what is economically good for the society but not an individual person and is also interested in natural goods. However, both moral and natural goods are equally relevant to goodness and value theory, which is more general in scope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hvzk6
|
During the American War of Independence, what were the main religious differences between the Americans and the British?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a big question, I won't be able to do it justice, but here's a start. In short, yes, there are significant differences in religious life between England and the N. American colonies and these differences come into play during the Revolutionary War. To this day Queen Elizabeth II is Supreme Governor of the Church of England and Defender of the Faith whereas the United States famously affirms the First Amendment.\n\nThe main difference you need to appreciate is between the Church of England and dissenting Christians. If we go way back to Henry VIII's Reformation we can see that initially he didn't change theology from the Catholic beliefs, for instance in the 1530s transubstantiation is affirmed, but he replaced the primacy of the Pope with himself. Reformed theologies are spreading in England throughout the reign of Edward VI, then Mary's Catholic repression martyrs Protestants and confirms Protestant theology within Anglicanism. When Elizabeth becomes Queen she's confronted with the problem of reforming the Anglican church to fully establish its Protestant character, like Protestantism itself this is a matter of great controversy, and some conferences of scholars are called to produce what's known as the [\"Elizabethan settlement.\"](_URL_0_) The settlement makes some Protestant liturgical reforms but claims for Anglicanism a magisterial/state authority similar to Catholicism. The Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer are legally mandated, there's no freedom of conscience for someone who is more radically Protestant than the C of E.\n\nAnd over the course of Elizabeth's reign the ranks of those radical Protestants are swelling! Called Puritans in England, these are people who refuse to attend the Anglican Church and who acknowledge no authority above the Scripture interpreted with aid of Grace. I've written some [big comments on Puritanism](_URL_1_) if you're interested.\n\nBetween 1600-1650 there is growing conflict between these dissenting Protestants and the Anglican Church, many emigrate to the New World in search of greater freedom to govern their religious affairs. It's important to note that these groups want to *govern*, they want not only freedom from persecution but the freedom to persecute! In the 1640s England has a Civil War between Parliament and King, Parliament being dominated completely by dissenters. Oliver Cromwell is himself a (relatively mild) religious independent.\n\nSo from the beginning of settlement the American colonies have significant religious diversity and this is one of the factors encouraging emigration. It varies regionally, but some areas are quite mixed, there's plenty of conflict. In 1689 there's even an anti-Catholic coup in Maryland. \n\nDissenters remain in Britain too, of course, but they are henceforth always a minority. \n\nAbout Congregationalism more specifically. Some radical Protestant theologies are associated, fairly or unfairly, with specific political ideas. Cromwell's revolution had a religious character, they killed a King, and there's a persistent tradition of anti-authoritarianism in some of these groups. Quakers would be the best example. \"Congregational\" refers to a mode of Church government different from the CoE and implictly Calvinist. Indeed the historic Congregational churches were strongly Calvinist. In 1776 a British person would connote Congregationalism with anti-Monarchical ideas/sentiment, since the Revolutionary War was framed by loyalists as being about loyalty to a legitimate King you can imagine why a Congregational church would attract abuse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2164837",
"title": "History of Virginia",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Historians have debated the implications of the religious rivalries for the American Revolution. The struggle for religious toleration was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church. After the American victory in the war, the Anglican establishment sought to reintroduce state support for religion. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Jefferson's \"Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom\", which eventually became law in 1786 as the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. With freedom of religion the new watchword, the Church of England was dis-established in Virginia. It was rebuilt as the Episcopal Church in the United States, with no connection to Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58410576",
"title": "World War I and religion",
"section": "Section::::Unity Among Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish American Soldiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "When the United States entered the First World War, the most prominent religious groups were Catholics, Protestants, and Jews. The conflict served to unite these religions despite their differences and dissolve the idea the Jews and Catholics were inferior to Protestants.The loyalty to the same God and same country helped soldiers put aside their religious differences for the good of the war. Tense conditions still existed between these three religious but efforts were made to provide equal opportunities to each group. A committee called the Committee of Six represented the three faiths in the formation of new policy in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43250618",
"title": "History of Christianity in Britain",
"section": "Section::::England.:1689–1945.:Missionary activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "During the 18th century heyday of the First British Empire, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 American Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful and after the revolution and entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. A major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans and never happened. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19823859",
"title": "Historiography of the British Empire",
"section": "Section::::Benevolence, human rights and slavery.:Religion: The missionaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful according to Mark Noll. After the revolution an entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. As historians such as Carl Bridenbaugh have argued, a major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666270",
"title": "Christian mission",
"section": "Section::::History of Christian missions.:British Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful and after the revolution and entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. A major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans had never happened. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532793",
"title": "Religion in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "From early colonial days, when some English and German settlers moved in search of religious freedom, America has been profoundly influenced by religion. That influence continues in American culture, social life, and politics. Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion within a community of like-minded people: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans (Congregationalists), Pennsylvania by British Quakers, Maryland by English Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. Despite these, and as a result of intervening religious strife and preference in England the Plantation Act 1740 would set official policy for new immigrants coming to British America until the American Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25031",
"title": "Presbyterian Church (USA)",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "In the decades after independence, many Americans including Calvinists (Presbyterians and Congregationalists), Methodists, and Baptists were swept up in Protestant religious revivals that would later become known as the Second Great Awakening. Presbyterians also helped to shape voluntary societies that encouraged educational, missionary, evangelical, and reforming work. As its influence grew, many non-Presbyterians feared that the PCUSA's informal influence over American life might effectively make it an established church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gzobb
|
what are the main differences between machines and robots?
|
[
{
"answer": "Robots are a kind of machine.\n\nGenerally when people speak of robots in a layman's colloquial sense, they mean the popular culture sort of humanoid, advanced AI machine.\n\nThere are lots of industries, though, that use machines that they call robots. It's usually because they have some sort of ability to make decisions/adjustments based on environmental input. So instead of just being a machine that makes the same movement over and over, or a machine controlled exclusively by a human's touch, it's an arm or something that can adjust to the location of whatever it has to pick up/move/assemble or whatever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25781",
"title": "Robot",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Robots can be classified by their specificity of purpose. A robot might be designed to perform one particular task extremely well, or a range of tasks less well. All robots by their nature can be re-programmed to behave differently, but some are limited by their physical form. For example, a factory robot arm can perform jobs such as cutting, welding, gluing, or acting as a fairground ride, while a pick-and-place robot can only populate printed circuit boards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25781",
"title": "Robot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer— capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be guided by an external control device or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed on the lines of human form, but most robots are machines designed to perform a task with no regard to their aesthetics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25781",
"title": "Robot",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "The word \"robot\" can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots. There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and functions: accept electronic programming, process data or physical perceptions electronically, operate autonomously to some degree, move around, operate physical parts of itself or physical processes, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals. Closely related to the concept of a \"robot\" is the field of Synthetic Biology, which studies entities whose nature is more comparable to beings than to machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24684701",
"title": "Outline of robotics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Robotics is a branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and computer science that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behaviour, and or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3889704",
"title": "Emerging technologies",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Robotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "\"Robotics\" is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. A good example of a robot that resembles humans is Sophia, a social humanoid robot developed by Hong Kong-based company Hanson Robotics which was activated on April 19, 2015. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3186372",
"title": "Human–robot interaction",
"section": "Section::::The goal of friendly human–robot interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Robots are artificial agents with capacities of perception and action in the physical world often referred by researchers as workspace. Their use has been generalized in factories but nowadays they tend to be found in the most technologically advanced societies in such critical domains as search and rescue, military battle, mine and bomb detection, scientific exploration, law enforcement, entertainment and hospital care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49260321",
"title": "Smart manufacturing",
"section": "Section::::Advanced robotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Advanced industrial robots, also known as smart machines operate autonomously and can communicate directly with manufacturing systems. In some advanced manufacturing contexts, they can work with humans for co-assembly tasks. By evaluating sensory input and distinguishing between different product configurations, these machines are able to solve problems and make decisions independent of people. These robots are able to complete work beyond what they were initially programmed to do and have artificial intelligence that allows them to learn from experience. These machines have the flexibility to be reconfigured and re-purposed. This gives them the ability to respond rapidly to design changes and innovation, which is a competitive advantage over more traditional manufacturing processes. An area of concern surrounding advanced robotics is the safety and well-being of the human workers who interact with robotic systems. Traditionally, measures have been taken to segregate robots from the human workforce, but advances in robotic cognitive ability have opened up opportunities, such as cobots, for robots to work collaboratively with people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24v1x2
|
What happens to electricity in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Without a gas to super heat it will not look like a lightning bolt. \n\nlightning is the result of a discharge of electrons from a high potential source, like a storm cloud, and a source of electrical ground (like the ground) when that voltage potential exceeds the beakdown voltage of the insulating material (air)\n\nWithout any material between source of voltage and source of ground the only way to have the same transfer is to eject an actual stream of electrons through the vacuum of space. I imagine with a large enough electron gun you could perform a similar transfer of current, but I doubt it would be visible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "in space, you have close to a vacuum. Electricity is the transfer of charge(really the transfer of electrons in a science sense). These electrons need to move through something, usually a conduction band.\n\nIf the electrons cannot jump easily(as they cannot when the atoms are meters away from each other), then you have a very high resistance(tends to infinity). So you have no current(tends to 0). Which means no lightning. If you have an electrical engineering background, you can think of it like an open circuit. A very high voltage across V+ and V-, but no way for the current to flow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "140282",
"title": "Space habitat",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.:Access to solar energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Space has an abundance of light produced from the Sun. In Earth orbit, this amounts to 1400 watts of power per square meter. This energy can be used to produce electricity from solar cells or heat engine based power stations, process ores, provide light for plants to grow and to warm space colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7044083",
"title": "Electrical system of the International Space Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The process of collecting sunlight, converting it to electricity, and managing and distributing this electricity builds up excess heat that can damage spacecraft equipment. This heat must be eliminated for reliable operation of the space station in orbit. The ISS power system uses radiators to dissipate the heat away from the spacecraft. The radiators are shaded from sunlight and aligned toward the cold void of deep space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7044083",
"title": "Electrical system of the International Space Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The electrical system of the International Space Station is a critical resource for the International Space Station (ISS) because it allows the crew to live comfortably, to safely operate the station, and to perform scientific experiments. The ISS electrical system uses solar cells to directly convert sunlight to electricity. Large numbers of cells are assembled in arrays to produce high power levels. This method of harnessing solar power is called photovoltaics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248182",
"title": "Space charge",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Space charges can also occur within dielectrics. For example, when gas near a high voltage electrode begins to undergo dielectric breakdown, electrical charges are injected into the region near the electrode, forming space charge regions in the surrounding gas. Space charges can also occur within solid or liquid dielectrics that are stressed by high electric fields. Trapped space charges within solid dielectrics are often a contributing factor leading to dielectric failure within high voltage power cables and capacitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7122953",
"title": "Plasma contactor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Space contains regions with varying concentrations of charged particles such as the plasma sheet, and a static charge builds up as the spacecraft moves between these regions, or as the electrical potential varies within such a region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200136",
"title": "Static electricity",
"section": "Section::::Static discharge.:In space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Due to the extremely low humidity in extraterrestrial environments, very large static charges can accumulate, causing a major hazard for the complex electronics used in space exploration vehicles. Static electricity is thought to be a particular hazard for astronauts on planned missions to the Moon and Mars. Walking over the extremely dry terrain could cause them to accumulate a significant amount of charge; reaching out to open the airlock on their return could cause a large static discharge, potentially damaging sensitive electronics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29657012",
"title": "World Wireless System",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.:Wireless transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The second result demonstrated how energy can be made to go through space without any connecting wires. The wireless energy transmission effect involves the creation of an electric field between two metal plates, each being connected to one terminal of an induction coil’s secondary winding. A gas discharge tube was used as a means of detecting the presence of the transmitted energy. Some demonstrations involved lighting of two partially evacuated tubes in an alternating electrostatic field while held in the hand of the experimenter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8udtc5
|
Would an object falling from infinity to the surface of the earth reach escape velocity before it makes impact?
|
[
{
"answer": "Under standard assumptions (falling radially, no atmosphere, etc.), an object that falls from infinity reaches *exactly* escape velocity at the surface of Earth just before impact. Indeed, this is an equivalent definition of escape velocity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37913",
"title": "Escape velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "The escape velocity from Earth is about at the surface. More generally, escape velocity is the speed at which the sum of an object's kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy is equal to zero; an object which has achieved escape velocity is neither on the surface, nor in a closed orbit (of any radius). With escape velocity in a direction pointing away from the ground of a massive body, the object will move away from the body, slowing forever and approaching, but never reaching, zero speed. Once escape velocity is achieved, no further impulse need to be applied for it to continue in its escape. In other words, if given escape velocity, the object will move away from the other body, continually slowing, and will asymptotically approach zero speed as the object's distance approaches infinity, never to come back. Speeds higher than escape velocity have a positive speed at infinity. Note that the minimum escape velocity assumes that there is no friction (e.g., atmospheric drag), which would increase the required instantaneous velocity to escape the gravitational influence, and that there will be no future acceleration or deceleration (for example from thrust or gravity from other objects), which would change the required instantaneous velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Specifics.:Earth's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Assuming the standardized value for g and ignoring air resistance, this means that an object falling freely near the Earth's surface increases its velocity by 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s or 22 mph) for each second of its descent. Thus, an object starting from rest will attain a velocity of 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) after one second, approximately 19.62 m/s (64.4 ft/s) after two seconds, and so on, adding 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) to each resulting velocity. Also, again ignoring air resistance, any and all objects, when dropped from the same height, will hit the ground at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20491903",
"title": "Velocity",
"section": "Section::::Equation of motion.:Quantities that are dependent on velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "where \"G\" is the Gravitational constant and \"g\" is the Gravitational acceleration. The escape velocity from Earth's surface is about 11 200 m/s, and is irrespective of the direction of the object. This makes \"escape velocity\" somewhat of a misnomer, as the more correct term would be \"escape speed\": any object attaining a velocity of that magnitude, irrespective of atmosphere, will leave the vicinity of the base body as long as it doesn't intersect with something in its path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568972",
"title": "Geocentric orbit",
"section": "Section::::List of terms and concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Escape velocity: as used here, the minimum velocity an object without propulsion needs to have to move away indefinitely from the Earth. An object at this velocity will enter a parabolic trajectory; above this velocity it will enter a hyperbolic trajectory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "Section::::Collision avoidance strategies.:Kinetic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The impact of a massive object, such as a spacecraft or even another near-Earth object, is another possible solution to a pending NEO impact. An object with a high mass close to the Earth could be sent out into a collision course with the asteroid, knocking it off course.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27509530",
"title": "2010 KQ",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Even in the unlikely event that this object is headed for impact with the Earth, whether it is an asteroid or rocket body, it is so small that it would disintegrate in the atmosphere and not cause harm on the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "389836",
"title": "G-force",
"section": "Section::::Short duration shock, impact, and jerk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "After a free fall from a height formula_1 followed by decceleration over a distance formula_2 during an impact, the shock on an object is formula_3 \"g\". For example, a stiff and compact object dropped from 1 m that impacts over a distance of 1 mm is subjected to a 1000 \"g\" deceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n9lgt
|
How are city tram power-lines powered?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Keep the lines hot\" is a misunderstanding\n\nPower, in the electrical sense, is when current flows from a high voltage conductor to a low voltage conductor. Keeping them separated does not require any power. Air is a pretty good electrical insulator, so very little current flows from the power lines to the rails, and very little power is used. Only when the train is there, and is connecting the lines, does electricity get used (to turn the train motors). When there is no train, the power required to maintain a high voltage line that is insulated with air and glass/ceramic insulators (those ridged white or grey cylinders) is minimal.\n\nIt's the same way that all the pipes in your house are full of water, but no water is actually used until you turn on the sink, flush the toilet, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Keep the lines hot\" is a misunderstanding\n\nPower, in the electrical sense, is when current flows from a high voltage conductor to a low voltage conductor. Keeping them separated does not require any power. Air is a pretty good electrical insulator, so very little current flows from the power lines to the rails, and very little power is used. Only when the train is there, and is connecting the lines, does electricity get used (to turn the train motors). When there is no train, the power required to maintain a high voltage line that is insulated with air and glass/ceramic insulators (those ridged white or grey cylinders) is minimal.\n\nIt's the same way that all the pipes in your house are full of water, but no water is actually used until you turn on the sink, flush the toilet, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186677",
"title": "Ground-level power supply",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Ground-level power supply, also known as surface current collection and Alimentation Par le Sol (APS, which literally means \"feeding via the ground\"), is a modern method of third-rail electrical pick-up for street trams instead of more common overhead lines, thus it is one of the methods that could allow construction of catenary-free light rail system. It was invented for the Bordeaux tramway (\"Tramway de Bordeaux\"), which was constructed from 2000 and opened in 2003. From 2011, the technology has been used as part of other systems around the world, with Reims Tramway, Rio de Janeiro VLT, Angers tramway and Dubai Tram all having adopted the technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5062163",
"title": "Bordeaux tramway",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Electric power / Ground-level power supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "By demand of the Municipality of Bordeaux (CUB), part of the system uses ground-level power supply (APS). There is no overhead wire, and electric power to the tram is supplied by a center rail with only the portion directly under the tram electrically live. This prevents electrocution of pedestrians and animals. See the adjacent photograph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50943",
"title": "Light rail",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to other rail transit modes.:Power sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Overhead lines supply electricity to the vast majority of light rail systems. This avoids the danger of passengers stepping on an electrified third rail. The Docklands Light Railway uses an inverted third rail for its electrical power, which allows the electrified rail to be covered and the power drawn from the underside. Trams in Bordeaux, France, use a special third-rail configuration where the power is only switched on beneath the trams, making it safe on city streets. Several systems in Europe and a few recently opened systems in North America use diesel-powered trains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30733",
"title": "Tram",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Power supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Electric trams use various devices to collect power from overhead lines. The most common device found today is the pantograph, while some older systems use trolley poles or bow collectors. Ground-level power supply has become a recent innovation. Another new technology uses supercapacitors; when an insulator at a track switch cuts off power from the tram for a short distance along the line, the tram can use energy stored in a large capacitor to drive the tram past the gap in the power feed. A rather obsolete system for power supply is conduit current collection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30733",
"title": "Tram",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than main line and rapid transit trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph sliding on an overhead line; older systems may use a trolley pole or a bow collector. In some cases by a contact shoe on a third rail is used. If necessary, they may have dual power systems—electricity in city streets, and diesel in more rural environments. Occasionally, trams also carry freight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28821025",
"title": "Tram Power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Tram Power is a Merseyside-based manufacturer of tram vehicles. It built a single prototype, called the Citytram, which was tested on the Wirral Tramway and Blackpool Tramway from 2005 to 2007. The company is attempting to built a tram line in Preston, Lancashire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186677",
"title": "Ground-level power supply",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "Ground-level power supply is used, primarily for aesthetic reasons, as an alternative to overhead lines. It is different from the conduit current collection system (which was one of the first ways of supplying power to a tram system) as it involves burying a third and fourth rail in an underground conduit (‘vault’) between the running rails. Conduit current collection was used in historic tram systems in Washington, Manhattan, Paris, Berlin, Marseilles, Vienna, Budapest and London. It fell into disuse because overhead wires proved much less expensive and troublesome for street railways and because in Manhattan, Paris, Washington and West Berlin, all trams were replaced by buses for reasons unrelated to the power supply issue. In Prague on the Charles Bridge (Karlův most), a system invented by František Křižík was used, similar to today's APS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6phz7m
|
solid state batteries, why are they the future?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main reason is li-ion is unstable and highly flammable, there have been numerous cases of laptops and phones suffering near explosive combustion due to the li-ion battery.\nThere was even a cargo plan that was brought down by a fire in the hold due to li-ion batteries",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lithium-ion based batteries can hold a lot of energy, but they're also very sensitive. Fast or overcharging, or short circuiting a pack can cause it to puff up and potentially burst. If the pack ruptures, the lithium inside rapidly and violently oxidizes and catches fire. Obviously not a good thing if say an EV gets into a crash and the batteries get punctured.\n\nThe other problem with li-ion batteries is their energy density. Yes they can hold a lot, but not nearly as much as gasoline, even when you do take inefficiencies in internal combustion engines into account. Range is still a major limiting factor for EVs. \n\nLithium batteries are also very expensive. Which is why you only see range comparable to petrol vehicles in high end luxury cars. Lithium mining is also a pretty dirty industry. There are studies out there that show EVs with current technology may actually be slightly worse for the environment that petrol cars. So your Leaf may not actually be so green. \n\nSolid state batteries promise to be safer and pack three times the energy density of li-ion cells. They also last longer and can be changed faster. They use materials like glass and sodium which are widely available, cheap, and more environmentally friendly to produce. If manufacturing this new technology can be scaled, it could result in the holy grail of EVs. An all-weather, fast fueling, long range econobox car that's price comparable to current petrol vehicles in the same class. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21227685",
"title": "Solid-state battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "A solid-state battery is a battery technology that uses solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte, instead of the liquid or polymer gel electrolytes found in lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries. Materials proposed for use as solid electrolytes in solid-state batteries include ceramics (e.g. oxides, sulfides, phosphates), and solid polymers. Solid-state batteries have found use in pacemakers, RFID and wearable devices. They are potentially safer, with higher energy densities, but at a much higher cost..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42601555",
"title": "Research in lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Electrolyte.:Solid-state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24429024",
"title": "Lithium–air battery",
"section": "Section::::Design and operation.:Electrolyte.:Solid state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "A solid-state battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium fast ion conductors is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19236411",
"title": "Thin film lithium-ion battery",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Development of thin solid state batteries allows for roll to roll type production of batteries to decrease production costs. Solid-state batteries can also afford increased energy density due to decrease in overall device weight, while the flexible nature allows for novel battery design and easier incorporation into electronics. Development is still required in cathode materials which will resist capacity reduction due to cycling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21227685",
"title": "Solid-state battery",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Solid-state batteries are traditionally expensive to make and manufacturing processes are noted to be immune to economies of scale. It was estimated in 2012 that, based on then-current technology, a 20 Ah solid-state battery cell would cost US$100,000, and a high-range electric car would require 800 to 1,000 of such cells. Cost has impeded the adoption of solid-state batteries in other areas, such as smartphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21227685",
"title": "Solid-state battery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In the late 1950s, efforts were made to develop a solid-state battery. The first solid-state batteries utilized a silver ion conducting electrolyte, had low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance. A new class of solid-state electrolyte, developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1990s, was later incorporated into certain thin film lithium-ion batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33178115",
"title": "Titanium disulfide",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "In contrast to the all-solid state batteries, most lithium batteries employ liquid electrolytes, which pose safety issues due to their flammability. Many different solid electrolytes have been proposed to replace these hazardous liquid electrolytes. For most solid-state batteries, high interfacial resistance lowers the reversibility of the intercalation process, shortening the life cycle. These undesirable interfacial effects are less problematic for TiS. One all-solid-state lithium battery exhibited a power density of 1000 W/kg over 50 cycles with a maximum power density of 1500 W/kg. Additionally, the average capacity of the battery decreased by less than 10% over 50 cycles. Although titanium disulfide has high electrical conductivity, high energy density, and high power, its discharge voltage is relatively low compared to other lithium batteries where the cathodes have higher reduction potentials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f23eeg
|
why can heavy menstrual bleeding sometimes contribute to anemia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Anemia caused my menstruation is more likely as lack of iron than a lack of blood. Women need roughly twice as much iron as men because of this.\n\nFoods high in iron include legumes, red meat, nuts, seeds and wholegrains. Also vitamin C can help up iron intake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Having anemia means you don't have enough red blood cells to carry oxygen effectively. If you regularly bleed heavily, its a much harder burden on your body to replace the blood, which can lead to not having enough blood",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Iron deficiency anemia is most often associated with the menstrual cycle. As we all know, iron is in your blood and during your period you are expelling more blood than you normally would and you body isnt able to produce iron on its own. You get it from your diet and some people need to consume more than others. \n\nBut combine this answer with the one from garura and you've got it covered",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anemia simply, is a lack of red blood cells or haemoglobin. You could read this as a 'lack of blood'. \n\nKnowing that, the idea that heavy bleeding can result in suffering from a lack of blood makes perfect sense really.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "593388",
"title": "Iron-deficiency anemia",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Blood loss.:Gastrointestinal bleeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "The most common cause of iron deficiency anemia in men and post-menopausal women is gastrointestinal bleeding. There are many sources of gastrointestinal tract bleeding including the stomach, esophagus, small intestine, and the large intestine(colon).Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some groups of medication, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. aspirin), as well as antiplatelets such as clopidogrel and anticoagulants such as warfarin; however, these are required in some patients, especially those with states causing a tendency to form blood clots. Colon cancer is another potential cause gastrointestinal bleeding, thus iron deficiency anemia. Typically colon cancer occurs in older individuals In addition, some bleeding disorders can cause gastrointestinal bleeding. Two examples of bleeding disorders are von Willebrand disease and polycythemia vera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593388",
"title": "Iron-deficiency anemia",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Blood loss.:Menstrual bleeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Menstrual bleeding is a common cause of iron deficiency anemia in women of child bearing age. Women with menorrhagia (heavy menstrual periods) are at risk of iron-deficiency anemia because they are at higher-than-normal risk of losing a larger amount blood during menstruation than is replaced in their diet. Most women lose about 40 mL of blood per cycle. Iron is lost with the blood. Some birth control methods, such as pills and IUDs, may decrease the amount of blood, therefore iron lost during a menstrual cycle. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38203",
"title": "Menstruation",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Bleeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid is relatively small for most women. In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating. Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63522",
"title": "Crohn's disease",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Blood tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "A complete blood count may reveal anemia, which commonly is caused by blood loss leading to iron deficiency or by vitamin B deficiency, usually caused by ileal disease impairing vitamin B absorption. Rarely autoimmune hemolysis may occur. Ferritin levels help assess if iron deficiency is contributing to the anemia. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein help assess the degree of inflammation, which is important as ferritin can also be raised in inflammation. Serum iron, total iron binding capacity and transferrin saturation may be more easily interpreted in inflammation. Anemia of chronic disease results in a normocytic anemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481453",
"title": "Adenomyosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heavy menstrual bleeding (40-60%), which is more common with in women with deeper adenomyosis. Blood loss may be significant enough to cause anemia, with associated symptoms of fatigue, dizziness, and moodiness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668826",
"title": "Heavy menstrual bleeding",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Complications of heavy menstrual bleeding could also be the initial symptoms. Excessive bleeding can lead to anemia which presents as fatigue, shortness of breath, and weakness. Anemia can be diagnosed with a blood test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83537",
"title": "Anemia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Production vs. destruction or loss.:Microcytic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "BULLET::::- Iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient dietary intake or absorption of iron to meet the body's needs. Infants, toddlers, and pregnant women have higher than average needs. Increased iron intake is also needed to offset blood losses due to digestive tract issues, frequent blood donations, or heavy menstrual periods. Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin, and low iron levels result in decreased incorporation of hemoglobin into red blood cells. In the United States, 12% of all women of childbearing age have iron deficiency, compared with only 2% of adult men. The incidence is as high as 20% among African American and Mexican American women. Studies have shown iron deficiency without anemia causes poor school performance and lower IQ in teenage girls, although this may be due to socioeconomic factors. Iron deficiency is the most prevalent deficiency state on a worldwide basis. It is sometimes the cause of abnormal fissuring of the angular (corner) sections of the lips (angular stomatitis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sr36h
|
how does the paint that changes color by temperature work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Omg. I was at the science festival in sf last week and they were passing out rulers that did this... The kids passing them out had no idea how they work other than to say there are two layers of paint and the top layer becomes transparent with heat. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23776",
"title": "Paint",
"section": "Section::::Color-changing paint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochrome compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on a wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902820",
"title": "Emissivity",
"section": "Section::::Absorptivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities near room temperature. Thus white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of 10x10 metres, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45939",
"title": "Primary color",
"section": "Section::::Mixing paints in limited palettes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The color of light (i.e., the spectral power distribution) reflected from illuminated surfaces coated in paint mixes, slurries of pigment particles, is not well approximated by a subtractive or additive mixing model. Color predictions that incorporate light scattering effects of pigment particles and paint layer thickness require approaches based on the Kubelka–Munk equations. Even such approaches cannot predict the color of paint mixtures precisely since small variances in particle size distribution, impurity concentrations etc. can be difficult to measure but impart perceptible effects on the way light is reflected from the paint. Artists typically rely on mixing experience and \"recipes\" to mix desired colors from a small initial set of primaries and do not use mathematical modelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23776",
"title": "Paint",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts the powder and causes it to adhere to the surface. The reasons for doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps even the chemistry of the substrate (the object being painted). This is called \"powder coating\" an object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25832512",
"title": "Lightfastness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Light encountering a painted surface can either alter or break the chemical bonds of the pigment, causing the colors to bleach or change in a process known as photodegradation. Materials that resist this effect are said to be lightfast. The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun contains wavelengths from gamma waves to radio waves. The high energy of ultraviolet radiation in particular accelerates the fading of the dye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19110121",
"title": "Color mixing",
"section": "Section::::Subtractive mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1505,
"text": "The mixing of colored physical substances corresponds to subtractive color mixing, hence it corresponds to our intuition about mixing colors. To explain the mechanism, consider mixing red paint with yellow paint. The red paint is red because when the ambient light strikes it, the composition of the material is such that it absorbs all other colors in the visible spectrum except for red. The red light, not being absorbed, reflects off the paint and is what we see. This name mechanism describes the color of material objects – note that light is not a material object – and so applies to the yellow paint as well. Making recourse to the figure above demonstrating additive color mixing, one sees that yellow light is composed of an (additive) mixture of red and green light. When we mix the two paints, the resulting substance has red paint and yellow paint. The yellow paint absorbs all colors except for red and green. However, the red paint will absorb the green reflected by the yellow paint. The red paint can be said to subtract the green from the yellow paint. The resulting paint reflects only red light and so appears red to our eyes. Note however that this description is theoretical and that the mixing of pigments does not correspond to ideal subtractive color mixing because some light from the subtracted color is still being reflected by one component of the original paint. This results in a darker and desaturated color compared to the color that would be achieved with ideal filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32001021",
"title": "Surfactants in paint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "Paint has four major components: pigments, binders, solvents, and additives. Pigments serve to give paint its color, texture, toughness, as well as determining if a paint is opaque or not. Common white pigments include titanium dioxide and zinc oxide. Binders are the film forming component of a paint as it dries and affects the durability, gloss, and flexibility of the coating. Polyurethanes, polyesters, and acrylics are all examples of common binders. The solvent is the medium in which all other components of the paint are dissolved and evaporates away as the paint dries and cures. The solvent also modifies the curing rate and viscosity of the paint in its liquid state. There are two types of paint: solvent-borne and water-borne paints. Solvent-borne paints use organic solvents as the primary vehicle carrying the solid components in a paint formulation, whereas water-borne paints use water as the continuous medium. The additives that are incorporated into paints are a wide range of things which impart important effects on the properties of the paint and the final coating. Common paint additives are catalysts, thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, biocides to fight bacterial growth, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11wmqt
|
If the universe is expanding, are we able to see stars going backwards in time?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. That would require light from later in the star's life to catch up to and pass the earlier light, which isn't possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any object which, due to the expansion of the universe, is moving away from us faster than the speed of light is essentially forever inaccessible to us. It is over the cosmic horizon which we can never cross. So if, due to the fact that the expansion is accelerating, a galaxy were to accelerate to recede from us at a speed greater than the speed of light, it would cross our cosmic horizon, never to be seen again. You wouldn't see that star going back in time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't see why that would be the case. Maybe you could clarify why a distant galaxy would appear to be going \"backwards in time.\" If a galaxy is moving away from us, then light it sends to us should be received in the order it was sent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A light source would have to be moving *towards* us faster than the speed of light for us to perceive it as going backwards in time, which isnt possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9075104",
"title": "Dark Energy Survey",
"section": "Section::::Supernovae.:Applications in cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Far future and ultimate fate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "If the expansion of the universe continues and it stays in its present form, eventually all but the nearest galaxies will be carried away from us by the expansion of space at such a velocity that our observable universe will be limited to our own gravitationally bound local galactic cluster. In the very long term (after many trillions – thousands of billions – of years, cosmic time), the Stelliferous Era will end, as stars cease to be born and even the longest-lived stars gradually die. Beyond this, all objects in the universe will cool and (with the possible exception of protons) gradually decompose back to their constituent particles and then into subatomic particles and very low level photons and other fundamental particles, by a variety of possible processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Features of the model.:Horizons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.:Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "The current accepted answer is that, although the universe is infinitely large, it is not infinitely old. It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "921168",
"title": "Scale factor (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Universal expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Faster-than-light observations and experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion \"through\" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39s8vr
|
why are cows so sacred in india that they cannot be slaughtered and beef cannot be eaten there
|
[
{
"answer": "Cows aren't harmed in India as a sign of respect. Cow's milk is an important part of every Indian household and several dishes are based on it. They are considered to be gifts from God and people are thankful for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's part of Hindu culture, not Indian. Muslims eat beef. \n\nYou don't find cow temples or anything, people do not pray to cows nor are cows given a pimped out life.\n\nIt is simply considered bad to kill or harm a cow. It has a lot to do with them providing milk. \n\nIt's similar to how the USA treats bald eagles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is just a cultural mindset, similar to the idea of disliking meat of dogs and cats in the world. [An external link to an article with longer explaination](_URL_0_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For cowherds, cows are literally money. Except that this money can die. When your wealth is measured in the number of living animals, you don't randomly kill them off.\n\nAdvance a couple of thousand years, and the rules about protecting cows no longer make sense, but are followed in a superstitious fashion. Like any other religion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to add on to the other points already mentioned here:\nCows are very versatile animals, used not only for their milk, but also for manual labor for plowing the fields, transportation, and, believe it or not, house walls in India are smeared with cow dung for its antibacterial (outnumber the harmful bacteria with commensal bacteria) and mosquito repellent effects. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nCows have been an integral part of Indian society as a whole, and thus they are rarely slaughtered for consumption. Religious tenets were commonly used to reinforce important principles such as this- it is hard for some people to see the negative future implications of slaughtering cattle, even during desperate times. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49405473",
"title": "Buffalo meat",
"section": "Section::::Social significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Due to the religious importance of cows in India and Nepal, there is a need to differentiate buffalo meat from beef. In countries like India, for religious reasons, a considerable part of the population does not eat beef (meat from cows). In a large number of the Indian states and in Nepal, slaughtering cattle is prohibited. Religious violence happens over cattle slaughter or even over suspected beef consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38849149",
"title": "Cattle slaughter in India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Cattle slaughter, especially cow slaughter is a controversial topic in India because of the cattle's traditional status as an endeared and respected living being to some sects of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists while being considered an acceptable source of meat by Muslims as well as adherents of some other Indian religions. More specifically, the cow's slaughter has been shunned because of a number of reasons such as being associated with god Krishna in Hinduism, cattle being respected as an integral part of rural livelihoods and an essential economic necessity. Cattle slaughter has also been opposed by various Indian religions because of the ethical principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) and the belief in the unity of all life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1961,
"text": "As of January 2012, cow remains a divisive and controversial topic in India. Several states of India have passed laws to protect cows, while many states have no restrictions on the production and consumption of beef. Some groups oppose the butchering of cows, while other secular groups argue that what kind of meat one eats ought to be a matter of personal choice in a democracy. Madhya Pradesh enacted a law in January 2012, namely the Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan) Act, which makes cow slaughter a serious offence. Gujarat, a western state of India, has the Animal Preservation Act, enacted in October 2011, that prohibits killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. In contrast, Odisha, Assam and Andhra Pradesh allow butchering of cattle with a fit-for-slaughter certificate. In the states of West Bengal and Kerala, consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Contrary to stereotypes, a sizeable number of Hindus eat beef, and many argue that their scriptures, such as Vedic and Upanishadic texts do not prohibit its consumption. In southern Indian state Kerala, for instance, beef accounts for nearly half of all meat consumed by all communities, including Hindus. Sociologists theorise that the widespread consumption of cow meat in India is because it is a far cheaper source of animal protein for the poor than mutton or chicken, which retail at double the price. For these reasons, India's beef consumption post-independence in 1947 has witnessed a much faster growth than any other kind of meat; currently, India is one of the five largest producer and consumer of cattle livestock meat in the world. A beef ban has been made in Maharashtra and other states as of 2015. While states such as Madhya Pradesh are passing local laws to prevent cruelty to cows, other Indians are arguing \"If the real objective is to prevent cruelty to animals, then why single out the cow when hundreds of other animals are maltreated?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36968",
"title": "Beef",
"section": "Section::::Religious and cultural prohibitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Most Indic religions do not appreciate killing cattle and eating beef. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god. Bovines have a sacred status in India especially the cow, from the idealization due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. In Hinduism, the entire cosmic creation is considered to be sacred and are venerated like celestial bodies such as Sun, Moon to fig trees and rivers like Ganga, Saraswati, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855296",
"title": "Nuer people",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Cattle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "The Nuer people never eat cattle just because they want to. Cattle are very sacred to them, therefore when they do eat cattle they honor its ghost. They typically just eat the cattle that is up in age on dying because of sickness. But even if they do so, they all gather together performing rituals,dances or songs before and after they slaughter the cattle. Never do they just kill cattle for the fun of it. “Never do Nuer slaughter animals solely because the desire to eat meat. There is the danger of the ox’s spirit visiting a curse on any individual who would slaughter it without ritual intent, aiming only to use it for food. Any animal that dies of natural causes is eaten.” Many times it may not even just be cattle that they consume, it could be any animal they have scavenged upon that has died because of natural causes. There are a few other food sources that are available for the Nuer to consume. The Nuer diet primarily consists of fish and millet. “Their staple crop is millet.\" Millet is formally consumed as porridge or beer. The Nuer turn to this staple product in seasons of rainfall when they move their cattle up to higher ground. They might also turn to millet when the cattle are performing well enough to support their family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312864",
"title": "Cattle in religion and mythology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Due to the multiple benefits from cattle, there are varying beliefs about cattle in societies and religions. In some regions, especially Nepal and most states of India, the slaughter of cattle is prohibited and their meat may be taboo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of \"ahimsa\" (non-violence), mother goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream Hindu and Jain society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pqcj0
|
What happens to blood cells if you invest them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Saliva or stomach acid would likely kill them. If blood cells aren't in a liquid with the same concentration as blood they will basically pop due to water entering the cell or shrivel up due to water leaving the cell. Absorbing whole cells would risk having bacteria enter the bloodstream too easily, so things are broken up in the stomach and absorbed by the cells lining the stomach and intestines before being transferred to the bloodstream. The fragments of the red blood cells might be recycled though, as well as any other minerals and nutrients in the blood. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As Unsetting Sun mentioned, the blood cells wouldn't survive.\n\nSo why lick the wound? Saliva can help sterilize your kitty's wound, and it also contains Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF), which might help with [tissue regeneration](_URL_0_) in the wound.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other answers are correct. Additionally, this is why certain medications like insulin or some rheumatoid arthritis medications need to be injected because otherwise they would be destroyed in the stomach (if taken by mouth).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7285133",
"title": "Lymphopoiesis",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The partial loss of or loss of function of any white blood cell type is a serious health matter and lymphopoiesis is absolutely necessary for life. Mature lymphocytes are a critical part of the immune system that (with the exception of memory B and T cells) have short lives measured in days or weeks and must be continuously generated throughout life by cell division and differentiation from cells such as common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs) in mice. Were this system to fail, the body would be largely undefended from infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36584567",
"title": "Ulegyria",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Cerebral ischemia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Another serious result of inefficient blood flow is that cells do not receive adequate amounts of glucose. An immediate effect of low intracellular glucose is reduced ATP production in the cell. This effectively inactivates the Na-K pump, leading to the uptake of calcium ions by the cell. Continued influx of calcium serves to constitutively activate downstream effectors, including lipases, proteases, and endonucleases, whose actions eventually destroy the cell skeleton. Intracellular calcium concentrations are increased further due to the opening of glutamate-regulated ion channels. Ischemia causes anoxic cell depolarizations and it is this increase in membrane potential at the presynaptic cell that triggers the release of glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Donor health benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Research published in 2012 demonstrated that repeated blood donation is effective in reducing blood pressure, blood glucose, HbA1c, low-density lipoprotein/high-density lipoprotein ratio, and heart rate in patients with metabolic syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903489",
"title": "Vulnerable plaque",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Researchers have found that accumulation of white blood cells, especially macrophages, termed inflammation, in the walls of the arteries leads to the development of \"soft\" or vulnerable plaque, which when released aggressively promotes blood clotting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "984222",
"title": "Benzo(a)pyrene",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.:Immune system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "B\"a\"P has an effect on the number of white blood cells, inhibiting some of them from differentiating into macrophages, the body’s first line of defense to fight infections. In 2016, the molecular mechanism was uncovered as damage to the macrophage membrane's lipid raft integrity by decreasing membrane cholesterol at 25%. This means less immunoreceptors CD32 (a member of the Fc family of immunoreceptors) could bind to IgG and turn the white blood cell into a macrophage. Therefore, macrophage membranes become susceptibile to bacterial infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5309210",
"title": "Beta thalassemia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "HBB blockage over time leads to decreased beta-chain synthesis. The body's inability to construct new beta-chains leads to the underproduction of HbA. Reductions in HbA available overall to fill the red blood cells in turn leads to microcytic anemia. Microcytic anemia ultimately develops in respect to inadequate HBB protein for sufficient red blood cell functioning. Due to this factor, the patient may require blood transfusions to make up for the blockage in the beta-chains. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Donor health benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1t353r
|
why does the uk still have a -house of lords?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it works fine and most people are happy with it? \n\n\nHow can you have a check system if the way you appoint members in the upper house is the exact same way you appoint members of the lower house? You will just end up with the same result.\n\n\nLords can also be nominated by the public. There are also restrictions on what the lords can and can't reject and they can be bypassed if need be. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't have the power to block any legislation. All they can do is ask the House of Commons to think again. \n\nOut of the two Houses, The Commons is supreme, as it contains the elected members.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people in the Lords will be former civil servants/ politicians or people with long careers in public service. The experience they can bring into scrutinising legislation can be invaluable. \n\nHowever everything the Lords do can be overridden by the House of Commons so they have no real power, and a democratically elected second house could take away power from the commons or be more obstructionist, resulting in the kind of gridlock seen in the US congress",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59511",
"title": "Legislatures of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom legislature.:The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.:House of Lords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom however it is an unelected chamber with all members to the House of Lords being appointed. As of August 2018, there are currently 793 members known as \"Peers\". The House of Lords no longer has the same powers as the House of Commons under the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949 especially when it comes to blocking general legislation and the passing of financial legislation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98066",
"title": "Member of parliament",
"section": "Section::::Westminster system.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The House of Lords is a legislative chamber that is part of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Although they are part of the parliament, its members are referred to as peers, more formally as \"Lords of Parliament\", not MPs. Lords Temporal sit for life, Lords Spiritual while they occupy their ecclesiastical positions. Hereditary peers may no longer pass on a seat in the House of Lords to their heir automatically. The 92 who remain have been elected from among their own number, following the House of Lords Act 1999 and are the only elected members of the Lords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31726",
"title": "Politics of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Legislatures.:UK Parliament.:House of Lords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "The House of Lords was previously a largely hereditary aristocratic chamber, although including life peers, and Lords Spiritual. It is currently midway through extensive reforms, the most recent of these being enacted in the House of Lords Act 1999. The house consists of two very different types of member, the Lords Temporal and Lords Spiritual. Lords Temporal include appointed members (life peers with no hereditary right for their descendants to sit in the house) and ninety-two remaining hereditary peers, elected from among, and by, the holders of titles which previously gave a seat in the House of Lords. The Lords Spiritual represent the established Church of England and number twenty-six: the Five Ancient Sees (Canterbury, York, London, Winchester and Durham), and the 21 next-most senior bishops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7214413",
"title": "History of reform of the House of Lords",
"section": "Section::::Reforms of composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The House of Lords is composed of two major groups: the Lords Spiritual (who in modern times are the archbishops and some of the bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal (who are the peers who are members of the House of Lords). Although the basic distinction has existed since the origin of the House, the composition of both groups has changed over the centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13964",
"title": "Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The House of Lords includes two different types of members: the Lords Spiritual, consisting of the most senior bishops of the Church of England, and the Lords Temporal, consisting mainly of life peers, appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, and of 92 hereditary peers, sitting either by virtue of holding a royal office, or by being elected by their fellow hereditary peers. Prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17702739",
"title": "United Kingdom constitutional law",
"section": "Section::::Institutions.:Parliament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 2423,
"text": "Along with a hereditary monarch, the House of Lords remains an historical curiosity in the UK constitution. Traditionally it represented the landed aristocracy, and political allies of the monarch or the government, and has only gradually and incompletely been reformed. Today, the House of Lords Act 1999 has abolished all but 92 hereditary peers, leaving most peers to be \"life peers\" appointed by the government under the Life Peerages Act 1958, law lords appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, and Lords Spiritual who are senior clergy of the Church of England. Since 2005, senior judges can only sit and vote in the House of Lords after retirement. The government carries out appointment of most peers, but since 2000 has taken advice from a seven-person House of Lords Appointments Commission with representatives from the Labour, Conservatives and Liberal-Democrat parties. A peerage can always be disclaimed, and ex-peers may then run for Parliament. Since 2015, a peer may be suspended or expelled by the House. In practice the Parliament Act 1949 greatly reduced the House of Lords' power, as can only delay and cannot block legislation by one year, and cannot delay money bills at all. Nevertheless, several options for reform are debated. A House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 proposed to have 360 directly elected members, 90 appointed members, 12 bishops and an uncertain number of ministerial members. The elected Lords would have been elected by proportional representation for 15 year terms, through 10 regional constituencies on a single transferable vote system. However, the government withdrew support after backlash from Conservative backbenches. It has often been argued that if the Lords were elected by geographic constituencies and a party controlled both sides \"there would be little prospect of effective scrutiny or revision of government business.\" A second option, like in Swedish Riksdag, could simply be to abolish the House of Lords: this was in fact done during the English Civil War in 1649, but restored along with the monarchy in 1660. A third proposed option is to elect peers by work and professional groups, so that health care workers elect peers with special health knowledge, people in education elect a fixed number of education experts, legal professionals elect legal representatives, and so on. This is argued to be necessary to improve the quality of legislation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77750",
"title": "Law of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom legislatures.:United Kingdom Parliament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The Parliament of the United Kingdom is bicameral, with an upper house, the House of Lords, and a lower house, the House of Commons. The House of Lords includes two different types of members: the Lords Spiritual (the senior bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal (members of the Peerage); its members are not elected by the population at large. The House of Commons is a democratically elected chamber. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster (commonly known as the \"Houses of Parliament\"), in the City of Westminster in London. By constitutional convention, all government ministers, including the Prime Minister, are members of the House of Commons or House of Lords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29cna7
|
What leads to different colors of marble?
|
[
{
"answer": "from the wiki\n\nPure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally high magnesium limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism\n\nI would think that the yellows and browns would also be caused by sulfur. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a many different factors involved in the formation of marble. As you know it forms via a process of metamorphism, specifically of carbonate minerals.\nMetamorphism is a process that occurs after burial and lithication of the carbonate material (when it turns to rock). However the degree of metamorphism is controlled by three main factors:\n\n1. Heat. As a rock is continuously buried at depth it will be subjected to an increasing amount of heat from the inner earth. This heat can change the carbonate minerals structure.\n\n2. Pressure. As the carbonate rock is continuously buried it is subjected to increased lithic pressure which will also alter the carbonate material.\n\n3. Time. Depending on how long this carbonate material is buried for before subsequent uplift to the surface it will effect how long it is effected by heat and pressure.\n\nBasically, it is not uniform how much temperature and pressure a rock will be subjected to as it undergoes metamorphism thus creating a multitude of variants of marble. Also the mineral make up of the carbonate material prior to metamorphism will effect it's eventual outcome.\n\nThe reason that it is possible to see marbles of different colours basically is due to the mineral make up prior to metamorphism and then during this process, the temperatures and pressures that the material is subjected to.\n\nThat's as basic as I can make it but I know people who have spent their whole life looking at metamorphism and it genuinely is one of the most complicated parts of geology going.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19054",
"title": "Marble",
"section": "Section::::Physical origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19054",
"title": "Marble",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Sculpture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which gives \"life\" to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27409930",
"title": "Canaveilles Group",
"section": "Section::::Stratigraphy.:Carbonate interlayers.:Calcareous marbles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The white, sometimes also greyish calcareous marbles are banded. They display a great variability in thickness. Their normal thickness of about 20 meters can increase in places up to 180 meters. These pronounced variations in thickness indicate a reefal origin of the marbles, most likely as bioherms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34147528",
"title": "Swedish green marble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Swedish green marble, or simply Swedish green, is a marble from quarries in Kolmården, in the north-eastern part of the province of Östergötland in Sweden. It is fine-grained, with a variable green colour and attractive veining, due to serpentines in the stone. It is considered one of the hardest marbles in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24736639",
"title": "Estremoz",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Together with the two other marble towns, Borba and Vila Viçosa, Estremoz is internationally known for its fine to medium marble that occurs in several colours: white, cream, pink, grey or black and streaks with any combination of these colours. Especially the pink marble (Rosa Aurora and Estremoz Pink) is in high demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214934",
"title": "Stonemasonry",
"section": "Section::::Types of stone.:Metamorphic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "BULLET::::- Marble is a fine, easily worked stone, that comes in various colours, but mainly white. It has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and buildings of the Italian Renaissance. The first and most admirable marble carvers and sculptors were the Greeks, namely Antenor (6th century BC), Phidias and Critias (5th century BC), Praxiteles (4th century BC) and others who used mainly the marble of Paros and Thassos islands, and the whitest and brightest of all (although not the finest), the Pentelikon marble. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, but the Greeks were unmatched in plasticity and realistic (re)presentation, either of Gods (Apollo, Aphrodite, Hermes, Zeus, etc.), or humans (Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Phryne, etc.). The famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble. The traditional home of the marble industry is the area around Carrara in Italy, from where a bright and fine, whitish marble is extracted in vast quantities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49277540",
"title": "Makrana marble",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Makrana marble has high percentage of calcium and is therefore resistant to water seepage. The water absorption of Makrana marble is said to be the lowest among all types in India, and the marble is claimed to contain 98 percent of calcium carbonate and only two percent of impurities. The different shades of Makrana marble are pure white, white with grey shades and white with pink shades, depending on the level of impurities. The close interlocking property of the marble makes it strong, hard and translucent. It is said to retain its shine and white color for a long period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xojup
|
why is it illegal to share movies, music, etc; but completely legal to borrow books, movies, music, etc from the library?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because at a library there is one physical copy being shared, it can only be with any one user at a time. With computer files you are creating copies so each user can access the file at the same time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's illegal to *copy* and *distribute* properties that you don't have the rights to (that's why it's called *copyright*). The Courts have decided that large scale sharing via torrenting is more similar to distribution than sharing because you wind up giving it to hundreds, thousands of people that you don't know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not illegal to share a movie or music on the original media. For example, you can legally loan or give your friend a DVD or CD that you bought from the store.\n\nBut it is illegal to copy that and give it away, just like it's illegal to photocopy a book and give that away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8455518",
"title": "German underground horror",
"section": "Section::::Ratings' effect on German underground horror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Some movies, e.g. \"Braindead\", are completely banned in Germany (mostly for glamorizing violence), as it is illegal even to sell them to adults. These movies are \"indiziert\" as well as \"beschlagnahmt\" (\"judicially confiscated\"). While selling these kinds of media is strictly prohibited, it is legal to buy or own such movies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5381636",
"title": "File sharing in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "While the unauthorized copying - uploading - of complete copyrighted works such as books, movies, or software is illegal under the Act, the situation regarding music files is more complex, due to the Private Copying exemption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168072",
"title": "Information ethics",
"section": "Section::::Ethics of downloading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In an article titled \"Download This Essay: A Defence of Stealing Ebooks\", Andrew Forcehimes argues that the way we think about copyrights is inconsistent, because every argument for (physical) public libraries is also an argument for illegally downloading ebooks and every argument against downloading ebooks would also be an argument against libraries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18059606",
"title": "Pirate Cinema",
"section": "Section::::Helsinki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Professor Jukka Kemppinen, an expert on copyright legislation, states that Pirate Cinema is a deliberate provocation, but that, despite it being illegal, there is no point in making a big issue out of it. Kemppinen states \"It is no more illegal than showing a legally rented DVD to residents of an apartment building after an afternoon of volunteer work.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168072",
"title": "Information ethics",
"section": "Section::::Ethics of downloading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Christian Barry believes that understanding illegal downloading as equivalent to common theft is problematic, because clear and morally relevant differences can be shown \"between stealing someone’s handbag and illegally downloading a television series\". On the other hand, he thinks consumers should try to respect intellectual property unless doing so imposes unreasonable cost on them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5275733",
"title": "You can click, but you can't hide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5381636",
"title": "File sharing in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Important distinctions have been made about the legality of downloading versus uploading copyrighted material as well as \"musical works\" versus other copyrighted material. In general, the unauthorized copying or distribution of copyrighted material for profit is illegal under Canada's \"Copyright Act\"; however, the act also states under the section \"Copying for Private Use ... onto an audio recording medium for the private use of the person who makes the copy does not constitute an infringement of the copyright in the musical work, the performer’s performance or the sound recording.\". Furthermore, the Act contains a Private Copying exception that makes it legal to copy a sound recording onto an \"audio recording medium\" for the personal use of the person making the copy. This is supported by a levy on blank audio recording media, which is distributed to record labels and musicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dueb1
|
How was Art Deco architecture viewed and judged when it was built?
|
[
{
"answer": "Art Deco was very popular at the time, and influenced buildings around the world. It was associated with luxury and progress, and was widely embraced by all levels of society, while [contemporary modernist and expressionist architecture were more intellectual/elitist.](_URL_0_)\n\nRebuilding a town on a large scale offers unique possibilities for architecture, as Napier shows. An earlier example is the town of [Ålesund](_URL_2_) in Norway, destroyed by [fire in 1905](_URL_1_), was completely rebuild in Art Nouveau/Jugendstil. The town has an unusually consistent architecture, most of the buildings having been built between 1904 and 1907. It's been argue that it was a boon for the town and it has become a tourist attraction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36944644",
"title": "United States Post Office-Visalia Town Center Station",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Two distinct architectural styles are visible in the building: the late neo-classical period of Beaux-Arts, and Art Deco or \"Zigzag Moderne\". While the fenestration and ornamentation are strictly symmetrical, typical of Beaux-Arts design, the terracotta panels all contain Art Deco motifs. Following with Art Deco tradition, the architect drew heavy inspiration from a multitude of sources, including Mesoamerica, Greece, Rome, and Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16887917",
"title": "History of London (1900–1939)",
"section": "Section::::1920s.:Architecture and Building.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "After the exhibition of Art Deco architecture at the 1925 International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, London architects began to adopt the sleek new style with fervor. Art Deco became the dominant style for new construction in London through the late 1930s, which represented a forward-thinking and innovative new aesthetic in contrast to London's ubiquitous Victorian architecture. Major examples built during this period were media headquarters on Fleet Street, the Daily Telegraph building (1928) and the Daily Express Building (1932), in addition to the BBC Broadcasting House on Langham Place. The style lent itself particularly well to large industrial structures like Battersea Power Station (1934), the Hoover Building (1932-7), and the Carerras Cigarette Factory. Other outstanding examples of Art Deco can be seen in Ideal House in the City of London, and Senate House, the 19-story headquarters of the University of London in Bloomsbury and the tallest Art Deco building in London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61129060",
"title": "Art Deco architecture of New York City",
"section": "Section::::Art Deco in the city.:Vertical style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "The buildings that would become described as Art Deco shared several elements. The setback laws resulted in three-dimensional, sculptural buildings, with long, uninterrupted columns of windows and decorated spandrels in between. New York's architects were at the forefront of using new materials, including synthetics like Bakelite and Nirosta, a corrosion-resistant alloy that made exterior metal on skyscrapers more feasible. Aluminum's declining price and lighter weight than steel led to it being a common choice for interior and exterior usage. Other common materials were brick and terra cotta in a variety of colors. Art Deco buildings in the city were also richly appointed inside and out with reliefs, mosaics, murals, and other art. Allegorical depictions—such as beehives of industry on the French Building, personifications of virtues at Rockefeller Center, or figures portraying industry and the arts at the International Magazine Building—were common decorative elements. Architect Ely Jacques Kahn commented in 1926 that his brethren were creating a new style with their buildings:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61129060",
"title": "Art Deco architecture of New York City",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Art Deco architecture flourished in New York City during the 1920s and 1930s before largely disappearing after World War II. The style is found in government edifices, commercial projects, and residential buildings in all five boroughs. The architecture of the period was influenced not just by decorative arts influences from across the world, but also local zoning regulations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16832598",
"title": "Church Building",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "It is considered the best example of Art Deco architecture in the city, where most commercial buildings predate the style's popularity in the 1930s. The two-story building has tilework designs suggesting Native American aesthetics. Other ornamental touches associated with Art Deco include, floral and patterned metalwork along the shop cornices, and polished green and black marble inside. There are also ribbed pilasters between the windows and a multicolored chevron pattern above and below the roof parapets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42382983",
"title": "Varsity Theatre (Martin, Tennessee)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The building design, by the architecture firm Speight and Hibbs of Clarksville, Tennessee, incorporates elements of the Art Deco and Art Moderne styles. The exterior of the building has the streamlined appearance that characterizes Art Moderne design, including extensive use of rounded edges and horizontal lines. Art Moderne elements are also present in the interior, along with Art Deco-style lighting and wall decor. Built in the Jim Crow era, the building design provided segregated facilities for African-American moviegoers, who used a separate entrance door to get to the theater balcony and to segregated bathrooms and a drinking fountain located in the stairwell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6822252",
"title": "Wan Chai Market",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Its architectural style is influenced by Streamline Moderne (also known as Streamlined Moderne or Art Moderne) architecture, a popular style of building of the 1930s. It is often erroneously referred to as a Bauhaus-style building.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a1cbg
|
why any person in front of a judge must take an oath regarding god ( "so help me god" ) irrelevant of religion
|
[
{
"answer": "Many venues give an option to make an [*affirmation*](_URL_0_) instead (that you will affirm that all of the statements you're making are the truth).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like what Duke_Newcombe said. But other than that, I think in this context \"God\" is being used as a general entity to refer to many common religions (since most have god/gods in some form). However, this does not account for atheists or the few religions that don't have a God figure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the UK at least every effort is made to provide witnesses with the appropriate holy book to swear on, or if the witness has no faith, they are allowed to affirm.\nIn my experience as a prosecutor, affirmation had no affect on whether witness is believed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053256",
"title": "Oath of Allegiance (United Kingdom)",
"section": "Section::::Judges and magistrates (England and Wales).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Judges and magistrates on being sworn in, are required by various statutes to take two oaths: the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath, (collectively; the judicial oath). Judges of Hindu, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh religions can omit the words \"I swear by Almighty God\" and replace it with an acceptable alternative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36420348",
"title": "Irreligion in Finland",
"section": "Section::::Irreligion of governmental bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Courts as a witness and an expert in declared their oath, with a choice of a religious oath or a religion-neutral insurance. However, the European Court of Human Rights did not consider it acceptable that a person has to report on the administration of the oath of belief. Board's proposal for a religion-neutral insurance was adopted and entered into force in January 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33579650",
"title": "Perjury in Nigeria",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Lawfully bound on oath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "It is pertinent to emphasis here, that under common law, the only oath required is one 'calling Almighty God to witness that his testimony is true.' Such oath need not be in accordance with the doctrine or tenets of Christianity. It was sufficient if the witness believed in God and, swears in accordance with his religious belief. The purpose of such oaths had the effect of the witness renouncing the mercy and imprecates the vengeance of Heaven if he did not speak the truth. Such oath had the idea of binding the conscience of the witness, and presupposes a religious sanction if the witness told a lie on oath. Such a requirement has been displaced now, in that the solemnity of the occasion when an oath is administered by a witness in a judicial proceeding, no longer implies a religious sanction, but a legal sanction. This can be deduced from section 191 of the Criminal Code:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33579650",
"title": "Perjury in Nigeria",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Oath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Many of those who take a religious oath do so largely as a matter of form (or) because they think they are more likely to be believed if they take the oath, the oath ‘is only too often regarded as a necessary formality and rattled off with little outward sign of sincerity or understanding of its implications…We therefore think the time has come for the oath in its present form to be abolished and replaced by a form of undertaking which is more meaningful, more generally acceptable and more likely to serve the cause of justice. All witnesses should be required to make same solemn affirmation so that there is no distinction in the respect that is accorded them.’\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "638369",
"title": "Promise",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Some groups of Christians, such as the Religious Society of Friends and the Mennonites, object to the taking of both oaths and affirmations, basing their objections upon a commandment given in the Sermon on the Mount, and regard all promises to be witnessed by God.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3151926",
"title": "Chayei Sarah",
"section": "Section::::In classical rabbinic interpretation.:Genesis chapter 24.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "The Tosefta reported that Jewish judicial proceedings adopted the oath that Abraham imposed in And Rav Judah said that Rav said that the judge adjures the witness with the oath stated in \"And I will make you swear by the Lord, the God of heaven.\" Ravina explained that this accorded with the view of Rabbi Haninah bar Idi, who said that Jewish judicial proceedings require swearing by the Name of God. Rav Ashi replied that one might even say that it accorded with the view of the Rabbis, who said that a witness can be adjured with a Substitute for the Name of God. They concluded that the witness needs to hold something sacred in his hand, as Abraham's servant did when in he put his hand under Abraham's thigh and held Abraham's circumcision. Rava said that a judge who adjures by \"the Lord God of heaven\" without having the witness hold a sacred object errs and has to repeat the swearing correctly. Rav Papa said that a judge who adjures with tefillin errs and has to repeat the swearing. The law follows Rava, but not Rav Papa, as tefillin are considered sacred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9066446",
"title": "American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina v. North Carolina",
"section": "Section::::State law at issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Currently the North Carolina General statute on oath taking (§11-2) states: (emphasis added) \"Judges and other persons who may be empowered to administer oaths, shall (except in the cases in this Chapter excepted) require the party to be sworn to lay his hand upon the Holy Scriptures, in token of his engagement to speak the truth and in further token that, if he should swerve from the truth, he may be justly deprived of all the blessings of the holy book and made liable to that vengeance which he has imprecated on his own head.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dnyhda
|
so veritasium explains in his video that trees gain their mass mainly from the air, better said from carbon dioxide. how exactly does it work?
|
[
{
"answer": "photosynthesis is extracts CO2 from the atmosphere along with water from the tree's roots. It uses energy from sunlight to split the molecules and recombine them to make sugar; the bulk of most plant's mass is cellulose which is a type of sugar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By photosynthesis.\n\nCarbon Dioxide + water + light transform chemically by photosynthesis into Sugar and Oxygen. Sugar is 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atom of oxygen.\n\nFrom there the tree will use the sugar to feed his cells, who can divide and multiply, just like in our body. The wood is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59718177",
"title": "Pyrogenic carbon capture and storage",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The principle of PyCCS is that the biomass (e.g. trees) removes CO from the atmosphere during its growth via photosynthesis. This biomass is then harvested and pyrolyzed (see below), with a portion of the carbon dioxide bound in the biomass being captured in the ground, after being reduced to carbon and viscous compounds (charcoal). The flammable gas mixture, which is the lightest fraction in pyrolysis, is collected and used as fuel; the carbon dioxide produced when combusting it is captured traditionally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29747342",
"title": "Photosynthesis system",
"section": "Section::::How photosynthesis systems function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Photosynthesis systems function by measuring gas exchange of leaves. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is taken up by leaves in the process of photosynthesis, where is used to generate sugars in a molecular pathway known as the Calvin cycle. This draw-down of induces more atmospheric to diffuse through stomata into the air spaces of the leaf. While stoma are open, water vapor can easily diffuse out of plant tissues, a process known as transpiration. It is this exchange of and water vapor that is measured as a proxy of photosynthetic rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15415145",
"title": "Woodchips",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Fuel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Solid biomass is an attractive fuel for addressing the concerns of the energy crisis and climate change, since the fuel is affordable, widely available, close to carbon neutral and thus climate-neutral in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2), since in the ideal case only the carbon dioxide which was drawn in during the tree’s growth and stored in the wood is released into the atmosphere again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8202316",
"title": "Miscanthus giganteus",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impacts.:GHG savings.:Savings comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Fundamentally, the below-ground carbon accumulation works as a GHG mitigation tool because it removes CO2 from the above-ground CO2 circulation (the circulation from plant to atmosphere and back into plant.) The above-ground circulation is driven by photosynthesis and combustion – first, the miscanthus fields absorb CO2 and assimilates it as carbon in its tissue both above and below ground. When the above-ground carbon is harvested and burned, it is released back into the atmosphere, in the form of CO2. However, an equivalent amount of CO2 (and possibly more, if the biomass is expanding) is absorbed back by next season's growth, and the cycle repeats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36973385",
"title": "Slade Brook",
"section": "Section::::Location and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The process is assisted by vegetation (which includes tree litter such as twigs and branches), alae and mosses. The flow of the stream is slowed down and photosynthesis encourages the removal of the carbon dioxide. The vegetation and debris then become the area for tufa accumulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "492043",
"title": "Photorespiration",
"section": "Section::::Biological adaptation to minimize photorespiration.:Biochemical carbon concentrating mechanisms.:C.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "C plants capture carbon dioxide in their mesophyll cells (using an enzyme called phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase which catalyzes the combination of carbon dioxide with a compound called phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)), forming oxaloacetate. This oxaloacetate is then converted to malate and is transported into the bundle sheath cells (site of carbon dioxide fixation by RuBisCO) where oxygen concentration is low to avoid photorespiration. Here, carbon dioxide is removed from the malate and combined with RuBP by RuBisCO in the usual way, and the Calvin Cycle proceeds as normal. The concentrations in the Bundle Sheath are approximately 10–20 fold higher than the concentration in the mesophyll cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5906",
"title": "Carbon dioxide",
"section": "Section::::Biological role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism. This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians) or the gills (e.g., fish), from where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wearr
|
if singapore encourages learning standard mandarin and english over dialects, and taiwan encourages standard mandarin, why don't hong kong and macau continue to promote only cantonese?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's partly an issue of identity, nobody likes to feel like they're becoming obsolete.\nAlso re-education is very expensive and time consuming and would require infrastructure changes on many levels. think about it, it's not just teaching kids, it's teaching adults who could be spending their time doing more productive things. It would also mean changing road signs and reprinting millions of books whose earlier editions are now worthless. The effects are huge reaching.\nThere has to be a pretty huge incentive for a nation or a jurisdiction to change their languages and acceptance and integration would have to be pretty rewarding to be worth it.\nSimplified characters are found often in places where trade and travel are common, however I know they exist elsewhere and i'm not sure why so can't help you there, would like to know though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why do Hong Kong and Macau continue to promote only Cantonese?\n\nAt least when it comes to its education policy, Hong Kong is aiming to make its students biliterate in [Modern Standard Chinese](_URL_4_) and English and trilingual in Mandarin, Cantonese, and English according to [page 8 of this PDF](_URL_5_), though it's admitted fuzzy on how to achieve that goal.\n\nAs to why Hong Kong hasn't abandoned Cantonese wholesale and switched to Mandarin, /u/Losingstruggle covered how important a sense of identity is. It's worth adding that a sense of Cantonese-speaking identity is strong even in Mainland China, [crowds gathered in protest when Guangzhou proposed broadcasting more programming in Mandarin at the expense of Cantonese.](_URL_2_)\n\n > Also, why do Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan continue to refuse to use simplified characters? Doesn't this create confusion?\n\nFrom the perspective of Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan, they've just been using the same characters they've been using all along and it's Mainland China that's changed; it's not the opposite situation as if Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan all changed and went out of their way to be different.\n\nHong Kong and Macau both are Special Administrative Regions and have a high degree of autonomy. Hongkongers are already resentful of Mainlanders, [as this New York Times article explains](_URL_3_), and I think Hongkongers might not want simplified characters from the Mainland imposed on them.\n > For years, Hong Kongers have nursed complaints about the growing parade of visitors to their city from mainland China. The mainlanders spit, litter, jaywalk and cut in line, the locals grouse; they talk too loudly, eat on the subway and otherwise flout Hong Kong’s more refined standards of public behavior.\n\n > ...\n\n > But the seven million residents of Hong Kong increasingly fear that mainlanders are challenging them for services, for property and to some extent for their cultural identity. Many suspect that wealthier mainlanders see Hong Kong as an escape option, for their children if not themselves, should confidence in China’s future fade.\n\nAs for Taiwan, I'll say it hasn't been eager to rejoin the PRC and give up its de facto independence. President Ma Ying-jeou has flip-flopped on the issue of simplified versus traditional, [in 2009 Ma proposed adopting simplified characters](_URL_0_), but i[n 2011 he ordered the Tourism Bureau to take down the simplified versions of its webpages](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Also, why do Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan continue to refuse to use simplified characters? Doesn't this create confusion?\n\nOccasionally, but for the most part educated people reading either Simplified or Traditional are able to read a large percentage of text written in the other character set. Chinese and Taiwanese \n\nAs to why, it's mostly a matter of politics, and to a lesser extent regional identity. There's also people who argue that Traditional characters are more beautiful, but that's a fairly subjective standpoint. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4311503",
"title": "Languages of Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Media and the arts.:Chinese varieties in local films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The use of Chinese varieties other than Mandarin in Singapore media is restricted by the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts (MICA). The rationale given for the resistance towards nonstandard Chinese varieties was that their presence would hinder language learning of English and Mandarin. However, in order to cater to older Singaporeans who speak only non-standard Chinese varieties, videos, VCDs, DVDs, paid subscription radio services and paid TV channels are exempted from MICA's restrictions. Two free-to-air channels, Okto and Channel 8, are also allowed to show operas and arthouse movies with some non-standard variety content, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42964558",
"title": "Languages in censuses",
"section": "Section::::Singapore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The government of Singapore has been promoting the use of Mandarin, the official form of Chinese in Singapore as well as mainland China and Taiwan, with its Speak Mandarin Campaign among the Chinese population. The use of other varieties of Chinese, like Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hainanese and Hakka, has been declining over the last two decades, although they are still being used especially by the older generations of the Chinese population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27321",
"title": "Demographics of Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The government of Singapore has been promoting the use of Mandarin, the official form of Chinese in Singapore as well as mainland China and Taiwan, with its Speak Mandarin Campaign among the Chinese population. The use of other Chinese varieties, like Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hainanese and Hakka, has been declining over the last two decades, although they are still being used especially by the older generations of the Chinese population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4311503",
"title": "Languages of Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Bilingualism and multilingualism.:Challenges in the teaching of Mother Tongue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Despite government efforts to promote Mandarin through the Speak Mandarin Campaign, the propagation of Mandarin and Chinese culture amongst Chinese Singaporeans continues to be a challenge because Mandarin faces stiff competition from the strong presence of English. However, this situation is not only limited to Mandarin, but also Malay and Tamil, where rising statistics show that English is progressively taking over as home language of Singaporeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24657",
"title": "Standard Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Current role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "In Singapore, the government has heavily promoted a \"Speak Mandarin Campaign\" since the late 1970s, with the use of other Chinese varieties in broadcast media being prohibited and their use in any context officially discouraged until recently. This has led to some resentment amongst the older generations, as Singapore's migrant Chinese community is made up almost entirely of people of south Chinese descent. Lee Kuan Yew, the initiator of the campaign, admitted that to most Chinese Singaporeans, Mandarin was a \"stepmother tongue\" rather than a true mother language. Nevertheless, he saw the need for a unified language among the Chinese community not biased in favor of any existing group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092292",
"title": "Cantonese",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:Southeast Asia.:Singapore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In Singapore, Mandarin is the official variety of the Chinese language used by the government, which has a Speak Mandarin Campaign (SMC) seeking to actively promote the use of Mandarin at the expense of other Chinese varieties. Cantonese is spoken by a little over 15% of Chinese households in Singapore. Despite the government's active promotion of SMC, the Cantonese-speaking Chinese community has been relatively successful in preserving its language from Mandarin compared to other dialect groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40028248",
"title": "List of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language",
"section": "Section::::Status of other Chinese variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "In Singapore, the public usage of varieties other than Standard Mandarin is discouraged as in China. The Singaporean government has actively promoted the Speak Mandarin Campaign (SMC) since the 1980s and forbids non-cable broadcasting and Chinese language medium of instruction in non-Mandarin varieties. However, since the mid-1990s, there has been a relaxation in allowing non-Mandarin broadcasting via cable networks and a massive following of Hong Kong television dramas and pop culture, which are in Cantonese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ka711
|
Is there any truth to the idea that inter racial breeding among humans decreases mutations? For example, is the offspring of a white and asian person more likely to be healthy than two whites or two asians?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a concept called[ heterosis, or hybrid vigor](_URL_1_), which states that **on average** the offspring of genetically dissimilar parents would be \"superior\" to the offspring of genetically similar parents.\n\nHowever, this effect is extremely small when considering the mixing of human races, because there is more[ genetic variation within a race than between races](_URL_0_). Humans differ from one another by about 1 in 1000 base pairs of DNA. Racial differences account for only about 10% of that variation. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are genetic diseases that are more prevalent in certain populations than others. Some examples would be cystic fibrosis which is more common among people of European decent or sickle cell anemia which is more common among people of African and Mediterranean decent. So you can certainly say that a child with parents both of European decent would be more likely to have cystic fibrosis than a child of parents with European and African ancestors. Of course there are a multitude of diseases caused by mutations that may or may not be linked to a certain ancestry. I'm not an expert in that area so I couldn't say if it is a general rule that a child with parents of different ancestries would be more likely to be healthier overall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would think yes, but only slightly so.\n\nFirst, to be precise, racial interbreeding doesn't decrease \"mutations\". Mutations happen at a steady rate. What it can decrease is the number of homozygous deleterious variants. However, if both populations are in mutation-selection balance, mixing the populations will not decrease the number of homozygotes. However, if the populations have unique recessive deleterious variants, then a mixture would have lower risk of suffering from those.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a concept called[ heterosis, or hybrid vigor](_URL_1_), which states that **on average** the offspring of genetically dissimilar parents would be \"superior\" to the offspring of genetically similar parents.\n\nHowever, this effect is extremely small when considering the mixing of human races, because there is more[ genetic variation within a race than between races](_URL_0_). Humans differ from one another by about 1 in 1000 base pairs of DNA. Racial differences account for only about 10% of that variation. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are genetic diseases that are more prevalent in certain populations than others. Some examples would be cystic fibrosis which is more common among people of European decent or sickle cell anemia which is more common among people of African and Mediterranean decent. So you can certainly say that a child with parents both of European decent would be more likely to have cystic fibrosis than a child of parents with European and African ancestors. Of course there are a multitude of diseases caused by mutations that may or may not be linked to a certain ancestry. I'm not an expert in that area so I couldn't say if it is a general rule that a child with parents of different ancestries would be more likely to be healthier overall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would think yes, but only slightly so.\n\nFirst, to be precise, racial interbreeding doesn't decrease \"mutations\". Mutations happen at a steady rate. What it can decrease is the number of homozygous deleterious variants. However, if both populations are in mutation-selection balance, mixing the populations will not decrease the number of homozygotes. However, if the populations have unique recessive deleterious variants, then a mixture would have lower risk of suffering from those.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26494",
"title": "Race and intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Research into the possible genetic influences on test score differences.:Racial admixture studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Another study cited by , and by , was study which found that adopted mixed-race children's has test scores identical to children with two black parents—receiving no apparent \"benefit\" from their white ancestry. Rushton and Jensen find admixture studies to have provided overall support for a genetic explanation though this view is not shared by , , , , nor by .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25893385",
"title": "Sarará",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Final demographic picture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Since the offspring of a couple with some genetic differences will have a random combination of their genotypes, their appearance, that depends on a smaller number of elements from this gene pool, will also be of a random combination. As a result of the continuing process of intermixing, any sort of phenotype between those stereotypically European, African or Amerindian will show up, and even if many of the genes related to European-like features are recessive, they are likely to evenly manifest in the Brazilian population, just being more common in the regions where European immigration was greater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54743",
"title": "Inbreeding",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1708,
"text": "Offspring of biologically related persons are subject to the possible effects of inbreeding, such as congenital birth defects. The chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. This is because such pairings have a 25% probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles, which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious. Because most recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele; however, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such deleterious allele is inherited from the common ancestor through both parents is increased dramatically. It should also be noted that for each homozygous recessive individual formed there is an equal chance of producing a homozygous dominant individual — one completely devoid of the harmful allele. Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes; however, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection, in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred populations. In the short term, incestuous reproduction is expected to increase the number of spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. The advantages of inbreeding may be the result of a tendency to preserve the structures of alleles interacting at different loci that have been adapted together by a common selective history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3559307",
"title": "Hybridity",
"section": "Section::::Hybridity as racial mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "As an explicative term, hybridity became a useful tool in forming a fearful discourse of racial mixing that arose toward the end of the 18th century. Pseudo-scientific models of anatomy and craniometry were used to argue that Africans, Asians, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders were racially inferior to Europeans. The fear of miscegenation that followed responds to the concern that the offspring of racial interbreeding would result in the dilution of the European race. Hybrids were seen as an aberration, worse than the inferior races, a weak and diseased mutation. Hybridity as a concern for racial purity responds clearly to the zeitgeist of colonialism where, despite the backdrop of the humanitarian age of enlightenment, social hierarchy was beyond contention as was the position of Europeans at its summit. The social transformations that followed the ending of colonial mandates, rising immigration, and economic liberalization profoundly altered the use and understanding of the term hybridity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52789",
"title": "Androgen insensitivity syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:XX karyotype.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Genetic females (46,XX karyotype) have two X chromosomes, thus have two \"AR\" genes. A mutation in one (but not both) results in a minimally affected, fertile, female carrier. Some carriers have been noted to have slightly reduced body hair, delayed puberty, and/or tall stature, presumably due to skewed X-inactivation. A female carrier will pass the affected \"AR\" gene to her children 50% of the time. If the affected child is a genetic female, she, too, will be a carrier. An affected 46,XY child will have AIS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2559278",
"title": "Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study",
"section": "Section::::Background and study design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "By examining the cognitive ability and school performance of both black and white children adopted into white families, the study intended to separate genetic factors from rearing conditions as causal influences in the gap. \"Trans racial adoption is the human analog of the cross-fostering design, commonly used in animal behavior genetics research... There is no question that adoption constitutes a massive intervention\" (Scarr & Weinberg, 1976, p. 726).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1112101",
"title": "Assortative mating",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1134,
"text": "On the other hand, mating between individuals of genotypes which are too similar allows for the accumulation of harmful recessive alleles, which can decrease fitness. Such mating between genetically similar individuals is termed inbreeding which can result in the emergence of autosomal recessive disorders. Moreover, assortative mating for aggression in birds can lead to inadequate parental care. An alternate strategy can be disassortative mating, in which one individual is aggressive and guards the nest site while the other individual is more nurturing and fosters the young. This division of labor increases the chances of survival of the offspring. A classic example of this is in the case of the white-throated sparrow (\"Zonotrichia albicollis\"). This bird exhibits two color morphs – white striped and tan striped. In both genders, the white striped birds are more aggressive and territorial whereas tan striped birds are more engaged in providing parental care to their offspring. Therefore, disassortative mating in these birds allows for an efficient division of labor in terms of raising and protecting their offspring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gj5i0
|
How much air speed does a modern fighter jet lose by firing a salvo of bullets at an enemy plane?
|
[
{
"answer": "You need to conserve momentum. Assuming an M61 Vulcan cannon firing 100g rounds at 1000 m/s and a burst of 1 second (~100 rounds), a half loaded F-22 Raptor (~25000kg) would lose 0.4 m/s. Even with some fudge factors for the accelerated air, you wouldn't lose more than 1 m/s.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hmm, comment disappeared.\n\nF-22 Raptor ~25000 kg\n\n\nM61 Vulcan cannon fires ~100 rounds/second, 100g, at 1000m/s\n\n\nAfter a 1 second volley, the Raptor lose ~0.4m/s,",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well the F-16 has a mass of about 8600 _URL_1_ has a 20mm cannon that fires 100g rounds (all found [here](_URL_0_)) at about 1000 m/s.\n\n\nFrom conservation of momentum, we can find that each bullet fired will reduce the speed of the plane by about 0.011 m/s. Since the vulcan M61 gatling gun can fire 100 rounds per second, this translates into an acceleration due to the gun of about 1.1 m/s^2, which is about 10% of one g. This is probably barely noticeable to the pilot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Layperson here: I'll get you started if I can.\n\n_URL_2_\n > The Raptor carries an M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon, also with a trap door, in the right wing root. The M61A2 is a last ditch weapon, and carries 480 rounds; enough ammunition for approximately five seconds of sustained fire.\n\n_URL_1_\n > typically firing a 3.5 oz (100 gram) projectile \n...\n > Around 1988 a new round was introduced, the PGU-28/B,[5] which is now standard for US Navy and USAF aircraft. The PGU-28/B is a \"low-drag\" round designed to reduce in-flight drag and deceleration, and has a slightly increased muzzle velocity of 3,450 feet per second (1,050 m/s). \n\nThus the entire salvo would be 48kg, at a velocity of 3450f/s. Now I'm not great with physics, but [wolfram says](_URL_0_) that this equates to 50475 kg m/s. The raptor has a loaded weight of 29,300 kg, so I think that means the aircraft would lose about 1.7 m/s of speed.\n\nThe Raptor cruises at 1,963 km/h (1,220 mph), which is 545 m/s. (Although I suspect that the canon would never be deployed at that speed.) So firing the canon would not be a very remarkable reduction. And of course this is over-simplified; I suspect that there are some intricacies involved here.\n\nAnd somebody please check my work!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(Layman on the subject, but here's a fun fact)\n\nThe A-10 (an anti-tank plane) is designed to fire that [giant gattling gun on it's nose](_URL_0_) while pointed towards the ground. The recoil of the gun causes the plane to maintain its altitude.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Don't forget that the fighter jet is very heavy, so even a large force won't induce much acceleration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It can't slow the plane down much, but what it *can* do is cause the plane to yaw to one side. That's why the gun on the A-10 is [offset to one side](_URL_0_), so that the firing barrel is in the dead center of the plane when it fires (at the 9 o'clock position).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Draw a diagram. Not sure if my math or Physics is right but this is what comes to mind.\n\nPlane --v-- > Pew > Pew > Pew > \n\nNumBullets * MassOfBullet * SpeedOfBullet = BulletsMomentum\n\n((PlaneMassStart + PlaneMassEnd)/2) * PlaneSpeed = AvgPlaneMomentum \n\nAvgPlaceMomentum - BulletsMomentum = NewMomentum\n\nNewSpeedOfPlane = NewMomentum/PlaneMassEnd\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you mean, an African or European jet fighter?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42547783",
"title": "May 1966",
"section": "Section::::May 19, 1966 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "BULLET::::- The XB-70 Valkyrie strategic bomber became the first vehicle to hold a sustained (more than half an hour) in excess of Mach 3. Literally moving faster than a speeding bullet, at three times the speed of sound, the six-engine jet aircraft was flown at its \"triplesonic\" speed of more than 2,000 miles per hour for 32 minutes by test pilot Al White of North American Aviation, and his co-pilot, USAF Colonel Joe Cotton. Friction from the air heated the outside of the aircraft to 620 degrees Fahrenheit. As the plane returned to Edwards Air Force Base in California, the two pilots discovered that the landing gear would not lower because of a short circuit; Colonel Cotton reportedly \"used a paper clip to short circuit an electrical terminal\" to lower the gear, sparing the crew from having \"to bail out and abandon the $500 million craft\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39327014",
"title": "MIM-3 Nike Ajax",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes often has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines roughly double the speed and altitude over piston-powered designs, limiting the number of shells so greatly that the chance of hitting the bomber dropped almost to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40026911",
"title": "SAM-A-1 GAPA",
"section": "Section::::History.:German work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines basically double the speed and altitude of conventional designs, so limiting the number of shells that the chance of hitting the bomber essentially dropped to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288",
"title": "Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cold War and later.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The introduction of jet engines and the subsequent rough doubling of aircraft speeds greatly reduced the effectiveness of the SPAAG against attack aircraft. A typical SPAAG round might have a muzzle velocity on the order of and might take as long as two to three seconds to reach a target at its maximum range. An aircraft flying at is moving at a rate of about . This means the aircraft will have moved hundreds of meters during the flight time of the shells, greatly complicating the aiming problem to the point where close passes were essentially impossible to aim using manual gunsights. This speed also allowed the aircraft to rapidly fly out of range of the guns; even if the aircraft passes directly over the SPAAG, it would be within its firing radius for under 30 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91979",
"title": "Westland Whirlwind (fighter)",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "By the mid-1930s, aircraft designers around the world perceived that increased attack speeds were imposing shorter firing times on fighter pilots. This implied less ammunition hitting the target and ensuring destruction. Instead of two rifle-calibre machine guns, six or eight were required; studies had shown that eight machine guns could deliver 256 rounds per second. The eight machine guns installed in the Spitfire and the Hurricane fired rifle-calibre rounds, which did not deliver enough damage to quickly knock out an opponent. Cannon, such as the French 20 mm Hispano-Suiza HS.404, which could fire explosive ammunition, offered more firepower and attention turned to aircraft designs which could carry four cannon. While the most agile fighter aircraft were generally small and light, their meagre fuel capacity limited their range and tended to restrict them to defensive and interception roles. The larger airframes and bigger fuel loads of twin-engined designs were favoured for long-range, offensive roles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1151868",
"title": "Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The advent of jet engines for fighters and bombers posed new problems for interceptors. With closing speeds of 1,500 ft/s (457 m/s) or more for a head-on interception, the time available for a fighter pilot to successfully target an enemy aircraft and inflict sufficient damage to bring it down was vanishingly small. Wartime experience had shown that .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were not powerful enough to reliably down a bomber, certainly not in a single volley, and heavy autocannon did not have the range or rate of fire to ensure a hit. Unguided rockets had been proven effective in ground-attack work during the war, and the \"Luftwaffe\" had shown that volleys of their \"Werfer-Granate 21\" rockets, first used by elements of the \"Luftwaffe's\" JG 1 and JG 11 fighter wings on July 29, 1943 against USAAF bombers attacking Kiel and Warnemünde, could be a potent air-to-air weapon. The summer and autumn of 1944 saw the adoption of the folding-fin R4M unguided rocket for use underneath the wings of the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter for bomber destroyer duties against the USAAF's Eighth Air Force heavy bombers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182296",
"title": "Junkers Ju 388",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The performance estimates of this aircraft were a cause for great unease in the \"Luftwaffe\". The B-29 had a maximum speed of around 560 km/h (348 mph), and would attack in a cruise at about 360 km/h (224 mph) at 8,000-10,000 m (26,247-32,810 ft), an altitude where no current \"Luftwaffe\" aircraft was effective, and for which the only effective Wehrmacht anti-aircraft gun was the rarely-deployed 12.8 cm FlaK 40, which could effectively fire to an altitude of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dvhh7
|
is a mobius strip actually a 2-dimensional object, or is it a representation?
|
[
{
"answer": "The confusion here comes from the confusion of \"infinite length\" with \"no end\". The Mobius strip does not have infinite length, any more than does a circle.\n\nMathematically speaking, the Mobius strip is a 2D manifold, which basically means if you zoom in enough it looks like a plane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would add that when you're talking about a physical piece of paper that you have twisted into a mobius strip, that is not truly two dimensional. If you were to zoom in close enough, you'd see that the paper has an edge, the page has thickness. So a piece of paper, while often used to represent a 2D object, is really a 3D object, it's just that the paper is very thin, compared to its length and width. So when you're looking at a physical piece of paper that you've twisted and taped into a Mobius strip, you're just looking at a 3D representation of a 2D concept.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37817",
"title": "Möbius strip",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and topology.:Topology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The Möbius strip is a two-dimensional compact manifold (i.e. a surface) with boundary. It is a standard example of a surface that is not orientable. In fact, the Möbius strip is the epitome of the topological phenomenon of nonorientability. This is because two-dimensional shapes (surfaces) are the lowest-dimensional shapes for which nonorientability is possible and the Möbius strip is the only surface that is topologically a subspace of every nonorientable surface. As a result, any surface is nonorientable if and only if it contains a Möbius band as a subspace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37817",
"title": "Möbius strip",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and topology.:Möbius band with round boundary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The edge, or boundary, of a Möbius strip is homeomorphic (topologically equivalent) to a circle. Under the usual embeddings of the strip in Euclidean space, as above, the boundary is not a true circle. However, it is possible to embed a Möbius strip in three dimensions so that the boundary is a perfect circle lying in some plane. For example, see Figures 307, 308, and 309 of \"Geometry and the imagination\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27865",
"title": "Surface (topology)",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and first examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The Möbius strip is a surface on which the distinction between clockwise and counterclockwise can be defined locally, but not globally. In general, a surface is said to be \"orientable\" if it does not contain a homeomorphic copy of the Möbius strip; intuitively, it has two distinct \"sides\". For example, the sphere and torus are orientable, while the real projective plane is not (because the real projective plane with one point removed is homeomorphic to the open Möbius strip).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37817",
"title": "Möbius strip",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and topology.:Widest isometric embedding in 3-space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "If a smooth Möbius strip in three-space is a rectangular one – that is, created from identifying two opposite sides of a geometrical rectangle with bending but not stretching the surface – then such an embedding is known to be possible if the aspect ratio of the rectangle is greater than the square root of three. (Note the shorter sides of the rectangle are identified to obtain the Möbius strip.) For an aspect ratio less than or equal to the square root of three, however, a smooth embedding of a rectangular Möbius strip into three-space may be impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17412",
"title": "Klein bottle",
"section": "Section::::Parametrization.:3D pinched torus / 4D Möbius tube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "One can view this as a tube or cylinder that wraps around, as in a torus, but its circular cross section flips over in four dimensions, presenting its \"backside\" as it reconnects, just as a Möbius strip cross section rotates before it reconnects. The 3D orthogonal projection of this is the pinched torus shown above. Just as a Möbius strip is a subset of a solid torus, the Möbius tube is a subset of a toroidally closed spherinder (solid spheritorus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37817",
"title": "Möbius strip",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "An example of a Möbius strip can be created by taking a paper strip and giving it a half-twist, and then joining the ends of the strip to form a loop. However, the Möbius strip is not a surface of only one exact size and shape, such as the half-twisted paper strip depicted in the illustration. Rather, mathematicians refer to the closed Möbius band as any surface that is homeomorphic to this strip. Its boundary is a simple closed curve, that is, homeomorphic to a circle. This allows for a very wide variety of geometric versions of the Möbius band as surfaces each having a definite size and shape. For example, any rectangle can be glued to itself (by identifying one edge with the opposite edge after a reversal of orientation) to make a Möbius band. Some of these can be smoothly modeled in Euclidean space, and others cannot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37817",
"title": "Möbius strip",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and topology.:Topology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The Möbius strip is also a standard example used to illustrate the mathematical concept of a fiber bundle. Specifically, it is a nontrivial bundle over the circle \"S\" with a fiber the unit interval, . Looking only at the edge of the Möbius strip gives a nontrivial two point (or Z) bundle over \"S\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z2c58
|
why hasn't the us signed the geneva convention?
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't want to be held to international law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't want to have to follow other people's rules.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "But the US have signed, and ratified, the four Geneva Conventions, and the last of three amendment protocols, the first two of the amendment protocols have been signed but not ratified. Thus your question is, in every way, a nonsensical question. \n\nSource: [Page 6 of this pdf. Geneva conventions are abreviated as GCI-IV and amendmet protocols as AP I - III](_URL_0_)\n\nGeneva conventions are abreviated as GCI-IV, and amendmet protocols as AP I - III.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48626",
"title": "War crime",
"section": "Section::::History.:Geneva Conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "The Geneva Conventions are four related treaties adopted and continuously expanded from 1864 to 1949 that represent a legal basis and framework for the conduct of war under international law. Every single member state of the United Nations has currently ratified the conventions, which are universally accepted as customary international law, applicable to every situation of armed conflict in the world. However, the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions adopted in 1977 containing the most pertinent, detailed and comprehensive protections of international humanitarian law for persons and objects in modern warfare are still not ratified by a number of States continuously engaged in armed conflicts, namely the United States, Israel, India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, and others. Accordingly, states retain different codes and values with regard to wartime conduct. Some signatories have routinely violated the Geneva Conventions in a way which either uses the ambiguities of law or political maneuvering to sidestep the laws' formalities and principles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1093604",
"title": "International humanitarian law",
"section": "Section::::Geneva Conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The Geneva Conventions of 1949 may be seen, therefore, as the result of a process which began in 1864. Today they have \"achieved universal participation with 194 parties\". This means that they apply to almost any international armed conflict. The Additional Protocols, however, have yet to achieve near-universal acceptance, since the United States and several other significant military powers (like Iran, Israel, India and Pakistan) are currently not parties to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12012887",
"title": "Habeas corpus petitions of Guantanamo Bay detainees",
"section": "Section::::Abuses of international human rights law and habeas corpus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The Geneva Conventions, of which there are four, are considered universal treaties in international law. They created the idea of International humanitarian law and codify customary international law regarding laws in wartime. By signing parties agreed to criminalise any breaches in their own domestic courts, U.S recognised this when they enacted their own War Crimes Act. However the declaration made by Bush in 2002 had the effect of 'exempting all alleged members of Al Qaeda from the protections of the Geneva conventions'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23550210",
"title": "North Vietnam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Supervision of the implementation of the Geneva Accords was the responsibility of an international commission consisting of India, Canada, and Poland. The United States did not sign the Geneva Accords, which stated that the United States \"shall continue to seek to achieve unity through free elections supervised by the United Nations to insure that they are conducted fairly\". In July 1955, the prime minister of the Republic of Vietnam, Ngô Đình Diệm, announced that South Vietnam would not participate in elections to unify the country. He said that South Vietnam had not signed the Geneva Accords and was not bound by it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1093604",
"title": "International humanitarian law",
"section": "Section::::Geneva Conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The Geneva Conventions are the result of a process that developed in a number of stages between 1864 and 1949. It focused on the protection of civilians and those who can no longer fight in an armed conflict. As a result of World War II, all four conventions were revised, based on previous revisions and on some of the 1907 Hague Conventions, and readopted by the international community in 1949. Later conferences have added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66191",
"title": "Fourth Geneva Convention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "In 1993, the United Nations Security Council adopted a report from the Secretary-General and a Commission of Experts which concluded that the Geneva Conventions had passed into the body of customary international law, thus making them binding on non-signatories to the Conventions whenever they engage in armed conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47702",
"title": "Torture",
"section": "Section::::Laws against torture.:Geneva Conventions.:Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "There are two additional protocols to the Geneva Convention: Protocol I (1977), relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts and Protocol II (1977), relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts. These clarify and extend the definitions in some areas, but to date many countries, including the United States, have either not signed them or have not ratified them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
111rpj
|
How accurate is the show How Booze Built America?
|
[
{
"answer": "People certainly drank a lot, about three times as much as we do today and they tended to drink hard stuff while we mostly drink beer and wine( mid 19th century United States). I haven't seen the show, but it certainly sounds like an exaggeration. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37053570",
"title": "How Booze Built America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "How Booze Built America is an American reality-documentary Miniseries starring Mike Rowe. The miniseries premiered on the Discovery Channel on September 19, 2012. In each episode, Rowe travels around the United States discussing how alcoholic beverages affected periods throughout American history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22009904",
"title": "Davy Crockett (miniseries)",
"section": "Section::::Disney.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The shows sparked heated debate, with many questioning whether Crockett was really deserving of the amount of attention that he was receiving. Letter writers also questioned the series' historical accuracy. Nevertheless, the shows proved very popular. They were combined into a feature-length movie in the summer of 1955, and Parker and his co-star Buddy Ebsen toured the United States, Europe, and Japan. By the end of 1955, Americans had purchased over $300 million worth of Davy Crockett merchandise ($2 billion by 2001).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8497984",
"title": "American Eats",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The series examines the history of American cooking and foods. Each episode details the particular foods' origins, key innovators, history, and evolution into modern cuisine. The series is subtitled \"The Food That Built America\" due to its reverence for food's place in American history and its impact on culture. The show is known for its nostalgia and general quirkiness, often including facts such as \"Did you know Teddy Roosevelt took over 500 gallons of beer on an African safari?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2870572",
"title": "Lee Cornes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In an interview in \"The Guardian\" (Feb 2019) Jo Brand cited Cornes as the funniest standup she's ever seen. \"Lee Cornes once did the same set in the first half and the second half of a show at the Comedy Store to see how pissed the audience were.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42411776",
"title": "The World Wars (miniseries)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The show was produced for History Channel by Stephen David Entertainment, the production company behind the Emmy Award-winning miniseries \"The Men Who Built America\". A portion of the filming took place in and around Martinsburg, West Virginia in the United States during October and November 2013. The series was introduced by United States President Barack Obama in a pre-recorded message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59916245",
"title": "The Right Stuff (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "\"The Right Stuff\" takes a \"gritty, anti-nostalgic look at what would become America's first reality show as the obsessive original Mercury Seven astronauts and their families become instant celebrities in a competition that will either kill them or make them immortal. The one-hour drama will follow the protagonists from the Mojave Desert to the edges of space, with future seasons carrying through to humankind’s greatest achievement: the moon landing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583752",
"title": "Busty Heart",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "She appeared on the season finale of \"America's Got Talent\" (NBC) on October 1, 2008. She also appeared on \"Rude Tube\" on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom in November 2008. Among her most famous television appearances, she was on Comedy Central's \"The Man Show\", where she demonstrated her talent for crushing beer cans by slamming her breasts on top of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dgz5w6
|
why is there a delay with connecting a bluetooth device to a different device?
|
[
{
"answer": "When a device changes Bluetooth association like you describe, two things are happening. It's terminating the connection to the first device, and performing the handshaking protocols to connect to the new one. If it isn't actively connected to a different device, there's nothing to disconnect from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "566387",
"title": "Piconet",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Because the Bluetooth system hops over 79 channels, the probability of interfering with another Bluetooth system is less than 1.5%. This allows several Bluetooth piconets to operate in the same area at the same time with minimal interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3742",
"title": "Bluetooth",
"section": "Section::::Security.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 283,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 283,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Bluetooth v2.1 – finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009 – makes significant changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See the pairing mechanisms section for more about these changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3742",
"title": "Bluetooth",
"section": "Section::::Technical information.:Pairing and bonding.:Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 247,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 247,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Many services offered over Bluetooth can expose private data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to establish a connection without user intervention (for example, as soon as in range).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39726267",
"title": "Control Center (iOS)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The iOS 11 update was criticized for changing the way the buttons for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth work; more specifically, the toggles would disconnect devices from Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, while leaving the radios on. The Electronic Frontier Foundation stated that this change not only hurt battery life, but was also bad for security, describing the buttons as turning Wi-Fi and Bluetooth \"off-ish\" (greyed out, but not crossed out, as it would appear if switched off directly from the Settings app), as well as further criticizing the connections resuming at 5:00 am everyday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42637423",
"title": "Ronald B. Herberman",
"section": "Section::::Opinions on mobile telephones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "“It seems very likely that bluetooth headsets reduce exposure to radiofrequency radiation, since instead of the full strength of the radiation coming from the cell phone tower to the antenna on your phone, there is only much shorter distance radiation from the phone to the headset. However, bluetooth headsets can still carry health risks if one wears the headset, turned on, all day, since the lower level of such radiation is cumulative.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1263239",
"title": "Bluesnarfing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Any device with its Bluetooth connection turned on and set to \"discoverable\" (able to be found by other Bluetooth devices in range) may be susceptible to Bluejacking and possibly to Bluesnarfing if there is a vulnerability in the vendor's software. By turning off this feature, the potential victim can be safer from the possibility of being Bluesnarfed; although a device that is set to \"hidden\" may be Bluesnarfable by guessing the device's MAC address via a brute force attack. As with all brute force attacks, the main obstacle to this approach is the sheer number of possible MAC addresses. Bluetooth uses a 48-bit unique MAC Address, of which the first 24 bits are common to a manufacturer. The remaining 24 bits have approximately 16.8 million possible combinations, requiring an average of 8.4 million attempts to guess by brute force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210476",
"title": "SIM lock",
"section": "Section::::Unlocking technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Most handsets have security measures built into their firmware that protects them from repeated attempts to guess the unlock code. After entering more than a certain number of incorrect codes the phone becomes \"frozen\". This is a state where the phone will display a security message that the phone needs service. Older phones could no longer be used at all at this point, however modern smartphones often keep working with the original SIM but require extra work to then unlock them correctly. In extreme situations physical access to internal hardware via in-circuit debugging may be utilised (for example, via JTAG headers on a circuit board). Such access may be required to modify initalization software used for booting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ksjff
|
How deep can insects live in the ground?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not quite insects but nematodes have been found 3.6km underground. \n\n[Nematoda from the terrestrial deep subsurface of South Africa](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32625124",
"title": "Organisms at high altitude",
"section": "Section::::Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Insects can fly and kite at very high altitude. In 2008, a colony of bumble bees was discovered on Mount Everest at more than above sea level, the highest known altitude for an insect. In subsequent tests some of the bees were still able to fly in a flight chamber which recreated the thinner air of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4189127",
"title": "River ecosystem",
"section": "Section::::Biotic factors.:Insects and other invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Up to 90% of invertebrates in some lotic systems are insects. These species exhibit tremendous diversity and can be found occupying almost every available habitat, including the surfaces of stones, deep below the substratum in the hyporheic zone, adrift in the current, and in the surface film. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676889",
"title": "Aeroplankton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "A large number of small animals, mainly arthropods (such as insects and spiders), are also carried upwards into the atmosphere by air currents and may be found floating several thousand feet up. Aphids, for example, are frequently found at high altitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33205655",
"title": "Ambrysus amargosus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "This aquatic insect is about 6 millimeters long. It does not fly. It lives in the Point of Rocks Springs at Ash Meadows, where it can be found in a few channels of flowing water measuring no more than 0.3 meters wide by 10 meters long. It was restricted to these trickles when the flowing spring water was channelized and impounded. Ten acres have been designated critical habitat for this insect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46989",
"title": "Grand Canyon",
"section": "Section::::Biology and ecology.:Life zones and communities.:Lower Sonoran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Some of the common insects found at elevations above are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies. Solifugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can be found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42179",
"title": "Mount Everest",
"section": "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "\"Euophrys omnisuperstes\", a minute black jumping spider, has been found at elevations as high as , possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. It lurks in crevices and may feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind. There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379303",
"title": "Gas exchange",
"section": "Section::::Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "Unlike the invertebrates groups mentioned so far, insects are usually terrestrial, and exchange gases across a moist surface in direct contact with the atmosphere, rather than in contact with surrounding water. The insect's exoskeleton is impermeable to gases, including water vapor, so they have a more specialised gas exchange system, requiring gases to be directly transported to the tissues via a complex network of tubes. This respiratory system is separated from their circulatory system. Gases enter and leave the body through openings called spiracles, located laterally along the thorax and abdomen. Similar to plants, insects are able to control the opening and closing of these spiracles, but instead of relying on turgor pressure, they rely on muscle contractions. These contractions result in an insect's abdomen being pumped in and out. The spiracles are connected to tubes called tracheae, which branch repeatedly and ramify into the insect's body. These branches terminate in specialised tracheole cells which provides a thin, moist surface for efficient gas exchange, directly with cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
417zdc
|
why are some colds way worse than others? if i have a bad cold and transfer it to someone else, is it guaranteed to be bad for him/her?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on your immune response.\n\nInflammation, fever, coughing and runny nose are mostly caused by your immune system fighting the virus.\n\nDepending on the effectiveness of the immune system it might be a single day of hell or a week of minor problems.\n\nNot to mention that a \"bad cold\" is subjective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe. Adults typically have two to three infections annually, and children may have six to ten colds a year (and up to twelve colds a year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34061",
"title": "Winter",
"section": "Section::::Humans and winter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Humans are sensitive to cold, see hypothermia. Snowblindness, norovirus, seasonal depression. Slipping on black ice and falling icicles are other health concerns associated with cold and snowy weather. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is not unusual for homeless people to die from hypothermia in the winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in causing the common cold, with rhinoviruses being the most common. They spread through the air during close contact with infected people or indirectly through contact with objects in the environment, followed by transfer to the mouth or nose. Risk factors include going to child care facilities, not sleeping well, and psychological stress. The symptoms are mostly due to the body's immune response to the infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves. In contrast, those affected by influenza can show similar symptoms as people with a cold, but symptoms are usually more severe. Additionally, influenza is less likely to result in a runny nose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39603827",
"title": "Human coronavirus OC43",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Along with HCoV-229E, a species in the Alphacoronavirus genus, HCoV-OC43 are among the known viruses that cause the common cold. Both viruses can cause severe lower respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy and those with HIV-AIDS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The common cold, also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally those with other health problems may develop pneumonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725090",
"title": "Cold",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377055",
"title": "Frostbite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "People who are exposed to low temperatures for prolonged periods, such as winter sports enthusiasts, military personnel, and homeless individuals, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors include drinking alcohol, smoking, mental health problems, certain medications, and prior injuries due to cold. The underlying mechanism involves injury from ice crystals and blood clots in small blood vessels following thawing. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. Severity may be divided into superficial (1st and 2nd degree) or deep (3rd and 4th degree). A bone scan or MRI may help in determining the extent of injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dtj9d4
|
After The Civil War, Did Some Ex-Confederates Just Leave the United States Entirely?
|
[
{
"answer": "More can always be added, but /u/sowser wrote [this post](_URL_0_) in this sub about the Confederados who went to Brazil.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13121768",
"title": "American immigration to Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In 1865 a substantial number of former Confederates fled to Mexico from the defeated Confederate States of America. They set up the New Virginia Colony. However, many of the ex-Confederates left the country once Emperor Maxmilian I was overthrown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14137098",
"title": "List of landmark court decisions in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Texas v. White\", The states that formed the Confederate States of America during the Civil War never actually left the Union because a state cannot unilaterally secede from the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555497",
"title": "New Texas",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Following the end of the American Civil War, many former Confederates desired to flee the now-unified United States of America. This inclination was fueled by resentment towards their new \"oppressive\" leaders, along with a conviction that the economic and political conditions of the South would be slow to improve during the era of Reconstruction. For some, they chose to flee to another country in hopes of preserving their former way of life, including slavery, but as immigration was an expensive action, not all were able to participate. In addition to this, several Confederate leaders (including General Robert E. Lee) discouraged individuals from leaving the country. One popular destination for these displaced citizens was Brazil due to the fact slavery was still legal, resulting in up to 20,000 people immigrating from the South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52947427",
"title": "List of governors of dependent territories in the 19th century",
"section": "Section::::United States of America.:Territories in North America.:Confederate States of America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The Confederate States of America was an unrecognized country in North America, formed by secessionist slave-holding states, that existed from 1861 to 1865. In \"Texas v. White\" the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that rebellious states had never legally left the union. However, the states were ruled by military governments after the war, and by appointed governors during Reconstruction (1865–1877). Those governors are listed here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25835747",
"title": "Central Confederacy",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "In 1861, states located in the southern region of the United States, withdrew from the union after the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln, out of fear that he would hurt the institution of slavery. These southern states formed the Confederate States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863",
"title": "American Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Of the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states were declared by partisans to have seceded from the country, and a Confederate States of America was organized in rebellion against the U.S. Constitutional government. The Confederacy grew to control at least a majority of territory in eleven states, and it claimed the additional states of Kentucky and Missouri by assertions from native secessionists fleeing Union authority, but without territory or population therein; these states were given full representation in the Confederate Congress throughout the Civil War. The two remaining slave states, Delaware and Maryland, were invited to join the Confederacy, but nothing substantial developed due to intervention by federal troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4161846",
"title": "Americas (terminology)",
"section": "Section::::Human geography.:Political divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "BULLET::::- Confederate States of America—a former confederation in North America from 1861 to 1865, comprising eleven southern states that attempted to secede from the United States of America: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Their rebellion precipitated the American Civil War; upon its conclusion, the Confederate States were readmitted to representation in the United States Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49znjz
|
If speed depends of the spacial reference system chosen, wouldn't kinetic energy depends too? If so kinetic energy is defined by the object chosen by the observer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, kinetic energy depends on your reference frame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, kinetic energy depends on which reference frame. Additionally, this is where E=Mc^2 comes along. E in that equation is rest energy, which all matter has. The total energy takes into account the kinetic energy, which will be affected by a factor of 'gamma'. Gamma is the relationship between reference frame translation which is the same factor that affects time dilation and length contraction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "286788",
"title": "Galilean invariance",
"section": "Section::::Work, kinetic energy, and momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Correspondingly the kinetic energy of an object, and even the change in this energy due to a change in velocity, depends on the inertial frame of reference. The total kinetic energy of an isolated system also depends on the inertial frame of reference: it is the sum of the total kinetic energy in a center of momentum frame and the kinetic energy the total mass would have if it were concentrated in the center of mass. Due to the conservation of momentum the latter does not change with time, so changes with time of the total kinetic energy do not depend on the inertial frame of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17327",
"title": "Kinetic energy",
"section": "Section::::Newtonian kinetic energy.:Frame of reference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The speed, and thus the kinetic energy of a single object is frame-dependent (relative): it can take any non-negative value, by choosing a suitable inertial frame of reference. For example, a bullet passing an observer has kinetic energy in the reference frame of this observer. The same bullet is stationary to an observer moving with the same velocity as the bullet, and so has zero kinetic energy. By contrast, the total kinetic energy of a system of objects cannot be reduced to zero by a suitable choice of the inertial reference frame, unless all the objects have the same velocity. In any other case, the total kinetic energy has a non-zero minimum, as no inertial reference frame can be chosen in which all the objects are stationary. This minimum kinetic energy contributes to the system's invariant mass, which is independent of the reference frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4757213",
"title": "Hunting oscillation",
"section": "Section::::Railway wheelsets.:Energy balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "In order to get an estimate of the critical speed, we use the fact that the condition for which this kinematic solution is valid corresponds to the case where there is no net energy exchange with the surroundings, so by considering the kinetic and potential energy of the system, we should be able to derive the critical speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24372574",
"title": "One-way speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Inertial frames and dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "It was argued against the conventionality of the one-way speed of light that this concept is closely related to dynamics, the laws of motion and inertial reference frames. Salmon described some variations of this argument using momentum conservation, from which it follows that two equal bodies at the same place which are equally accelerated in opposite directions, should move with the same one-way velocity. Similarly, Ohanian argued that inertial reference frames are defined so that Newton's laws of motion hold in first approximation. Therefore, since the laws of motion predict isotropic one-way speeds of moving bodies with equal acceleration, and because of the experiments demonstrating the equivalence between Einstein synchronization and slow clock-transport synchronization, it appears to be required and directly measured that the one-way speed of light is isotropic in inertial frames. Otherwise, both the concept of inertial reference frames and the laws of motion must be replaced by much more complicated ones involving anisotropic coordinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17327",
"title": "Kinetic energy",
"section": "Section::::Relativistic kinetic energy of rigid bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "If a body's speed is a significant fraction of the speed of light, it is necessary to use relativistic mechanics to calculate its kinetic energy. In special relativity theory, the expression for linear momentum is modified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40716096",
"title": "Self-powered dynamic systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "II. The kinetic energy in the direction of motion of a dynamic system is only recovered if the system is stationary (e.g. a bridge structure), or the recoverable energy is negligible in comparison with the power required for motion (e.g. a low powered sensor).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17327",
"title": "Kinetic energy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Several mathematical descriptions of kinetic energy exist that describe it in the appropriate physical situation. For objects and processes in common human experience, the formula ½mv² given by Newtonian (classical) mechanics is suitable. However, if the speed of the object is comparable to the speed of light, relativistic effects become significant and the relativistic formula is used. If the object is on the atomic or sub-atomic scale, quantum mechanical effects are significant, and a quantum mechanical model must be employed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bf5o9
|
Looking back at past early presidential elections, there were never any popular or county results for South Carolina, Why is this? How did they vote for president?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's a good catch. I don't know offhand when it changed, but during the antebellum period a lot of political power was routed through the SC General Assembly. Eligible white male voters could vote for their state representatives, but the legislature would then choose the governor and other prominent state positions, US senators and representatives, and vote on the state's behalf for President.\n\nWhat's fascinating is how this reflects upon South Carolina's (though the South was indeed diverse, SC wasn't singular in its beliefs either) interpretations of American notions of liberty and republican government. They were adamant in their support of these ideas but were also forced to reconcile them with their wider cultural beliefs which espoused the existence of naturally elite men (and they were men) who were uniquely suited to lead the rest of society. These men distinguished themselves through social, personal, and economic independence as demonstrated through ownership of land and slaves as well as absolute control of their business (plantation) and family lives. They achieved economic independence via prosperous plantations and demonstrated leadership through the control of dependents (wives, children, slaves). Theoretically any white man could enter this class but SC's commitment to this ideal also meant that state government was highly insular and restrictive. A small elite group kept a firm grip on nearly all state government affairs.\n\nReadings:\n\nStephanie McCurry, *Masters of Small Worlds*\n\nDrew Faust, *James Henry Hammond and the Old South*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54462070",
"title": "1852 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The 1852 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place on November 2, 1852, as part of the 1852 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose nine representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40162893",
"title": "1988 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "Section::::Partisan background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The presidential election of 1988 was a very partisan election for South Carolina, with more than 99% of the electorate voting for either the Democratic or Republican parties, and only four candidates appearing on the ballot. As can be seen in several states across the country during this election, the large population centers in South Carolina voted Republican, but several counties near-by the large population centers voted Democratic, suggesting the influence of suburban populations. A good example of this effect, is with the city of Columbia's Richland County, which voted Republican, while its less-populated neighbor, Fairfield County, voted Democratic. This geographic trend is opposite of what you would expect to see with these parties, and once again may suggest an element of influence from (for example) the city of Columbia's suburban districts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39099947",
"title": "1832 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The 1832 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 2 and December 5, 1832, as part of the 1832 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 11 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55249534",
"title": "1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The 1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 4 and December 7, 1796, as part of the 1796 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54471013",
"title": "1856 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The 1856 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place on November 4, 1856, as part of the 1856 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose nine representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "431669",
"title": "Northeastern United States",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The following table of United States presidential election results since 1900 illustrates that over the past six presidential elections, only three Northeastern states supported a Republican candidate (New Hampshire voted for George W. Bush in 2000; Pennsylvania and Maine's 2nd congressional district voted for Donald Trump in 2016). Bolded entries indicate that party's candidate also won the general election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54489036",
"title": "1860 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The 1860 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place on November 6, 1860, as part of the 1860 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president, which would be the last time the state would do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
204wz3
|
how are small cell services like boost so much cheaper than large ones like verizon?
|
[
{
"answer": "They dont maintain their own towers. If you live in a rural area, service will probably be good, however I believe their data works a little different. For example, first 2gb at 4g, then 3g after. I have been thinking about switching myself. I have had att since my first cell phone, but they are pretty expensive. I pay $100 a mo for the minimal package. Stupid. 50 sounds a lot better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The two biggest reasons are lower risk and no subsidized phones. \n\nRisk - They don't maintain towers, just purchase bandwidth from from the big guys. Don't have to worry about building towers, don't have any actual assets (with the exception of some tech support and a billing department). \n\nSubsidized phones - for whatever reason, in the american market consumers don't like to front the ~$600 cost of a phone up front (like pretty much the rest of the world does). So retailers decided to just cut off about 400 of that cost and tack on another 20/month to your plan, and force you into a two year contract (also notice that 20*24 /= 400). \n\nMy wife and I switched from verizon (probably around 150+ a month) to net10 (85 a month). Net10 runs on At & t and Tmobile, so it's not quite as good of service, but it's nearly half the cost. And I can use a nexus 5. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Little FYI:\n\nSprint owns Boost Mobile and part of Virgin Mobile\n\nT-Mobile owns Metro PCS\n\nVerizon owns no known MVNOs\n\nAT & T Owns a SHIT TON\n\nAmérican Móvil owns TracFone, Net 10, PagePlus etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5697427",
"title": "Universal Service Fund",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Waste and fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "This cut to the Lifeline program prevents other smaller companies known as resellers from \"buying network capacity from big telecom providers and then selling it back to low-income consumers at cheaper rates.\" This is problematic for the majority of Lifeline customers who rely on those cheaper rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49379147",
"title": "NeoPhotonics Corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Revenues from the company's high speed products have grown rapidly due to the rapid expansion of telecom backbone and content provider networks accommodating increased mobile traffic. Initial adoption of the company's 100G coherent products were in the Long Haul market sector, over the next several years it is expect that growth in 100G and beyond will be mainly driven by adoption of 100G coherent products in the much larger Metro market sector and the datacenter market for large web-scale data network market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7756768",
"title": "Femtocell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Consumers and small businesses benefit from greatly improved coverage and signal strength since they have a \"de facto\" base station inside their premises. As a result of being relatively close to the femtocell, the mobile phone (user equipment) expends significantly less power for communication with it, thus increasing battery life. They may also get better voice quality (via HD voice) depending on a number of factors such as operator/network support, customer contract/price plan, phone and operating system support. Some carriers may also offer more attractive tariffs, for example discounted calls from home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41015991",
"title": "Telecommunications lease",
"section": "Section::::Industry growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The telecommunication industry is growing as the need for 4G and 5G networks flourishes. As a result of this growth there is a constant demand for cellular networks to increase their coverage. Therefore, more cellular towers are constructed and more leases are drawn up between the cellular provider and landowners, which can include municipalities and private landowners, such as homeowners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31282665",
"title": "Tiered Internet service",
"section": "Section::::Tiered cellular data plans.:Verizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Verizon Wireless introduced their LTE network with the capability for tiered services at the end of 2010. Because the company's 4G network is now available in cities across the United States, Verizon has the opportunity to charge premium prices for faster data delivery. Such data plans allow Verizon to charge under a tiered service platform, similar to many home wired Internet services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041546",
"title": "Ooredoo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "In 2010 the company upgraded its 3G network in the country and launched its Mobile Money service. By 2012, its network grew with its fiber network that provided services with download speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s, HDTV, and its initial phase of its 4G LTE mobile broadband service. The company's consumer base has grown significantly in recent times, from 1.9 million subscribers in 2008 to 2.5 million in 2012 within Qatar. Its annual revenues increased by QAR 3.5 billion from 2012 to 2013 in a single quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2060211",
"title": "Eastlink (company)",
"section": "Section::::Service offerings.:Fixed wireless Internet in rural Nova Scotia.:Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "As of early 2011, Rogers, Aliant, and Telus' mobile Internet offerings are extraordinarily expensive for heavy users and tethering of personal computers is not necessarily included under these plans; the price per gigabyte of the Eastlink service is clearly superior to any of these offerings. However, the maximum speed is much less (1.5Mbit/s download versus up to 21Mbit/s) and more so when these cellular providers upgrade to dual-carrier (42Mbit/s) HSPA+. For those more concerned with speed and less with price, cellular options will be a superior rural networking choice; for those concerned with price, Eastlink's fixed wireless service, the expansion of Wi-Fi hotspots, and the use of 802.11u and 802.21 will continue to form a more reliable mesh especially in attracting tourists or in densely populated areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dxpr6d
|
How is the double slit experiment with single particle done practically ?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can make sensors sensitive to single electrons, shoot electrons with a low average rate and discard events where more than one electron came close together. In principle you could also make a source that can release individual electrons.\n\n[Single-photon sources](_URL_0_) are a standard research tool. You create exactly two photons, the detection of one of them shows that there is a single other photon on the way to your experiment.\n\n > How do they make thin enough slit?\n\nIt doesn't have to be that thin.\n\n > How do they detect a photon without absorbing it, since it has to pursue its trajectory?\n\nYou absorb it in the detection - behind the double slit.\n\n > How do they pump out matter so that the single-particle could propagate in void space?\n\nWith good vacuum pumps, where needed. You don't need it for the double slit experiment with light, as light doesn't interact often with air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667",
"title": "Double-slit experiment",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In 2012, Stefano Frabboni and co-workers eventually performed the double-slit experiment with electrons and real slits, following the original scheme proposed by Feynman. They sent single electrons onto nanofabricated slits (about 100 nm wide) and, by collecting the transmitted electrons with a single-electron detector, they could show the build-up of a double-slit interference pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667",
"title": "Double-slit experiment",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "A double-slit experiment was not performed with anything other than light until 1961, when Claus Jönsson of the University of Tübingen performed it with electron beams. In 1974, the Italian physicists Pier Giorgio Merli, Gian Franco Missiroli, and Giulio Pozzi repeated the experiment using single electrons and biprism (instead of slits), showing that each electron interferes with itself as predicted by quantum theory. In 2002, the single-electron version of the experiment was voted \"the most beautiful experiment\" by readers of \"Physics World.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3474980",
"title": "Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment",
"section": "Section::::Double-slit version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The double slit experiment, like the other six idealized experiments (microscope, split beam, tilt-teeth, radiation pattern, one-photon polarization, and polarization of paired photons), imposes a choice between complementary modes of observation. In each experiment we have found a way to delay that choice of type of phenomenon to be looked for up to the very final stage of development of the phenomenon, and it depends on whichever type of detection device we then fix upon. That delay makes no difference in the experimental predictions. On this score everything we find was foreshadowed in that solitary and pregnant sentence of Bohr, \"...it...can make no difference, as regards observable effects obtainable by a definite experimental arrangement, whether our plans for constructing or handling the instruments are fixed beforehand or whether we prefer to postpone the completion of our planning until a later moment when the particle is already on its way from one instrument to another.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54717",
"title": "De Broglie–Bohm theory",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Double-slit experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The double-slit experiment is an illustration of wave-particle duality. In it, a beam of particles (such as electrons) travels through a barrier that has two slits. If one puts a detector screen on the side beyond the barrier, the pattern of detected particles shows interference fringes characteristic of waves arriving at the screen from two sources (the two slits); however, the interference pattern is made up of individual dots corresponding to particles that had arrived on the screen. The system seems to exhibit the behaviour of both waves (interference patterns) and particles (dots on the screen).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667",
"title": "Double-slit experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The experiment can be done with entities much larger than electrons and photons, although it becomes more difficult as size increases. The largest entities for which the double-slit experiment has been performed were molecules that each comprised 810 atoms (whose total mass was over 10,000 atomic mass units).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667",
"title": "Double-slit experiment",
"section": "Section::::Variations of the experiment.:Other variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In 2012, researchers at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln performed the double-slit experiment with electrons as described by Richard Feynman, using new instruments that allowed control of the transmission of the two slits and the monitoring of single-electron detection events. Electrons were fired by an electron gun and passed through one or two slits of 62 nm wide × 4 μm tall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667",
"title": "Double-slit experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "In modern physics, the double-slit experiment is a demonstration that light and matter can display characteristics of both classically defined waves and particles; moreover, it displays the fundamentally probabilistic nature of quantum mechanical phenomena. The experiment was first performed with light by Thomas Young in 1801. In 1927, Davisson and Germer demonstrated that electrons show the same behavior, which was later extended to atoms and molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mnhs3
|
What practical purpose did the comfort women under Japanese occupation serve? Were there cases where the same purpose was fulfilled without resorting to comfort women in history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Serious question: Did Comfort women really exist?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To put it in a bit of perspective:\n\nIn ancient times, when armies went to war and conquered a city, poor discipline could lead to the army going on rampage and burning, looting, and raping their way through the conquered city. This was called a sack. While large-scale sacks mostly died out after the 1800s (for instance in the wake of the Sepoy Mutiny), it was still a major concern for the public images of many governments, not the least of which was the Japanese. The Japanese had already had their image tarnished in the First Sino-Japanese War, when Japanese troops massacred Chinese civilians after sieging Port Arthur.\n\nTo combat this, the administration had the \"bright\" idea of setting up government mandated prostitution for the troops. The idea was that by giving the troops a legal, government-controlled avenue to vent their sexual frustration, this would minimize their need to go around raping and killing innocent civilians. Meanwhile, the prostitutes would be able to earn money to pump back into the Japanese economy. Win-win, right?\n\nThe problem was that, as with most things run by the Japanese government at the time, the management of the comfort women program-not least due to the socially conservative views of the ruling government-was at an arms distance and more or less uncontrolled. A very small amount of actual volunteers for the program led to coercion, informal \"selling\" of daughters, and outright kidnapping and trafficking. In the conquered territories, Chinese and Korean women were often impressed into the service, or lied to, saying it was a factory that needed workers or the like. There were many more Chinese and Korean women serving as comfort women than Japanese women: this partly contributed to a Japanese comfort woman being more expensive than Chinese or Korean ones.\n\nAfter the war ended, in preparation for the American occupation, the Japanese government, fearful of American soldiers running around raping Japanese women (especially their blue-blood, aristocratic daughters), organized a similar institution, the Recreation and Amusement Association, this time recruiting primarily poorer Japanese women with the promise of food, money, and shelter, as well as with Yakuza intimidation tactics and the aforementioned lying and kidnapping. This association was shut down within the year, but it should be noted that after the association was shut down, the number of rapes under Allied occupation increased significantly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33177747",
"title": "Liu Huang A-tao",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The experiences of survivors of the comfort women program were largely ignored for decades in post-war Asia. The issue finally emerged into the public sphere during the 1980s, when a group of survivors in neighboring South Korea filed several lawsuits against the Japanese government. Documents were uncovered in 1991 which forced the Japanese government to issue an apology and \"remorse to all those, irrespective of place of origin, who suffered immeasurable pain and incurable psychological wounds\" to Korean comfort women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1977834",
"title": "Slavery in Japan",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "According to the United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121, as many as 200,000 \"comfort women\" mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines, Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands, and Australia were forced into sexual slavery during World War II to satisfy Japanese Imperial Army and Navy members. Many of these women — particularly the Dutch and Australian women — were also used for hard physical labour, forced to work arduous tasks in the fields and roads while on starvation rations. While apologies have been handed out by the Japanese government and government politicians, including the Asian Women's fund, which grants donated financial compensations to former comfort women, the Japanese government has also worked to downplay its use of comfort women in recent times, claiming that all compensations for its war conduct were resolved with post-war treaties such as the Treaty of San Francisco, and, for example, asking the mayor of Palisades Park, New Jersey to take down a memorial in memory of the women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302767",
"title": "Comfort women",
"section": "Section::::History of the issue.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "In 2012, the former mayor of Osaka and co-leader of the Japan Restoration Party, Tōru Hashimoto initially maintained that \"there is no evidence that people called comfort women were taken away by violence or threat by the [Japanese] military\". He later modified his position, asserting that they became comfort women \"against their will by any circumstances around them\", still justifying their role during World War II as \"necessary\", so that soldiers could \"have a rest\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17572536",
"title": "Wartime sexual violence",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Asia.:Japanese army.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The term \"comfort women\" is a euphemism for the estimated 200,000, mostly Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Taiwanese and Filipino women who were forced to serve as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels during World War II. In the Nanking Massacre, Japanese soldiers sexually assaulted female civilians who were trapped in the city of Nanjing when it fell to the Japanese on 13 December 1937.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44835886",
"title": "Park Yu-ha",
"section": "Section::::\"Comfort Women of the Empire\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Based on historical documents and the testimony of comfort women, including several cases of comfort women who fell in love with Japanese soldiers, a soldier who took care of a sick woman, or soldiers who helped comfort women to return their home country, Park asserts the existence of hidden comfort women who have been excluded from the mainstream narrative of comfort women, mainly consisting of \"Japanese military coerced Korean women\" and \"sex-slaves\". She describes a more complex relationship between the comfort women and soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2945072",
"title": "Human rights in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Comfort women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Several cases filed by women forced to work as \"comfort women\" (women and girls forced into sexual slavery) during World War II were finalized during 2004. In February, the Tokyo High Court rejected an appeal by 7 Taiwanese former \"comfort women\", while in November the Supreme Court dismissed a damage suit filed in 1991 by 35 Korean wartime \"comfort women\". In December 2004 the Tokyo High Court dismissed an appeal by 4 Chinese former \"comfort women\", and the Supreme Court rejected a suit filed in 1993 by 46 Filipina wartime \"comfort women\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1722371",
"title": "2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations",
"section": "Section::::Specific issues.:Comfort women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Comfort women were women who were forced to work as prostitutes in brothels in Japanese-occupied countries during World War II. There is much controversy surrounding this subject. On one side, some groups in Japan claimed that prior to Japanese expansion, brothels always existed in the eastern and southeastern regions of Asia in order to service European and American sailors and merchant vessels. According to Bradley Martin (\"Under the loving care of the fatherly leader\"), an expert on Korean history, claims the majority of comfort women actually volunteered to work in the brothels, as employment in the occupied areas was very limited. On the other side, most nations in the world believe that the overwhelming majority of comfort women were young girls abducted from their homes and forced into prostitution by the Japanese government and Imperial Japanese Army as sexual slaves, and demand Japan to take responsibility and formally apologize and educate the next generation about such atrocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vgpsn
|
why are so many famous songs targeted at pre-teen girls?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Preteen girls normally have a higher rate of buying things they don't need. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Preteen girls are a very important demographic. They are considered more responsible than boys the same age, and therefore generally have more spending money; but that conception of them is utterly wrong, because they impulse-buy at a greater rate than any other demographic.\n\n**TL;DR** Pissing away Daddy's money like tomorrow will never come.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Puberty and new emotions.\n\nThis makes them an easy target for emotional pop songs about feeling upset over boys as they are chemically wired to react to this.\nSame reason 12-16 year old boys corner the metal market... wired for agression.\n\nParents will buy their kids their favorite album, which is basically an emotional support kit.\n\n\nTie this in with teen channels and magazines that portray the artists and deserving worship, especially the dreamy boy type ones... tell the girls they should crave validation from these teens idols then have them pay for an album of vague songs saying they love you. Or that sound like every breakup ever.\n\nThey're just a prime demographic for the emotional product the artists are selling.\n\n\nWatch this video for a catchy musical explanation _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All best selling music and movies now days is aimed at kids and morons because kids and morons don't know how to steal music and movies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25555420",
"title": "Girl group",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Adolescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "An especially prevalent theme was adolescence. Since most of the girl groups were composed of young singers, often still in high school, songs mentioned parents in many cases. Adolescence was also a popular subject because of an emerging audience of young girls listening to and buying records. Adolescence was also reinforced by girl groups in cultivation of a youthful image, since \"an unprecedented instance of teenage girls occupying center stage of mainstream commercial culture\". An example of this youth branding might be Baby Spice from the Spice Girls. This was shown through flourishes like typically matching outfits for mid-century girl groups and youthful content in songs. Girl groups of the 1950s era would also give advice to other girls, or sing about the advice their mothers gave to them, which was a similarity to some male musical groups of the time (for example, the Miracles' \"Shop Around\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25555420",
"title": "Girl group",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Girl groups have a wide array of subject matter in their songs, depending on time and place and who was producing. Songs also had a penchant for reflecting the political and cultural climate around them. For instance, songs with abusive undertones were somewhat common during the 1950s–1970s. One notable example was the song \"He Hit Me (And It Felt Like A Kiss)\" by the Crystals. During the \"golden age of girl groups\", lyrics were disparate, ranging from songs about mean dogs to underage pregnancy. However, common sentiments were also found in ideas like new love, pining after a crush or lover, and heartache. Some songs sounded upbeat or cheerful and sang about falling in love, whereas others took a decidedly more melancholic turn. Groups like The Shangri-Las, with the song \"I Can Never Go Home Anymore\" sang about the darker side of being in love.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25555420",
"title": "Girl group",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Feminism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Girl groups in earlier generations like the 1950s were perhaps more exploited (at least overtly) than more recent girl groups. In the 1990s through the present, with the prevalence of such groups as the Spice Girls, there has been a strong emphasis on women's independence and a sort of feminism. At the very least, the music is more assertive lyrically and relies less on innuendo. This more recent wave of girl groups is more sexually provocative as well, which makes sense within pop music within this time frame as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548696",
"title": "Teen pop",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "In 2001 artists like Aaron Carter, Swedish group A-Teens, girl groups 3LW, Play, Eden's Crush and Dream and boy bands O-Town, B2K, and Dream Street were teen pop artists and hits. Alternate \"looks\" for female teen pop stars include Hoku, and girl group No Secrets. In the UK, teen pop continued to surge with Ellie Campbell, Atomic Kitten and Billie Piper. In Latin America, successful singers and bands appealing to tweens and teens were Sandy & Junior, RBD and Rouge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15758169",
"title": "Timeline of music in the United States (1950–69)",
"section": "Section::::1955.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- Teenagers enter the mainstream pop music market in greater numbers, leading to the \"Billboard\" Top 100 measuring the \"preferences of a younger, more specialized segment of the population that it had before\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4042857",
"title": "Sing-song girls",
"section": "Section::::Cultural impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "In a way, at least in Shanghai, the highest class sing-song girls became the first modern celebrities. Their fame came to them, not because of their virtues and industry, rather because of their association with high culture and the latest fashion. Accordingly, they used that fame to continue stretching the confines placed by conservative culture in ways which popularized modern technology and the expression of feminine sexuality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149920",
"title": "Toy",
"section": "Section::::Child development.:Age compression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Girls gravitate towards \"music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities\". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products. Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them. A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand, and the Disney Princess franchise. Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z6psn
|
when a plane banks left or right, why doesn't everyone's drinks fall off the trays. surely gravity is still in effect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Consider water in a bucket on a string. No matter what you do with the bucket, as long as the string is at strain, the water will stay parallel to bottom of the bucket, not the ground. Why? Water is affected by gravity, \"G.\" The bucket is affected by gravity \"G\" AND the strain of the string \"S.\" So from the frame of reference of the bucket, water experiences force G-(G+S) = -S, which pulls it towards the bottom of the bucket. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravity is balanced by the (imaginary) centrifugal force.\n\nCentrifugal force is a perception that, when you go around a corner, you're thrown to the outside of the corner. In fact, what's happening is your body just wants to go in a straight line, instead of around the corner, but from your position it seems like you're being pushed out of the corner.\n\nWhen an aircraft turns left, it banks left, and gravity makes you want to move to the left of the aircraft. But centrifugal force makes you want to move to the right. These two forces balance out.\n\nWhen a pilot flies a turn so that these forces are balanced, we call it a \"balanced turn\", and we describe the aircraft as \"in balance\". Pilots nearly always fly balanced turns, because they are more efficient than flying out of balance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an ELI5, but cool related pic:\n\n[Imgur](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16784989",
"title": "Drink carrier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "There are many different designs for drink carriers, but they commonly include relatively deep indentations, holes, or compartments into which the cups are placed. This keeps the drinks from falling over during transport, and distinguishes drink carriers from cafeteria trays, though both may be used to carry both drinks and food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37038210",
"title": "Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky Air Flight 251",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "An investigation by the Interstate Aviation Committee revealed that both pilots were intoxicated by alcohol and that the plane was \"far off course\". The final report identified as contributing factors a low level of crew discipline and inadequate supervision by the airline, the inaction by the crew following the altimeter alarm for low altitude, and the aircraft's lack of a ground proximity warning system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9495122",
"title": "February 2007 North American blizzard",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Damage and travel disruptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "At New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport, several empty JetBlue airplanes were frozen to the parking stands at the gates and incoming flights could not access the stands as a result, while outgoing flights already taxiing were ordered to hold on the taxiway due to weather conditions. Many passengers in planes, either inbound or outbound, were held in the planes, eating peanuts and other snacks for as much as 10 hours before the decision was made to cancel the outgoing flights or a gate had opened for the inbound ones. Several airports including Bradley International Airport in Connecticut, Washington's Ronald Reagan National Airport, and John C. Munro International Airport in Hamilton were completely shut down for several hours. GO Train in Toronto and Amtrak train service from Boston was also disrupted. In Scranton, Pennsylvania the Toyota Pavilion at Montage Mountain collapsed under the weight of the snow on February 15, 2007. Strong winds also accompanied the storm but damage was minimal, though a radio tower pole was toppled by winds in Ohio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17370747",
"title": "Buy on board",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In the United States, passengers increasingly began to bring their own foods on board to avoid paying for buy on board. In the 2000s US Airways (now part of American Airlines) briefly charged for soft drinks, but then reversed course.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893028",
"title": "Air rage",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The most common cause of a passenger or crew member acting unruly is from intoxication. The availability of alcoholic beverages on airlines and at airports enables passengers to drink excessively before and during flights. Flight attendants have the ability to keep track of how many drinks are served to passengers while on board an aircraft, but have no way of knowing how many are consumed prior to boarding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33844071",
"title": "Azealia Banks",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "On September 22, 2015, Banks became involved in a confrontation with a fellow passenger and the flight crew while attempting to exit a Delta Air Lines flight that had just landed in Los Angeles. According to witnesses, Banks was attempting to squeeze past other passengers to disembark the plane more quickly, when a French man blocked her path. Banks reacted by spitting in the man's face, punching him, and clawing at his shirt. Subsequently, a flight attendant stepped in and demanded that Banks calm down. This resulted in Banks forcefully arguing with the flight attendant, in which she at one point called the Delta employee a \"fucking faggot\". On November 10, 2015, it was reported Banks was under investigation by the Los Angeles Police Department following an altercation involving the rapper and a security guard at L.A. club Break Room 86. Later that year, Banks was arrested in New York after attacking a female security guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22278969",
"title": "Korean Air Flight 801",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "New Zealander Barry Small, a helicopter pilot and a survivor of the accident, lobbied for safer storage of duty-free alcohol and redesigns of crossbars on airline seats; he said that the storage of duty-free alcohol on Flight 801 contributed to spreading of the fire and the crossbars injured passengers to the point where they could not escape from the aircraft (Small himself was injured when he broke his leg on one of the crossbars during the crash, but was still able to escape the aircraft).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bwc9i7
|
how does a massive government like china just deny that an event like the tiananmen square massacre didn't happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "China has a massive power called, “controlling education.” they disposed of all evidence that it happened and not put it in the education. just like what happened to the Tank Man incident. they also did it through propaganda.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the media is not allowed to report on it, teachers aren’t allowed to teach it, and your internet is heavily censored then its easy. \n\nIf you are one of the people that knows about it because you travelled overseas and found out. Do you come home and tell your family and friends? Or do you just pretend you didn’t hear it or it’s not true?\n\nIf they killed 10,000 people peacefully protesting its better to just pretend you didn’t find out about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply put. They control, censor or spy on everything. They have state run media too, so all of the large media outlets in China are controlled by the government. You also can be fined or jailed for speaking out against the government. They also control the schools, so they try to mold kids to be very nationalistic from a young age.\n\nSo if you try to shout to everyone on a street corner in China that their government slaughtered thousands of people. You'll be harassed by the people first, then probably jailed by the police later. No one will believe you and you'll become a criminal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26092",
"title": "Historical negationism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:1989 Tiananmen Square Protests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests were a series of pro-democracy demonstrations that were put down violently on June 4, 1989, by the Chinese government via the People's Liberation Army, resulting in estimated casualty of over 10,000 deaths and 40,000 injured, obtained via later declassified documents., whereas the government claimed official estimates of 0 - 200 civilian deaths. Western media referred to this crackdown as the \"Tiananmen Square Massacre\", and in Chinese media it was called the \"June Fourth Incident\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118580",
"title": "Tiananmen Incident",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The Tiananmen Incident took place on 5 April 1976, at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. The incident occurred on the traditional day of mourning, the Qingming Festival, after the Nanjing Incident, and was triggered by the death of Premier Zhou Enlai earlier that year. Some people strongly disapproved of the removal of the displays of mourning, and began gathering in the Square to protest against the central authorities, then largely under the auspices of the Gang of Four, who ordered the Square to be cleared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29931454",
"title": "Reactions to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests",
"section": "Section::::National reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1600,
"text": "Some Chinese citizens deplored the incident at Tiananmen Square and believed that the massacre of peaceful protesters had been done with such brutal force to prevent any further protests by citizens. In the immediate aftermath of the Tiananmen Square protests the Communist Party of China maintained its original condemnation of the student demonstrations (see April 26 Editorial) and characterized the crackdown as necessary to maintain stability. Government sources downplayed the violence against demonstrators on June 3 and 4, and portrayed the public as supportive of the crackdown. In the days after the protest, the CCP attempted to control access to information on the massacre, confiscating film from foreign journalists. Domestic journalists who had been sympathetic to the student movement were removed from their positions, and several foreign journalists were expelled from China. On June 6, State Council spokesman Yuan Mu held a press conference where he claimed that there had been 300 fatalities during the massacre, with no killings having occurred in Tiananmen Square itself. Yuan Mu portrayed the crackdown as a response to \"a counterrevolutionary rebellion in the early hours of the morning of June 3.\" In August 1989, the Chinese government released its complete, official account of the Tiananmen protests, \"The Truth About the Beijing Turmoil\". The narrative presented in \"The Truth About the Beijing Turmoil\" differs significantly from the accounts of student leaders and foreign journalists, many of which are banned in China. On the origins of the protest the book states:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44534",
"title": "1989 Tiananmen Square protests",
"section": "Section::::Names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events. However, much of the violence in Beijing did not actually happen in Tiananmen, but outside the square along a stretch of Chang'an Avenue only a few miles long, and especially near the Muxidi area. The term also gives a misleading impression that demonstrations only happened in Beijing, when in fact they occurred in many cities throughout China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8205",
"title": "Deng Xiaoping",
"section": "Section::::Re-emergence post-Cultural Revolution.:Role in the Tiananmen Square protests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, culminating in the June Fourth Massacre, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 5 June 1989, a year in which many other socialist governments collapsed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377549",
"title": "Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Comments of Tiananmen massacre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "On 15 May 2007, then-party chairman Ma Lik provoked widespread condemnation within the local community when he claimed that \"there was not a massacre\" during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, as there was \"no intentional and indiscriminate shooting\". He said the popular belief of foreigners' \"rash claims\" that a massacre took place showed Hong Kong's lack of maturity. He said that Hong Kong showed, through this lack of patriotism and national identity, that it would thus \"not be ready for democracy until 2022\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29931454",
"title": "Reactions to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests",
"section": "Section::::National reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1755,
"text": "In the decades since the Tiananmen Square protests the CCP has attempted to prevent any remembrance of the protest movement and the subsequent crackdown. While the government initially tried to justify its suppression of the protest, releasing official statements and creating museum exhibits on the events of June 3–5, it now denies that such suppression ever occurred. In 2011, an opinion piece, \"Tiananmen Square a Myth\", was published in China Daily, the CCP's English-language newspaper. The article claims that, \"When eventually troops were sent in to clear the [Tiananmen] square, the demonstrations were already ending. But by this time the Western media were there in force, keen to grab any story they could.\" There is no mention of a counterrevolutionary rebellion, as earlier government accounts refer to. As Louisa Lim notes in her book, \"The People's Republic of Amnesia: Tiananmen Revisited\", many young Chinese know almost nothing of the Tiananmen Square protests. In an informal survey, Lim showed the iconic photo of Tank Man to 100 Chinese university students; only 15 correctly identified it as being an image of Tiananmen Square. Perry Link, a Chinese language and literature scholar, writes, \"The story of the massacre is banned from textbooks, the media, and all other public contexts.\" In 2014, Gu Yimin, a Chinese activist, was sentenced to 18 months in prison for attempting to hold a march on the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square crackdown. After filing a request to hold the march in 2013, he was charged with \"inciting subversion of state power.\" Activist groups such as the Tiananmen Mothers have faced intense government surveillance for their attempts to hold the CCP accountable for the losses of their family members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
22kvab
|
What is the oldest event, figure, law, etc. that you can think of that still has some influence on society today?
|
[
{
"answer": "Law- the Code of Hammurabi (1772 BCE) is the earliest I can think of that has had consistent sway on law ever since. Essentially the notion of reciprocal (if in this case draconian) justice. If not that, Lycurgus' (Aprox. 780 BCE) mixed constitution of Sparta is essentially the system of American politics today. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "168219",
"title": "Criminal justice",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The oldest known codified law is the Code of Hammurabi, dating back to about 1754 BC. The preface directly credits the laws to the code of hammurabi of Ur. In different parts of the world, law could be established by philosophers or religion. In the modern world, laws are typically created and enforced by governments. These codified laws may coexist with or contradict other forms of social control, such as religious proscriptions, professional rules and ethics, or the cultural mores and customs of a society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "190816",
"title": "Södermanland",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The earliest recorded history is generally of the legendary kind. Before the 7th century it is deemed to have been governed by petty kingdoms. This period ended when Ingjald the Ill-Ruler allegedly had a number of local rulers arsoned around 640.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33809974",
"title": "Discovery of human antiquity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Controversy was very active in this area in parts of the 19th century, with some dormant periods also. A key date was the 1859 re-evaluation of archaeological evidence that had been published 12 years earlier by Boucher de Perthes. It was then widely accepted, as validating the suggestion that man was much older than previously been believed, for example than the 6,000 years implied by some traditional chronologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25743425",
"title": "Via Crucis to the Cruz del Campo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "With reference to the Via Crucis in Seville, and especially with reference to the \"Templete\" (see below) for events of the 15th and 16th century, a great deal of historical caution is in order. Evidence is incomplete and sometimes contradictory. It is difficult to be confident of the continuity between entities with the same name mentioned centuries apart. The difficulties are compounded by the tendency of most sources to give only one version of events, even when the facts are in doubt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "31295",
"title": "Three-age system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "The three-age system is the categorization of history into time periods divisible by three; for example: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age; although it also refers to other tripartite divisions of historic time periods. In history, archaeology and physical anthropology, the three-age system is a methodological concept adopted during the 19th century by which artifacts and events of late prehistory and early history could be ordered into a recognizable chronology. It was initially developed by C. J. Thomsen, director of the Royal Museum of Nordic Antiquities, Copenhagen, as a means to classify the museum’s collections according to whether the artifacts were made of stone, bronze, or iron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15200194",
"title": "Plœuc-sur-Lié",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The oldest antiquity may be the menhir of Bayo. In 1643, as a reward for services rendered at the siege of La Rochelle (1627-1628), King Louis XIV granted Sebastian de Ploeuc the right to hold four fairs a year and also a weekly market. In 1664, the de Ploeuc family sold its lands to the La Rivières, whose coat of arms can still be seen on the \"Moulien de la Corbière\". The Count de La Rivière was the ancestor of Lafayette, who sold his estates at Ploeuc to cover the expenses which fell on him as a result of the American War of Independence. This war also caused great harm to the local linen industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "196206",
"title": "Longevity",
"section": "Section::::Long-lived individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jeanne Calment (1875–1997, 122 years, 164 days): the oldest person in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation. This defines the modern human life span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
22bii4
|
when movies make horses fall, is it real, and if not, then how do they do it?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the past, a device known as the \"running W\" was used to trip horses at a specific point, but it is now illegal. It is possible to train a horse to fall over on command in such a way that neither it not the rider are in much danger, and this method is used currently. As with any trick, teaching the horse to do this requires practice and the correct incentives. There may be other ways of getting a horse to fall over, but I'm not aware of them.",
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{
"answer": "No, the horses are trained to command, either verbal or physical cue by rider. Source: My ex wife is a professional horse trainer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After the filming of the movie *The Charge of the Light Brigade* killed dozens of animals during its climactic battle, the tripping of horses with concealed wires was made illegal. In newer movies involving horses falling, watch the rider just before the stunt. He will pull the horse's head sharply to one side, which is the command to fall. The horse will then curl its body and roll on its side. Contrast this with older movies made before Congress's ruling and you'll see horses violently flung forward onto their faces, completely surprised by the hidden wires, many landing with contorted necks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry this is not an answer to your question. But related trivia here! There is a horse scene in Conan The Barbarian that is very real where horses hit large palisades. I believe it sparked the beginning of animal rights in movies and the famous \"No animals were hurt in the making of this film.\" It was the last scene to feature a horse being hurt. \n\nA lot of stuff now is CGI. Others are saying the real horses are trained and I believe it. That is also extended to dogs etc... \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHere is a scene from the new movie. I watched it over and over. I don't really know what is going on but It does look like it is a trained horse. Also if you watch it over and over you realize the chain has no real weight to it. So if there is no CG there it is probably just a really light chain (plastic?). Look at how it lands after impact. It feels light. \n\n The \"dust\" that comes off from the impact is ridiculously easy to add in in CG. A lot of impact in movies is sound, camera shake, camera angle, and CG crap on top of it. ",
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"answer": "I believe there is a featurette on the django unchained blu ray where they talk about trained horses for falling over (this was in reference to the \"Jonah hill horse charge scene\"). ",
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},
{
"answer": "I don't know about many other movies but in the Lord of the Rings films when ever a large group of horses and their riders were taken down at once by the Nazguls or whatever, they were all CGI.\n\n_URL_0_",
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},
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"answer": "Here's an interesting way they did it in The Last Samurai... jump to around 0:50 to see the technique\n\n_URL_0_",
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},
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"answer": "Here's a clip from the indian movie \"Alluda Mazaaka...!\" (1995), here you can see the wire that is attached to their hooves/legs making the horses trip and fall HARD! :(\n\nClip:\n_URL_1_\n\nImdb movie link:\n_URL_0_\n\nA user review on the IMDB page wrote this.\n\"According to one web article, 157 horses were killed during the making of this movie.\"\n\nO_o",
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},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nI thought of this scene instantly lol",
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},
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"answer": "As many others have commented, in the past the horses were made to fall with hidden wires, which often led to the deaths of the horses. Now-days there are three main options: CGI, animatronics and trained stunt horses. [Here](_URL_0_) is a short video about one of the better known stunt trainers out there who combines classical dressage and circus techniques to train his horses. This video gives you an idea about the methods that they use to make the horses fall but is not particularly in depth. There is another feature length documentary about training stunt horses that is fantastic but I can't recall what it was called. I think it was a bio pic on Mario or another European trainer.\n\nIf you feel like watching a film with some superb horsemanship in it I recommend taking a look at [the horseman on the roof](_URL_1_).",
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},
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"answer": "I actually know this pretty well because a good friend of mine has capitalized on it in the film business. Yes, they used to be incredibly cruel to animals in Hollywood. Then Animal rights groups got involved (as they should have) and it was outlawed. Now the current standard is to use life size puppet horses. You've seen my friends horses in movies like The Last Samurai, The Lone Ranger and True Grit. Here's an example of how the horse falls worked when they did 300 _URL_0_\nOther behind the scenes examples can be seen on their web page. \n\n*edit: Bad Link",
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},
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"answer": "In the movie Braveheart there was a horse collapse that looked so real that the ASPCA was going to fine them\n\nLuckily they filmed backstage footage and could prove it was an animatronic horse ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the filming of LOTR Return of the King, CGI renderings of horses falling we're added to the raw clip of actual charging horses for the battle of Pelennor Fields. There is supposed to be one genuine fall in the raw clip, however this was not intentional.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting behind the scenes video about how they got the horses to fall on command in Django Unchained. _URL_0_",
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},
{
"answer": "While we're at it : How do they make all the toddlers cry on cue? Just scare the shit outta them?",
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},
{
"answer": "Were you watching The Lord of the rings on television, because I was and I was thinking the exact question",
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},
{
"answer": "In the Lord of the Rings during he battle of Pelennor Fields, every horse that falls or dies in some way is CGI.\n\nThey filmed with ~2000 horses and none of them ever falls.\n\nA trained eye surely can tell the difference between animated and real horses but the average cinema-goer doesnt recognize it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just created /r/sfxexplained . I think this questions and its answers are great and deserves its own subreddit.",
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},
{
"answer": "A widely used technique also consists of using a fully rubber horse with a barrel/drum as stomach to give it weight by filling it with water. \n\nSource: worked for special fx company",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is real in some circumstances, especially in older movies. It still happens a lot with Asian movies, and recent examples include Red Cliff.\n\nIn the UK, this is banned under the 1937 cinematograph act for cruelty to animals, and films with real horse trips, must be cut to remove them before release. You can find many examples by searching for the relevant UK releases at _URL_0_\n\nExample for Red Cliff (bottom of page) - _URL_1_",
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"answer": "I think it was in the commentary on braveheart where they talked about this actually. The set got shutdown for a day because the animal rights guy did not believe the brutal stuff was special effects. Generally though, they mentioned that certain ways of a horse falling are acceptable. Watch any recent movie and you will notice that all the horses fall the same way. Everything else is special effects. Zooming in, etc to hide the fact that it's not a real horse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the more famous horse stunts. Blazing saddles:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI have heard the horse was trained for it. You can see the rider pull hard on the right reign. Mongo never actually touches the horse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've often wondered how Mongo did this...\n_URL_0_\n",
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{
"answer": "Had to watch the 1939 John Wayne movie named Stagecoach for an intro to film class. In the end battle there are several horse falls and they used what's called a running w to trip the horses, and many ended up dying in the process. You can read about it here. They obviously don't do this anymore thank god.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Akira Kurosawa's Kagemusha, there is a scene where they are showing a desecrated battleground filled with horses. To capture this, they tranquilized all the horses and filmed them as they were struggling to wake up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That’s one of the things CGI has made obsolete. They used to use a harness that pulled their legs out from under them. If a leg broke.....Oh well, the cost of the horse was in the budget.",
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},
{
"answer": "Can someone tell me how they tripped the horses is the 2011 movie Shaolin? There's one scene where the horse falls down a set of stairs. I assume wires were used here too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, you're in luck, I happen to have a friend who's helped her dad out, and been involved with this in some major films. And I mean major, like the Christopher Nolan Batman films, the most recent Superman movie, etc. His name's [Frank Calzavara] (_URL_0_).\n\nThe currently used method is a progression of several different steps. The first thing you have to train a horse to do is bow, like [this] (_URL_1_). This really isn't all that hard, and can be done with most horses. You have to start off by working with them, and teaching them to lower their head, generally by lightly tapping on a front leg with a stick. Eventually you teach them to extend the leg and do a full bow. \n\nAfter you do that, you train the horse to fall into the leg that it has extended, by pulling their nose the opposite way, and teaching them to give into pressure and fold over. It's really not all that different than learning how to take a fall in a basic martial arts class, they have to learn to roll with the momentum. Obviously, some horses are better at this than others. I couldn't find any real great still photos on google showing this motion, but basically, when you see the horse's head turned to one side, the rider will generally give a verbal or physical command that the horse is trained to, and it will move into a similar stance as the bowing motion, then roll over. It looks kinda bad because they almost flop down, but as someone who's spent a lot of time with horses, trust me, they're not that easy to injure. Anyways, I hope that was clear enough!",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38296295",
"title": "Jack Williams (stuntman)",
"section": "Section::::A horse named Coco.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Said stuntman Joe Canutt: \"You can get great falls a lot of times out of horses, but when you're attacking the Alamo, for example, and you've got bombs and cannons going off ... some of them don't work at all. That mare [Coco] consistently got spectacular falls.\" But beyond doing the falling-horse stunt, Hoy said, \"Jack drove stagecoaches, he wrecked wagons, he could transfer from the horse to the train -- he could do anything pertaining to horse work.\" Coco died at age 33 and was buried on Williams' California ranch.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2371912",
"title": "Jesse James (1939 film)",
"section": "Section::::Animal cruelty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The film gained a measure of notoriety for a scene in which a horse falls to its death down a rocky slope toward the end of the film. This scene was one of many cited by the American Humane Association against Hollywood's abuse of animals, and led to the association's monitoring of filmmaking. However, according to Leonard Mosley's biography \"Zanuck: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's last Tycoon\", none of \"the horses [had] been injured. Under Zanuck's direction, a short distance down the cliff, on a conveniently broad platform, the unit roper had arranged a soft landing for the horses.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "67943",
"title": "Paul Scofield",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1138,
"text": "Rupert Frazer admitted that he was the first to jump off, landing safely, but bruised. Out of control, the horses turned to the right when confronted by a stone wall, causing the shooting brake to roll completely, catapulting the actors into a pile of scaffolding that had been stacked next to the wall. Robert Hardy stood up and realised to his amazement that he was unhurt. He looked across to see Edward Fox stand up, \"turn completely green and collapse in a heap\". He had broken five ribs and his shoulder-blade. He noticed that Paul Scofield was lying very still on the ground \"and I saw that his shin-bone was sticking out through his trousers\". As the film takes place in October during the partridge-shooting season, the filmmakers had to make a choice whether to delay filming for a year or re-cast. James Mason had just finished filming \"Doctor Fischer of Geneva\" for the BBC. The \"Shooting Party\" schedule was changed to allow him to take over the part of Sir Randolph Nettleby six weeks later. His broken leg also deprived Scofield of the part of O'Brien in \"Nineteen Eighty-Four,\" in which he was replaced by Richard Burton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8368714",
"title": "Die Hand Die Verletzt",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Directing and filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The producers initially considered using fake frogs for the scene where they fall from the sky, but the \"fake ones looked too bad and didn't hop away after command\", according to Carter. As such, real frogs were brought in and dropped on the actors from a short distance, with camera angles being employed to make it look like they were falling from much higher. Shooting the scene in which the snake goes down the stairs proved to be a challenge, as the creature kept falling onto the floor after slithering down the steps. Actor Dan Butler was terrified of the animal, and he was unable to talk while shooting the scene in the basement. However, Butler's ophidiophobia had an up-side: the show's art department did not need to apply fake sweat to his face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1463386",
"title": "White Sun of the Desert",
"section": "Section::::Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Horse riding scenes were performed by the special stunt unit formed for the \"War and Peace\" film series. Although it did not perform any stunts in this film, one member of the unit died in an accident during filming. Some other accidents occurred due to poor overall discipline and security. For example, a cut is seen on Vereschagin's face when he fights on the ship. He received this cut in a drunken brawl the day before. Also, some props were stolen by local thieves one night. Security was improved after Motyl hired a local criminal leader for the role of a member of Abdullah's gang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4193180",
"title": "The Man from Snowy River II",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "A horse was injured during the making of the movie and had to be put down. A government inquiry later found, contrary to allegations by the RSPCA, that the horse was put down in the most humane way possible under the circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "74700",
"title": "Equestrianism",
"section": "Section::::Health issues.:Mechanisms of injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The most common injury is falling from the horse, followed by being kicked, trampled and bitten. About 3 out of 4 injuries are due to falling, broadly defined. A broad definition of falling often includes being crushed and being thrown from the horse, but when reported separately each of these mechanisms may be more common than being kicked.\n",
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] | null |
s08rs
|
In an atom, can an electron ever collide/w or touch the nucleus of the atom it is apart of?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yeah, sometimes a proton captures on electron and causes a nuclear decay. It's called [electron capture](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I think it this would only happen at absolute zero where all energy is gone,\n\nNot that this is a bad \"guess\", but no. In the collapsing core of a star this can happen as electron degeneracy pressure is overcome during a supernova, leaving behind a neutron star (or a black hole if the density is high enough).\n\nIn reference to your \"actually change the element\" comment below, neutron stars have roughly the same density as an atomic nucleus.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36139328",
"title": "Electron precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Often, as an electron precipitates, it is directed into the upper atmosphere where it may collide with neutral particles, thus depleting the electron's energy. If an electron makes it through the upper atmosphere, it will continue into the ionosphere. Groups of precipitated electrons can change the shape and conductivity of the ionosphere by colliding with atoms or molecules (usually oxygen or nitrogen based particles) in the region. When colliding with an atom, the electron strips the atom of its other electrons creating an ion. Collisions with the air molecules also release photons which provide a dim \"aurora\" effect. Because this occurs at such a high altitude, humans in aircraft are not affected by the radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "Section::::Electrostatic explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Consider an electron of charge \"-e\" and an atomic nucleus with charge \"+Ze\", where \"Z\" is the number of protons in the nucleus. According to the Bohr model, if the electron were to approach and bond with the atom, it would come to rest at a certain radius \"a\". The electrostatic potential \"V\" at distance \"a\" from the ionic nucleus, referenced to a point infinitely far away, is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31260516",
"title": "PKA (irradiation)",
"section": "Section::::Collision Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In any scenario, the majority of displaced atoms leave their lattice sites with energies no more than two or three times \"E\". Such an atom will collide with another atom approximately every mean interatomic distance traveled, losing half of its energy during the average collision. Assuming that an atom that has slowed down to a kinetic energy of 1 eV becomes trapped in an interstitial site, displaced atoms will typically be trapped no more than a few interatomic distances away from the vacancies they leave behind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Atoms and molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "An electron can be \"bound\" to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus' electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin quantum number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1494813",
"title": "Ramsauer–Townsend effect",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "If one tries to predict the probability of collision with a classical model that treats the electron and atom as hard spheres, one finds that the probability of collision should be independent of the incident electron energy (see Kukolich). However, Ramsauer and Townsend observed that for slow-moving electrons in argon, krypton, or xenon, the probability of collision between the electrons and gas atoms obtains a minimum value for electrons with a certain amount of kinetic energy (about 1 electron volts for xenon gas). This is the Ramsauer–Townsend effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus shatters and leaves behind different elements. This is a kind of nuclear decay. All electrons, nucleons, and nuclei alike are subatomic particles. The behavior of electrons in atoms is closer to a wave than a particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20125479",
"title": "Collision cascade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "If the maximum atom or ion energies in a collision cascade are higher than the threshold displacement energy of the material (tens of eVs or more), the collisions can permanently displace atoms from their lattice sites and produce defects. The initial energetic atom can be, e.g., an ion from a particle accelerator, an atomic recoil produced by a passing high-energy neutron, electron or photon, or be produced when a radioactive nucleus decays and gives the atom a recoil energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wxua9
|
direct x
|
[
{
"answer": "DirectX is the way that your game communicates with your graphics card. Microsoft takes requests from game developers and makes a list of features that game developers want, but can't do right now.\n\nMicrosoft then goes to AMD and NVIDIA, and says, \"Hey, these are some things that game developers want to be able to do. We're going to expose these commands to those games, and here's what we're telling them to expect. You can build these commands into your graphics cards however you want, as long as you make them accessible to games in a particular way- and we'll call the group of these commands, brought together, DirectX.\n\nBasically, if game developers had to write games at the level of the computer's base hardware, it'd take forever, and certain games would only work on certain graphics cards. DirectX is a layer in between. It lets games make specific, predetermined commands, and then uses a driver made by the graphics card's vendor to convert those into commands that the graphics card can understand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8506",
"title": "DirectX",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with Direct, such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name \"DirectX\" was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the \"X\" standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the \"X\" was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The \"X\" initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3880620",
"title": "X–Y plotter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "An X–Y plotter is a plotter that operates in two axes of motion (\"X\" and \"Y\") in order to draw continuous vector graphics. The term was used to differentiate it from standard plotters which had control only of the \"y\" axis, the \"x\" axis being continuously fed to provide a plot of some variable with time. Plotters differ from Inkjet and Laser printers in that a plotter draws a continuous line, much like a pen on paper, while inkjet and laser printers use a very fine matrix of dots to form images, such that while a line may appear continuous to the naked eye, it in fact is a discrete set of points. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58216143",
"title": "DirectX Raytracing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "DirectX Raytracing (DXR) is a feature of Microsoft's DirectX that allows for hardware real-time raytracing, a significant advancement in computer graphics first seen on the consumer level in GPUs such as the Nvidia GeForce 20 series announced in 2018. DXR is not released as part of a new version of DirectX but rather as a compatible extension to DirectX 12.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4043130",
"title": "X.3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "X.3 is an ITU-T standard indicating what functions are to be performed by a Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) when connecting character-mode data terminal equipment (DTE), such as a computer terminal, to a packet switched network such as an X.25 network, and specifying the parameters that control this operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773853",
"title": "Game programming",
"section": "Section::::Tools.:APIs and libraries.:Graphic APIs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "DirectX is a collection of game APIs. Direct3D is DirectX's 3D API. Direct3D is freely available from Microsoft, as are the rest of the DirectX APIs. Microsoft developed DirectX for game programmers and continues to add features to the API. The DirectX specification is not controlled by an open arbitration committee and Microsoft is free to add, remove or change features. Direct3D is not portable; it is designed specifically for Microsoft Windows and no other platform (though a form of Direct3D is used on Microsoft's Xbox, Windows Phone 7.5 smartphones and mobile devices which run the Pocket PC operating system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38165823",
"title": "Pokémon X and Y",
"section": "Section::::Story.:Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1301,
"text": "Similar to previous \"Pokémon\" games, \"X\" and \"Y\" both follow a linear storyline whose main events occur in a fixed order. The protagonist of \"Pokémon X\" and \"Y\" is a child who had just moved to a small town called Vaniville Town with their mother. They soon befriend four trainers—Shauna, Tierno, Trevor, and their rival Calem or Serena,—all of whom were called to meet Professor Sycamore who is the leading professor in the Kalos Region in Lumiose City, the main city of Kalos. Receiving either Chespin, Fennekin, or Froakie as their starter Pokémon from Tierno, the player begins their adventure. Along the way, they learn of Pokémon Gyms and receive their first badge for defeating Viola, the Santalune City Gym Leader. Thereafter, they encounter Sina and Dexio, assistants of Sycamore, who brings them to the professor himself; however, once in Lumiose City they discover the area to be suffering from a partial power outage. Upon meeting Sycamore in Lumiose City, the player is informed of Mega Evolution and he requests they travel across Kalos and uncover the mysteries behind it. He provides them with one of the Kanto Region starter Pokémon and their respective Mega Stone. Before leaving Lumiose City, the player encounters an imposing man named Lysandre who desires a more beautiful world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19636826",
"title": "X&Y",
"section": "Section::::Artwork and packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The artwork for \"X&Y\" was designed by graphic design duo Tappin Gofton, formed by Mark Tappin and Simon Gofton; Mark Tappin had previously worked for Coldplay on the \"Parachutes\" album cover and the covers of the singles therefrom. The image, which is visualized through a combination of colours and blocks, is a graphical representation of the Baudot code, an early form of telegraph communication using a series of ones and zeros to communicate. The code was developed by Frenchman Émile Baudot in the 1870s, and was a widely used method of terrestrial and telegraph communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
357dpn
|
Would we be able to notice a difference in the earth's speed if we were part of a different galaxy that rotated faster/slower?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not through any physical sensation that we would notice with our bodies, but we'd certainly be able to measure the solar system's orbital velocity around the galaxy in the same ways that we do now: high-resolution measurements of the proper motion of the center of the galaxy, and measurements of the relative redshifts of stars throughout our area of the galaxy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but I'm not sure whether this is the sense in which you mean it; we know our velocity relative to the rest frame of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by [measurements of the CMB dipole](_URL_0_). That velocity is the sum of our velocity around the earth, the earth's around the center of the Milky Way, and the velocity of the Milky Way itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23690972",
"title": "History of centrifugal and centripetal forces",
"section": "Section::::Absolute versus relative rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Thus, for example, if we wonder how rapidly our galaxy is rotating, we can make a model of the galaxy in which its rotation plays a part. The rate of rotation in this model that makes the observations of (for example) the flatness of the galaxy agree best with physical laws as we know them is the best estimate of the rate of rotation \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2589714",
"title": "Milky Way",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Galactic rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between . Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two-body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14838",
"title": "Inertial frame of reference",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1825,
"text": "To illustrate further, consider the question: \"Does our Universe rotate?\" To answer, we might attempt to explain the shape of the Milky Way galaxy using the laws of physics, although other observations might be more definitive, that is, provide larger discrepancies or less measurement uncertainty, like the anisotropy of the microwave background radiation or Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The flatness of the Milky Way depends on its rate of rotation in an inertial frame of reference. If we attribute its apparent rate of rotation entirely to rotation in an inertial frame, a different \"flatness\" is predicted than if we suppose part of this rotation actually is due to rotation of the universe and should not be included in the rotation of the galaxy itself. Based upon the laws of physics, a model is set up in which one parameter is the rate of rotation of the Universe. If the laws of physics agree more accurately with observations in a model with rotation than without it, we are inclined to select the best-fit value for rotation, subject to all other pertinent experimental observations. If no value of the rotation parameter is successful and theory is not within observational error, a modification of physical law is considered, for example, dark matter is invoked to explain the galactic rotation curve. So far, observations show any rotation of the universe is very slow, no faster than once every 60·10 years (10 rad/yr), and debate persists over whether there is \"any\" rotation. However, if rotation were found, interpretation of observations in a frame tied to the universe would have to be corrected for the fictitious forces inherent in such rotation in classical physics and special relativity, or interpreted as the curvature of spacetime and the motion of matter along the geodesics in general relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12558",
"title": "Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Observation history.:Modern research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In the 1970s, Vera Rubin uncovered a discrepancy between observed galactic rotation speed and that predicted by the visible mass of stars and gas. Today, the galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7901784",
"title": "Andromeda–Milky Way collision",
"section": "Section::::Certainty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1134,
"text": "The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at about as indicated by blueshift. However, the lateral speed (measured as proper motion) is very difficult to measure with a precision to draw reasonable conclusions: a lateral speed of only 7.7 km/s would mean that the Andromeda Galaxy is moving toward a point 177,800 light-years to the side of the Milky Way ((7.7 km/s) / (110 km/s) × (2,540,000 ly)), and such a speed over an eight-year timeframe amounts to only 1/3,000th of a Hubble Space Telescope pixel (Hubble's resolution≈0.05 arcsec: (7.7 km/s)/(300,000 km/s)×(8 y)/(2,540,000 ly)×180°/π×3600 = 0.000017 arcsec). Until 2012, it was not known whether the possible collision was definitely going to happen or not. In 2012, researchers concluded that the collision is sure using Hubble to track the motion of stars in Andromeda between 2002 and 2010 with sub-pixel accuracy. Andromeda's tangential or sideways velocity with respect to the Milky Way was found to be much smaller than the speed of approach and therefore it is expected that it will directly collide with the Milky Way in around four and a half billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183083",
"title": "Galaxy rotation curve",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The rotational/orbital speeds of galaxies/stars do not follow the rules found in other orbital systems such as stars/planets and planets/moons that have most of their mass at the centre. Stars revolve around their galaxy's centre at equal or increasing speed over a large range of distances. In contrast, the orbital velocities of planets in planetary systems and moons orbiting planets decline with distance. In the latter cases, this reflects the mass distributions within those systems. The mass estimations for galaxies based on the light they emit are far too low to explain the velocity observations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7577556",
"title": "Oort constants",
"section": "Section::::Meaning.:Flat rotation curve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "What one should take away from these three examples, is that with a remarkably simple model, the rotation of the Milky Way can be described by these two constants. The first two examples are used as constraints to the Galactic rotation, for they show the fastest and slowest the Galaxy can rotate at a given radius. The flat rotation curve serves as an intermediate step between the two rotation curves, and in fact gives the most reasonable Oort constants as compared to current measurements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dfw96
|
Do passing asteroids have an effect on for example the tides?
|
[
{
"answer": "What's interesting about gravity is that it has an infinite range, which is not true for the other 3 forces (strong, weak nuclear and magnetism). Because of this, you could say that every atom of matter in the universe has an effect on the tides of our oceans, this includes you! You walking around has an effect on tides, that's pretty crazy.\n\nA better question is \"do passing asteroids have a perceptible effect on the tides\" and the answer to that is leaning very heavily to the no side. The moon weighs 1.2% of the entire earth which is still like a bajillion tonnes (or something) so its affect on the oceans is quite great. Asteroids usually have a mass in the few thousands of tonnes, which is like a speck of dust compared to the moon, the gravitational affect of this is negligible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48651222",
"title": "(162058) 1997 AE12",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Slow rotator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Like other slowly-rotating asteroids such as 912 Maritima, it is possible that the extremely long period of this asteroid is caused by YORP radiation pressure slowing down the asteroid's rotation. This is especially likely considering that has a very low albedo, which would allow it to absorb more radiant energy from the Sun. Furthermore, the YORP effect has also been observed on other Q-type asteroids such as 1862 Apollo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23758030",
"title": "Asteroid capture",
"section": "Section::::Orbital mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "An approaching asteroid will almost always enter a planet's sphere of influence on a hyperbolic trajectory relative to the planet, because solar orbits within Neptune's orbit have speeds much greater than planets' escape velocities. Put another way, the asteroid's kinetic energy when it encounters the planet is too great for it to be brought into a bounded orbit by the planet's gravity; its kinetic energy formula_1 is greater than its absolute potential energy formula_2 with respect to the planet, meaning that the planet's gravity does not constrain its motion. However, an asteroid's trajectory can be perturbed by a third body (e.g. a satellite, or another planet) in a way that reduces its kinetic energy in the planet's reference frame. If this brings the asteroid's velocity below the local escape velocity, its trajectory changes from a hyperbola to an ellipse, and the asteroid is captured. In rare cases, with or without such a perturbation, the asteroid travels on a trajectory that intersects with the planet, resulting in an impact event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63794",
"title": "Impact event",
"section": "Section::::Impacts and the Earth.:Geological significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Besides direct effect of asteroid impacts on a planet's surface topography, global climate and life, recent studies have shown that several consecutive impacts might have an effect on the dynamo mechanism at a planet's core responsible for maintaining the magnetic field of the planet, and might eventually shut down the planet's magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59327171",
"title": "Asteroidal water",
"section": "Section::::History.:As comets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The issue of asteroids versus comets reemerged with observations of active asteroids- that is, emission from small bodies in what were considered asteroidal orbits, not comet-like orbits (high eccentricity and inclination). This includes both Centaurs, past the snow line, and main belt objects, inside the line and previously assumed dry. Activity could, in some cases, be explained by ejecta, escaping from an impact. However, some \"asteroids\" showed activity at perihelion, then at subsequent perihelia. The probability of impacts with this timed pattern was considered unlikely versus a model of comet-like volatile emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::Orbital perturbations.:Light radiation and stellar wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "For smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22385",
"title": "Oort cloud",
"section": "Section::::Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. Just as the Moon's tidal force deforms Earth's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun, but in the outer reaches of the system, the Sun's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational field has substantial effects. Galactic tidal forces stretch the cloud along an axis directed toward the galactic centre and compress it along the other two axes; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun. The point at which the Sun's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius. It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 AU, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21771097",
"title": "Ocean power in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Tidal power.:Tides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "A third influence occurs because the moon orbits at an angle to the equator. This means that if one of the bulges travelling around the earth is above the equator, then the other bulge is below the equator. It also follows that some places will have one daily diurnal tide, while other places will have semi-diurnal tides twice a day. For example, there is a diurnal tide in the Ross Sea near Antarctica every 24.84 hours. The height of this tide dwindles to almost zero in a cycle which takes 13.66 days. New Zealand's tides are semi-diurnal. The primary cause, the lunar tide, is labelled the M2. The M stands for the moon and the 2 stands for twice a day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3oppk4
|
How do spider populations survive the winter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many spiders go into diapause (similar to hibernation) over the winter ([Source]( _URL_1_)). They decrease their oxygen consumption and activity level. They will bury themselves in leaf litter (or similar) for warmth. The life cycle stage (egg, juvenile, or adult) that diapause occurs during is species-specific ([Source]( _URL_3_)). Some spiders remain active in the winter in caves, under leaf litter, or under snow. Spiders can even be found on the snow surface when temperatures are above 0 C ([Source]( _URL_2_)). In all cases, a spider can only survive if it can prevent its hemolymph (blood) from freezing. In very cold climates, this is sometimes accomplished by using antifreeze proteins ([Source]( _URL_0_)).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46574219",
"title": "Cantuaria dendyi",
"section": "Section::::Diet and foraging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "These spiders are very sedentary, usually only sitting in their burrows waiting for a passing victim. They operate in a constant low temperature because they are underground, and they live for about 20 years. With these factors we can assume \"Cantuaria\" might have a low metabolic rate. With a low metabolic rate and a carnivorous diet, all this spider needs to do is wait for an unsuspecting victim to pass its burrow so that it can jump out and find its next meal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12024303",
"title": "Gasteracantha cancriformis",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "This species of spider does not live very long. In fact, the lifespan lasts only until reproduction, which usually takes place in the spring following the winter when they hatched. Females die after producing an egg mass, and males die six days after a complete cycle of sperm induction to the female.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2728568",
"title": "Sydney funnel-web spider",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Males, recognized by the modified terminal segment of the palp, tend to wander during the warmer months of the year, looking for receptive females to mate with. This makes encounters with male specimens more likely as they sometimes wander into backyards or houses, or fall into swimming pools. The spiders can survive such immersion for up to twenty-four hours, trapping air bubbles on hairs around their abdomen. The spiders are mainly active at night, as typical day-time conditions would dehydrate them. During the day, they seek cover in cool, moist hideaways. After heavy rain, spider activity is increased as their burrows may be flooded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12546440",
"title": "Great raft spider",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Life cycle and reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Water is essential to the whole life cycle of the great raft spider. The spiders will live for two and a half years. As juveniles they will hibernate over the winter and will mature into adults during their final spring. In the UK, adults will usually have two breeding attempts between July and September.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33213775",
"title": "Hogna carolinensis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "These spiders are large enough to easily capture grasshoppers, crickets, and other such large agricultural pests. They are predators that may wander about after dark in search of prey to ambush. They are poor climbers, so that in nature they generally remain on the ground, hidden under natural shelters such as the edges of rocks, or in their own burrows. When they enter human habitations, usually with the onset of cooler weather in autumn, they usually remain on the floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46615764",
"title": "Seothyra",
"section": "Section::::Longevity and mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Their life-span is one, or at most two years. A daily food intake which equals 1% of their body mass is sufficient to sustain their slow metabolism. Nonetheless they often starve. In denser aggregations, for instance, they experience shadow competition for ants. In addition to famine or age related deaths, they also fall prey to other arthropods. Females are preyed on by araneophagous \"Palpimanus\" spiders, which likely lure them closer by producing surface Rayleigh waves with their specialized front legs. At night, \"Leucorchestris\" spiders are kleptoparasites, and possibly predators of \"Seothyra\" females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346104",
"title": "Parasteatoda tepidariorum",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Interaction with humans and predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Unlike most house spiders, which will wander the dwelling by spring if male, or seek refuge from the first cold by autumn if female, \"P. tepidariorum\" species of both sexes can be encountered in mid-winter, in wall corners or underneath the windowsill. Some species will build their webs there, other can remain almost motionless until prey is abundant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32o86s
|
why don't states ever try to secede from the us, opting to keep their tax money and run things exactly as they would like?
|
[
{
"answer": "A bunch of states tried that back in the 1800's. It didn't turn out so pretty good.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they can't. A state can't ever *legally* secede from the union of the United States.\n\nA state can *revolt* against the union, though - That's what a lot of states had tried to do during the American Civil War. When a state (or states) tries to revolt, the US proper can (and will) fight to make sure the states trying to secede can't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We had a whole civil war over this. We are the UNITED states of America and not the United States of America and Texas. We've had supreme court rulings over this as well states can't leave the united states. If they do we federalize the national guard and declare martial law. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The USA is a Union, not a Unitary Republic. However... The rules are... Once you join the Union, you don't get to take a \"Mulligan\" and back out of the Union.\n\nHowever, the States do still enjoy a great degree of autonomy... That's why they are called \"States.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also states recieve a huge amount of money from the federal government. A state that was independent would need a big increase in taxes to maintain their state spending.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CGP Grey covered it in a brief 3 and half minute video, and I recommend giving it a watch [here](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of the red states rely on federal aid or programs to basically survive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supporter of peaceful secession here: I think the Civil War sort of ruined the idea for a lot of people. \n\nI suspect much of the country would be happier by having different policies. For example, do Texas and Utah really have that much in common with New York and California?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do, but they always fail. For a number of reasons:\n\nThe amount of Federal infrastructure that they'd have to remunerate the government for is beyond the means of the individual States to muster.\n\nAlso, the agreement to become a State is eternally binding...no backsies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the Union is good for the states. It provides them with financial support and security when they need it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20379",
"title": "Micronation",
"section": "Section::::Legitimacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "In effect, this states that \"other\" states (i.e., third parties), may not encourage secession in a state. This does not make any statement as regards persons within a state electing to secede of their own accord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "795059",
"title": "1824 Constitution of Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Struggle among confederalists, federalists, and centralists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The states did not just share sovereignty with the national government; they obtained the financial means to enforce their authority. They gained considerable taxing power at the expense of the federal government, which lost approximately half the revenue formerly collected by the viceregal administration. To compensate for that loss, the states were to pay the national government a contingente assessed for each state according to its means. As a result, the nation would have to depend upon the goodwill of the states to finance or fulfil its responsibilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31646",
"title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Section 10: Limits on the States.:Clause 2: Import-Export Clause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2680439",
"title": "Economic secession",
"section": "Section::::Tax avoidance and evasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Because secessionists do not pay taxes they withdraw themselves not only financially, but socially. If you want to be able to enjoy the wealth you shelter, it will be coming visible, and the government will eventually realize your wealth and you will pay taxes. If your money remains hidden, you are successful in your secession, but cannot use it for exchange. The exchange of goods and money creates the flow of energy within an economic system. \"In society, initially innovation drives the changes and innovation creates the building blocks which allow the next stages of social and economic development.\" If individuals or companies decrease their spending on innovation, the energy into the economic system will decline. Economic secession withdraws capital that leads to innovation and economic prosperity in society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41609821",
"title": "Six Californias",
"section": "Section::::Stances on the proposal.:Opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Thus, a couple of political experts countered that the measure would not get the approval of all the parties needed; the voters would not necessarily wish to break up the state with the cost of setting up six new state governments and five new capitals, and Congress may not want five more states in the mix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30455953",
"title": "What Is a Nation?",
"section": "Section::::Continued consent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "This leads Renan to the conclusion that \"A nation never has a veritable interest in annexing or keeping another region against the wishes of its people\". In other words, areas such as states or provinces which wish to secede, should be permitted to do so. \"If doubts arise about national borders, consult the population of the area in dispute. They have the right to an opinion on the issue.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1825893",
"title": "Ordinance of Secession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The next four states to secede also were motivated by the same two factors, but a third and decisive factor was the Federal policy of coercion, or using military force to preserve the Union by compelling the earlier seceding states to submit. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6c0x1u
|
why do we more commonly associate bad memories with songs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Any highly emotional state will induce powerful memories of associated sounds, smells and other senses. Evolution probably coded this into us in order to ensure we would remember both dangerous situations and opportunities to thrive. This would be especially important for mating rituals in young adulthood because the propagation of the species is biologically crucial. Hence the common experience of remembering songs we associate with early love, both happy and sad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25049383",
"title": "Neuroscience of music",
"section": "Section::::Memory.:Therapeutic effects of music on memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Research suggests we listen to the same songs repeatedly because of musical nostalgia. One major study, published in the journal Memory & Cognition, found that music enables the mind to evoke memories of the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46455150",
"title": "Music as a coping strategy",
"section": "Section::::Major empirical findings.:Patient response-based findings.:Music and effects on psychological trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "If an individual diagnosed with PTSD associates a certain song with a traumatic memory, it typically triggers a stronger stress/anxiety response than the individual would otherwise have otherwise experienced when listening to the song. While one cannot assume that music is the only factor that triggers PTSD-influenced stress and panic attacks, these can be especially memorable because of music’s rhythm, beat, and/or memorable lyrics. However, associating music with psychological responses is not necessarily guaranteed to bring up bad memories, because music can often hold psychological connotations to very happy memories. For example, it has been demonstrated that supplying the residents of nursing homes with iPods that feature nostalgic music is a means of reducing the stress of the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33776988",
"title": "Drug use in music",
"section": "Section::::Studies and Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The authors of the aforementioned SAMSHA study expressed concern at findings such as the fact that only 19% of the songs selected that refer to illicit drugs mentioned any consequence, with many merely depicting intoxication and/or 'high' feelings only. They also noted how most teenagers cited \"listening to music\" as one of their favorite pastimes, even going as far as calling that \"their most preferred non-school activity,\" and so this may lead to music affecting teenagers' behaviors even more than what's seen in movies and on television. However, the report did also include the caveat, \"It is important to acknowledge that the mere existence of a certain type of media portrayal does not ensure that audiences will be influenced by it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16286863",
"title": "Songs to Remember",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "Allmusic described \"Songs to Remember\" as \"a rather scatterbrained record. Sometimes it sounds like T. Rex in miniature form (\"Jacques Derrida\"); sometimes it sounds like wannabe \"Dirty Mind\"-era Prince (\"Sex\"); sometimes it sounds like wannabe \"Young Americans\"-era David Bowie (\"A Slow Soul\")\" but also that \"there are moments of full-on glory that aren't sunk in their influences ... In sum, there's as much to love as there is to skip.\" Reviewing the 2001 reissue, \"Q\" said, \"This is trademark Scritti Politti from the start, all unlikely musical fusions (vocoder-gospel, anyone?), lilting melodies, winsome wit and wonderful invention ... [it] sounds as delightfully undateable as it did back in 1982 ...\"Songs to Remember\" remains a well-named, well-made record\". \"Mojo\" said that Scritti Politti had \"valiantly spot-welded such rarified tropes [as Derrida and digital dancehall] to an unsuspecting pop chassis ... Lovers Rock and Left Bank intellectualism have rarely combined more fruitfully.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37614966",
"title": "Music therapy for Alzheimer's disease",
"section": "Section::::Power of music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Alzheimer's patients can often remember songs from their youth even when far along in the progression of their disease. Dementia facilities the use music as a means of entertainment, since it often brings joy and elicits memories. describes that music activates more parts of the brain than any other stimulus and records itself in our motions and emotions. The movie describes that these are the last parts of the brain touched by Alzheimer's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33107185",
"title": "Music and emotion",
"section": "Section::::Conveying emotion through music.:Structural features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Music also affects socially-relevant memories, specifically memories produced by nostalgic musical excerpts (e.g., music from a significant time period in one’s life, like music listened to on road trips). Musical structures are more strongly interpreted in certain areas of the brain when the music evokes nostalgia. The interior frontal gyrus, substantia nigra, cerebellum, and insula were all identified to have a stronger correlation with nostalgic music than not. Brain activity is a very individualized concept with many of the musical excerpts having certain effects based on individuals’ past life experiences, thus this caveat should be kept in mind when generalizing findings across individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548265",
"title": "Peak–end rule",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Memory bias for more emotional events (i.e., why the peak is memorable).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1311,
"text": "People exhibit better memory for more intensely emotional events than less intensely emotional events. The precise cause of this is unclear, but it has been demonstrated, for decades, across a wide variety of surveys and experiments. In addition, people do not always recognize that the events that they remember are more emotionally intense than the \"average\" event of its kind. This failure to correct for the atypicality of extreme memories can lead people to believe those extreme moments are representative of the \"set\" being judged. Boston Red Sox fans asked to recall any one game they saw when the Red Sox won, for example, tended to recall the best game they could remember. They only realized this game was unrepresentative of past winning games by the Red Sox if they were explicitly asked to recall the best game they could remember, as evidenced by their subsequent \"affective forecasts\". This bias for more intense emotional experiences is evident in \"nostalgic preferences\". People asked to recall a television show or movie from the past tend to recall the most enjoyable show or movie that they can remember, and use this extreme example to rate all shows from its era unless they are also able to spontaneously recall shows or movies that are worse than the first show or movie they remember.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e97g5
|
how do ad networks work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ad networks generally have agreements with a lot of popular websites. The ad network pays the sites to place their ads, and vendors pay the ad networks to display their ads in those spots.\n\nWhen / if you click on one of those ads it brings you to the vendor's website. The ad network tracks where you saw the ad, when you clicked on it, and where you went. If you actually purchase a product after that, it is called a \"conversion\".\n\nAd networks often use a \"pay per click\" business model as well, where the vendor will pay the ad network for every ad click. In other words, they are paying the ad network just to get people to click on the ads... thereby visiting the vendor's site. More traffic to the site means more chances for sales to be made.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16777474",
"title": "Targeted advertising",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Behavioral targeting.:Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Advertising networks use behavioral targeting in a different way than individual sites. Since they serve many advertisements across many different sites, they are able to build up a picture of the likely demographic makeup of internet users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1549666",
"title": "Advertising network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "An online advertising network or ad network is a company that connects advertisers to websites that want to host advertisements. The key function of an ad network is an aggregation of ad supply from publishers and matching it with advertiser's demand. The phrase \"ad network\" by itself is media-neutral in the sense that there can be a \"Television Ad Network\" or a \"Print Ad Network\", but is increasingly used to mean \"online ad network\" as the effect of aggregation of publisher ad space and sale to advertisers is most commonly seen in the online space. The fundamental difference between traditional media ad networks and online ad networks is that online ad networks use a central ad server to deliver advertisements to consumers, which enables targeting, tracking and reporting of impressions in ways not possible with analog media alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1549666",
"title": "Advertising network",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "An advertiser can buy a run of network package, or a run of category package within the network. The advertising network serves advertisements from its central ad server, which responds to a site once a page is called. A snippet of code is called from the ad server, that represents the advertising banner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34591216",
"title": "HuffPost Live",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Advertising on the network consists of pre-roll commercials on video-on-demand clips. The network is also backed by \"premium\" sponsors that will integrate their advertising into the network's content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1817986",
"title": "Advertising campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication (IMC). An IMC is a platform in which a group of people can group their ideas, beliefs, and concepts into one large media base. Advertising campaigns utilize diverse media channels over a particular time frame and target identified audiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1083870",
"title": "Ad serving",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "An ad server is a Web server that stores advertising content used in online marketing and delivers that content onto various digital platforms such as Websites, social media outlets and mobile apps. An ad server is merely the technology in which the advertising material is stored and is the means of distributing that material into appropriate advertising slots online. Ad serving technology companies provide software to Websites and advertising companies to serve ads, count them, choose the ads that will make the Web site or advertiser the most money and monitor the progress of different online advertising campaigns. The purpose of ad serving is to deliver ads to users, to manage the advertising space of a Web site and, in the case of third party ad servers, to provide an independent counting and tracking system for advertisers/marketers. Ad servers also act as a system in which advertisers can count clicks/impressions in order to generate reports, which helps to determine the return on investment for an advertisement on a particular Web page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7397537",
"title": "Run of network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "An advertising network sells space for online ads to appear on a number of different websites, blogs and similar channels. A network may focus on a particular type of website such as games or entertainment, or represent several different categories. A run of network campaign is one in which the advertiser cannot choose to target specific parts of the network. Having a Run of Network option should result in lower prices than choosing sites specifically as the network can run on more sites and take advantage of extra inventory that might not be in as high demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hno7r
|
why is st. louis not as important in the united states as it once was? is it likely to continue shrinking?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was very important when the Mississippi was a big hub for transferring industrial products out of the Midwest. The small arms factory my grandmother worked at during WWII in Davenport, IA shipped through St. Louis, for example.\n\nAs Midwestern industry declined, so did the shipping of those products out along the Mississippi. \n\nThat said, the shrinking of St. Louis is exacerbated in the statistics. While other cities expanded their borders as their populations sprawled, St. Louis couldn't because it was not part of any of the neighboring counties. Chicago, today, makes up something like 80% of Cook County. St. Louis couldn't expand in a similar way because it couldn't take land from a county it didn't belong to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687",
"title": "St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "St. Louis has lost 64.0% of its population since the 1950 United States Census, the highest percent of any city that had a population of 100,000 or more at the time of the 1950 Census. Detroit, Michigan, and Youngstown, Ohio, are the only other cities that have had population declines of at least 60% in the same time frame. The population of the city of St. Louis has been in decline since the 1950 census; during this period the population of the St. Louis Metropolitan Area, which includes more than one county, has grown every year and continues to do so. A big factor in the decline has been the rapid increase in suburbanization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32156287",
"title": "History of St. Louis (1866–1904)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The history of St. Louis, Missouri from 1866 to 1904 was marked by rapid growth, and the population of St. Louis increased so that it became the fourth largest city in the United States after New York City, Philadelphia, and Chicago. It also experienced rapid infrastructure and transportation development and the growth of heavy industry. The period culminated with the 1904 World's Fair and 1904 Summer Olympics, which were concurrently held in St. Louis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687",
"title": "St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "St. Louis, like many Midwestern cities, expanded in the early 20th century due to industrialization, which provided jobs to new generations of immigrants and migrants from the South. It reached its peak population of 856,796 at the 1950 census. Suburbanization from the 1950s through the 1990s dramatically reduced the city's population, as did restructuring of industry and loss of jobs. The effects of suburbanization were exacerbated by the relatively small geographical size of St. Louis due to its earlier decision to become an independent city, and it lost much of its tax base. During the 19th and 20th century, most major cities aggressively annexed surrounding areas as residential development occurred away from the central city; however, St. Louis was unable to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5372973",
"title": "History of St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::Fourth city status: 1866–1904.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "During the decades after the Civil War, St. Louis grew to become the nation's fourth largest city, after New York City, Philadelphia, and Chicago. It also experienced rapid infrastructure and transportation development and the growth of heavy industry. The period culminated with the 1904 World's Fair and 1904 Summer Olympics, which were held concurrently in St. Louis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687",
"title": "St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "In the 21st century, the city of St. Louis contains only 11% of the total metropolitan population. (The top 20 U.S. metro areas have an average of 24% of their populations in their central cities. St. Louis grew slightly during the early 2000s, but lost population from 2000 to 2010. Immigration has continued, with the city attracting Vietnamese, Latin Americans predominantly from Mexico, and Bosnians, which comprises the largest Bosnian community outside of Bosnia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687",
"title": "St. Louis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "St. Louis () is a major independent city and inland port in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is situated along the western bank of the Mississippi River, which marks Missouri's border with Illinois. The Missouri River merges with the Mississippi River just north of the city. These two rivers combined form the fourth longest river system in the world. The city had an estimated 2018 population of 302,838 and is the cultural and economic center of the St. Louis metropolitan area (home to nearly 3,000,000 people), which is the largest metropolitan area in Missouri, and the 20th-largest in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41543637",
"title": "Socialist Party of Missouri",
"section": "Section::::Organizational history.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "At the turn of the 20th Century the Midwestern city of St. Louis was a prominent center of American commerce and manufacturing. The city's population of just over 575,000 people made St. Louis the fourth largest city in the United States, following New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5vm9na
|
why do different countries have different electrical outlet layouts and voltages whereas (almost all) cars/trucks are standardized at 12v and the little round outlet (cigar lighter)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cars wear out and get replaced, so over a period of two decades 99% of all cars on the road will be replaced with new ones. The last several decades in the auto industry have been ones of consolidation into a few enormous multinational companies that sell cars in dozens of countries around the world. So they've standardized, and that standard can be seen in every vehicle you're likely to enter. There are still the odd 6V and 24V vehicles out there, just not many. Same thing with computer/phone connectors: a few standards take hold and spread worldwide.\n\nOn the other hand, electrical outlets installed in the 1920s—when even different parts of the same country might have different standards—are still in use in millions of homes. The cost and difficulty of retrofitting is not inconsequential, nor is there much need to, so long as appliances are imported country by country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my understanding about cars and trucks, most are made European, American, and Asian. Asian nations started a little later in time. It was competition that made voltage and outlets become universal. \n\nThere isn't a competitive drive for countries to change their ways in accord with another. \nThere's a lot more to it, hopefully someone knowledgable elaborates clearly",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "864168",
"title": "Mains electricity by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Mains electricity by country includes a list of countries and territories, with the plugs, voltages and frequencies they commonly use for providing electrical power to appliances, equipment, and lighting typically found in homes and offices. (For industrial machinery, see Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets.) Some countries have more than one voltage available. For example, in North America most sockets are attached to a 120 V supply, but there is a 240 V supply available for large appliances. Often different sockets are mandated for different voltage or current levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10407767",
"title": "Auxiliary car power outlet",
"section": "Section::::Accessories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a higher voltage while their alternator is generating power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "976663",
"title": "Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "While some forms of power plugs and sockets are set by international standards, countries may have their own different standards and regulations. For example, the colour-coding of wires may not be the same as for small mains plugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47713",
"title": "Direct current",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Domestic and commercial buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Domestic DC installations usually have different types of sockets, connectors, switches, and fixtures from those suitable for alternating current. This is mostly due to the lower voltages used, resulting in higher currents to produce the same amount of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48516470",
"title": "Low-voltage network",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Most of differences in the layout and design of low-voltage networks are dictated by the mains voltage rating. In Europe and most of the world 220–240 V is the dominant choice, while in North America 120 V is the standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175446",
"title": "Modular synthesizer",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.:Electrical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Other differences are with plugs that match 1/4-inch or 6.3mm jacks, 3.5mm jacks, and banana jacks, with main DC power supply (typically ±15 V, but ranging from ±18 V to ±12 V for different manufacturers or systems), with trigger or gate voltages (Moog S-trigger or positive gate), with typical audio signal levels (often ±5 V with ±5 V headroom), and with control voltages of volts/octave (typically 1 V/octave, but in some cases 1.2 V/octave.) Most analog modular systems use a system in which the frequency is exponentially related to the pitch (such as 1 volt/octave or 1.2 volts/octave), sometimes called \"linear\" because the human ear perceives frequencies in a logarithmic fashion, with each octave having the same perceptual size; some synthesizers (such as Korg MS-20, ETI 4600) use a volts/hertz system, where the frequency (but not the perceived pitch) is linear in the voltage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773271",
"title": "AC power plugs and sockets",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "AC power plugs and sockets connect electric equipment to the alternating current (AC) power supply in buildings and at other sites. Electrical plugs and sockets differ from one another in voltage and current rating, shape, size, and connector type. Different standard systems of plugs and sockets are used around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23shrw
|
How exactly does one ionize xenon, such as in ion propulsion?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Ion Propulsion drives, Xenon is ionized by shooting it with electrons. Xenon has a pretty low ionization energy, so it doesn't take much to steal an electron off of it! Once you have a nice Xe+ ion, you shoot it out the back by electrostatically accelerating it through a set of charged grids and into space, giving you a tiny bit of acceleration.\n\nXenon is used both due to the low ionization energy I mentioned before and it's ability to be relatively easily stored as a liquid at room temperatures and high pressures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37838",
"title": "Hall-effect thruster",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The xenon ions are then accelerated by the electric field between the anode and the cathode. For discharge voltages of 300 V, the ions reach speeds of around 15 km/s (9.3 mps) for a specific impulse of 1,500 seconds (15 kN·s/kg). Upon exiting, however, the ions pull an equal number of electrons with them, creating a plasma plume with no net charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37838",
"title": "Hall-effect thruster",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The propellant, such as xenon gas, is fed through the anode, which has numerous small holes in it to act as a gas distributor. Xenon propellant is used because of its high atomic weight and low ionization potential. As the neutral xenon atoms diffuse into the channel of the thruster, they are ionized by collisions with circulating high-energy electrons (typically 10–40 eV, or about 10% of the discharge voltage). Once ionized, the xenon ions typically have a charge of +1, though a small fraction (~20%) have +2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37648306",
"title": "Cooperative luminescence and cooperative absorption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Cooperative luminescence is the radiative process in which two excited ions simultaneously make downward transition to emit one photon with the sum of their excitation energies. The inverse process is cooperative absorption, in which a photon can be absorbed by a coupled pair of two ions, making them excited simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37839",
"title": "Ion thruster",
"section": "Section::::Electrostatic ion thrusters.:Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters commonly utilize xenon gas. The gaseous propellant begins with no charge; it is ionized by bombarding it with energetic electrons, as the energy transferred ejects valence electrons from the propellant gas's atoms. These electrons can be provided by a hot cathode filament and accelerated through the potential difference towards an anode. Alternatively, the electrons can be accelerated by an oscillating induced electric field created by an alternating electromagnet, which results in a self-sustaining discharge without a cathode (radio frequency ion thruster).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34139",
"title": "Xenon",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Xenon is the preferred propellant for ion propulsion of spacecraft because it has low ionization potential per atomic weight and can be stored as a liquid at near room temperature (under high pressure), yet easily evaporated to feed the engine. Xenon is inert, environmentally friendly, and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium. Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s. It was later employed as a propellant for JPL's Deep Space 1 probe, Europe's SMART-1 spacecraft and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn Spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37839",
"title": "Ion thruster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "An ion thruster ionizes a neutral gas by extracting some electrons out of atoms, creating a cloud of positive ions. These thrusters rely mainly on electrostatics as ions are accelerated by the Coulomb force along an electric field. Temporarily stored electrons are finally reinjected by a \"neutralizer\" in the cloud of ions after it has passed through the electrostatic grid, so the gas becomes neutral again and can freely disperse in space without any further electrical interaction with the thruster. Electromagnetic thrusters on the contrary use the Lorentz force to accelerate all species (free electrons as well as positive and negative ions) in the same direction whatever their electric charge, and are specifically referred as plasma propulsion engines, where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1581131",
"title": "Electrostatic motor",
"section": "Section::::Electrostatic ion drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters commonly utilize xenon gas. This gas has no charge and is ionized by bombarding it with energetic electrons. These electrons can be provided from a hot cathode filament and accelerated in the electrical field of the cathode fall to the anode (Kaufman type ion thruster). Alternatively, the electrons can be accelerated by the oscillating electric field induced by an alternating magnetic field of a coil, which results in a self-sustaining discharge and omits any cathode (radiofrequency ion thruster).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xvm9q
|
whatever happened to piracy?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's still going on but isn't getting the same level of attention is was a few years back. According to the news, they've moved on to Iranian vessels. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's still very much a thing, although it has slacked off a bit. There was a huge surge in piracy around the Horn of Africa/Gulf of Aden/Indian Ocean region a few years back. Most of the pirates were based out of Somalia.\n\nSince then there has been a large multinational effort ongoing to interdict pirate ships and protect merchant shipping in the region. The US has also conducted a number of strikes against suspected pirate headquarters ashore.\n\nSomalia's situation has also improved a bit in the last few years which helps to divert people away from piracy which was a really last-ditch option for many.\n\n\nWhat killed historical large-scale piracy was the advance of effective government into the New World. (North and South America). Pirates need places to repair and refit their ships and markets on which to sell their stolen goods. Once the colonial governments in the Americas became strong enough to control their territory pirates ran out of safe havens. This also coincided with the major powers in the Caribbean having a prolonged period of peacefulness and thus no incentive to support pirates.\n\nPrivateering continued through to the end of the 19th century when the Declaration of Paris laid out a framework for international maritime law that forbade signatories from engaging in privateering.\n\nSmall-scale piracy is still incredibly common in places like the Gulf of Aden and Straits of Malacca but is cracked down on pretty hard due to it's detrimental effects on trade and commodity costs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Anarchy at Sea](_URL_0_), an article from The Atlantic, September 2003, talks about piracy already re-emerging as a problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Right now the narrative that news networks wish to push has changed.\n\nMany issues come and go, but many more only appear to do so. With the advent of 24/7 News channels, we have a very odd phenomenon culturally where news stations tend to cannibalize one another's stories.\n\nWhen piracy was the flavor of the month, that's all we got. Now, they've moved one to other topics. Might be news... might be \"info-tainment\". But the actual occurrence of events in the real world vs the amount of reporting done on said events seems to have a bit of a disparity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50715",
"title": "Piracy",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.:International law.:International conventions.:Articles 101 to 103 of UNCLOS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 219,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 219,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The acts of piracy, as defined in article 101, committed by a warship, government ship or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied and taken control of the ship or aircraft are assimilated to acts committed by a private ship or aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11206306",
"title": "Piracy Act 1837",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "The acts of piracy, as defined in article 101, committed by a warship, government ship or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied and taken control of the ship or aircraft are assimilated to acts committed by a private ship or aircraft. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50715",
"title": "Piracy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. A land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. Privateering uses similar methods to piracy, but the captain acts under orders of the state authorizing the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation, making it a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50715",
"title": "Piracy",
"section": "Section::::1990s–2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Modern piracy can also take place in conditions of political unrest. For example, following the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, Thai piracy was aimed at the many Vietnamese who took to boats to escape. Further, following the disintegration of the government of Somalia, warlords in the region have attacked ships delivering UN food aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49079088",
"title": "Maritime history of the Channel Islands",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Early Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Piracy in the Islands mainly died when Sark was colonized by Hellier de Carteret in 1563 and they lost their last refuge. Some pirates still hid out in isolated English and French bays, others sailed up from the Barbary coast, or even Turkey, ransoming valuable captives or keeping them as slaves. It was replaced by legal piracy in the form of privateering. Ships issued with a letter of marque giving the ship the right to capture ships and goods of a specific enemy and to keep the profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50715",
"title": "Piracy",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.:International law.:Law of nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Piracy is of note in international law as it is commonly held to represent the earliest invocation of the concept of universal jurisdiction. The crime of piracy is considered a breach of \"jus cogens\", a conventional peremptory international norm that states must uphold. Those committing thefts on the high seas, inhibiting trade, and endangering maritime communication are considered by sovereign states to be \"hostis humani generis\" (enemies of humanity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1794929",
"title": "Military geography",
"section": "Section::::Ocean fronts (harbors, beaches and sea cliffs).:Pirates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Even today, there is still a problem of piracy on the world's oceans. One of the most commonly thought of areas for this criminal activity is off the coast of Somalia. There has always been the constant threat of small and fast attack craft coming out to greet a vessel as it passes through the waters between Africa and the Middle East. Another region that piracy occurs, and it can be of a much larger scale, is in and around the Indonesian islands and off the coasts of the Asian mainland. Here the pirates have been able to capture much larger prizes, and they pose a much larger threat to the security of economic interests of many countries. Pirates operate from bases that are concealed, but they must be on the waterfront in a country that is either ignorant of their activity, or worse, are paid to overlook it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
df7rxj
|
Why did big game hunting become so popular during the Victorian era?
|
[
{
"answer": "Questions of popularity are not going to be easy to nail down (why did everyone suddenly get interested in zombies?) But it's not that actually doing big game hunting was popular ( it was, after all, rather hard for most Victorians to do it) as much as reading about it. That's rather obvious: reading about hunting large dangerous animals that can kill you can be thrilling, the difference between watching a bass fishing competition and seeing *Jaws*.\n\nAs to why some people ( yes, mostly men) in the 19th c. were shooting giant beautiful animals and putting their heads on their walls, it could be summarized best perhaps as an animal-rights activist might summarize it, as a crime: with motive, means, and opportunity.\n\nMotive: the stereotypical big game hunter in a pith helmet in Africa or India was English. [Sport hunting had long been a hobby of the landed classes in England](_URL_0_) .For one thing, they owned the gamelands. Unlike poachers on their lands, they didn't necessarily need to eat what they hunted ( though they did have staff to clean and skin or pluck them) so it was easy for them to get into trophy hunting. Also, hunting the wildlife to keep it away from the crops was thought useful.\n\nOpportunity: When England got an Empire, those upper-class sportsmen were able to simply begin doing the same sport hunting in the new dominions: they were in positions of power and could do so. Also, there was a good bit of game habitat,and the more primitive shorter-range weapons in the hands of the native populations had not reduced the numbers of large dangerous game. So, excitingly large numbers of lions, tigers, cape buffalo, gnus etc. could be found.\n\nMeans: though the English wouldn't be limited to spears and arrows, their own gunmakers in the 18th c. had produced rifles and shotguns for small game, birds, and deer. Bringing down rhinos, elephants and buffalo required much more powerful firearms, and by mid-century makers like Westley Richards and Gibbs were producing big game rifles that were at last satisfying the blood-lust of hunters like Sir Samuel Baker, firing belted lead balls weighing as much as two ounces on heavy loads of black powder. These would batter the hunter almost as much as they battered the animals, but as firearms modernized, range and effectiveness did as well. With less punishing rifles to shoot, by the turn of the century, there could be women in pith helmets as well as men, bringing down large animals that they could then pose with for photos.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although the stereotypical image of big game hunter is of an Englishman in Africa, with a train of native gun-bearers behind him, the willingness of hunters to travel far to find new places to hunt was not limited to the English, of course. [Friedrich Gerstäcker](_URL_0_) traveled to Arkansas territory in the 1840's to simply wander around and hunt- something that was much easier to do on the US frontier than in his native Germany. Americans- notably Teddy Roosevelt- would travel to Africa for big game hunting after 1900. And the thrill of felling large animals was by no means limited to Africa or India: even the historian Francis Parkman would describe killing large numbers of buffalo on his 1847 trip to Oregon, with no apparent reason other than they were simply there and could be shot at.\n\nThese two men were also writers, and it is notable how often big game hunters are known chiefly by what they wrote about themselves. Sir Samuel Baker, Richard Selous, Peter Capstick, J.A Hunter, W.D.M. Bell ....all wrote \"ripping yarns\". With the advances in transportation and firearms technology in the 19th c., in retrospect their success in traveling into new remote habitats and shooting large numbers of large animals seems to be somewhat inevitable and tragic, but it's not until rather late- after 1900- that the tone changes from triumphant, when Selous, Roosevelt and others would begin to express concern about conservation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6065207",
"title": "Big-game hunting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Big-game hunting is also a sport, pursued to collect specimens for museums, recreation, and as a hobby. Sharply rising in popularity during the Victorian Era, it peaked during the 20th century, and includes many famous big game hunters. Among them are Philip Percival, who guided Theodore Roosevelt and Ernest Hemingway, themselves famous big game hunters; Bror von Blixen-Finecke, a friend of Percival's and husband of writer Isak Dinesen who wrote \"Out of Africa\"; Denys Finch Hatton, who was also a character in Dinesen's book; Major Percy Horace Gordon Powell-Cotton; and others. Many big-game hunters are also conservationists (Roosevelt and Hemingway are examples), and currently big-game hunting in Africa helps pay for conservation efforts, with very large fees from the hunters going directly to wildlife management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7822474",
"title": "Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Shotguns were improved during the 18th and 19th centuries and game shooting became more popular. To protect the pheasants for the shooters, gamekeepers culled vermin such as foxes, magpies and birds of prey almost to extirpation in popular areas, and landowners improved their coverts and other habitats for game. Game Laws were relaxed in 1831 which meant anyone could obtain a permit to shoot rabbits, hares, and gamebirds, although shooting and taking away any birds or animals on someone else's land without their permission continued to be the crime of poaching, as it still is. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802149",
"title": "Indian rhinoceros",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Sport hunting became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the middle of the 19th century claim that some British military officers in Assam individually shot more than 200 rhinos. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the species had declined to near extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39548370",
"title": "Rhino poaching in Assam",
"section": "Section::::In early days.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Sport hunting became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the middle of the 19th century claim that some military officers in Assam individually shot more than 200 rhinos. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the species had declined to near extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22064331",
"title": "Sabueso Español",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "When firearms were becoming common in northern Spain and big game populations decreased, hunters diversified their quarry and began directing their hounds to hunt rabbits, called \"caza de la liebre a la vuelta\", although the hunting of wild boar and roe deer continued in other areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23120242",
"title": "Game preservation",
"section": "Section::::Britain.:Wildlife and game preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In Britain wild predators and scavengers were very badly affected by being shot by gamekeepers as \"vermin\" during the heyday of game preservation in the 18th and 19th centuries: for example, the gamekeepers' records of the Glengarry Estate in Scotland record killing in 3 years in the 19th century:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27287532",
"title": "Forests of Mara and Mondrem",
"section": "Section::::History.:After the Earls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Deer continued to be hunted in the 17th century; a large area at New Pale was enclosed at this time for the retention of deer. James I, on a royal visit to Cheshire in August 1617, hunted in the forest, describing it as \"this delectable place\". From the early 18th century, however, the focus of hunting moved away from deer; Tarporley Hunt Club was founded in 1762, and the local gentry hunted hares and later foxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11yhfl
|
Did The Celts participate in Human / Animal Sacrifice?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nSame goal as most sacrifcing culture. Ensure that the next harvest or the next year will arrive, that there will be a good yield or protection against desaster and desease.\n\nNeedless to say the Celts didnt have a centralized church so everything varied locally.\n\nIs it Rome 2 by any chance?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, some Iron Age inhabitants of modern France did sacrifice people. In Ribemont-sur-Ancre, we found a heap of bones, reconstructed as basically something that looks like a barbecue rack, or something like a fish-smoking construction (but with no burning or anything), with decapitated people in uniform with their weapons and shields. They also found a kind of 'building' made of human bones. Lots of them had cutmarks, indicating that these people were killed. But that's the only definite proof I know of; otherwise, there's Caesar's accounts of course, but I don't think they are very reliable because he would have wanted to depict his conquered people as more ferocious and barbaric. Other than that, there's widespread evidence for human sacrifice in Denmark, Britain and the Netherlands in the form of the bog bodies, most of them from the Iron Age. New C14 dates suggest most of them were killed around 160 BC, but I've yet to see the definite report on that. These were probably individual human sacrifices, but whether these people were 'Celtic' is debatable. Same for the large-scale human sacrifices of Denmark and Sweden, of which we also have an account from the Cimbric wars around 100 BC in southern France.\n\nAnimal sacrifice I really take for granted in Iron Age communities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "650498",
"title": "Shaktism",
"section": "Section::::Worship.:Animal sacrifice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Animal Sacrifice of a buffalo or goat, particularly during smallpox epidemics, has been practiced in parts of South India. The sacrificed animal is dedicated to a Goddess, and is probably related to the myth of Goddess Kali in Andhra Pradesh, but in Karnataka, the typical Goddess is Renuka. According to Alf Hiltebeitel – a professor of Religions, History and Human Sciences, these ritual animal sacrifices, with some differences, mirrors Goddess-related ritual animal sacrifice found in Gilgamesh epic and in texts of Egyptian, Minoan and Greek sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7478553",
"title": "Death and culture",
"section": "Section::::Customs.:Sacrifices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Sacrifice includes the practice of offering the lives of animals or people to the gods, as an act of propitiation or worship. The practice of sacrifice is found in the oldest human records, and the archaeological record finds corpses, both animal and human, that show marks of having been sacrificed and have been dated to long before any records. Human sacrifice was practiced in many ancient cultures. The practice has varied between different civilizations, with some like the Aztecs being notorious for their ritual killings, while others have looked down on the practice. Victims ranging from prisoners to infants to virgins were killed to please their gods, suffering such fates as burning, beheading and being buried alive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15388",
"title": "Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Practices.:Offerings and ritual sacrifice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Pre-Islamic Arabians, especially pastoralist tribes, sacrificed animals as an offering to a deity. This type of offering was common and involved domestic animals such as camels, sheep and cattle, while game animals and poultry were rarely or never mentioned. Sacrifice rites were not tied to a particular location though they were usually practiced in sacred places. Sacrifice rites could be performed by the devotee, though according to Hoyland, women were probably not allowed. The victim's blood, according to pre-Islamic Arabic poetry and certain south Arabian inscriptions, was also 'poured out' on the altar stone, thus forming a bond between the human and the deity. According to Muslim sources, most sacrifices were concluded with communal feasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24083828",
"title": "Mayong (Assam)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "\"Narabali\" or human sacrifices were carried out in connection with the worship of Shakti until the early modern period. Excavators had recently dug up swords and other sharp weapons that resembled tools used for human sacrifice in other parts of India, suggesting that human sacrifice may have occurred in the Ahom era in Mayong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183144",
"title": "Animal sacrifice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of an animal usually as part of a religious ritual or to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until Late Antiquity, and continue in some cultures or religions today. Human sacrifice, where it existed, was always much more rare. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15054932",
"title": "Alpaca fiber",
"section": "Section::::Alpacas.:History.:History of fiber industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Incan culture involved the alpaca, as well as llamas and guanacos, in ritual sacrifice. Methods of killing the beasts varied based on the god receiving the sacrifice, the festival during which it took place, and even the color of the animal's fur. One method involved slitting open the animal's left side and reaching inside the chest cavity to remove the heart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183144",
"title": "Animal sacrifice",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "By the end of Copper Age in 3000 BC, animal sacrifice had become a common practice across many cultures, and appeared to have become more generally restricted to domestic livestock. At Gath, archeological evidence indicates that the Canaanites imported sacrificial sheep and goats from Egypt rather than selecting from their own livestock. At the Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia, one of the earliest known sacred centers in Europe, evidence of the sacrifice of sheep, cattle and swine has been uncovered by excavations, and it is indicated that ritual sacrifice may have been common across Italy around 3000 BC and afterwards. At the Minoan settlement of Phaistos in ancient Crete, excavations have revealed basins for animal sacrifice dating to the period 2000 to 1700 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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