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2ozyf0
|
In what ways did culture of the time influence Buddhist beliefs and practices?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stephen Batchelor, a former monk in both the Tibetan and Zen traditions, wrote [Buddhism Without Beliefs](_URL_1_), an explicit attempt to separate the baby from the cultural bathwater in Buddhism. It's been ages since I read it, but if memory serves I believe Batchelor argues that Buddhism is a matter of practice and inquiry, not belief. \n\nThe history of Buddhist art tells you a lot about cultural accretion. Found [this](_URL_0_) from the Met. \"In the earliest Buddhist art of India, the Buddha was not represented in human form. His presence was indicated instead by a sign, such as a pair of footprints, an empty seat, or an empty space beneath a parasol.\" Compare that to florid Tibetan iconography.\n\nWhat's great about Buddhism is that it adapts so well to cultures it merges with, from spiritually athletic Zen to belief-based pure land to compassion-based Mahayana to insanely ritualistic Vajrayana. There are all these \"skillful means\" based on the varying needs of sentient beings. Why would you want to limit yourself to what the historical Buddha and his contemporaries did or believed?\n\nEdit: You might be interested in the way Tibetan Buddhists conceptualize the various vehicles or \"yanas\" of Buddhism, from renunciation - the original vehicle - to great compassion to radical acceptance. There are scholarly explanations, but Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche wrote an excellent one that compares them to ways of being in a cinema. [Here](_URL_2_)",
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"answer": "Hi there! This is a little outside my area of expertise and I'm sure some people will come in and much of this information was unfortunately taught to me by some professors at college in Bhutan, but I'll try to provide some sources where I can. And if someone has more sources for information I can't fully verify or can elaborate or correct me, please do. \n\nFirst off, you're right to be overly specific in calling the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) \"a follower of the ancient Vedic religion\" as opposed to saying, \"The Buddha was a Hindu.\" Hinduism is a modern construct associating the native Indian religious complex with a sort of national identity (a reaction against Islam being associated with Pakistani national identity). The religion, I was told by a Bengali sociologist, is properly called \"Brahmanism\" because as Christianity derives its authority from the Bible, and Islam from the Qur'an, the followers of native Indian religions used to derive their authority from Brahmins, or the priestly Varna (caste). \n\nAll Dharmic religions (Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmanism) have the concept of enlightenment in the spiritual sense. So enlightenment isn't a new thing that Buddhism came up with, what IS different is that the Buddha taught that enlightenment was not contingent upon Varna. Before that, except for a few ascetics in the woods, it was commonly believed that only Brahmins could be enlightened, and that the other Varnas (Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra) and outcastes would never be enlightened. Slaves (Shudra) would have to be reborn as a Brahmin if they ever wanted to get enlightened. \n\nContrary to popular opinion, the Buddha did not do away with Varna. He was human and a product of his times. While caste isn't SUPPOSED to matter in the Sangha, the Sangha still tended to run in an aristocratic fashion with monks possessing distinguished ancestry being at the top, while monks without at the bottom (with exceptions, of course). \n\nA good place to start with the history of Buddhism is Andrew Skilton's \"A Concise History of Buddhism.\" It's mostly a history of the texts with their context in mind but it does go over India before the Buddha. \n\nYour question's a little vague though. It's kind of like asking how did the world of Jesus influence Christianity? Well, a lot of ways, of course. If you're a little more specific, I can start pointing you in more precise directions. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17616212",
"title": "Buddhist art in Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 652,
"text": "Buddhism played an important role in the development of Japanese art between the 6th and the 16th centuries. Buddhist art and Buddhist religious thought came to Japan from China through Korea. Buddhist art was encouraged by Crown Prince Shōtoku in the Suiko period in the sixth century, and by Emperor Shōmu in the Nara period in the eighth century. In the early Heian period, Buddhist art and architecture greatly influenced the traditional Shinto arts, and Buddhist painting became fashionable among wealthy Japanese. The Kamakura period saw a flowering of Japanese Buddhist sculpture, whose origins are in the works of Heian period sculptor Jōchō. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "574608",
"title": "Culture of Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Features of Buddhist culture.:Buddhist music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The relationship between Buddhism and music is thought to be complicated since the association of music with earthly desires led early Buddhists to condemn the musical practice, and even observation of musical performance, for monks and nuns. However, in Pure Land Buddhism Buddhist paradises are represented as musical places in which Buddhist law takes the form of melodies. Most Buddhist practices also involve chant in some form, and some also make use of instrumental music and even dance. Music can act as an offering to the Buddha, as a means of memorizing Buddhist texts, and as a form of personal cultivation or meditation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323186",
"title": "Kenshō",
"section": "Section::::Insight versus experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The influence of western psychology and philosophy on Japanese Buddhism was due to the persecution of Buddhism at the beginning of the Meiji Restoration, and the subsequent efforts to construct a New Buddhism (\"shin bukkyo\"), adapted to the modern times. It was this New Buddhism which has shaped the understanding of Zen in the west, especially through the writings of D.T. Suzuki and the Sanbo Kyodan, an exponent of the Meiji-era opening of Zen-training for lay-followers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84695",
"title": "Nara period",
"section": "Section::::Cultural developments and the establishment of Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism. Buddhism was introduced by Baekje in the sixth century but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by Emperor Shōmu. Shōmu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the spread of Buddhism, making it the \"guardian of the state\" and a way of strengthening Japanese institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20062",
"title": "Meditation",
"section": "Section::::Religious and spiritual meditation.:Indian religions.:Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the modern era, Buddhist meditation saw increasing popularity due to the influence of Buddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism, and western lay interest in Zen and the Vipassana movement. The spread of Buddhist meditation to the Western world paralleled the spread of Buddhism in the West. Buddhist meditation has also influenced Western Psychology, especially through the work of Jon Kabat-Zinn who founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) in 1979. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term \"sati\") and related meditative practices have in turn led to several mindfulness based therapies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33532742",
"title": "History of qigong",
"section": "Section::::Roots in traditional medicine, philosophy, and martial arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Buddhism, originating in India and having its source in the Hindu culture, developed an extensive system of meditation and physical cultivation similar to yoga to help the practitioner achieve enlightenment, awakening one to one's true self. When Buddhism was transmitted to China, some of those practices were assimilated and eventually modified by the indigenous culture. The resulting transformation was the start of the Chinese Buddhist qigong tradition. Chinese Buddhist practice reaches a climax with the emergence of Chán (禪) Buddhism in the 7th century AD. Meditative practice was emphasized and a series of qigong exercises known as the Yijin Jing (\"Muscle/Tendon Change Classic\") was attributed to Bodhidharma. The Chinese martial arts community eventually identify this Yijing Jing as one of the secret training methods in Shaolin martial arts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28288",
"title": "Samurai",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Religious influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The philosophies of Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism and Shinto, are attributed to the development of the samurai culture. According to Robert Sharf, \"The notion that Zen is somehow related to Japanese culture in general, and bushidō in particular, is familiar to Western students of Zen through the writings of D. T. Suzuki, no doubt the single most important figure in the spread of Zen in the West.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
1ndkfj
|
During World War II did merchant ships have insurance against being sunk by the enemy? Did the national governments offer compensation?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were insured against loss. The precise details likely varied from ship to ship. I'm not sure where you would find the precise details of the amount any given vessel was insured for off hand. Lloyds and the American Bureau of Shipping did issue annual registers of insured vessels though. You won't find most of that information online though. Mystic Seaport has digitized many records from the 19th century but that doesn't really help you much. \n\nIf you are willing to do some hard copy searching the Mariners Museum in Newport News has a full run of both registers. Here's a link to their catalog for the years in question.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
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},
{
"answer": "The norwegian merhant fleet was organized by the government in exile, and basically turned into one massive organization. I reccomend reading the wikipedia article on Nortraship. \n\nAfter the war, there was a reconstruction payment by the norwegian government of 4 billion NOK, of which 1.5 billion went to a Nortraship repayment for sunk ships according to [this](_URL_0_) source (in norwegian). They would however have to argue whether the sinking was the result of wartime activities, or a normal naval accident. If it was a wartime incident then it was eligible for reconstruction money, and if not it was up to the insurance agency.\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1900073",
"title": "Protection and indemnity insurance",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "In the second half of the 19th century, the number of claims greatly increased due to the number of passengers emigrating to North America and Australia. Shipowners became aware of their insurers' compensation limits, especially when it came to damages caused by ship collisions. While the UK Merchant Shipping Act 1854 had determined that, when evaluating insurance claims, the value of ships should be no less than £15 per ton, many ships had an actual lower market value and existing insurance policies did not cover this gap in liability. The compensation for collision damages also excluded a quarter of such damages. Existing hull insurance policies included damages to the insured ship and liability for the damages it had caused, while the maximum amount shipowners could recover after collisions was the ship's insured value, injured crew members might seek compensation from their employers. Later, the Fatal Accidents Act 1846 made it easier for passengers or their survivors to file claims. Also, injured crew members might seek compensation from their employers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3159416",
"title": "Ouzel Galley",
"section": "Section::::The story of the \"Ouzel\".:Disappearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In 1698 a panel comprising the city's most eminent merchants was set up to settle the question of insurance. The panel's ruling was that the ship had indeed been lost and that its owners and insurers should receive their due compensation. The galley's complement of thirty-seven crew and three officers were declared dead and the insurance was paid out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36860441",
"title": "Joseph Hoult",
"section": "Section::::Career.:After Parliament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "In May 1913, Hoult was one of a group of British ship-owners who established a mutual form of war insurance for ships. The Liverpool and London war Risks Association (Limited) covered the risks of British shipowners so long as Britain was neutral in any conflict, and the insured ships did not breach that neutrality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152061",
"title": "Lloyd's of London",
"section": "Section::::History.:1906: San Francisco earthquake and Cuthbert Heath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "Lloyd's losses from the earthquake and fires were substantial, even though the writing of insurance business overseas was viewed with some wariness at the time. While some insurance companies were denying claims for fire damage under their earthquake policies or \"vice versa\", one of Lloyd's leading underwriters, Cuthbert Heath, famously instructed his San Francisco agent to \"pay all of our policy-holders in full, irrespective of the terms of their policies\". The prompt and full payment of all claims helped to cement Lloyd's reputation for reliable claim payments and as an important trading partner for US brokers and policyholders. It was estimated that around 90 per cent of the damage to the city was caused by the resultant fires, and as such since 1906 fire following earthquake has generally been a specified insured peril under most policies. Heath is also credited for introducing the now widely used \"excess of loss\" reinsurance protection for insurers following the San Francisco disaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55793052",
"title": "London P&I Club",
"section": "Section::::History.:1900-1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "economic sanctions against Germany, meant British clubs could no longer offer neutral ships like US vessels insurance, which prompted foundation of the US P&I club in 1917. US ships remained a major part of the Club’s tonnage between the wars. In 1929 new members were Greek and Norwegian owners. Cargo, personal injury and sickness claims predominated. The civil war in Spain and Japan’s invasion of China brought many claims and rapidly special premiums were imposed. During the Second World War, ships were lost but the Club´s size increased slightly. The Club’s vital documents were filmed and safely stored in Exeter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5219762",
"title": "Prize (law)",
"section": "Section::::End of privateering and the decline of naval prizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "Commerce raiding by private vessels ended with the American Civil War, but Navy officers remained eligible for prize money a little while longer. The United States continued paying prizes to naval officers in the Spanish–American War, and only abjured the practice by statute during World War I. The U.S. prize courts adjudicated no cases resulting from its own takings in either World War I or World War II (although the Supreme Court did rule on a German prize—SS \"Appam\" in the case \"The Steamship Appam\"—that was brought to and held at Hampton Roads). Likewise Russia, Portugal, Germany, Japan, China, Romania, and France followed the United States in World War I, declaring they would no longer pay prize money to naval officers. On November 9, 1914, the British and French governments signed an agreement establishing government jurisdiction over prizes captured by either of them. The Russian government acceded to this agreement on March 5, 1915, and the Italian government followed suit on January 15, 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088729",
"title": "Conception Bay",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "During World War II, anchored DOSCO cargo ships, along with the loading pier at Wabana, were the target of Nazi U-boats on at least two occasions. During one attack on anchored ore carriers, a torpedo missed its target and struck the pier, making Bell Island one of the few places in North America to suffer a direct enemy attack (see Attacks on North America during World War II). The wrecks of the four cargo ships sunk during these two attacks are visible at low tide; a memorial on shore is dedicated to the 69 merchant sailors who lost their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
8121vw
|
During WWII what was the average distance that tanks fought other tanks?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coox and Naisawald's 1954 study *Survey of Allied Tank Casualties in World War II* gives several statistics that attempt to determine this.\n\n > A study of 800 U.S., British, and Canadian tank casualties in Western Europe, the Mediterranean Theater, and North Africa disclosed that the average range at which tanks were immobilized by gunfire was under 800 yards. A sample of 100 tank casualties in North Africa showed an average range of 900 yards; 60 tank casualties in Sicily and Italy--350 yards; 650 tank casualties in Western Europe--over 800 yards. These figures are explicable by the fact that in the western desert of North Africa, where the terrain favored ranges to the limits of visibility, tank fighting often resembled naval battles which boiled down to \"slug fests\" where light vessels (=light tanks and armored cars) were involved. A figure of 900 yards represents the averaging out of engagements at 1500 to 2000 yards as well as those at hub-to-hub range, e.g., Knightsbridge; Rommel's brilliant tank traps allowed his antitank guns to effect kills at short range. Martel has explained the reasons for the Germans' electing to fight armor at longer ranges in the desert as follows:\n\n > > The German armored forces often attacked British unarmored troops if they found them insufficiently protected by artillery and antitank guns, but they always avoided closing with our tanks in a running fight. When meeting British tanks in strength they preferred to take up a position which was well protected by artillery fire and with antitank guns on the flanks, and used the superior gunfire from stationary tanks to shoot at the British tanks at long range.\n\n > It should be stressed that the data on range are almost always derived from \"subjective\" estimates given in after-action reports or \"third-hand\" summaries. The only exception is a portion of the British ETO sample, wherein operations research teams from the 21st Army Group actually examined tanks immobilized after the Rhine crossing. The over-all average of 800 yards range is also probably higher than the actual figure, if it were known, for a much larger sample, inasmuch as a further 75 tank casualties to gunfire were listed only as \"close,\" \"fairly close,\" \"point-blank,\" \"various,\" etc.\n\n**TABLE VIII**\n\n**AVERAGE RANGES AT WHICH TANKS WERE IMMOBILIZED**\n\n**(Sampling)** [gunfire only]\n\nCategory|Sample|Range (yds)\n:--|:--|:--\nUS: ETO-First Army|330|796.4\nETO-Third, Seventh, Ninth Armies|119|713.7\nITALY|3|758.9\nUS: Total|452|774.4\nUK: ETO|190|886.3\nITALY|51|348.1\nSICILY|6|300.0\nAFRICA|96|890.1\nUK: Total|343|797.1\nCANADA: ETO|5|432.0\nETO: US, UK, CANADA|644|804.8\nAll Theaters: US, UK, CANADA|800|782.0\n\nHardison's *Data on World War II Tank Engagements: Involving the U.S. Third and Fourth Armored Divisions* also gives a figure that is about 800 to 900 yards on average.\n\n**TABLE V**\n\n**SUMMARY OF RANGES AT WHICH ALLIED AND ENEMY TANKS WERE DESTROYED IN VARIOUS AREAS OF NORTHWEST EUROPE**\n\nArea|Number of Allied Casualties|Average Allied Casualty Range in Yards|Number of Enemy Casualties|Average Enemy Casualty Range in Yards\n:--|:--|:--|:--|:--\nVicinity Stolberg|26|476||\nRoer to Rhine|37|959|6|733\nBelgian Bulge|60|1000|9|833\nVicinity Arracourt|20|1260|74|936\nSarre|37|1116|35|831\nRelief of Bastogne|19|731|16|915\nTotals|199|946|140|893\n\n > It was shown in the referenced report that the distribution of combat ranges is approximately represented by a Pearson III distribution function of the form:\n\n > F(R) = e^-X (X + 1)\n\n > X = 2R sqrt R\n\n > R = range, Rbar = average range,\n\n > F(R) = fraction of ranges greater than R.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2842975",
"title": "Type 95 Ha-Go light tank",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.:America's first clash of armor in World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "America's first tank versus tank battle of World War II occurred when Type 95 light tanks of the IJA 4th Tank Regiment engaged a US Army tank platoon, consisting of five brand new M3 Stuart light tanks from \"B\" company, 192nd Tank Battalion, on 22 December 1941, north of Damortis during the retreat to the Bataan Peninsula in 1941. Both the M3 and Type 95 light tanks were armed with a 37 mm gun, but the M3 was better armored, with 32 mm (1¼ inches) thick turret sides, vs the Type 95's 12 mm thick armor; however, as the US Army's Ballistics Research Lab (BRL) found after conducting the first large study of tank vs tank warfare in 1945, the most important factor in a tank duel was which side spotted the enemy first, fired first, and hit first. In this first engagement the IJA reacted first, destroying the lead M3 as it tried to leave the road. The four remaining American tanks all suffered hits as they retreated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2912026",
"title": "Battle of Radzymin (1944)",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::7. Germany and the Second World War, p. 584, notes that Second Tank Army's strength in tanks and assault guns was 810 on 22 July 1944, and that this had dwindled to 263 armored fighting vehicles by 4 August 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41527960",
"title": "Tanks in the Israeli Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Yom Kippur War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "One of the greatest tank battles in history, the Battle of Golan Heights, took place during the Yom Kippur War. In the Golan Heights, the Syrians attacked two Israeli brigades and eleven artillery batteries with five divisions (the 7th, 9th and 5th, with the 1st and 3rd in reserve) and 188 batteries. They began their attack with an airstrike by about 100 aircraft and a 50-minute artillery barrage. The forward brigades of three divisions then penetrated the cease-fire lines and bypassed United Nations observer posts, followed by the main assault force, which was covered by mobile anti-aircraft batteries, bulldozers to penetrate anti-tank ditches, bridge-layers to overcome obstacles, and mine-clearance vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12988220",
"title": "Battle of Basra (2003)",
"section": "Section::::Invasion of Basra.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Eventually, a column of 120 Iraqi tanks coalesced and directly engaged with the 7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom). 300 prisoners were taken in a battle outside the city. This event was described as the largest British tank battle since the Second World War. On March 26th the Republican Guard forces grew frustrated by their inability to draw the British into a fight inside of Basra, and Ali sent out a column of Soviet-built T-55 tanks to attack the British . The T-55s were outranged by the 120-millimeter guns of the British Challenger tanks of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards which resulted in the loss of 15 T-55s without a single loss to the British.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25658417",
"title": "Tanks of the United States",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Medium and heavy tanks.:M26 Pershing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "A total of 2,222 M26 Pershing tanks were produced, beginning in November 1944, only 20 of which saw combat in Europe during World War II. The tank was reclassified as a medium tank in May 1946, and while it didn't have time to make any real impact in the Second World War, it served with distinction in the Korean War alongside the M4A3E8 Sherman. In combat it was, unlike the M4 Sherman, fairly equal in firepower and protection to both the Tiger I and Panther tanks but was underpowered and mechanically unreliable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "26595097",
"title": "Main battle tank",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution of the general-purpose medium tank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 383,
"text": "The second half of World War II saw an increased reliance on general-purpose medium tanks, which became the bulk of the tank combat forces. Generally, these designs massed about 25–30 tonnes, were armed with cannons around 75 mm, and powered by engines in the 400 to 500 hp range. Notable examples include the Soviet T-34 (the most-produced tank to that time) and the US M4 Sherman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "19466336",
"title": "British Army during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Doctrine.:Tank Corps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Tanks were primarily used on the Western Front. The first offensive of the war in which tanks were used \"en masse\" was the battle of Cambrai in 1917; 476 tanks started the attack, and the German front collapsed. At midday the British had advanced five miles behind the German line. The battle of Amiens in 1918 saw the value of the tank being appreciated; 10 heavy and two light battalions of 414 tanks were included in the assault. 342 Mark Vs and 72 Whippets were backed up by a further 120 tanks designed to carry forward supplies for the armour and infantry. By the end of the first day of the attack, they had penetrated the German line by , 16,000 prisoners were taken. In September 1918, the British Army was the most mechanised army in the world. Some 22,000 men had served in the Tank Corps by the end of the war.\n",
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]
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] | null |
3rhdfs
|
if the only way you can get an std, sti, and hiv is if you sleep with someone who's infected then how is it stds, sti's and hiv exist to begin with?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are other ways to get most STIs. HIV, for example, can be transmitted through an infected person's blood, often by sharing or reusing needles for drug injections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "STIs are commonly transmitted sexually but can be trasmitted through other bodily fluids such as blood, saliva even milk. The origins of the infectious cause itself depends on which infection we're talking about. Generally, the infections are capable of spreading from animals to humans through contact (such as infected blood). HIV for example originally infected chimpanzees (the disease is known as simian immunodeficiency virus - SIV) which mutated into HIV once it found its way into people. Other diseases have similar origins. ",
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},
{
"answer": "The question you really want an answer to isn't really explained in the post. \n\nFirst, you're making a pretty big assumption that the first humans were \"clean\" as it were. Life started simple and got more complex from there, so bacteria, viruses, etc were around long before humans were. Microscopic organisms were around before complicated creatures like animals, some of these microscopic organisms found their way inside of animals because they were eaten or an animal cut itself on a rock, or something similar. Some of these bacteria couldn't survive inside of animals, others could. \n\nSo once bacteria managed to live inside something else, it just became a matter of getting from one animal to the other. Bacteria that could live in bodily fluids had a huge benefit because that gave them an excellent way of passing on between other animals. Those bacteria that couldn't were less likely to survive and pass on.\n\nSo that's how you end up with STIs and such. Over millions of years, bacteria that were able to be transmitted sexually found great success because it's more or less inevitable that an animal will have sex at some point in their lifetime if it survives, so these bacteria were most likely to survive and spread themselves. A bacteria that might have been spread through other means slowly but surely evolved to become better and better and staying in a living creature and spreading through sex. Not because there's anything special about it, but because these infections live in the things most like to be transferred between sexual partners. A bacteria that lived only in your armpit hair is going to have a hard time transmitting itself to other hosts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27546",
"title": "Sexual intercourse",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are bacteria, viruses or parasites that are spread by sexual contact, especially vaginal, anal, or oral intercourse, or unprotected sex. Oral sex is less risky than vaginal or anal intercourse. Many times, STIs initially do not cause symptoms, increasing the risk of unknowingly passing the infection on to a sex partner or others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5069516",
"title": "HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "HIV is spread by three main routes: sexual contact, significant exposure to infected body fluids or tissues, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding (known as vertical transmission). There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood. It is also possible to be co-infected by more than one strain of HIV—a condition known as HIV superinfection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19019270",
"title": "Sexually transmitted infection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), are infections that are commonly spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. Many times STIs initially do not cause symptoms. This results in a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Symptoms and signs of disease may include vaginal discharge, penile discharge, ulcers on or around the genitals, and pelvic pain. STIs can be transmitted to an infant before or during childbirth and may result in poor outcomes for the baby. Some STIs may cause problems with the ability to get pregnant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10605960",
"title": "Non-penetrative sex",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Many individuals are concerned about the risk of HIV/AIDS. Generally, a person must either have unprotected sexual intercourse (vaginal or anal), use an infected syringe or have the virus passed from mother to child to be infected. A person cannot be infected from casual contact, such as hugging; however, there is some risk if HIV-infected blood or genital secretions (semen or vaginal secretions) enter an open wound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV infection.:HIV can be spread through casual contact with an HIV infected individual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "One cannot become infected with HIV through normal contact in social settings, schools, or in the workplace. One cannot be infected by shaking someone's hand, by hugging or \"dry\" kissing someone, by using the same toilet or drinking from the same glass as an HIV-infected person, or by being exposed to coughing or sneezing by an infected person. Saliva carries a negligible viral load, so even open-mouthed kissing is considered a low risk. However, if the infected partner or both of the performers have blood in their mouth due to cuts, open sores, or gum disease, the risk is higher. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has only recorded one case of possible HIV transmission through kissing (involving an HIV-infected man with significant gum disease and a sexual partner also with significant gum disease), and the Terence Higgins Trust says that this is essentially a no-risk situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19019270",
"title": "Sexually transmitted infection",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The most effective way to prevent sexual transmission of STIs is to avoid contact of body parts or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Not all sexual activities involve contact: cybersex, phonesex or masturbation from a distance are methods of avoiding contact. Proper use of condoms reduces contact and risk. Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11258",
"title": "Fellatio",
"section": "Section::::Health aspects.:Sexually transmitted infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Chlamydia, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis (multiple strains), and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), can be transmitted through oral sex. Any sexual exchange of bodily fluids with a person infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, poses a risk of infection. Risk of STI infection, however, is generally considered significantly lower for oral sex than for vaginal or anal sex, with HIV transmission considered the lowest risk with regard to oral sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
239xkh
|
why do bottles of antibiotics and vitamins smell bad?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not all antibiotics have that rotten egg smell, but those that do typically contain a Sulfur compound in the form of hydrogen sulfide that gives it that rancid smell.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all vitamins smell bad. It's mostly just the B vitamins, which have a sort of eggy/sulphurous smell. They are however quite harmless. (Except B3, don't take too much of that...) \n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "sniff a bottle of valerian root. WHEW.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vitamin B smell you're probably thinking of",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "487247",
"title": "Reuse of bottles",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Bacterial concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98581",
"title": "Perfume",
"section": "Section::::Preserving perfume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Proper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. However, the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58449448",
"title": "History of bottle recycling in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History of PET bottle recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Before PET bottles were recycled to make new bottles, they were often recycled for other uses, such as paintbrush bristles or polyester fiber. Today, many companies, such as Patagonia, make clothing out of old PET bottles. It was at first difficult to recycle post-consumer PET bottles into new bottles because there was not sufficient knowledge about the ways in which PET was possibly contaminated during first use or during recollection. Contamination can occur either when substances from the beverages themselves get absorbed into the container or when bottles are reused to store unsafe liquids such as cleaners or chemicals. However, bottle-to-bottle recycling became more and more common as the number of PET bottles that got produced increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98581",
"title": "Perfume",
"section": "Section::::Preserving perfume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and \"open\" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6281707",
"title": "Dog odor",
"section": "Section::::Unnatural sources of odor on pet dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Some medications, such as antibiotics, taken by mouth or antiseptics or medicated shampoos used on the skin can produce odors that owners may find unpleasant. Likewise, some food ingredients, most noticeably fish meal or fish oil, can produce skin odor in dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6281707",
"title": "Dog odor",
"section": "Section::::Unnatural sources of odor on pet dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Dental disease or mouth ulcers can produce rotten smelling breath (halitosis). Dental calculus harbors numerous bacteria which produce odor and foul breath. Dental disease can also lead to excessive drooling, and the skin around the mouth can become infected, leading to more odor production. Dogs can also acquire foul smelling breath as a result of coprophagia, the practice of eating their own feces or the feces of other animals. Commercially prepared food additives can be purchased which, when added to a dog's food, impart a bitter flavor to their feces thereby reducing the tendency towards consuming their own feces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23154203",
"title": "Hash oil",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "When exposed to air, warmth and light (especially without antioxidants), the oil loses its taste and psychoactivity due to aging. Cannabinoid carboxylic acids (THCA, CBDA, and maybe others) have an antibiotic effect on gram-positive bacteria such as (penicillin-resistant) Staphylococcus aureus, but gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli are unaffected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9itdw9
|
how do we know counting rings in a tree is a definitive "1 year"?
|
[
{
"answer": "In places with seasons, trees go through a predictable growth-dormant cycle that produces the distinctive ring pattern.\n\nSince most of these seasonal trees go dormant regardless of what the actual winter temperature was that year (they're timing the day lengths, not responding to unpredictable temperature swings) a ring is produced even if the year's weather was very unusual.\n\nYou get big rings for years with optimal growing conditions and weak rings for drought years.\n\nRings are less pronounced and more difficult to count in trees that prefer more tropical climates, since they may grow all year instead of stopping entirely on a regular cycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life. So after seasons pass there will be a growth ring which would be close to or right at 1 year worth of growing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It might be easier to understand if you think of it as a full cycle of seasons and not exactly a 365 day period. The rings show more what happens during the growing season that makes up the most of the actual ring. It grows quite a bit. The cells appear different (darker in most cases) during the 'off season' and lighter during the time of quicker growth. This is a cycle that is made up of a year growing quickly in the spring/summer and slowing toward Autumn to winter. Then repeating. The rings come as the the tree grows outward all around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* rings are caused by alternating between growing during the warm season and dormancy during the winter...one winter per year = one ring per year\n* trees in the same area will show the same ring patterns, unlikely if there wasn't some external factor involved\n* ring thickness matches up with historical records...the Annals of Ulster tells us there was a drought in 748, and tree rings in Ireland match up\n* radiocarbon dating corresponds with tree-ring dating",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have a look at a stump you'll see thick bands of a light shade where the tree got bigger fairly rapidly during the warmer months followed by thinner darker bands where it didnt really grow much in the winter. It makes the same pattern every year because the seasons are predictable.\n\nSome bands will be thicker where the tree has has a good long summer with plenty of nutrients where others may be thinner and harder to count but it always makes the same pattern.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can't be hard.\n\n \n\n\nGrow it 5 years, cut it, 5 rings\n\n \n\n\nGrow it 10 years, oh look, 10 rings\n\n \n\n\nExtrapolate",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wood biologist here. The wood as we usually think about, is a tissue called xylem and is where the water travels to go from the roots to the leaves. In an incredibly simplified way, you can see it as a bunch vertical of pipes (called vessels) and fibers. The xylem is produced continuously during the growth season by another tissue (the cambium) located as a ring around it. \nSince one of the function of the xylem is to transport water, the cambium will produce bigger pipes when the season is rainy (typically during the spring) and smaller pipes when it is dryer (like in summer). If the winter is cold enough, the activity of the cambium will stop completely creating an abrupt change of vessels size as it pass directly from summer to spring. Those vessels size variations can be seen easily (or not for some species) because bigger pipes means more empty space in the wood and thus a lighter wood color.\n\nNow those growth ring usually follow the seasonal cycle as it is what determine the water availability. The trees have evolved to expect more or less water during the different seasons and can detect the day length and temperature changes to determine what season it is. That's why they can be called \"annual rings\" and used to know the age of a tree.\nBut this is true mostly for temperate region (where the seasonality is well defined). \nIn tropical region the growth rings are less visible (and even sometimes completely absent) as the season are less marked and the cambium activity never stops, and it can be hard (or impossible) to read them.\nAlso, abrupt changes in the water availability for the tree or in his environment can produce false annual rings. But it's not so common and usually not important as it is nothing compared to the tree lifespan.\n\nIt is important to note that this mechanism is basically the same for the gymnosperms trees (like conifers) except for one thing : there is only one type of cells, called tracheids that play both the role of vessels and of fibers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The annual growth cycle in trees is easily observable because there are what is known as summer rings and winter rings. \n\n .\n\nThe summer rings are lighter in color and form when the tree experiences warmer temps that promote faster growth as well as longer days which expose them to more sunlight. They are also significantly thicker than the winter rings depending on how warm the summer was.\n\n.\n\nWinter rings are thinner and darker. These occur when the temperatures are much colder than summer temps and the sun is not visible for nearly as long as it is in the summer. Did you ever notice it getting darker much earlier in the winter and the sun doesn't seem to come up as early? This means the trees cant get as much sunlight and as a result, their growth slows down during these months.\n\n\n.\n\nThere are trees out there known as \"old growth\" from hundreds of years ago which have very thin summer and winter rings because temperatures we significantly cooler than they are now, so they grew very slowly. The summer and winter rings are very close together in old growth trees.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You could always plant a tree and cut it down in 30 years and count the rings, if you wanted to know --for sure-- that one tree ring is one year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you live in Timbuktu and you have some knowledge of the weather patterns of the last 30 years. You know that 15 years ago, there was a really bad draught, and the growing season that year was particularly bad.\n\nIf you cut down a tree that you know is 30 years old, you will be able to see, clearly that the 15th ring from the outside, the ring that was created when the tree was 15 years old, looks different than the other rings. It may be a different color, and it will be thinner than the rings that grew in better years. If you find and older tree, you will be able to read the weather patterns from years so far back that you probably don't even have records for! This is why tree rings are so important; some trees can tell us about how the local weather was changing thousands of years ago, and there are even tree fossils that have been found that give us data about weather phenomenon millions of years ago! If you have enough trees you can compare them and build up a pretty accurate calendar, year by year, which you can then compare to the local geology. It's awesome!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When someone plants a tree and cuts it down say 30 years later, they can see the rings correspond with the age. What they can also see is that the rings correspond with the local weather. Now if they then cut down a 500 year old tree next to it, they can see that the outer 30 rings on the 500 years old tree correspond to the 30 year one. This is the basis for [dendrochronology](_URL_0_), or the science of dating stuff by tree rings. Depending on the location we have a complete tree ring based dating yard stick for centuries (if not millenia) back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plant tree. Wait some number of years. Cut down tree and count the rings. Do they match how many years passed since you planted it? Maybe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the summer, a tree grows fast and in the winter, a tree grows slow. Growing fast leaves a light stripe and growing slow leaves a dark stripe, like how a balloon that is full of air seems to be lighter in color than one that is deflated. The pattern of winter and summer growth, or dark and light stripes, is what gives trees their rings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rings are caused by the seasons, rather than passage of time. So 40 winters would cause 40 rings. And since winter happens once every year, we know the tree is 40 years old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All answers explained why the one tree rings represent 1 year in tree age. But I understand the question as \"how it was discovered\".\n\nAccording to most documents I have skim through, it seems it was credited to American Astronomre A E Douglass, who had a strong interest in studying the climate, developed the method around 1900.\n\nHowever according to wikipedia on [Dendrochronology](_URL_0_), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually.\n\nAnyway, I think there was a lumberjack one day, looked at his work during a boring lunch and connected that: \"Wait a minute, this forest was planted 10 years ago and this tree have 10 rings!\", just like that. But his name was never recorded in history...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you want a serious but readable source on this subject try Edmund Schulman book the Living Ruins. It discuses the biology of. tree rings and how they have been used in conjunction with Bristlecone Pines to refine radio carbon dating. The science is called dendrochronology.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you can use human records to pick the exact year a tree started growing. You can cut down a tree which someone a century ago recorded in their diary the exact date it was planted and count the rings. Match that with local weather records which we also have a few hundred years of and you see the result of hot summers and wet and dry periods. \n\nYou then build back a local chronology starting with the oldest tree you can find and then timbers from local buildings which overlap the periods you already have patterns from. \n\nExceptional events like the eruption of mount Tambora and the resultant _URL_0_ leave quite a distinctive mark in tree records. which help to calibrate things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If some calamity caused a year to have two summer-winter cycles, that would create two rings. The rings reflect the seasonal growth cycles, not a 'calendar year'... but seasons do reflect years almost always.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2851214",
"title": "Absolute dating",
"section": "Section::::Dendrochronology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings, also known as growth rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at which tree rings were formed, in many types of wood, to the exact calendar year. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3846180",
"title": "Prometheus (tree)",
"section": "Section::::About the tree.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Currey originally estimated the tree was at least 4844 years old. A few years later, this was increased to 4862 by Donald Graybill of the University of Arizona's Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. These ring counts were done on a trunk cross-section taken about 2.5 m (8 feet) above the original germination point of the tree, because the innermost rings were missing below that point. Adjusting Graybill's figure by adding the estimated number of years required to reach that height, plus a correction for the estimated number of missing rings (not uncommon in trees at the tree line), it is probable that the tree was at least 5000 years old when felled. That made it the oldest known unitary (i.e. non-clonal) organism at the time, exceeding even the Methuselah tree of the White Mountains' Schulman Grove, in California, though Methuselah was later redated to 4845 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55723617",
"title": "Fire history",
"section": "Section::::Tree-ring data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Rings can be counted from dead trees as well as stumps left behind from logging. A sample can be collected from a living tree using tools like the increment borer. The increment borer is a hollow steel tube used to extract a core sample from a tree’s trunk. The growth rings in a core sample are counted to determine the age of that tree. Ages of stand-replacing fires may be determined by determining the cohort-age of trees that established after a fire. For example, tree-ring dating of large stands will show the age of the forest, and may provide an estimate of when the last large disturbance event occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2226213",
"title": "Dendroarchaeology",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Crossdating, the skill of finding matching ring-width patterns between tree-ring samples, is used to assign the precise calendar year to every ring. This is affected by the climate that the timber was in. It is also important to have enough rings to actually confirm a date. Once the rings are dates, the chronology is measured. The last step is to compare the rings with that of ring-width patterns in sampled timbers and a master dating chronology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1491462",
"title": "Library of Congress Control Number",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In its most elementary form the number includes a year and a serial number. The year has two digits for 1898 to 2000, and four digits beginning in 2001. The three ambiguous years (1898, 1899, and 1900) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. There are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a \"7\" because of an experiment applied between 1969 and 1972 which added a check digit. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26197",
"title": "Radiocarbon dating",
"section": "Section::::Measurement and results.:Calibration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 1419,
"text": "To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years, a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age. The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence: individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year. These factors affect all trees in an area, so examining tree-ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences. In this way, an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past. The first such published sequence, based on bristlecone pine tree rings, was created by Wesley Ferguson. Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967. The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line: a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9,000 years, and a shorter term variation, often referred to as \"wiggles\", with a period of decades. Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by \"cosmic \"schwung\"\", by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces. It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not, but they are now well-established. These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects, after Hessel de Vries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37800",
"title": "Dendrochronology",
"section": "Section::::Growth rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree-species may present \"missing rings\", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zz8hb
|
Whale sounds/songs can reach up to 190dB. Is this not dangerous for humans taking a swim nearby?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply put, the gap between water and air is too difficult to cross for a number of reasons.\n\n\nFirst, the speed of pressure waves in water is much, much greater than the speed of pressure waves in air. This means that to someone near the water surface, it may not even become a recognizable sound wave.\n\n\nSecond, sound waves below water will have a very large amplitude. That means they will be much more likely to 'bounce' off the surface of water and reflect back downwards than to traverse the gap and continue into the air.\n\n\nFinally, the surface of water is hardly uniform. Unlike a smooth membrane, water is perfectly capable of sloshing and absorbing energy in the form of motion. This will make any pressure waves more likely to become sloshing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4925",
"title": "Blue whale",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Vocalizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) suggest the source level of sounds made by blue whales are between 155 and 188 decibels when measured relative to a reference pressure of one micropascal at one metre. All blue whale groups make calls at a fundamental frequency between 10 and 40 Hz; the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20 Hz. Blue whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Blue whales off the coast of Sri Lanka have been repeatedly recorded making \"songs\" of four notes, lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known humpback whale songs. As this phenomenon has not been seen in any other populations, researchers believe it may be unique to the \"B. m. brevicauda\" (pygmy) subspecies. The loudest sustained noise from a blue whale was at 188 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6637571",
"title": "List of whale vocalizations",
"section": "Section::::Blue whale (\"Balaenoptera musculus\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) and Richardson et al. (1995) suggest that source level of sounds made by blue whales are between 155 and 188 decibels when measured at a reference pressure of one micropascal at one metre. All blue whale groups make calls at a fundamental frequency of between 10 and 40 Hz, and the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20 Hz. Blue whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Additionally blue whales off the coast of Sri Lanka have been recorded repeatedly making \"songs\" of four notes duration lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known humpback whale songs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41049760",
"title": "RV Song of the Whale",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "\"Song of the Whale\" carries out most of its research under sail to reduce the impact on the whales and other marine mammals being researched. The focus is on their movement and behaviour. Noise suppression is particularly important when assessing populations of whales as the researchers can listen to their sounds up to 20 miles away using hydrophone arrays, not relying solely on surface sightings. Research undertaken includes work on the problems of whales becoming entangled in fishing gear or in collisions with ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10567426",
"title": "Underwater acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Underwater hearing.:Human hearing.:Safety thresholds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "High levels of underwater sound create a potential hazard to human divers. Guidelines for exposure of human divers to underwater sound are reported by the SOLMAR project of the NATO Undersea Research Centre. Human divers exposed to SPL above 154 dB re 1 μPa in the frequency range 0.6 to 2.5 kHz are reported to experience changes in their heart rate or breathing frequency. Diver aversion to low frequency sound is dependent upon sound pressure level and center frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19679822",
"title": "Winter v. Natural Resources Defense Council",
"section": "Section::::Background and procedural history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The U.S. Navy had scheduled 14 training exercises through January 2009 off the coast of Southern California involving the use of “mid-frequency active sonar” to detect enemy submarines. Environmentalists argued that the sonar's high decibel levels may have a deafening effect on whales. They said studies conducted around the world have shown the piercing underwater sounds cause whales to flee in panic or to dive too deeply. Whales have been found beached in Greece, the Canary Islands, and in the Bahamas after sonar was used in the area, and necropsies showed signs of internal bleeding near the ears. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682987",
"title": "Whale vocalization",
"section": "Section::::Other whale sounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "In 2009, researchers found that blue whale song has been deepening in its tonal frequency since the 1960s. While noise pollution has increased ambient ocean noise by over 12 decibels since the mid-20th century, researcher Mark McDonald indicated that higher pitches would be expected if the whales were straining to be heard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230517",
"title": "Bryde's whale",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "They regularly dive for about 5–15 minutes (maximum of 20 minutes) after four to seven blows. Bryde's whales are capable of reaching depths down to . When submerging, these whales do not display their flukes. Bryde's whales commonly swim at , but can reach . They sometimes generate short (0.4 seconds) powerful, low-frequency vocalizations that resemble a human moan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8kk4y4
|
what exactly is a galaxy?
|
[
{
"answer": "A massive collection of stars, all orbiting a central point, usually a supermassive black hole. \n\nBasically,from what we can tell, they form much the same way individual star systems form. A cloud of gas (mainly hydrogen) condensed due to gravity, the center becomes a Star, and the eddys of the cloud help condense other parts into planets. A galaxy forms like that, but on a scale trillions of times larger",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12558",
"title": "Galaxy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The word galaxy is derived from the Greek \"\" (), literally \"milky\", a reference to the Milky Way. Galaxies range in size from dwarfs with just a few hundred million () stars to giants with one hundred trillion () stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21914777",
"title": "Galactic orientation",
"section": "Section::::Galaxies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "A galaxy is a large gravitational aggregation of stars, dust, gas, and an unknown component termed dark matter. The Milky Way Galaxy is only one of billions of galaxies in the known universe. Galaxies are classified into spirals, ellipticals, irregular, and peculiar. Sizes can range from only a few thousand stars (dwarf irregulars) to 10 stars in giant ellipticals. Elliptical galaxies are spherical or elliptical in appearance. Spiral galaxies range from S0, the lenticular galaxies, to Sb, which have a bar across the nucleus, to Sc galaxies which have strong spiral arms. In total count, ellipticals amount to 13%, S0 to 22%, Sa, b, c galaxies to 61%, irregulars to 3.5% and peculiars to 0.9%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198476",
"title": "Triangulum Galaxy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The galaxy is the smallest spiral galaxy in the Local Group and it is believed to be a satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy due to their interactions, velocities, and proximity to one another in the night sky. It also has an H II nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14025089",
"title": "Galaxy (computational biology)",
"section": "Section::::Functionality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Galaxy is a scientific workflow system. These systems provide a means to build multi-step computational analyses akin to a recipe. They typically provide a graphical user interface for specifying what data to operate on, what steps to take, and what order to do them in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299646",
"title": "Places in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::The Galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1113,
"text": "\"The Galaxy\" is our home galaxy, the Milky Way, though it is referred to exclusively as \"the Galaxy\" in the series. Apart from a very brief moment during the first radio series, when the main characters were transported outside the galactic plane into a battle with Haggunenons, and a moment when one of Arthur's careless remarks is sent inadvertently through a wormhole into \"a distant galaxy\", the Galaxy provides the setting for the entire series. It is home to thousands of sentient races, some of whom have achieved interstellar capability, creating a vast network of trade, military and political links. To the technologically advanced inhabitants of the Galaxy, a small, insignificant world such as Earth is considered invariably primitive and backward. The Galaxy appears, at least nominally, to be a single state, with a unified government \"run\" by an appointed President. Its immensely powerful and monumentally callous civil service is run out of the Megabrantis Cluster, mainly by the Vogons. One of the most painful things to hear is vogon poetry. Vogon poetry is the 3rd worst poetry in the galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14025089",
"title": "Galaxy (computational biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Galaxy is a scientific workflow, data integration, and data and analysis persistence and publishing platform that aims to make computational biology accessible to research scientists that do not have computer programming or systems administration experience. Although it was initially developed for genomics research, it is largely domain agnostic and is now used as a general bioinformatics workflow management system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26434080",
"title": "ESO 306-17",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The galaxy is situated alone in a volume of space about it. It is theorized that the galaxy cannibalized its nearest companions, hence, being a fossil group. The galaxy is a giant elliptical of type cD3 (E+3), one of the largest classes of galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6x23o6
|
what happens when a country 'condemns' something?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's pretty much it - just expressing disapproval. A lot of times there's not a good/politically palatable solution to problems, so all a politician can do is talk about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't do much to solve the problem, but what's important is the act of stating in public your opposition to something.\n\nIf, as a senior politician, you're asked what you think about a particular event and you just shrug your shoulders and say, \"Well, these things happen,\" people are going to wonder whose side you're really on.\n\nThis is why Donald Trump recently got into trouble for not being strong enough in his condemnation of the Alt-Right's actions in Charlottesville. He did at one point condemn their actions outright, but later reverted to his previous line that people on both sides were to blame in roughly equal measure.\n\nThis was widely interpreted, even by some of his political allies, as a refusal to acknowledge that the Alt-Right are, in their eyes, very clearly and openly pursuing similar policies to the Nazis of 1930s Germany, and that such a movement is objectively bad. By not clearly condemning the Alt-Right, Trump is now seen by many as a Nazi sympathiser.\n\nCondemning such a movement doesn't, of course, do anything to tackle the problem. But it does make it unmistakably clear that you are strongly opposed to it, and *that's* the point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797459",
"title": "Betrayal",
"section": "Section::::Political.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Pure political betrayal trauma can be caused by situations such as wrongful arrest and conviction by the legal system of a western democracy; or by discrimination, bullying or other serious mistreatment by a state institution or powerful figure within the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178755",
"title": "Nonviolence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. It comes from the belief that hurting people, animals or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and refers to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. This may be based on moral, religious or spiritual principles, or it may be for purely strategic or pragmatic reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178755",
"title": "Nonviolence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "The term \"nonviolence\" is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists. Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, and passivity is the choice to do nothing. Sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isn't. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, the most harmless appropriate action is to put the fire out, not to sit by and passively let the fire burn. There is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts. For example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40066661",
"title": "Dangerous Woman (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "When everything you believed in for your entire life turns out to be a devastating lie, then will you direct your anger at the person who caused it all or forgive that person? This drama tells a story about people who are hell-bent on recovering what they think is rightfully theirs while on the opposite side, there are people who will fight to protect what belongs to them. In the beginning, the two sides hate each other's guts. They do despicable things that will make it impossible to ever make things right again. But there is still a sliver of hope. The pent-up anger within themselves softens and they begin a path of rehabilitation and redemption that will allow them to forgive their enemies and bury the hatchet. This drama is not a story about revenge and anguish but a story of rehabilitation and harmony. Viewers will empathize with their agony and pain while also rejoicing at their happiness. The takeaway from it all is that love is a powerful force that can conquer all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22604227",
"title": "Bad Faith (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "\"Bad Faith\" takes place in a dystopian society. The government is a theocratic totalitarian regime run by Mother (Ma) Baxter. It is clearly stated at points that the nation used to be \"godless\", but now it has its faith again. The One Church is the national church, and everyone should belong. This is the ideology that she uses to maintain her power and the government itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14233",
"title": "Hate speech",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Hate speech is a statement intended to demean and brutalize another, or the use of cruel and derogatory language on the basis of real or alleged membership in a social group. Hate speech is speech that attacks a person or a group on the basis of protected attributes such as race, religion, ethnic origin, national origin, sex, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14233",
"title": "Hate speech",
"section": "Section::::Hate speech laws.:Hate speech laws by country.:Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "If \"hate speech\" is taken to mean ethnic agitation, it is prohibited in Finland and defined in the section 11 of the penal code, \"War crimes and crimes against humanity\", as published information or as an opinion or other statement that threatens or insults a group because of race, nationality, ethnicity, religion or conviction, sexual orientation, disability, or a comparable basis. Ethnic agitation is punishable with a fine or up to 2 years in prison, or 4 months to 4 years if aggravated (such as incitement to genocide).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9dtty4
|
as someone who doesnt follow sports and social trends or have a twitter or instagram, why are people burning their nike clothes?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's an extention of the kneeling during national anthem thing. The football player who started the kneeling protest did an ad with Nike. Now people who disliked the kneeling protest are burning thier Nike stuff to show they hate Nike now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nike made Colin Kaepernick the face of their brand which is controversial because he started the whole “kneeling during the pledge” thing in the NFL due to injustices he sees being done to black people in the country. Those who are burning their Nike stuff are upset because they find this new trend of kneeling offensive to the country/military ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you seen the Colin Kapernick add? Are you familiar with the kneeling controversy at all? It is a mix of these two factors. He was the start of something (kneeling during the national anthem to protest police violence) which conservative football fans really rallied against, some even taking to burning his Jerseys. Nike, who apparently had been paying him all along as am endorsement released an add eluding to celebrating his efforts in this protest which some say led to him losing his career as a quarterback. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35666635",
"title": "Nike+ FuelBand",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 2507,
"text": "Because the Nike+ web community profile can be linked to both Facebook and Twitter, users can now share their results and accomplishments with their friends. This has the ability to lead to a greater chance for positive results because interaction and motivation from friends has proven to benefit workout habits. \"A 2011 Pew Internet study found that 80% of Internet users look for health information online, 27% of U.S. Internet users had tracked health data online, and 18% had sought to locate others with similar health concerns via the Internet\". These statistics suggest that self-empowerment and action taking, in regards to health, is becoming a much more accepted behavior norm, instead of a small online community, like it has been in the past. When sharing workout results with friends on social media, one is much more aware of their personal well-being. Being constantly aware of your physical fitness and activity levels are very important for living a healthy life, which leads to the conclusion why many say that technologies like the FuelBand are necessary for being physically responsible of oneself. The FuelBand makes it much more simple to live a healthy and informed life and this can be related to maintaining personal health records. Personal health records are types of medical records that are edited, administrated, and owned by the patient, instead of the doctor or health care administrator. Personal health records are usually stored on online databases and they have proven to be \"a key step in empowering health self-management as we can have a more active role in understanding, accessing, maintaining, and sharing our personal health information, and in coordinating and participating in our own health care\". Studies have shown that PHR users are over 65% more likely to follow up on recommended care or to act on the change that they desire, which indicates the potentially beneficial influences in behaviors of PHRs. The FuelBand has the potential to help its users get in great physical shape and to be well informed of their health records and statistics. Because of this and the ability to be connected to an online community through social media, the FuelBand can be seen as an innovative technology that is representing the way that the health field is going in the future. Health practices are becoming more personalized and more power is being given to the individual and the FuelBand is an exact example of this new field of technology that is growing in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36405660",
"title": "Just Do It",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.:30th anniversary and Colin Kaepernick controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The involvement of Kaepernick with the advertisement, especially after the context of the controversial act of kneeling during the National Anthem in 2016, gave rise to a whole entire internet debate and social movement against Nike. Many individuals took to Twitter and other social media sites to revolt, adopting hashtags such as, #JustDont or #BoycottNike. Many prior fans of Nike have also showed signs of protest by explicitly demanding that others boycott or even go as far to burn Nike shoes or destroy various other merchandise. Nevertheless, many analysts suggested that the campaign was successful, as the target group of the advertisement has endorsed it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53307021",
"title": "Fitness fashion",
"section": "Section::::Symbolic meanings.:Social Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Even the most important sportswear companies are involved in social media campaigns, first of all Nike, that give the possibility to their Nike+ app users to share on Instagram their fitness achievements and progress. In fact, the app has been downloaded over 17 millions of times from all over the world users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5897742",
"title": "Social media",
"section": "Section::::Social impact.:Effects on youth communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Another trend that influences the way youth communicates is (through) the use of hashtags. With the introduction of social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook and Instagram, the hashtag was created to easily organize and search for information. Hashtags can be used when people want to advocate for a movement, store content or tweets from a movement for future use, and allow other social media users to contribute to a discussion about a certain movement by using existing hashtags. Using hashtags as a way to advocate for something online makes it easier and more accessible for more people to acknowledge it around the world. As hashtags such as #tbt (\"throwback Thursday\") become a part of online communication, it influenced the way in which youth share and communicate in their daily lives. Because of these changes in linguistics and communication etiquette, researchers of media semiotics have found that this has altered youth's communications habits and more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1444042",
"title": "Swoosh",
"section": "Section::::Brand image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Nike has made great use of the Swoosh logo in athlete endorsements. The endorsements of Romanian tennis player Ilie Năstase and distance runner Steve Prefontaine kicked off Nike's brand sponsorships and today they endorse hundreds of athletes. Nike's endorsements of Michael Jordan, LeBron James and Kobe Bryant in basketball, Cristiano Ronaldo in football, Tiger Woods in golf, and Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal in tennis are among the 15 biggest athlete endorsement deals in sports history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47078194",
"title": "Meninism",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The hashtags have also been used for T-shirts and similar, with self-portraits of people wearing the clothes widely shared on social media. Several outlets reported that the clothes and images were widely mocked, and often Photoshopped sarcastically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34726061",
"title": "Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Laws against covert advertising.:European fair trading law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the UK reached a similar decision in June 2012 in relation to material about Nike on Twitter. The ASA found that the content of certain tweets from two footballers had been \"agreed with the help of a member of the Nike marketing team.\" The tweets were not clearly identified as Nike marketing communications, and were therefore in breach of the ASA's code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aq2vix
|
asian flush syndrome
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you asking what causes it? It's caused by the buildup of a chemical called acetaldehyde, which is a natural product of the metabolism of alcohol. It's genetic, and fairly common among people of Asian decent. There are a couple of genes responsible. One gene is responsible for producing a chemical called alcohol dehydrogenase, which is what breaks down alcohol. People with a certain variant of this gene make more acetaledehyde. Another gene is one which makes the chemical that breaks down acetaldehyde itself, and people with a variant of this gene don't produce enough of the enzyme to break down the acetaldehyde, so it accumulates.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187155",
"title": "Alcohol and health",
"section": "Section::::Genetic differences.:Alcohol flush and respiratory reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1467,
"text": "Alcohol flush reaction is a condition in which an individual's face or body experiences flushes or blotches as a result of an accumulation of acetaldehyde, a metabolic byproduct of the catabolic metabolism of alcohol. It is best known as a condition that is experienced by people of Asian descent. According to the analysis by HapMap Project, the rs671 allele of the ALDH2 gene responsible for the flush reaction is rare among Europeans and Africans, and it is very rare among Mexican-Americans. 30% to 50% of people of Chinese and Japanese ancestry have at least one ALDH*2 allele. The rs671 form of ALDH2, which accounts for most incidents of alcohol flush reaction worldwide, is native to East Asia and most common in southeastern China. It most likely originated among Han Chinese in central China, and it appears to have been positively selected in the past. Another analysis correlates the rise and spread of rice cultivation in Southern China with the spread of the allele. The reasons for this positive selection aren't known, but it's been hypothesized that elevated concentrations of acetaldehyde may have conferred protection against certain parasitic infections, such as \"Entamoeba histolytica\". The same SNP allele of ALDH2, also termed glu487lys, and the abnormal accumulation of acetaldehyde following the drinking of alcohol, is associated with the alcohol-induced respiratory reactions of rhinitis and asthma that occur in Eastern Asian populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690106",
"title": "Alcohol flush reaction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Alcohol flush reaction is best known as a condition that is experienced by people of East Asian descent. According to the analysis by HapMap project, the rs671 (ALDH2*2) allele of the \"ALDH2\" responsible for the flush reaction is rare among Europeans and Sub-Saharan Africans. 30% to 50% of people of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ancestry have at least one \"ALDH2*2\" allele. The rs671 form of ALDH2, which accounts for most incidents of alcohol flush reaction worldwide, is native to East Asia and most common in southeastern China. It most likely originated among Han Chinese in central China, Another analysis correlates the rise and spread of rice cultivation in Southern China with the spread of the allele. The reasons for this positive selection aren't known, but it's been hypothesized that elevated concentrations of acetaldehyde may have conferred protection against certain parasitic infections, such as \"Entamoeba histolytica\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17508796",
"title": "Laropiprant",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Niacin in cholesterol lowering doses (500–2000 mg per day) causes facial flushes by stimulating biosynthesis of prostaglandin D (PGD), especially in the skin. PGD dilates the blood vessels via activation of the prostaglandin D receptor subtype DP, increasing blood flow and thus leading to flushes. Laropiprant acts as a selective DP receptor antagonist to inhibit the vasodilation of prostaglandin D-induced activation of DP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690106",
"title": "Alcohol flush reaction",
"section": "Section::::Similar conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rosacea, also known as gin blossoms, is a chronic facial skin condition in which capillaries are excessively reactive, leading to redness from flushing or telangiectasia. Rosacea has been mistakenly attributed to alcoholism because of its similar appearance to the temporary flushing of the face that often accompanies the ingestion of alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43574082",
"title": "Daigou",
"section": "Section::::Impacts.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Regular Asian customers often became subject to gratuitous suspicion and even outright discrimination due to the disruptive nature of the rampant purchases of luxury goods and other consumer goods made by \"Daigou\" hoarders and smugglers, who are mostly Asians. Asian-American sales associates at Macy's Herald Square sued Macy's for racial discrimination in September 2017, alleging that store managers instructed sales associates not to sell more than one unit to any single Asian customer, and that they were fired when they spoke up about the alleged discrimination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "792524",
"title": "Rosacea",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The exact cause of rosacea is unknown. Triggers that cause episodes of flushing and blushing play a part in its development. Exposure to temperature extremes, strenuous exercise, heat from sunlight, severe sunburn, stress, anxiety, cold wind, and moving to a warm or hot environment from a cold one, such as heated shops and offices during the winter, can each cause the face to become flushed. Certain foods and drinks can also trigger flushing, such as alcohol, foods and beverages containing caffeine (especially hot tea and coffee), foods high in histamines, and spicy foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41847184",
"title": "Chinese in New York City",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Chinatowns.:Queens (皇后華埠).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "The Flushing Chinatown, in the Flushing area of the borough of Queens in New York City, is one of the largest and fastest growing ethnic Chinese enclaves outside Asia, as well as within New York City itself. Main Street and the area to its west, particularly along Roosevelt Avenue, have become the primary nexus of Flushing Chinatown. However, Flushing Chinatown continues to expand southeastward along Kissena Boulevard and northward beyond Northern Boulevard. In the 1970s, a Chinese community established a foothold in the neighborhood of Flushing, whose demographic constituency had been predominantly non-Hispanic white. Taiwanese began the surge of immigration. It originally started off as \"Little Taipei\" or \"Little Taiwan\" due to the large Taiwanese population. Due to the then dominance of working class Cantonese immigrants of Manhattan's Chinatown including its poor housing conditions, they could not relate to them and settled in Flushing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ljhve
|
why does white noise calm people down?
|
[
{
"answer": "It distracts us from our own internal dialogue, which can be a little overwhelming after a while",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a new father, we use white noise to help put the baby to sleep. I'm told that the womb is actually a fairly loud place, with constant breathing & pulsations. I imagine that this subconscious feeling of womb-like comfort continues into adulthood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"shhhhhh\" sound is very close to white noise. It supposedly replicates the womb sounds which we associate with warm comfortable, safe, hence a good place to sleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When it's quiet, your body reacts to every noise with a \"what's that?\" response which makes you perk up and be alert. By drowning out the sounds with white noise, you don't have that effect as often and your body has a chance to relax.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a white noise app that I run through a speaker when I sleep. The main draw to this app was the fact you could build your own mix from sounds other people uploaded including odd, but still soothing, sounds.\n\nYou find out that people have different tastes in \"soothing\". The one that I can give an example of myself is a PC running with the fans on. This is mainly because I ran my computer 24/7 in the same room I slept in for two years (dorms) that even then if had the option to not sleep in the same room, I would move it into my room.\n\nFrom the type of sounds I am about to list, some I could not sleep to but they all have at least one of the qualities I think are critical to a good sleep noise: personal familiarity(forced to sleep in), constant, soft regular beat comparatively to main noise (no bongo drums by themselves), droning, and perfected looping (the ones you could detect where the clip's end was KEPT you up and from other people's feedback, it was very noticable and downvoted because of the defect).\n\n-Urban city : people talking, loud taxis beeps, etc\n\n-Windchimes : Random dings. Some made with built in rain\n\n-Rains of various quantities - From a sprinkle to a downpour on a car roof.\n\n-Appliances - Clothes dryers, washers, dishwashers, and air conditioners, windows fans. One major similarity between them all is they all try to muffle the sound they generate to some degree.\n\n-Vehicles - Trains, random motorcycles. I can see the train thing working because I used to live in a small town that had a train whistle far in the distance because it was approaching another town.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like to think of it as a sonic curtain between you and the rest of the world. The nature of white noise* is that it fills up the whole range of sound, so every other sound is blocked out a little by...well, essentially nothing. It gives us a chance to retreat into our own little worlds a little bit. \n\n*in my experience, “pink” or “brown” noise is actually slightly better. White noise involves the whole spectrum equally but other “shades” can fill up certain parts of the spectrum more than others. It’s been my experience that these other shades are better suited to actual life, where white noise is more a laboratory thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "is this true for everyone? i use a white noise generator to sleep, but are there people who are bothered by it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I grew up in the Midwest on the wrong side of the tracks--we were too poor for AC, so we used box fans and such throughout the house. The drone is soporific, it lulls you to sleep. Several of my siblings, as well as myself, use fans to this day to get to sleep. I know a lot of people in the same boat. You can buy a fancy white noise generator, or you can buy a cheap box fan.\n\nI will say that when I lived in the Colorado high country, I spent a summer and fall living in a log cabin next to a small stream cascading down from a mountain gully above the cabin. That sang me to sleep at night, it was the best.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46182",
"title": "White noise",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications.:Work environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The effects of white noise upon cognitive function are mixed. Recently, a small study found that white noise background stimulation improves cognitive functioning among secondary students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), while decreasing performance of non-ADHD students. Other work indicates it is effective in improving the mood and performance of workers by masking background office noise, but decreases cognitive performance in complex card sorting tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1366807",
"title": "Colors of noise",
"section": "Section::::Technical definitions.:Grey noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Grey noise is random white noise subjected to a psychoacoustic equal loudness curve (such as an inverted A-weighting curve) over a given range of frequencies, giving the listener the perception that it is equally loud at all frequencies. This is in contrast to standard white noise which has equal strength over a linear scale of frequencies but is not perceived as being equally loud due to biases in the human equal-loudness contour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10081889",
"title": "White noise (slang)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The term white noise—the 'sh' noise produced by a signal containing all audible frequencies of vibration—is sometimes used as a colloquialism to describe a backdrop of ambient sound, creating an indistinct commotion, seamless in such way no specific sounds composing it as a continuum can be isolated as a veritable instance of some defined familiar sound so that masks or obliterates underlying information. e.g. chatter from multiple conversations within the acoustics of a confined place. The information itself may have characteristics that achieve this effect without the need to introduce a masking layer. A common example of this usage is a politician including more information than needed to mask a point they don't want noticed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46182",
"title": "White noise",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "White noise is commonly used in the production of electronic music, usually either directly or as an input for a filter to create other types of noise signal. It is used extensively in audio synthesis, typically to recreate percussive instruments such as cymbals or snare drums which have high noise content in their frequency domain. A simple example of white noise is a nonexistent radio station (static).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47176228",
"title": "Noiseless",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Noiseless is an image noise reduction application by Macphun Software. The application is designed to reduce the noise found in digital photographs. The noise is often a result of snapping pictures in low light situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87595",
"title": "Noise music",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "White noise is a random signal (or process) with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency. White noise is considered analogous to white light which contains all frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4319868",
"title": "Blank Noise",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Though Blank Noise was founded in Bangalore, it has spread to other cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Calcutta, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, and Lucknow. It tackles the notion of shame and blame through campaigns such as \"I never ask for it\" (ask to be sexually harassed when on the streets). A major notion that it seeks to dispel is that women get harassed because of the clothing they wear. Through street actions and dialogue, Blank Noise hopes to achieve its aims of achieving a safe and free environment for women on the streets, and enable society to become more egalitarian towards women in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n8mjd
|
If coats are just good insulators, why can't we wear them in the summer to keep cool?
|
[
{
"answer": "Human comfort temperature range is a little below the temperature of the human body. We are exo-thermic, and remain comfortable so long as our body temp does not drop or rise by much. \n\nWearing a coat in winter keeps our heat loss rate within that comfort range - limiting exposure to temperatures where we would lose heat too fast. \n\nIn very hot dry climates, such as some deserts in the Mideast for instance, people do wear more clothing to shield them from the heat. \n\nIncidentaly, when there is a heat wave, and the temeprature rises well above your body temperature, and you turn a fan on to cool off, you may actually end up raising your body temperature in same way that a convection oven heats food! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something not already mentioned yet: Your body produces heat. If you insulated your body during the summer, you would quickly overheat because your body would produce more heat than you could comfortably stand, with the coat keeping that heat locked in.\n\nIn the Winter, the cold and wind draw heat off of the coat at a rate roughly equal to how quickly your body produces it, so all is well. But if you layer up too much, you again experience the same effect, and you become hot and sweaty because you are wearing too much, even in Winter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2422724",
"title": "Low emissivity",
"section": "Section::::Low-emissivity windows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "One type of coating (low-e coatings) reduces the emission of radiant infrared energy, thus tending to keep heat on the side of the glass where it originated, while letting visible light pass. This results in glazing with better control of energy - heat originating from indoors in winter remains inside (the warm side), while heat during summer does not emit from the exterior, keeping it cooler inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490897",
"title": "Comforter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Comforters are usually used in the winter season when it is very cold, although a variety of different thicknesses means that they can be used in other seasons as well, with lighter examples being used in warmer weather. Due to the thickness of a comforter or the amount of down/feathers or other filling it has, a person is insulated against cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406213",
"title": "Trade-off",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "In cold climates, mittens in which all the fingers are in the same compartment serve well to keep the hands warm, but this arrangement also confines finger movement and prevents the full range of hand function; gloves, with their separate fingers, do not have this drawback, but they do not keep the fingers as warm as mittens do. As such, with mittens and gloves, warmth versus dexterity is the trade-off. In a like fashion, warm coats are often bulky and hence they impede freedom of movement for the wearer. Thin coats, such as those worn by winter sports athletes, give the wearer more freedom of movement, but they are not as warm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48828961",
"title": "Cold-weather biking",
"section": "Section::::Clothing and protective gear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 466,
"text": " Wearing several winter clothing layers make it easier to regulate body temperature when cycling in the winter. Hats, gloves, socks, arm warmers, leg warmers, scarves, neck gaiters and lightweight packable jackets, can be adjusted, added, or removed to help regulate your body temperature and personal comfort. In below freezing temperatures extra clothing items can be added to help keep you warm these include thermal pants, winter shoe covers, and longer coats. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1171780",
"title": "Body piercing materials",
"section": "Section::::Metals.:Steel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Another downside is its tendency to become very cold during winter. This can cause problems; due to this, many change their jewelry to others made of horn, bone, wood, plastics and glass during winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19302125",
"title": "Cohoes City Hall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In recent years its age has made it a difficult building to keep warm in the wintertime. Even with the windows closed, City Hall has been drafty. The city installed Cellular Shades, and later window insulating panels, to keep it warm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893432",
"title": "Clothes line",
"section": "Section::::Drying laundry indoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The evaporation of the moisture from the clothes will cool the indoor air and increase the humidity level, which may or may not be desirable. In cold, dry weather, moderate increases in humidity make most people feel more comfortable. In warm weather, increased humidity makes most people feel even hotter. Increased humidity can also increase growth of fungi, which can cause health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
184tgj
|
Why is there a maximum speed for light? What is "braking" it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The speed of light is set by two fundamental constants known as the permeability and permittivity of free space. A classical analogy for these constants would be \"stiffness\", ie empty space has a stiffness and this leads to the speed of wave travel.\n\nThere are plenty of near light speed particles that were accelerated by both extra terrestrial and terrestrial processes (cf CERN!).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are trillions of near light-speed particles passing through YOU this very second. (assuming you are on earth).\n\nThese are neutrino's created by the sun.\n\nThere is no acceleration of light, it starts traveling at c and will always travel at c.\n\nThere is no \"brake\", this has to do with the way that space and time are related. A completely stationary object experiences \"maximum time\", and zero velocity. As you move up in velocity, you actually move down in time (You experiences less time). \n\nThis relationship of more velocity giving you less time continues until you have zero time, at which point you would be traveling exactly at c. (not that you can reach this, because it would require infinite energy and isn't possible for any matter to travel at c)\n\nSo light travels at C because it cannot travel at anything else.... and why talking about anything \"faster\" doesn't make sense in general relativity. \n\nAlso:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65423",
"title": "Brake",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (formula_1), an object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11567567",
"title": "Energy-efficient driving",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Acceleration and deceleration (braking).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The need to brake is sometimes caused by unpredictable events. At higher speeds, there is less time to allow vehicles to slow down by coasting. Kinetic energy is higher, so more energy is lost in braking. At medium speeds, the driver has more time to choose whether to accelerate, coast or decelerate in order to maximize overall fuel efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41452537",
"title": "A Slower Speed of Light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A Slower Speed of Light is a freeware video game developed by MIT Game Lab that demonstrates the effects of special relativity by gradually slowing down the speed of light to a walking pace. The game runs on the Unity engine using the own open source OpenRelativity toolkit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11701033",
"title": "Scale relativity",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Special scale relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In Galilean relativity, it was considered \"obvious\" that we could add speeds without limit (\"w\" = \"u\" + \"v\"). This composition laws for speed was not challenged. However, Poincaré and Einstein did challenge it with special relativity, setting a maximum speed on movement, the speed of light. Formally, if \"v\" is a velocity, \"v + c = c\". The status of the speed of light in special relativity is a horizon, unreachable, impassable, invariant under changes of movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11647860",
"title": "Minkowski diagram",
"section": "Section::::The speed of light as a limit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "These considerations show that the speed of light as a limit is a consequence of the properties of spacetime, and not of the properties of objects such as technologically imperfect space ships. The prohibition of faster-than-light motion, therefore, has nothing in particular to do with electromagnetic waves or light, but comes as a consequence of the structure of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849686",
"title": "Ronald Mallett",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Time travel research.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Later, Mallett abandoned the idea of using slowed light to reduce the energy, writing that, \"For a time, I considered the possibility that slowing down light might increase the gravitational frame dragging effect of the ring laser ... Slow light, however, turned out to be helpful for my research.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56511089",
"title": "Braking test track",
"section": "Section::::Structure and characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In order to enable the testing of extreme braking situations, e.g. emergency braking from high speed, it is necessary for the lanes to be designed with a length of typically 150–250 m. Additionally acceleration lanes with the appropriate length are also required for reaching high speed, which enable even heavy-duty vehicles to reach 100 km/h. This way it becomes possible to test the braking systems of trucks and buses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w1a45
|
how can the quietest room in the world be -9 decibels?
|
[
{
"answer": "Decibels are a logarithmic scale. 0 isn't no sound, it's just the lower-limit of what a human can typically hear. So -9 isn't no sound at all, it's just quieter than the quietest sound a human can detect, by a factor about the same as the factor between 0 decibels and 10.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I hear there is a room thats dark and has no sound in it, that people cannot last more than 20 to 45 min in without wigging out... What does a room with no sound....sound like? and why does theis phenomea happen?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You should think of the decibel count as being an exponent value, because it basically is. Imagine that people always reported a magnitude as 10 to some power. Like, 10^2 or 10^5 or 10^2.8 or even 10^-1 (10^-1 = 1/10 = 0.1) . But then, for brevity, they cut off the \"10\" part and just say 2, 5, 2.8, or -1. The -1 doesn't mean a negative value; it just means closer to zero than e.g. 10^0 .\n\n(Late edit: I forgot to say: the mathematical operation that \"strips off\" the 10 in the above is the logarithm, specifically the logarithm of base 10.)\n\n(Except that decibel count is actually equal to 20 times the base-10 log, but same idea.)\n\nSo then they picked some reference sound-intensity value to be equal to 1 (or 0 on the decibel scale), which is arbitrary. But for convenience, they made it equal to the \"quietest sound we'll deal with in practice\". Not the quietest sound *possible*, as you can see from this room, but at just the right value that we get \"reasonable\" numbers in practice.\n\nIf you truly wanted to report \"zero\" it would have to be negative infinity on the decibel scale.\n\nBonus ELI5: why do they bother taking the logarithm in the first place? Because human perception of sound does the same thing! That is, if you double the sound intensity, then double it again, you will perceive it, not as twice as loud each time, but as the same gain in volume each time. When you go from say 2 to 3 or 3 to 4 on the volume setting, you've actually increased the actual sound wave intensity by the same factor each time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "dB does not measure the absolute level of something. It merely expresses the *ratio* between the value you're measuring, and some reference value.\n\nIn other words, 0 dB is just a reference sound level (a very low level, to be sure), and any other measurable sound would have either a positive dB value (louder than reference) or negative (quieter).\n\nAbsolute silence would be not 0 dB, but \"minus infinity\" dB.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22529292",
"title": "Eckel Industries",
"section": "Section::::Noteworthy Projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "BULLET::::- World's quietest room, located at Orfield Labs in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Orfield Labs chamber was certified by the Guinness Book of World Records in 2005 as the quietest room on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18157",
"title": "Lucent",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Murray Hill facility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The Murray Hill anechoic chamber, built in 1940, is the world's oldest wedge-based anechoic chamber. The interior room measures approximately high by wide by deep. The exterior concrete and brick walls are about thick to keep outside noise from entering the chamber. The chamber absorbs over 99.995% of the incident acoustic energy above 200 Hz. At one time the Murray Hill chamber was cited in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's quietest room. It is possible to hear the sounds of skeletal joints and heart beats very prominently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39907181",
"title": "Beatie Wolfe",
"section": "Section::::Album: \"Raw Space\": 2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Wolfe's third album \"Raw Space\" was conceived at Bell Labs' Anechoic chamber, cited in the Guinness World Records as the quietest room in the world. The album features \"Little Moth\", a song written in tribute to singer songwriter Elliott Smith and described by Spindle Magazine as \"a tender homage with the intimate double vocals, distant mellotron and all round low-fi sound, very much in the spirit of Smith’s style and production\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4602149",
"title": "Loudspeaker measurement",
"section": "Section::::Room measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "At low frequencies, most rooms have resonances at a series of frequencies where a room dimension corresponds to a multiple of half wavelengths. Sound travels at roughly 1 foot per millisecond (1100 ft/s), so a room long will have resonances from 25 Hz upwards. These resonant modes cause large peaks and dips in the sound level of a constant signal as the frequency of that signal varies from low to high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41811705",
"title": "Anne Walsh",
"section": "Section::::Works in sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "A room tone is a recorded element of sound design, often employed in the movie industry, to impress the sonic ambience of a depicted environment. It is the sound of “silence” in a room, though never quite silent as each room tone is inflected by different characteristics such as sonic reflections bouncing off physical architecture, the absorptive presence of bodies, and other kinds of technology present (i.e., the subtle hum of air-handling systems and lights). \"Room Tone\" is run by a computer program that generates sounds drawn from a database of approximately 1,000 room tones through four separate channels. The program may layer, cut up, and combine these room tones, varying in duration and volume, to create a new, dynamic, and visceral room tone for any particular space. Constantly changing and evolving, the aural experience of \"Room Tone\" humorously plays with the oft-cited adage of John Cage: “There is no such thing as an empty space or an empty time. There is always something to see, something to hear. In fact, try as we may to make a silence, we cannot.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297595",
"title": "Absolute threshold of hearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 micropascals, i.e. 0 dB SPL, corresponding to a sound intensity of 0.98 pW/m at 1 atmosphere and 25 °C. It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency-dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 2 kHz and 5 kHz, where the threshold reaches as low as −9 dB SPL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53770806",
"title": "Radio quiet zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Formal radio quiet zones exist around many observatories, including the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory in Australia, the National Radio Astronomy Observatory and the Sugar Grove Station in West Virginia, United States (the United States National Radio Quiet Zone), and the Itapetinga Radio Observatory in Brazil, as examples. The ITU has recommended designating two locations in space as radio quiet zones: the shielded zone on the Moon's far side, and the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point L.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b06yxr
|
does “burning in” brand new audio gears such as headphones and speakers actually work?
|
[
{
"answer": "First: The word 'gear' in this context is already plural. It's a group noun, like 'news' and 'furniture'. \n\nSecond: No. That idea comes from decades ago, when magnets were weaker and materials were worse. Even then, it had almost no impact on the sound. Only hard core audiophiles purported to hear a difference in sound quality. \n\nModern sound equipment uses materials that do not change physical characteristics over time. The diaphragm, if there is one, will not stretch. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The important bit is the suspension of the cone, the [black rubber part](_URL_0_) in this drawing. This part of the speaker needs to be flexible in order to allow the membrane to move, but it also needs to be firm enough to keep it centered. Some speakers use materials which are a bit too stiff when they come from the factory, and soften up a little during use. \n\nBut this really only concerns people who test and review speakers. Before testing, they will play some music or just some noise for a few minutes before actually measuring the performance. For the average Joe who just has a pair of ears instead of a calibrated microphone, this doesn't really matter, our hearing sense is terrible at detecting stuff like that. If someone wants to sell you a special CD for burning in your stereo, they're a fraud trying to sell snake oil.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3688564",
"title": "Monster Cable",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Initial sales were slow, because at the time electronics retailers provided low-cost lamp cords to consumers for free or at low prices and audiophiles didn't believe audio cables made a difference in the sound. Monster is credited with creating the market for high-end audio cables in the 1980s through Lee's \"marketing prowess\". He did demonstrations comparing the audio of standard cables to Monster cables for retailers and trained their salespeople to do the same for customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208732",
"title": "Dell XPS",
"section": "Section::::Laptops.:Gen 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 272,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 272,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "This model also suffers from a whine on the headphone and microphone jacks that are located on the left of the unit. This is because of shared space with the leftmost fan, and the spinning of said fan causes interference. There is no known fix than to otherwise use a USB, FireWire/1394 or PCMCIA-based audio device or card for sound output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2099292",
"title": "Chainsaw safety features",
"section": "Section::::Exhaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The exhaust directs the hot and noxious gases coming from the engine away from the user. A faulty exhaust increases noise, decreases engine power, can expose the user to unsafe levels of exhaust gases, and can increase the chance that the user could accidentally touch extremely hot metal. Most models feature a spark screen which is integrated into the muffler. The spark screen prevents sparks from being discharged from the exhaust and potentially igniting sawdust. The spark screen also reduces noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44731820",
"title": "AudioQuest",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In his early days of selling high-end audio equipment, William E. Low discovered that the sound of an audio system was easily influenced by the quality of the cables connecting its various components. Hi-fi journalist, Richard Hardesty explained: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3332449",
"title": "Black Gate (capacitor)",
"section": "Section::::Settling-in Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Many audiophiles believe it can take many hours before the maximum sonic benefits are heard in audio circuits that use Black Gates. This long settling-in procedure is often a controversial issue when auditioning such equipment, as the frequency response is said to tend to shift around greatly during this period, making the equipment sound different from one audition to another. Once completely 'burnt-in' however, the benefits are said to be heard clearly. This settling period or burn in period was most likely attributed to the aluminum layer completing its reaction to form a complete and stable oxide layer on its surface once current and voltage are applied to the capacitor in a circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7186698",
"title": "Gamate",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The Gamate's mono internal speaker is of poor quality, giving off sound that is quite distorted, particularly at low volumes. However, if a user plugs into the headphone jack, the sound is revealed to be programmed in stereo, and of a relatively high quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23699646",
"title": "High tension leads",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "To reduce radio frequency interference (RFI) produced by the spark being radiated by the wires, which may cause malfunction of sensitive electronic systems in modern vehicles or interfere with the car radio, various means in the spark plug and associated lead have been used over time to reduce the nuisance:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
87j5ly
|
Is there any credible evidence for any kind of Giant humans existing?
|
[
{
"answer": "I wouldn't say it is propaganda (that's a strong word!), but these entities, common in many people's folklore, have no basis in fact. You can ask /r/Askanthropology about things like the \"giganthropus\" fossil evidence, but whatever that represents, it is hardly evidence of giants, and it would be an incredulous stretch to conclude that there was some sort of primal memory of gigantic hominids many of hundreds of thousands of years ago - if they ever existed at all!\n\nGiants are one of that species of supernatural beings that existed in a remote past: people talked about encountering ghosts, fairies, the devil, or any number of others things, but they never told of having encountered a giant. Stories about giants were always about other people living in the past having dealing with them. It seems that it was easy for people to imagine there was once a race of titans to explain enormous, seemingly unnatural things in the landscape. The name of the Giant’s Causeway preserves the idea that one of these entities built a path to walk from Ireland to Scotland. Wade’s Causeway, is another reference to a giant, in this case to explain a Roman road in Yorkshire. The etiological role of giants was paramount, but the explanation of the landscape, megaliths, or extraordinary things in general could merge with stories about other supernatural beings. For example, the Devil’s Dyke in Cambridgeshire is an example of tradition holding that Satan affected the landscape in a way normally reserved for giants. I wouldn't want to go so far as to say it was a process of 1. fantastic landscape element; 2. fantastic and necessarily large entity needs to be responsible; therefore, giants must have existed. That said, this sort of process serves as an underpinning to reinforce belief.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Giant tortoises of the genera \"Geochelone\", \"Meiolania\", and others were relatively widely distributed around the world into prehistoric times, and are known to have existed in North and South America, Australia, and Africa. They became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galápagos Islands and can grow to over in length, and weigh about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11665172",
"title": "Yankalilla, South Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Aboriginal history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Evidence of Megafauna, including bones attributed to Diprotodon, Maesopus (a giant kangaroo) and Thylacoleo (a marsupial lion) were discovered in the 1890s in a swamp near Yankalilla and conjecture surrounds the possibility that the animals were hunted by the Ramindjerl people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8375147",
"title": "Cephalopod size",
"section": "Section::::Maximum size.:Scientifically validated records.:Extinct taxa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1195,
"text": "Certain extinct cephalopods rivalled or even exceeded the size of the largest living species (Carnall, 2017). In particular, the subclass Ammonoidea is known to have included a considerable number of species that may be considered \"giant\" (defined by Stevens, 1988 as those exceeding in shell diameter). The largest confirmed ammonite, a specimen of \"Parapuzosia seppenradensis\" discovered in a German quarry in 1895, measures in diameter (Kennedy & Kaplan, 1995:21), though its living chamber is largely missing. The diameter of the complete shell has been estimated at , assuming the living chamber took up one-fourth of the outer whorl (Landois, 1895:100). Teichert & Kummel (1960:6) suggested an even larger original shell diameter of around for this specimen, assuming the body chamber extended for three-fourths to one full whorl. In 1971 a portion of an ammonite possibly surpassing this specimen was reportedly found in a brickyard in Bottrop, western Germany (Beer, 2015). A specimen found by Jim Rockwood, from the Late Triassic near Williston Lake, British Columbia, was said to measure more than across, but was later determined to be a concretion ([Anonymous],; [Anonymous], 2008).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261029",
"title": "Australian folklore",
"section": "Section::::Animals and creatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "BULLET::::- Megalania – A giant goanna (lizard), generally believed to be extinct. However, there have been numerous reports and rumors of living Megalania in Australia, and occasionally New Guinea, but the only physical evidence that Megalania might still be alive today are plaster casts of possible Megalania footprints made in 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1284973",
"title": "Nile crocodile",
"section": "Section::::Examples of large Nile crocodiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- Also on the Semliki River, a specimen was reportedly killed in June 1954 by Mr. Hippel that measured . This giant is considered truly exceptional because it was verified that it was a female, making it almost a metre longer than any other known female and possibly the largest female crocodilian of any extant species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17369680",
"title": "Woolly mammoth",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.:Alleged survival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct, and that small, isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere. In the 19th century, several reports of \"large shaggy beasts\" were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen, but no scientific proof ever surfaced. A French \"chargé d'affaires \"working in Vladivostok, M. Gallon, said in 1946 that in 1920, he had met a Russian fur-trapper who claimed to have seen living giant, furry \"elephants\" deep into the taiga. Due to the large area of Siberia, that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times cannot be completely ruled out, but all evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago. These natives likely had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered, and that this is the source for their legends of the animal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5242733",
"title": "District Council of Yankalilla",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-European.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Evidence of Megafauna, including bones attributed to Diprotodon, Maesopus – the giant kangaroo and Thylacoleo – a marsupial lion, were discovered in the 1890s. A Diprotodon leg bone was found in a swamp in the 1890s and conjecture surrounds the possibility that the animals were hunted by local aboriginal groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vtr1t
|
how come no one has registered trademark using internet memes? are there any policies related to that?
|
[
{
"answer": "To register a phrase as trademark, you have to prove that people recognize your company's products because you use the phrase. That's never going to be true for an internet meme.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23623098",
"title": "Cybersquatting",
"section": "Section::::Legal resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Some countries have specific laws against cybersquatting beyond the normal rules of trademark law. The United States, for example, has the U.S. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) of 1999. This expansion of the Lanham (Trademark) Act (15 U.S.C.) is intended to provide protection against cybersquatting for individuals as well as owners of distinctive trademarked names. However, some notable personalities, including rock star Bruce Springsteen and actor Kevin Spacey, failed to obtain control of their names on the internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218856",
"title": "United States trademark law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "United States trademark law is mainly governed by the Lanham Act. Common law trademark rights are acquired automatically when a business uses a name or logo in commerce, and are enforceable in state courts. Marks registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office are given a higher degree of protection in federal courts than unregistered marks—both registered and unregistered trademarks are granted some degree of federal protection under the Lanham Act 43(a).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24224282",
"title": "Trademark (computer security)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "A Trademark in computer security is a contract between code that verifies security properties of an object and code that requires that an object have certain security properties. As such it is useful in ensuring secure information flow. In object-oriented languages, trademarking is analogous to signing of data but can often be implemented without cryptography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31837174",
"title": "Trademark infringement",
"section": "Section::::Globally.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In many countries (but not in countries like the United States, which recognizes common law trademark rights), a trademark which is \"not\" registered cannot be \"infringed\" as such, and the trademark owner cannot bring infringement proceedings. Instead, the owner may be able to commence proceedings under the common law for passing off or misrepresentation, or under legislation which prohibits unfair business practices. In some jurisdictions, infringement of trade dress may also be actionable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31837174",
"title": "Trademark infringement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Trademark infringement is a violation of the exclusive rights attached to a trademark without the authorization of the trademark owner or any licensees (provided that such authorization was within the scope of the licence). Infringement may occur when one party, the \"infringer\", uses a trademark which is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services which the registration covers. An owner of a trademark may commence civil legal proceedings against a party which infringes its registered trademark. In the United States, the Trademark Counterfeiting Act of 1984 criminalized the intentional trade in counterfeit goods and services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Domain names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Most courts particularly frowned on cybersquatting, and found that it was itself a sufficiently commercial use (i.e., \"trafficking\" in trademarks) to reach into the area of trademark infringement. Most jurisdictions have since amended their trademark laws to address domain names specifically, and to provide explicit remedies against cybersquatters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1513049",
"title": "Non-conventional trademark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "A non-conventional trademark, also known as a nontraditional trademark, is any new type of trademark which does not belong to a pre-existing, conventional category of trade mark, and which is often difficult to register, but which may nevertheless fulfill the essential trademark function of uniquely identifying the commercial origin of products or services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lb0xa
|
"If there is no biological basis for race, how can forensic anthropologists distinguish the remains of a person of one race from those of another?"
|
[
{
"answer": "The concept of race exists in biology, but there is only one human race. There are genetic differences between human populations based on geography but they are gradual and increase slowly with distance, there is no abrupt change or non-overlapping of genetic make-up as would be required to define a distinct race. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When people say there is no biological basis for race, what they really mean is that science does not support the superiority of any one race and that we are all effectually the same. The fact that we can tell someone's ethnicity postmortem is due to several factors. For one, we aren't just looking at the person themselves, but what they ate, where, when and how they died. All humans, from everywhere can mate, which is a basic requirements for being the same species and evidence that the essentialist and typological views are wrong. In fact, even really using the term race is wrong, as it denotes a biological designation that doesn't exist.\n\n\nFrom the Wikipedia article on race - \"By the 1970s, it had become clear that (1) most human differences were cultural; (2) what was not cultural was principally polymorphic – that is to say, found in diverse groups of people at different frequencies; (3) what was not cultural or polymorphic was principally clinal – that is to say, gradually variable over geography; and (4) what was left – the component of human diversity that was not cultural, polymorphic, or clinal – was very small.\n\nA consensus consequently developed among anthropologists and geneticists that race as the previous generation had known it – as largely discrete, geographically distinct, gene pools – did not exist.\"\n\n\"This effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a population must lie outside 99% of the range of other populations for a given defining morphological character or a set of characters. The seventy-five percent rule still has defenders but other scholars argue that it should be replaced with ninety or ninety-five percent rule.\"\n\nWith this information and these definitions, it is clear that humans all belong to the same race,so long as race is used in the biological sense of meaning a subspecies.\n\n\nTldr: Groups of humans do not different enough to really even be called races, but other anthropological clues, such as diet, location, cause of death , clothes , hair, and skin can be used to determine ethnicity postmortem.\n\n\nEdit: more interesting shit.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Certain differences in skeletal structure can indicate different lineages and races. The only thing a 'race' really means is that a certain population or group of populations is sufficiently different from all others in the species to be recognized separately. Some commonalities in skull and tooth structure can be very helpful in identifying race of a deceased person. However, with mixed breeding it can be very difficult to label an individual as one race.\n\n | Mongoloid | Caucasoid | Negroid\n---|---|----|----\nCranial form | broad | medium | Long\nSagittal outline | high, globular | high, rounded | highly variable, post-bregmatic depression\nNose form | medium | narrow | Broad\nNasal bone size | small | large | medium/small\nNasal profile | concave | straight | straight/concave\nNasal spine | medium | prominent, straight | Reduced\nNasal sill | medium | sharp | dull/absent\nIncisorform | shoveled | blade | Blade\nFacial prognathism | moderate | reduced | Extreme\nAlveolar prognathism | moderate | reduced | Extreme\nMalar form | projecting | reduced | Reduced\nPalatal form | parabolic/elliptic | parabolic | Hyperbolic\nOrbital form | round | rhomboid | Round\nMandible | robust | medium | gracile, oblique gonial angle\nChin projection | moderate | prominent | Reduced\nChin form | median | bilateral | Median\nTable 1. Craniofacial trait variations. (modified from [Gill 1986](_URL_0_), Table 1.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What we call \"race\" is a grouping of people based on very superficial phenotypic differences. Of *course* these differences actually exist, and many of them are genetically based. Some of these differences are visible in the skeleton, and can therefore be used forensically.\n\nWhen biologists say there's no biological basis for race, what they mean is that racial groupings do NOT accurately reflect deeper genetic relationships. A true, valid biological grouping would mean that everyone within a specific group is more related to the other group members than they are to anyone outside the group. Like how any rodent is more closely related to any other rodent than any of them are to a trout. Again - this IS NOT TRUE of the human races.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a biological basis for race. Different races have slight changes in their skeletal and muscular structure that make up their features. IE the skull.\n\nFor example, African American people have a higher muscle mass and ability to gain muscle quicker.\n\nI think what they mean is that these differences are all basically just evolution's product of adapting to the specific region's environment. That's all. They aren't like, a different subspecies or anything. We're all the same species, just adapted through time to the different areas we live in.\n\n\nI really would do some research and double checking first before listening to anyone from #Blacklivesmatter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Political and practical uses.:Law enforcement.:Forensic anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a 1992 article, anthropologist Norman Sauer noted that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as a valid representation of human biological diversity, except for forensic anthropologists. He asked, \"If races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?\" He concluded:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Modern scholarship.:Biological classification.:Morphologically differentiated populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Sesardic argues that when several traits are analyzed at the same time, forensic anthropologists can classify a person's race with an accuracy of close to 100% based on only skeletal remains. Sesardic's claim has been disputed by Massimo Pigliucci, who accused Sesardic of \"cherry pick[ing] the scientific evidence and reach[ing] conclusions that are contradicted by it.\" Specifically, Pigliucci argues that Sesardic misrepresented a paper by Ousley et al. (2009), and neglected to mention that they identified differentiation not just between individuals from different races, but also between individuals from different tribes, local environments, and time periods. This is discussed in a later section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Political and practical uses.:Law enforcement.:Forensic anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Identification of the ancestry of an individual is dependent upon knowledge of the frequency and distribution of phenotypic traits in a population. This does not necessitate the use of a racial classification scheme based on unrelated traits, although the race concept is widely used in medical and legal contexts in the United States. Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot. However, this method sometimes fails to be replicated in other times and places; for instance, when the method was re-tested to identify Native Americans, the average rate of accuracy dropped from 85% to 33%. Prior information about the individual (e.g. Census data) is also important in allowing the accurate identification of the individual's \"race\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816797",
"title": "Race and society",
"section": "Section::::Social interpretation of physical variation.:Race as a social construct and populationism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Neven Sesardic has argued that such arguments are unsupported by empirical evidence and politically motivated. Arguing that races are not completely discrete biologically is a straw man argument. He argues \"racial recognition is not actually based on a single trait (like skin color) but rather on a number of characteristics that are to a certain extent concordant and that jointly make the classification not only possible but fairly reliable as well\". Forensic anthropologists can classify a person's race with an accuracy close to 100% using only skeletal remains if they take into consideration several characteristics at the same time. A.W.F. Edwards has argued similarly regarding genetic differences in \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1483646",
"title": "Race and genetics",
"section": "Section::::Research methods.:Utility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "This is similar to the conclusion reached by anthropologist Norman Sauer in a 1992 article on the ability of forensic anthropologists to assign \"race\" to a skeleton, based on craniofacial features and limb morphology. Sauer said, \"the successful assignment of race to a skeletal specimen is not a vindication of the race concept, but rather a prediction that an individual, while alive was assigned to a particular socially constructed 'racial' category. A specimen may display features that point to African ancestry. In this country that person is likely to have been labeled Black regardless of whether or not such a race actually exists in nature\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816754",
"title": "Human genetic variation",
"section": "Section::::Categorization of the world population.:Forensic anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Forensic anthropologists can determine aspects of geographic ancestry (i.e. Asian, African, or European) from skeletal remains with a high degree of accuracy by analyzing skeletal measurements. According to some studies, individual test methods such as mid-facial measurements and femur traits can identify the geographic ancestry and by extension the racial category to which an individual would have been assigned during their lifetime, with over 80% accuracy, and in combination can be even more accurate. However, the skeletons of people who have recent ancestry in different geographical regions can exhibit characteristics of more than one ancestral group and, hence, cannot be identified as belonging to any single ancestral group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Views across disciplines over time.:Anthropology.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "\"Race\" is still sometimes used within forensic anthropology (when analyzing skeletal remains), biomedical research, and race-based medicine. Brace has criticized this, the practice of forensic anthropologists for using the controversial concept \"race\" out of convention when they in fact should be talking about regional ancestry. He argues that while forensic anthropologists can determine that a skeletal remain comes from a person with ancestors in a specific region of Africa, categorizing that skeletal as being \"black\" is a socially constructed category that is only meaningful in the particular context of the United States, and which is not itself scientifically valid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dr2jg
|
the cable companies arguement to "data cap" my monthly internet usage is to prevent congestion of the system during peak hours. can it really be congested?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, it's true. Netflix's servers are sending you the video, but it still travels down your ISP's internet connection to get to you. There is a limited amount of bandwidth from your ISP out to the Internet for you and every other customer to share.\n\nWhat's different with cable TV is that the TV signals come in via satellite, and is then distributed to your home over the cables that the cable company has run. There's no bottleneck because when you and 100,000 other customers are watching the Superbowl, there is exactly one signal that comes into the cable company that they then send out to 100,000 customers. It's a one-to-many connection that is very efficient.\n\nBut the Internet isn't one-to-many. We think of it that way sometimes because of large sites like this one. But the Internet is really a shitton worth of private one-to-one connections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a burden. However, it's not as much as ISP's may have you think. If everyone was watching > 25 Mbps (1080p Blu-ray is usually 25-36 Mbps) videos at once, that would cause a burden. 1080p Netflix is only 5.8 Mbps (Chrome and Firefox max out at 720p 3Mbps), and 1080p Yotuhe maxes out at around 3.8 Mbps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The data got to get from Netflix's server to you. There is only so much data you can send though a wire or fiber. Your city got a limited bandwidth and your neighborhood got a limited bandwidth. So yes, it can be congested.\n\nBut if your ISP want to start to cap data, you have to call BS. Having caped data for a home connection is just stupid. Your ISP should build more cables if this is the case.\n\nThe difference between internet and cable TV is that when you are watching Netflix, they are sending the video to you and only you. So everyone watching has a separate stream of data. While cable TV is sending the same to everyone, so the signal is only sent to your neighborhood once and then split so that everyone gets the same signal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes and no. Congestion during peak hours is indeed a real problem. But if congestion during peak hours gets too bad, people will stop trying to use so much bandwidth during those hours (because they're sick of waiting for stuff to buffer). If they only cared about peak-hour congestion, they'd institute pre-emptive throttling during certain hours, where they lower your maximum download speeds during certain times of day. I believe some ISPs do this, actually. \nMonthly data caps, on the other hand, are mostly a money-making tool. Even if you completely changed your schedule to only use the internet during off-peak hours, you'd be subject to the same data cap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "About the bit with cable TV during the Superbowl... \n\nNot too many years ago, the TV signals, ALL of them, came over the wires in a different way. In analog. The flow was always coming to your house and you TV faucet allowed certain channels in. \n\nSince the switched to digital, its similar to all other internet traffic. (At least the ones with content distribution networks, which cable TV does inherently). With the exception that the cable companies prioritize the TV signal. If it's available, they can use the bandwidth for internet, but if someone turns on their TV, that can bump out internet users. \n\nWhy? Tradition.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3453760",
"title": "Cable Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Hardware and Rits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Most \"Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification\" (DOCSIS) cable modems restrict upload and download rates, with customizable limits. These limits are set in configuration files which are downloaded to the modem using the Trivial File Transfer Protocol, when the modem first establishes a connection to the provider's equipment. Some users have attempted to override the bandwidth cap and gain access to the full bandwidth of the system, by uploading their own configuration file to the cable modem - a process called uncapping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10054791",
"title": "On Demand (Sky)",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Unlike BT TV, On Demand's download content will contribute towards the user's broadband data limit. Downward said, \"To us any internet usage is still internet usage – however it's being delivered, if we did [differentiate between Anytime+ data and normal internet use] it could be confusing between what isn't and what is.\" Customers who sign up for on Demand and are on the Sky Broadband Everyday Lite package are warned about how much content (180 minutes) they can consume before they hit their cap and anyone with Anytime+ that does exceed the cap is reminded that the service is contributing to their data usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35242701",
"title": "Internet bottleneck",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "The network demands of users continues to grow and with it so do the pressures on networks. The way current technologies process information over the network is slow and consumes large amounts of energy. ISPs and engineers argue that these issues with the increased demand on the networks result in some necessary congestion, but the bottlenecks also occur because of the lack of technology to handle such huge data needs using minimal energy. There are attempts being made to increase the speed, amount of data, and reduce power consumption of the networks. For example, optical memory devices could be used in the future to send and receive light signals working much faster and more efficiently than electrical signals. Some researchers see optical memory as needed to reduce the demands on the network routers in data transmission, while others do not. The research will continue to explore possibilities for greater network bandwidth and data transfer. As data consumption needs increase, so will the need for better technology that facilitates the transfer and storage of that data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15507775",
"title": "Internet in Bangladesh",
"section": "Section::::Internet services.:Cyber cafés and Local Service Providers (LSPs).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "Many cyber cafés have expanded as Local Service Providers (LSPs) as a way to make use of their idle (out of business hours) bandwidth. Because the root problem of scarce bandwidth remains, LSP subscribers continue to suffer from slow connections and inadequate bandwidth (96-128 kbit/s on average). A general complaint of customers and internet users is that such subscriptions are good for nothing except for surfing rich-text and images over the web. The younger internet users in the urban areas have started to familiarize themselves with other more data demanding internet applications and usage. But streaming applications fail to work over low bandwidth. Games, voice, video-conferencing and the like also suffer from latency issues. Further, these LSPs are known to forcefully cache web resources (transparent proxies) and to aggressively block traffic related to the following applications in order to save bandwidth: Windows update, TeamViewer and similar remote assistance applications, Torrent trackers and other P2P ports/patterns, voice/video applications which mostly make use of P2P architecture, online gaming and just about anything else except WWW. Some LSPs generally block all ports except HTTP/HTTPS. Bandwidth/latency benchmarking sites including SpeedTest.net are blocked to stop customers from complaining about their share of bandwidth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35242701",
"title": "Internet bottleneck",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Network congestion or Internet bottleneck generally occurs and is felt by users in homes and businesses. This is what is known as the last mile of transmission, which is when there is not enough bandwidth available for individual users to access the content they want. Everyone is attempting to use the bandwidth at the same time creating an Internet traffic jam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25427431",
"title": "Freedom Mobile",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Mobile Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Mobile Internet plans and add-ons contain limits on usage. Lower cost plans have a hard limit for data usage; customers will be billed for excess usage. Higher cost plans incorporate a soft limit; usage exceeding this limit may result in the customer's device being throttled to allow other customers fair access to the network. Throttling speeds are typically 256 kbit/s for downloads and 128 kbit/s for uploads. In what Freedom defines as \"extreme cases\", speeds will be slower than dial-up Internet access at 32 kbit/s for downloads and 16 kbit/s for uploads. When throttling does occur, Freedom will inform customers of the reduced speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29591928",
"title": "Cyberia (ISP)",
"section": "Section::::Lebanon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Despite the fact that Cyberia offers excellent Internet services, there was a misconception with the Fair Usage Policy which was applied to DSL users with free night traffic. This raised a huge feud among customers since they had now a limit on the amount of download they can do at night. However, this policy proved to be effective on the long term since this was made to set restrictions and to ensure that users who engage in substantial continuous download activity will not impair the performance of the network, thus decreasing the speed of the broadband service available to all other users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
adnvnt
|
bandwidth vs ping vs latency
|
[
{
"answer": "Latency is a measure in milliseconds of how long it takes for another device to respond to your request for a response. \n\nPing is the most common tool for measuring latency. It sends a small packet out and measures how long it takes to get the reply.\n\nBandwidth is how much data you can send/receive at the same time. Think of it as the difference between a two-lane road through a residential neighborhood and a 16-lane super-highway - the width and speed differences of the two roads allow for different amounts of traffic to pass in the same amount of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Please read this entire message**\n\n---\n\nYour submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* ELI5 requires that you search before posting.\n\nThere are absolutely no exceptions to this rule. Please see this [wiki entry](_URL_2_) for more details (Rule 7).\n\n\n\n---\nIf you would like this removal reviewed, please read the [detailed rules](_URL_0_) first. If you still feel the removal should be reviewed, please [message the moderators.](_URL_1_?)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "769088",
"title": "Satellite Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Challenges and limitations.:Signal latency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Latency (commonly referred to as \"ping time\") is the delay between requesting data and the receipt of a response, or in the case of one-way communication, between the actual moment of a signal's broadcast and the time it is received at its destination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646089",
"title": "Lag",
"section": "Section::::Ping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "\"Ping\" refers to the network latency between a player's client and the game server as measured with the ping utility or equivalent. Ping is reported quantitatively as an average time in milliseconds (ms). The lower one's ping is, the lower the latency is and the less lag the player will experience. \"High ping\" and \"low ping\" are commonly used terms in online gaming, where \"high ping\" refers to a ping that causes a severe amount of lag; while any level of ping may cause lag, severe lag is usually caused by a ping of over 100 ms. This usage is a gaming cultural colloquialism and is not commonly found or used in professional computer networking circles. In games where timing is key, such as first-person shooter and real-time strategy games, a low ping is always desirable, as a low ping means smoother gameplay by allowing faster updates of game data between the players' clients and game server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350680",
"title": "Multiplayer video game",
"section": "Section::::History.:Networked.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Gamers refer to latency using the term \"ping\", after a utility which measures round-trip network communication delays (by the use of ICMP packets). A player on a DSL connection with a 50-ms ping can react faster than a modem user with a 350-ms average latency. Other problems include packet loss and choke, which can prevent a player from \"registering\" their actions with a server. In first-person shooters, this problem appears when bullets hit the enemy without damage. The player's connection is not the only factor; some servers are slower than others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646089",
"title": "Lag",
"section": "Section::::Ping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Some factors that might affect ping include: communication protocol used, Internet throughput (connection speed), the quality of a user's Internet service provider and the configuration of firewalls. Ping is also affected by geographical location. For instance, if someone is in India, playing on a server located in the United States, the distance between the two is greater than it would be for players located within the US, and therefore it takes longer for data to be transmitted. However, the amount of packet-switching and network hardware in between the two computers is often more significant. For instance, wireless network interface cards must modulate digital signals into radio signals, which is often more costly than the time it takes an electrical signal to traverse a typical span of cable. As such, lower ping can result in faster internet download and upload rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6426596",
"title": "Transmission time",
"section": "Section::::Roundtrip time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The round-trip time or ping time is the time from the start of the transmission from the sending node until a response (for example an ACK packet or ping ICMP response) is received at the same node. It is affected by packet delivery time as well as the data processing delay, which depends on the load on the responding node. If the sent data packet as well as the response packet have the same length, the roundtrip time can be expressed as: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39321174",
"title": "PingER Project",
"section": "Section::::How PingER works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "PingER uses the data to determine latency (round-trip_time), jitter (variability of round-trip_time), and loss (percentage of packets that never return). The results of the PingER Project, including source code, are made available to the public at no cost. This collection of data shows long term world-wide Internet performance trends, covering over 750 sites in over 165 countries. Researchers at the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan, have been dealing with increasingly large amounts of PingER data by using a relational database. From a vantage point between Europe and Africa, researchers at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Italy used PingER to reveal the slow progress of improving Africa's connections to the rest of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315928",
"title": "Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Because period is the inverse of frequency, lower tone frequencies can take longer to decode (depends on the decoder design). Receivers in a system using 67.0 Hz can take noticeably longer to decode than ones using 203.5 Hz, and they can take longer than one decoding 250.3 Hz. In some repeater systems, the time lag can be significant. The lower tone may cause one or two syllables to be clipped before the receiver audio is unmuted (is heard). This is because receivers are decoding in a chain. The repeater receiver must first sense the carrier signal on the input, then decode the CTCSS tone. When that occurs, the system transmitter turns on, encoding the CTCSS tone on its carrier signal (the output frequency). All radios in the system start decoding after they sense a carrier signal then recognize the tone on the carrier as valid. Any distortion on the encoded tone will also affect the decoding time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vnzze
|
Why does nature sometimes prefer right or left? Example: Lorentz force
|
[
{
"answer": "I see where you are coming from here:\n\nIf you have a vertical wire, with a current going up, then the magnetic field wraps around the wire according to a right-hand rule - counterclockwise when viewed from above. If I look at this wire in a mirror, the magnetic field is going in the other direction - clockwise when viewed from above.\n\nSo it seems like there is a definite handedness and violation of parity.\n\nHowever, this really is truly just a matter of convention. Consider a positively charged particle going up. calculate the lorentz force on the particle, and you will see that it will be deflected towards the wire. The same thing happens in your mirror image. So the physics is the same in the mirror and in reality.\n\nEverything that produces a magnetic field does so with a cross-product (right-handed) and everything that reacts to one also does so with a cross-product (right-handed). The implicit handedness cancels out. We could redefine the cross-product in a left-handed manner, and so long as everything was consistent everything will cancel out.\n\n-------------------\n\nAlternatively, if something was pushed parallel to a magnetic field, then we could see different physics in the mirror. The weak interaction does in fact do this. \n\nIf I spin align Cobalt-60 atoms with a magnetic field, the beta-decay electrons will preferentially be emitted in the opposite direction to the magnetic field (right-handed convention). So here our convention does matter and one would see physics behave differently in the mirror.\n\nIf I cleverly set up a lab with spin-polarized cobalt-60 decay happening with backwards text everywhere, and then showed you a video of a mirror image of the lab, you would be able to tell it was a mirror image purely by the physics of what happened. You can't do that with electromagnetic phenomena.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "zeug gave a nice answer, but since you're a student I'll post an even deeper answer too. The right-hand rule and similar things come from a cheap hack that you're taught throughout school. You've been learning about vectors and cross products and \"charge-motion x field = force\" and things like that. The Lorentz force mixes two vectors (the electric current and a resultant force) with an axial pseudovector (the magnetic field).\n\nIt turns out that cross products in general (both in electrodynamics and in studies of angular momentum) are a cheat.\n\nCross product vectors are called \"axial vectors\" or \"axial pseudovectors\". The cross product is the only antisymmetric linear operator that can mix two vectors to yield another vector. That makes cross products very useful for describing systems like rotation, where you rotate from one direction into another, perpendicular direction. The \"axis\" of the rotation is the cross product of those two unit vectors, and it points in the third direction perpendicular to the first two.\n\nBut the cross product is a total hack. You've probably already learned linear algebra, so you know about matrices. If you want to describe a linear operator that mixes two vectors, you know it can have at most 9 elements (a 3x3 matrix). If you want it to be antisymmetric (i.e. to change sign when you combine the inputs in opposite order, which is an important property of rotation!), then those numbers have to have some important symmetry properties. In particular, each number in the upper-right part of the matrix has to be -1 times the corresponding number in the lower-left part of the matrix. That means the three diagonal elements have to be zero, and the lower-left three numbers have to be -1 times the upper-right three numbers -- so out of the nine possible mixing coefficients in your matrix, there are only three numbers left over. How convenient, since vectors happen to have three numbers. So we take the X- > Y term (which is -1 times the Y- > X term) and identify it with the \"Z\" axis; and likewise for the permutations. You can describe that whole matrix with a single pseudovector (or \"axial vector\")!\n\nBut pseudovectors don't work like real vectors in all ways. For example, consider a car driving toward a mirror, with a pencil glued to its left front wheel's axle. In the reflection, the pencil (a vector) points in the same direction as in real life -- but the spin axis of the front wheel points in the opposite direction! The spin \"vector\" is a cheat!\n\nThe problem is more obvious in other dimensions. Rotations in the plane are described by an antisymmetric 2x2 matrix, which only has one independent value -- so we treat planar rotations as scalars. Rotations in four dimensions are described by an antisymmetric 4x4 matrix, which has six independent values -- so there's no such thing as a spin axis in four dimensions.\n\nAnyway, the sign (direction) of an axial vector is set by convention alone, as zeug pointed out. Hopefully this little diatribe helped you see why the convention is necessary for most things, including the Lorentz force -- which doesn't actually have an overall preferred direction. (Weak nuclear decay, as in Cobalt-60 decay, is its own thing which, frankly, still gives me the willies).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56849025",
"title": "Left-right asymmetry (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Left-right asymmetry (LR asymmetry) refers to differences in structure (symmetry breaking) across the mediolateral (left and right) plane in animals. This plane is defined with respect to the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes and is perpendicular to both. Because the left-right plane is not strictly an axis (as it is not established through a morphogen gradient), to create asymmetry, the left and right sides need to be patterned separately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28376129",
"title": "Rayleigh sky model",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The figure to the right represents the three angular distances. The left one represents the angle at the observed pointing between the zenith direction and the solar direction. This is thus heavily dependent on the changing solar direction as the sun moves across the sky. The middle one represents the angle at the sun between the zenith direction and the pointing. Again this is heavily dependent on the changing pointing. This is symmetrical between the North and South hemispheres. The right one represents the angle at the zenith between the solar direction and the pointing. It thus rotates around the celestial sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3094621",
"title": "Charge conservation",
"section": "Section::::Formal statement of the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The term on the left is the rate of change of the charge density at a point. The term on the right is the divergence of the current density at the same point. The equation equates these two factors, which says that the only way for the charge density at a point to change is for a current of charge to flow into or out of the point. This statement is equivalent to a conservation of four-current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339350",
"title": "Black hole thermodynamics",
"section": "Section::::The laws of black hole mechanics.:Discussion of the laws.:The first law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The left side, formula_19, is the change in energy (proportional to mass). Although the first term does not have an immediately obvious physical interpretation, the second and third terms on the right side represent changes in energy due to rotation and electromagnetism. Analogously, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation, which contains on its right side the term formula_20.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82379",
"title": "Analemma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The north–south component of the analemma results from the change in the Sun's declination (extreme changes in height above the horizon during the summer and winter) due to the tilt of Earth's axis of rotation. The east–west component results from the nonuniform rate of change of the Sun's right ascension, governed by combined effects of Earth's axial tilt and orbital eccentricity (earth's orbital speed changing along its orbit around the sun).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "935830",
"title": "Kelvin wave",
"section": "Section::::Equatorial Kelvin wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "When the motion at the Equator is to the east, any deviation toward the north is brought back toward the Equator because the Coriolis force acts to the right of the direction of motion in the Northern Hemisphere, and any deviation to the south is brought back toward the Equator because the Coriolis force acts to the left of the direction of motion in the Southern Hemisphere. Note that for motion toward the west, the Coriolis force would not restore a northward or southward deviation back toward the Equator; thus, equatorial Kelvin waves are only possible for eastward motion (as noted above). Both atmospheric and oceanic equatorial Kelvin waves play an important role in the dynamics of El Nino-Southern Oscillation, by transmitting changes in conditions in the Western Pacific to the Eastern Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783",
"title": "Coriolis force",
"section": "Section::::Applied to the Earth.:Intuitive explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "When viewed from a stationary point in space directly above the north pole, any land feature in the Northern Hemisphere turns anticlockwise—and, fixing our gaze on that location, any other location in that hemisphere rotates around it the same way. The traced ground path of a freely moving body in ballistic flight traveling from one point to another therefore bends the opposite way, clockwise, which is conventionally labeled as \"right,\" where it will be if the direction of motion is considered \"ahead,\" and \"down\" is defined naturally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a88gb
|
What was the Nazi opinion on the Chinese? What was the Japanese opinion on the Jews?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Nazis didn't seem to have a problem with the Chinese, they had provided extensive military support to the KMT in the 20s and 30s. They even had their own man in China in [Wang Jingwei.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Japanese actually have a unique history of opinion towards the Jews. While fighting the Russians in (iirc) the Russo-Japanese War at the turn of the century, they stumbled across a book called *The Protocols of the Elders of Zion*. This anti-semitic literature was filled with the usual: the Jews control everything, massive conspiracy, lesser-men, and the like. Well the Japanese high command thought, why would anyone want to go against a small semi-integrated religious group that had miraculously managed to survive for two millennia despite prosecution, and who somehow managed to control everything, and had a large portion of European wealth in their hands? \n\nFast forward to the Second World War. The Japanese harboured several thousand Jews in Japan from the Germans, and despite being allies, they refused time and time again to hand them over to Hitler. They actually started building a facility to house 600 000 Jews escaping the Nazis. They thought that hey, if these guys control everything, might as well get on their good side. \n\nDon't know anything about the Nazi opinion on the Chinese, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was [extensive Sino-German cooperation before the Second World War](_URL_1_. [Chiang Kai-Shek's adopted son](_URL_0_) even served in the Wehrmacht before being withdrawn to China.\n\nHowever, once Japan began their invasion of China, the shift in German foreign policy favored Japan since they were more able to resist communism than China. Since the Germans were trading significantly in raw materials with China, this hindered the German economy considerably for lack of rubber. \n\nAs far as ethnic opinions go, the Germans were rather hypocritical in even calling the Japanese ['honorary Aryan'](_URL_2_). The political reality was that the Germans needed raw materials and the Chinese were able to trade them until the strategic situation shifted to a need for allies against the Soviet Union and United Kingdom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Forgive me for being brief, but it was the German ambassador who first documented, and tried to stop, the rape of Nanking. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "673347",
"title": "Sinophobia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "At the time of World War II, both Nazi Germany and Japanese Empire started its long persecution against ethnic Chinese in each countries, as well as Japanese territorial control in mainland China. Anti-Chinese massacres like Nanking Massacre that would have been the remaining key reason for the issues remaining between China and Japan today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19874443",
"title": "Chinese people in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Migration history.:Weimar and Nazi periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The Nazis, who came to power in 1933, did not classify as racially inferior the Japanese, but because so much of the Chinese community had ties to leftist movements, they fell under increased official scrutiny regardless, and many left the country, either heading to Spain to fight in the Civil War that was raging there, or returning to China. As late as 1935, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission's statistics showed 1,800 Chinese still living in Germany; more than one thousand of these were students in Berlin, while another few hundred were seafarers based in Hamburg. However, this number shrank to 1,138 by 1939. In 1942, the 323 who still lived in Berlin were all arrested and sent to the Langer Morgen work camp. By the end of World War II, every Chinese restaurant in Hamburg had closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145551",
"title": "Racial policy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Policies regarding Poles, Russians and other Slavs.:Han Chinese and Japanese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Due to Nazi Germany's recognition of Han Chinese and Japanese as \"Aryans of the East\" Adolf Hitler had allowed Han Chinese and Japanese soldiers to study in Nazi German military academies and serve in the Nazi German Wehrmacht as part of their combat training. Since 1926, Germany had supported the Republic of China militarily and industrially. Germany had also sent advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen and Hans von Seeckt to assist the Chinese, most notably in the Chinese Civil War and China's anti-communist campaigns. Max Bauer was sent to China and served as one of Chiang Kai-shek's advisers. Around this time, Hsiang-hsi Kung, the Republic of China Minister of Finance, visited Nazi Germany and was warmly welcomed by Adolf Hitler on June 13, 1937. During this meeting, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3699826",
"title": "Antisemitism in Japan",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "However, Japan refused to adopt an official policy against the Jews. On 31 December 1940, Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka told a group of Jewish businessmen: \"Nowhere have I promised that we would carry out Hitler's anti-Semitic policies in Japan. This is not simply my personal opinion, it is the opinion of Japan.\" Nonetheless, until 1945 the Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4080953",
"title": "Nazism and race",
"section": "Section::::Racial hierarchy.:East Asian races equal to Aryans or declared \"Honorary Aryan\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "The Chinese and Japanese were still subject to Germany's racial laws, however, which – with the exception of the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, which specifically mentioned Jews – generally applied to all \"non-Aryans\" although since Japanese and Chinese were given \"Honorary Aryan\" status these racial laws were applied to them in a more lenient manner as compared to other \"non-Aryans\" who were not granted \"Honorary Aryan\" status by Adolf Hitler. Hitler's government began enacting the laws after taking power in 1933, and the Japanese government initially protested several racial incidents involving Japanese or Japanese-Germans that year which were then resolved by the Nazi high command by treating their Japanese allies leniently in these disputes. Especially after the collapse of Sino-German cooperation and Chinese declaration of war on Germany, Chinese nationals faced prosecution in Germany. Influential Nazi anti-Semite Johann von Leers favored excluding Japanese from the laws due both to the alleged Japanese-Aryan racial link and to improve diplomatic relations with Japan. The Foreign Ministry agreed with von Leers and sought several times between 1934 and 1937 to change the laws, but other government agencies, including the Racial Policy Office, opposed the change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145551",
"title": "Racial policy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Policies regarding Poles, Russians and other Slavs.:Han Chinese and Japanese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The Japanese were subject to Germany's racial laws, but in a more lenient manner compared to \"non-Aryans\" who had not been granted \"Honorary Aryan\" status. Hitler's government began enacting the laws after taking power in 1933, and the Japanese government initially protested several racial incidents involving Japanese or Japanese-Germans that year which were then resolved by the Nazi high command by treating their Japanese allies leniently in these disputes. Especially after the collapse of Sino-German cooperation and Chinese declaration of war on Germany, Chinese nationals faced prosecution in Germany. Influential Nazi anti-Semite Johann von Leers favored excluding Japanese from the laws due both to the alleged Japanese-Aryan racial link and to improve diplomatic relations with Japan. The Foreign Ministry agreed with von Leers and sought several times between 1934 and 1937 to change the laws, but other government agencies, including the Racial Policy Office, opposed the change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5055507",
"title": "Shanghai Ghetto",
"section": "Section::::Life in the Restricted Sector for Stateless Refugees.:Further restrictions (1943–1945).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "As World War II intensified, the Nazis stepped up pressure on Japan to hand over the Shanghai Jews. While the Nazis regarded their Japanese allies as \"Honorary Aryans\", they were determined that the Final Solution to the Jewish Question also be applied to the Jews in Shanghai. Warren Kozak describes the episode when the Japanese military governor of the city sent for the Jewish community leaders. The delegation included Amshinover rabbi Shimon Sholom Kalish. The Japanese governor was curious and asked \"Why do the Germans hate you so much?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gakan
|
why the winter war happened
|
[
{
"answer": "Relations between Russia and Finland had been strained since WWI. \n\nRussia felt that Finland was weak, and that they would be able to easily seize a decent chunk of territory. Most of the rest of Europe was distracted by Germany gearing up to start WWII, and so the Russians felt that nobody else would really do much to help Finland if they invaded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As Russia (technically, the USSR) under Stalin was getting off her knees, she wanted to restore her influence in the parts of the Russian Empire that were lost after the Russian Revolution and the Civil War. The Secret Protocol to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and later amendments defined the borders of these parts. Eastern Poland, the Baltic countries and Bessarabia were annexed to the USSR against the will of their populace (technically, there were elections, where 98% of the adult population voted, and 98% of them supported the pro-annexation candidates, but they were obviously fake). Finland was also in the Soviet sphere of influence. The Soviets wanted her to give up an industrialized heavily populated region close to Leningrad in exchange for (admittedly, greater in area) unpopulated swamps. Their pretext was that Leningrad was the biggest industrial center in the Soviet Union, and should a big war come (and a big war soon came), it should be easier to defend. The Finns said, \"Njet, Molotoff!\" This started the war. The casus belli was the shelling of a village on the Soviet side; the Finns had no incentive to do so, so it was probably as fake as the false flag \"Polish\" takeover on the Gleiwitz radio station that triggered World War II.\n\nNow, when two countries go to war, usually they recognize each other's governments as legitimate. When the Americans fought with Japan, they issued the Potsdam declaration to the Japanese government in Tokyo, and when that government accepted it, the war stopped. The Americans didn't say, \"the government in Tokyo is a fake one; the real Japanese government is in Honolulu.\" However, this is what the Soviets were saying until the very end of the Winter War: the Helsinki government does not legitimately represent the Finnish people; the only legitimate Finnish government is in Terijoki (an occupied village), headed by Otto Kuusinen (a Finnish communist who lived in the USSR since 1918). This self-proclaimed \"Finnish Democratic Republic\" signed a \"treaty\" with the USSR; the [text of the \"treaty\"](_URL_0_) said that it would be ratified in Helsinki. By the \"treaty\" a large chunk of Soviet Eastern Karelia went to the \"Finnish Democratic Republic\". Local Soviet Communist Party cadres from Eastern Karelia were told not to leave so they could prepare the Finnish people for building socialism. No one knows whether, if Stalin had succeeded installing Kuusinen in Helsinki, he would have headed a satellite state like People's Poland or a Union Republic like the annexed Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian SSR.\n\nAs far as I know, this is why the Winter War happened. How it went, and what happened later, is another story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23752309",
"title": "Timeline of the Winter War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The timeline of the Winter War is a chronology of events leading up to, culminating in, and resulting from the Winter War. The war began when the Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 and it ended 13 March 1940.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528350",
"title": "Cold-weather warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:World War II in the Arctic.:Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Finland. It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after the outbreak of World War II, and ended three and a half months later with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33924",
"title": "Winter War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Finland. It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after the outbreak of World War II, and ended three and a half months later with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the organisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25682",
"title": "Red Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Winter War with Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The Winter War (, , ) was a war between the Soviet Union and Finland. It began with a Soviet offensive on 30 November 1939—three months after the start of World War II and the Soviet invasion of Poland, and ended on 13 March 1940 with the Moscow Peace Treaty. The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24329941",
"title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary views.:Soviet literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Winter War was one of the first modern wars of the Red Army before Nazi Germany's Barbarossa in June 1941. In the Soviet Union, the Winter War was called the \"Soviet-Finnish War\", and later the term \"Border Skirmish\" was also used. In different periods the Soviet literature gave different answers for basic questions of the motive of the war, who started the war, whether it could have been avoided, and the result. The most important aspect was the motive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "644470",
"title": "Sweden and the Winter War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The Winter War was fought in the four months following the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland on November 30, 1939. This took place three months after the German invasion of Poland that triggered the start of World War II in Europe. Sweden did not become actively involved in the conflict, but did indirectly support Finland. The Swedish Volunteer Corps provided 9,640 officers and men that saw action in some of the bloodiest parts of the war such as the Battle of Tali-Ihantala. The Swedish Voluntary Air Force also provided 25 aircraft that destroyed twelve Soviet aircraft while only losing six planes with only two to actual enemy action and four to accidents. Sweden also provided a big portion of the weapons and equipment used by the Finns throughout the war. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1511596",
"title": "Russian Winter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Russian Winter, General Winter, General Frost, or General Snow refers to the harsh winter climate of Russia as a contributing factor to the military failures of several invasions of Russia. A contributing factor that impairs military maneuvering is \"General Mud\" (\"\"rasputitsa\"\"), a phenomenon that occurs with autumnal rains and spring thaws in Russia, whereby transport over unimproved roads is made difficult by muddy conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g105m3
|
How does a vaccine with inactivated virus work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you're playing CTF and you're on the Red team, but you don't know what the enemy team looks like. Turns out they're Blue. You can learn this when they attack you, but that's bad because they have guns and will kill your dudes while you learn this piece of information and move to repel their attack.\n\nA vaccine is like an external force (who has an interest in seeing the Red team win) capturing some members of the Blue team, secretly giving them guns that don't work, then dropping them directly into your base.\n\nThe Blue team comes in, you learn about them and destroy them, but they can't hurt your team in the process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "inactivated virus cant make you sick. this is the diffrence, if normal virus enters your body, it makes you sick and your body starts to look for an antibody that works best but being sick at the same time makes your body's job so hard even sometimes impossible but if ypu inject an inactivated virus to your body. your body learns its protein code and looks for an antibody. when your body finds the best antibody you store it. if even an active virus enters your body your immune system remembers it and starts to create antibody and destroys it in a short time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23224587",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "For the inactivated vaccines, the virus is grown by injecting it, along with some antibiotics, into fertilized chicken eggs. About one to two eggs are needed to make each dose of vaccine. The virus replicates within the allantois of the embryo, which is the equivalent of the placenta in mammals. The fluid in this structure is removed and the virus purified from this fluid by methods such as filtration or centrifugation. The purified viruses are then inactivated (\"killed\") with a small amount of a disinfectant. The inactivated virus is treated with detergent to break up the virus into particles, and the broken capsule segments and released proteins are concentrated by centrifugation. The final preparation is suspended in sterile phosphate buffered saline ready for injection. This vaccine mainly contains the killed virus but might also contain tiny amounts of egg protein and the antibiotics, disinfectant and detergent used in the manufacturing process. In multi-dose versions of the vaccine, the preservative thimerosal is added to prevent growth of bacteria. In some versions of the vaccine used in Europe and Canada, such as \"Arepanrix\" and \"Fluad\", an adjuvant is also added, this contains a fish oil called squalene, vitamin E and an emulsifier called polysorbate 80.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21861955",
"title": "Inactivated vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Inactivated vaccines are further classified depending on the method used to inactivate the virus. \"Whole virus vaccines\" use the entire virus particle, fully destroyed using heat, chemicals, or radiation. \"Split virus vaccines\" are produced by using a detergent to disrupt the virus. \"Subunit vaccines\" are produced by purifying out the antigens that best stimulate the immune system to mount a response to the virus, while removing other components necessary for the virus to replicate or survive or that can cause adverse reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21861955",
"title": "Inactivated vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "An inactivated vaccine (or killed vaccine) is a vaccine consisting of virus particles, bacteria, or other pathogens that have been grown in culture and then lose disease producing capacity. In contrast, live vaccines use pathogens that are still alive (but are almost always attenuated, that is, weakened). Pathogens for inactivated vaccines are grown under controlled conditions and are killed as a means to reduce infectivity (virulence) and thus prevent infection from the vaccine. The virus is killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11365279",
"title": "Attenuated vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In an attenuated vaccine, live virus particles with very low virulence are administered. They will reproduce, but very slowly. Since they do reproduce and continue to present antigen beyond the initial vaccination, boosters are required less often. These vaccines are produced by growing the virus in tissue cultures that will select for less virulent strains, or by mutagenesis or targeted deletions in genes required for virulence. There is a small risk of reversion to virulence; this risk is smaller in vaccines with deletions. Attenuated vaccines also cannot be used by immunocompromised individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32473",
"title": "Vaccination",
"section": "Section::::Routes of administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "A vaccine administration may be oral, by injection (intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous), by puncture, transdermal or intranasal. Several recent clinical trials have aimed to deliver the vaccines via mucosal surfaces to be up-taken by the common mucosal immunity system, thus avoiding the need for injections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1073824",
"title": "Live attenuated influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The live attenuated vaccine is based on a flu strain that does not cause disease, that replicates well at relatively cold temperatures (about 25°C, for incubation purposes), and replicates poorly at body temperature (which minimizes risk to humans). Genes that code for surface proteins (targeted antigens) are combined with this host using genetic reassortment from strains that are projected to be circulating widely in the coming months. The resulting viruses are then incubated in chicken eggs and chick kidney cells. To make the refrigerated version, the virus is purified in centrifuges through a sucrose gradient, then packaged with sucrose, phosphate, glutamate, arginine, and gelatin made from pigs that has been hydrolyzed with acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57276023",
"title": "Vaccine shedding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Vaccine shedding is a term used for the rare release of virus following administration of a live-virus vaccine. Shedding is a popular anti-vaccination trope, but, with the exception of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) in the 1950s, there have only been a few documented cases of vaccine-strain virus infecting contacts of a vaccinated person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
322i0q
|
Western Intensification: Why are currents much stronger on the western than eastern side of ocean basins?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ok, this is both a fundamental tenant of oceanography but also very difficult to explain in a short space. The classic paper is Henry Stommel's 1948 [*The Westward Intensification of Wind-Driven Ocean Currents* (PDF)](_URL_0_). In this paper Stommel works through a simple mathematical model of wind-driven circulation and demonstrates that because of boundary conditions and the rotation of the earth, the interior wind-driven flow can only be returned on the western margin of the basin and not eastern. The abstract attributes this to the \"variation of the Coriolis parameter with latitude,\" - what we now call the beta-effect. The full argument requires an analysis of the vorticity conservation and demonstration that only a western-boundary current provides a consistent solution. I have also heard a hand-waving type of argument that the boundary currents have to exist in the west because Rossby waves preferentially propagate energy westward - that's true too. Sorry that this response is kinda jargony but it's a challenging thing to describe at the explain-like-im-5 level. \n\ntldr; because we live on a rotating sphere - sorry if that's a unsatisfying explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "786501",
"title": "Westerlies",
"section": "Section::::Impact on ocean currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Due to persistent winds from west to east on the poleward sides of the subtropical ridges located in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, ocean currents are driven in a similar manner in both hemispheres. The currents in the Northern Hemisphere are weaker than those in the Southern Hemisphere due to the differences in strength between the westerlies of each hemisphere. The process of western intensification causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary of an ocean. These western ocean currents transport warm, tropical water polewards toward the polar regions. Ships crossing both oceans have taken advantage of the ocean currents for centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15440316",
"title": "Wind",
"section": "Section::::Global climatology.:Westerlies and their impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of western intensification. These western ocean currents transport warm, sub tropical water polewards toward the polar regions. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are within a band known as the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator. The Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17017119",
"title": "Boundary current",
"section": "Section::::Western boundary currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Western boundary currents are warm, deep, narrow, and fast flowing currents that form on the west side of ocean basins due to \"western intensification\". They carry warm water from the tropics poleward. Examples include the Gulf Stream, the Agulhas Current, and the Kuroshio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786064",
"title": "Prevailing winds",
"section": "Section::::Climatology.:Westerlies and their impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents in both hemispheres. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are called the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees south latitude, within the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17017119",
"title": "Boundary current",
"section": "Section::::Western boundary currents.:Western intensification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "Western intensification is the intensification of the western arm of an oceanic current, particularly a large gyre in an ocean basin. The trade winds blow westward in the tropics, and the westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes. This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl in the northern hemisphere and a positive curl in the southern hemisphere. The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward in both cases. Because of conservation of mass and potential vorticity conservation, that transport is balanced by a narrow, intense poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, allowing the vorticity introduced by coastal friction to balance the vorticity input of the wind. Western intensification also occurs in the polar gyres, where the sign of the wind stress curl and the direction of the resulting currents are reversed. It is because of western intensification that the currents on the western boundary of a basin (such as the Gulf Stream, a current on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean) are stronger than those on the eastern boundary (such as the California Current, on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean). Western intensification was first explained by the American oceanographer Henry Stommel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786501",
"title": "Westerlies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The westerlies are strongest in the winter hemisphere and times when the pressure is lower over the poles, while they are weakest in the summer hemisphere and when pressures are higher over the poles. The westerlies are particularly strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, in areas where land is absent, because land amplifies the flow pattern, making the current more north-south oriented, slowing the westerlies. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties, between 40 and 50 degrees latitude. The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39067260",
"title": "Marine weather forecasting",
"section": "Section::::Importance of the wind.:Development of warm ocean currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "The trade winds blow westward in the tropics, and the westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes. This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean. The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward. Because of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the poleward-moving winds on the subtropical ridge's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current known as the Labrador current. The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream, which occasionally break off due to a shift in the Gulf Stream's position, forming separate warm and cold eddies. This overall process, known as western intensification, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin, such as the Gulf Stream, to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12vtt9
|
Does anybody know if there were any drugs developed or important medical discoveries made within the Soviet Union?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Phage Therapy](_URL_1_) is the what immediately springs to mind. While not technically \"invented\" in the USSR (British and French scientists independently discovered bacteriophagic viruses in early 20th century and), the Soviet Union was where the technique was refined, expanded, and put into broad use. Georgia, in particular, is and was the center for all this, and Georgia is currently the only country where phage therapy is a standard of care treatment. This can be attributed to the microbiologist George Eliava who brought the technique over from his work at the Pasteur Institute, and physicians like Alexander Tsulukidze and Charles Mikeladze in Tblisi who ran some important early clinical trials showing phage therapy to be safe and effective. \n\nThere were Western scientists, particularly in France, working on phage therapy in the early 20th century as well. With the advent of sulfa drugs in the late 1930s, and then with the antibiotic revolution kicked off by penicillin in the 1940s, phage therapy was mostly abandoned in the West. The Soviets, on the other hand, found their access to Western-made antibiotics cut off at the end of WWII, and then had delays in regaining access, spotty supply chains & distribution, and problems starting their own domestic production. Homegrown phages helped fill in this \"antibiotic gap\" (along with some very shady propaganda about herbal treatments).\n\nIt wasn't until the past couple of decades -- spurred by concerns over drug resistant pathogens -- that Western physicians and scientists starting giving phage therapy a second look. The appropriately named [George Eliava Institute](_URL_3_) and the [Phage Therapy Center](_URL_2_) in Tblisi are still key centers for research and treatment using phages.\n\nIf you want to know more here are a couple papers on the subject (both open-source, I think):\n\n- [Phage Treatment of Human Infections](_URL_4_)\n- [Bacteriophage Therapy](_URL_5_)\n\nThere is also a pretty good book on the subject written for a popular audience, Kuchment's [The Forgotten Cure: The Past and Future of Phage Therapy](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10907834",
"title": "Mesocarb",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The drug is almost unknown in the western world and is neither used in medicine or studied scientifically to any great extent outside Russia and other countries in the former Soviet Union. It has however been added to the list of drugs under international control and is a scheduled substance in most countries, despite its multiple therapeutic applications and reported lack of significant abuse potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "842059",
"title": "Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Residual problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Throughout the post-communist period, the pharmaceutical industry has mainly been an obstacle to reform. Aiming to explore the vast market of the former USSR, they used the situation to make professionals and services totally dependent on their financial sustenance, turned the major attention to the availability of medicines rather than that of psycho-social rehabilitation services, and stimulated corruption within the mental health sector very much.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31112402",
"title": "Federal Drug Control Service of Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The first Anti-Drugs Independent Russian Agency was born on 24 September 2002 under the name \"The State Committee for Combat the Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances under the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation\" (UNON MVD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28728478",
"title": "Drug policy of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Legislation against drugs first appeared in post-revolutionary Russia, in Article 104-d of the 1922 Penal Code of the RSFSR, criminalising drug production, trafficking, and possession with intent to traffic. The 1924 Soviet Constitution expanded this legislation to cover the whole Soviet Union. The 1926 Penal Code of the RSFSR suggested imprisonment or corrective labour for between one and three years as punishment for these offences, depending on the scale of the offence committed. It is noteworthy that drug possession without intention to traffic and the personal use of drugs warranted no penalties at this time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48626085",
"title": "Streptomyces lavendulae",
"section": "Section::::Medical importance.:Production of antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Many natural compounds have led to the discovery of drugs used to treat human disease. Out of the 22,500 biologically active compounds that have been extracted from microbes, 45% are from Actinobacteria. In 1956, \"Streptomyces lavendulae\" was found to produce an antibiotic called Mitomycin C, which has been studied for its cytotoxic effects on cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58593380",
"title": "NS5B inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Dynamic evolution of drug discovery started in early 1960s after hepatitis A and B types were recognized. Numerous medications have been tested in hopes of positive results. Interferon was one of the first that demonstrated effectiveness. Subsequently three different variations of interferon alfa, beta and gamma were identified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50073",
"title": "Chemical warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-World War II.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little information was available about the direction and progress of the Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10mg6g
|
When did Europe begin its shift away from religion? Why?
|
[
{
"answer": "During the Middle Ages, religion played a hugely important role in life, since the Church was one of the few institutions that spread across the variety of feudal boundaries in Europe. As Europe transitioned out of feudalism and towards states (lead by monarchs), the Church in Rome lost power, but religion remained a tool for leaders to use. Indeed, the transition out of feudalism and into the modern era saw the very bloody wars between Catholic and Protestant monarchs and lords. However, by the 18th and 19th centuries, states had moved on to other ways of motivating their people, such as nationalism and ethnic identity. Religion became less political - we don't analyze the Seven Years War, Napoleonic Wars, etc with the same religious focus as the 30 Year's War, for example, but it still played a huge rule in everyday life. In the late 19th 20th century, science began to present an alternative to religion, and as education spread, religious superstitions became less important. Several people also claim that the World Wars disillusioned people from God, but I think that Europe would have become less religious with or without them. It is worth noting that \"Europe\" is a very broad term, and certain parts of Europe had very different societies from others. Religion plaid a huge political role in Ireland through the 20th century, for example, or the former Yugoslavia, or various other (mostly Eastern) European states.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can give you an interesting answer to why- Neil Ferguson's \"Civilization\" covers this topic in a little bit of detail. A book well worth a read. He concludes the reason Europe began to move away from religion is the state monopoly European countries have over religions compared to other nations such as America. Essentially, Americans have a \"free market\" of religions. If you don't like the branch of Christianity you were born into you just go out and find one that is more suited to your beliefs. While in Europe those sick and tired of their religions have little alternative but to atheist. Naturally, over time, this leads to a social acceptance of atheism and a more godless society.\n\nTL;DR- Europe's \"State Religions\" are unable to keep up with the growing and changing ideas of its nations' peoples. Americas \"Freedom of Religion\" ideology has the opposite effect",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake. The morning of one of the most important religious holidays of the year when good catholics have lit their candles and are all at mass, packed into the city's wonderful cathedrals.\n\nThen suddenly a 9.0 earthquake slams into the region and lasts for almost 6 minutes. Thousands are dead in seconds as stone cahtedrals crumble and crush their packed audiences. Huge 5m wide fissures open up all across the city. Buildings cave inwards as entire districts are devastated. The dazed survivors climb out of the rubble and head for the one open place in town where they think they can be safe - the docks at the waterfront. Yet all the water has mysteriously vanished. After 40 minutes a massive tsunami crashes into the area sweeping away thousands and even entire buildings. The water travels deep into the city center. Then the fires start. Everywhere with candles set for the holy day now has caught fire and the tsunami didnt even help put some out. The fires rage for 6 days.\n\nWhen it is over 30,000 - 40,000 are dead. A third of the city's population gone. Oh and the jewish/moorish quarter / red light district? Relatively untouched by comparison, with a different geologic base, hill to block the wave, and no overload of candles.\n\nSo why would God do this? Why would he punish his devout on such a holy day when all were praising him, and why were the heathens relatively unscathed? Why was almost every single church in the city destroyed while the wicked prospered? This questioning had immense influences on the thinkers of the time including Voltaire as such a overwhelming calamity argued against the notion that a just and kind God closely watched over the world.\n\nThe long term result is a slow shift towards secularism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As an historian-of-philosophy (or, alternatively, a philosopher-of-history), I would venture to say that it occurred in the wake of Newton, Hume, Adam Smith, Bentham, Mill and Darwin in England; in the wake of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Marx, and Nietzsche in Germany; after Rousseau in France; the era of Romanticism in the arts; the ever-accumulating discoveries in the sciences over the centuries; the rise of political economy (Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, and after) and the industrial revolution which shifted people's focus more to worldly/material goods or wealth; the American experiment demonstrating the advantages of church/state separation; modern humanistic psychology which played a significant role from early- to mid-20th-century onward, for much the same reason that political economy and the industrial revolution did earlier on. In any case, when philosophers of the caliber of Hume and Kant (and later, with greater finality, Marx and Nietzsche - and Freud [see: [\"Hermeneutics of Suspicion\"](_URL_0_)]) gave up on the idea of proving God's existence, many of the other intellectuals more or less followed suit, and the people had fewer intellectuals to turn to who would justify belief in God. There are all sorts of factors that affect history, but philosophy is the most powerful long-term (IMHO ;-).\n\nEDIT: Another respondent mentioned the Reformation; there's also the Renaissance. What led to the Renaissance? I'd recommend a book titled *Aristotle's Children* for an overview of the intellectual shift that occurred in the wake of Maimonides, Averroes, and Aquinas reintroducing Aristotle's works to the West. I don't know how big a role the Reformation itself played seeing as in the wake of that you had staunch theists in Luther and Calvin, and in the philosophical world you still had the Continental Rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza [a complicated case], and - quite significantly - Leibniz, a genius polymath) advancing arguments for God's existence. It's Kant's dismantling of the traditional arguments for God (Leibnizian-ontological or Thomistic-cosmological) that was the biggest game-changer of any. Hume had his radically-empiricist skepticism but he didn't do the dismantling Kant did and offered only skepticism in theism's place. Kant is the most influential philosopher of the modern era because of this (and still retained the idea of God via his practical/moral philosophy [see \"Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone\"]); subsequent philosophy has been influenced by Kant more than anyone (Hegel was a prominent theist but his philosophy is, shall we say, rather difficult to digest), though Aristotle - who had fallen into disfavor for some time when the Church transformed his thought into official Church dogmas - has recently been making a comeback, with Plato rounding out the Big Three. In Platonism - but not Aristotelianism or Kantianism - you'll find the basic philosophical grounds for theism (primarily the ontological argument, seeing as the Thomistic cosmological arguments have lost a lot of currency whereas Plantinga and contemporary panentheists (probably the most philosophically-sophisticated theists around today) seem to put more stock in the ontological argument(s)). HTH. :-)\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I would make the case that, regardless of what happened more recently, Europe *began* its shift away from religion on 31st October, 1517, the day Martin Luther nailed his '[Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences](_URL_0_)' to the door of the church in Wittenberg.\n\nAs well as triggering the Reformation, this also showed that reformation *could* be triggered. Not only did it question the church, it showed that churches *could* be questioned. I would say that this moment led, almost inevitably, to a secular future. There were a lot more steps along the way, and Europe by no means became less religious overnight, but I'm not sure that those later steps could have happened without Martin Luther's first declaration that the Church as it was then was corrupt.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something I havnt seen mentioned yet is the influence of revolutionary ideas. The French and Russian revolutions both had anti-religious elements aswell as in the Spanish Civil war. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wouldn't necessarily say that Europe as a whole has moved much away from religion. There are many countries that religion plays a huge role in every day life, the difference is that religion today plays **no** role in politics, as it does in America.\n\nEuropean wars of religion have been some of the bloodiest conflicts in history, we see 7 Crusades to Jerusalem, as well as the 30 years war and countless other wars between Protestantism and Catholicism in the 17th Century. Religion was used as a tool by many European leaders, for the absolute monarchs in Spain and France their kingship was divine, it was sacred and came from God Himself. The Pope had a massive influence over 2 of the greatest nations at the time, Spain and France as it was almost solely Catholic. However we see a big decline in the power of the Pope as we move into the late 18th and 19th Century, and religion as a whole in politics. This is due to the ongoing revolutions across Europe at this time. Those who revolted saw the way religion was used by their leaders to control them, so whilst they were still theists they separated (truly) Church and State. This was also linked to the advancement of Science in the 19th Century where we finally start seeing explanations by Science, an alternative source to the Bible.\n\nThat being said we don't especially see Athiesm today in most of Europe, but instead we see religion as something that doesn't and shouldn't affect the views of the nation. Smaller nations like Romania, Lithuania and Latvia are all still highly religious, as are more major nations, the Republic of Ireland being a good example, as is Spain. \n\nI wouldn't especially say that Europe as a whole has moved away from religion, the only place this being especially true is in the UK, but the shift away from religion interfering with politics has been moving away for centuries, in England's civil war of 1645 one of the major reasons was how Charles' II was moving religion back into the political sphere after Henry VIII removed it, this was as far back as 1530s.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Europe as a whole is way to complex to get into. That's not even true in many cases (Poland, Austria)\n\nSo I'll just speak to Czech Republic, the most Atheist country in the world, as an example.\n\nThe people were protestant (since catholics represented the Holy Roman Empire) and Jan Hus was a major reformer who died in 1415, which was followed by the Hussite wars.\n\nThey were crushed by catholics. But the Czechs had tasted independence in that time. So they started another rebellion 200 years later in 1618. The crushing defeat by Austrian Catholics 2 years later meant the end of Czech independence for 300 years. Plus the brutal execution of the Protestant nobles lead to the 30 Years War, one of the all time most brutal European wars ever. Which was over Religion.\n\nWhen the Czechs finally did get their independence after WWI (those 300 years later) they dragged the Maria Pillar in Old-Town Square through the streets and across the bridge. Catholicism =Austrian oppression to them and they had had enough of all of them. Then 30 years later came Communists who were strongly anti-religion.\n\nWhile this anti-religion didn't take in other communist countries like Poland or the Russian country side, the idea was ripe in Bohemia (less in Moravia and Slovakia). That was pretty much the end of Religion in CZ. After the revolution not many went back.\n\nPeople who find religion now lean toward Hari Krishna (and the Mormons are coming) and other previously completely foreign religions. Moravia has had a sort of Protestant revival, but Bohemia remains Atheist. The most Atheist place on the planet.\n\nTo tie it into other European places, the Czechs can directly tie a lot of their misery to Religious tention. I think other countries that can say the same would be less religious. Countries with more religious freedom (like the US) or who were more in synch with the Church to start with (Poland, Italy, Spain) don't see the same problems with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13306",
"title": "History of Islam",
"section": "Section::::Modern period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European powers, and especially Britain and France, globalized economically and colonized much of the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2062997",
"title": "Western religions",
"section": "Section::::Secularization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Following the religious wars of the 16th to 17th centuries, the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century paved the way for a detachment of society and politics from religious questions. Inspired by the American Revolution, the French Revolution brought the idea of secularization and a laicist state granting freedom of religion to Europe. After the turmoils of the Napoleonic Wars, this development caught hold in other parts of Europe, utilizing the German mediatization and the separation of church and state in various European constitutions drawn up after the revolutions of 1848.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23001171",
"title": "Christianity in the 20th century",
"section": "Section::::Spread of secularism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "In Europe there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The \"secularization of society\", attributed to the time of the Enlightenment and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. For example, the Gallup International Millennium Survey showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God \"high importance\", and only about 40% believe in a \"personal God\". Nevertheless, the large majority considered that they \"belong\" to a religious denomination. Numbers show that the \"de-Christianization\" of Europe has slowly begun to swing in the opposite direction. Renewal in certain quarters of the Anglican church, as well as in pockets of Protestantism on the continent attest to this initial reversal of the secularization of Europe, the continent in which Christianity originally took its strongest roots and world expansion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885795",
"title": "Modern history",
"section": "Section::::Early modern period.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25814008",
"title": "Protestantism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-Reformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide-ranging freedom in the Protestant-majority countries. In North America, South America and Australia Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other developed countries. South America, historically Roman Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6171137",
"title": "Res publica christiana",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "According to Nolan (2006), Europe ceased being a \"res publica Christiana\" due to the 16th- and 17th-century wars of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation and became a \"state system\" with a sharp separation of church and state. The principle of \"cuius regio, eius religio\" (\"whose realm, his religion\"), first formulated at the Peace of Augsburg (1555), was confirmed at the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which gave secular states sovereignty over religions, and rejected any supranational religious authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance & Reformation.:The Reformation: 1500–1650.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "By 1650, the religious map of Europe had been redrawn: Scandinavia, Iceland, north Germany, part of Switzerland, Netherlands and Britain were Protestant, while the rest of the West remained Catholic. A byproduct of the Reformation was increasingly literacy as Protestant powers pursued an aim of educating more people to be able to read the Bible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45pktn
|
How did Luxembourg survive?
|
[
{
"answer": " > annexed by the Netherlands because of its political ties?\n\nActually, Luxembourg has been absorbed into other countries through history, and the current Luxembourg is nowhere near as large as the historical Duchy of Luxembourg. See [this map](_URL_0_). \n\nIt came into the possession of Philip the Good of Burgundy, along with other Low Countries states. They all came under Habsburg rule as the Burgundian line became extinct, and under Charles V was united in inheritance. When the northern provinces rebelled under Philip II, Luxembourg remained part of the Southern Netherlands. \n\nHowever, as France and Spain continued their war after 1648, France gained the southern parts of Luxembourg. \n\nThe entire Low Countries were annexed by the revolutionary French, until it was restored in 1815, minus eastern parts annexed by Prussia. Then it was forced to be part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands until the Belgian revolt of 1830, which settlement in 1839 once again split off parts of it into Belgium. \n\nSo, you need to better define what \"survive\" means. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2584524",
"title": "Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed under the name \"Gau Moselland\". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile (at first to the United Kingdom, then to Canada and the United States).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17830",
"title": "History of Luxembourg",
"section": "Section::::Developing independence (1815–1890).:Crisis of 1867.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In 1867, Luxembourg's independence was confirmed, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany, or France. The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks War in 1866.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5783379",
"title": "German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I was the first of two military occupations of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg by Germany in the 20th century. From August 1914 until the end of World War I on 11 November 1918, Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire. The German government justified the occupation by citing the need to support their armies in neighbouring France, although many Luxembourgers, contemporary and present, have interpreted German actions otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17830",
"title": "History of Luxembourg",
"section": "Section::::Developing independence (1815–1890).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Luxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. When the French departed, the Allies installed a provisional administration. Luxembourg initially came under the \"Generalgouvernement Mittelrhein\" in mid-1814, and then from June 1814 under the \"Generalgouvernement Nieder- und Mittelrhein\" (General Government Lower and Middle Rhine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17830",
"title": "History of Luxembourg",
"section": "Section::::Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945).:First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "World War I affected Luxembourg at a time when the nation-building process was far from complete. The small grand duchy (about 260,000 inhabitants in 1914) opted for an ambiguous policy between 1914 and 1918. With the country occupied by German troops, the government, led by Paul Eyschen, chose to remain neutral. This strategy had been elaborated with the approval of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Although continuity prevailed on the political level, the war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first trades union in Luxembourg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17837",
"title": "Luxembourg Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Federal Contingent (1841-1867).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "In 1839, William I became a party to the Treaty of London by which the Grand-Duchy lost its western, francophone territories to the Belgian province of Luxembourg. Due to the country's population having been halved, with the loss of 160,000 inhabitants, the militia lost half its strength. Under the terms of the treaty, Luxembourg and the newly formed Duchy of Limburg, both members of the German Confederation, were together required to provide a federal contingent consisting of a light infantry battalion garrisoned in Echternach, a cavalry squadron in Diekirch, and an artillery detachment in Ettelbruck. In 1846, the cavalry and artillery units were disbanded and the Luxembourg contingent was separated from that of Limburg. The Luxembourg contingent now consisted of two light infantry battalions, one in Echternach and the second in Diekirch; two reserve companies; and a depot company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17830",
"title": "History of Luxembourg",
"section": "Section::::Developing independence (1815–1890).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the Belgian revolution against Dutch rule. Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity, Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839. By the Treaty of London in 1839, the status of the grand duchy became fully sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. In turn, the predominantly Oil-speaking geographically larger western part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the province de Luxembourg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2x5moq
|
why did we, as a species, develop a taste for art?
|
[
{
"answer": "There will never be any one, completely satisfying answer to question like this. But, as far as we can tell, most of the higher-level mental attributes of humans are simply byproducts of having large, advanced brains. That is to say, we *didn't* evolve to appreciate art, we appreciate art because our brains evolved to do a whole suite of complex things, one of the most obvious and important of these things is communication, which humans can do in myriad complex ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437331",
"title": "Ellen Dissanayake",
"section": "Section::::\"Homo Aestheticus: Where Art Comes From and Why\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "In her book \"Homo Aestheticus: Where Art Comes From and Why\" (first printed in 1992), Dissanayake argues that art was central to the emergence, adaptation and survival of the human species, that aesthetic ability is innate in every human being, and that art is a need as fundamental to our species as food, warmth or shelter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322460",
"title": "History of biology",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance and early modern developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci, often working with naturalists, were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans, studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge. The traditions of alchemy and natural magic, especially in the work of Paracelsus, also laid claim to knowledge of the living world. Alchemists subjected organic matter to chemical analysis and experimented liberally with both biological and mineral pharmacology. This was part of a larger transition in world views (the rise of the mechanical philosophy) that continued into the 17th century, as the traditional metaphor of \"nature as organism\" was replaced by the \"nature as machine\" metaphor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327352",
"title": "Exoticism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Exoticism (from 'exotic') is a trend in European art and design, whereby artists became fascinated with ideas and styles from distant regions, and drew inspiration from them. This often involved surrounding foreign cultures with mystique and fantasy which owed more to European culture than to the exotic cultures themselves: this process of glamorisation and stereotyping is called 'exoticization'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327352",
"title": "Exoticism",
"section": "Section::::History of exoticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The influences of Exoticism can be seen through numerous genres of this period, notably in music, painting, and decorative art. In music, exoticism is a genre in which the rhythms, melodies, or instrumentation are designed to evoke the atmosphere of far-off lands or ancient times (e.g., Ravel's \"Daphnis et Chloé\" and \"Tzigane for Violin and Orchestra\", Debussy's \"Syrinx for Flute Solo\" or Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Capriccio espagnol\"). Like orientalist subjects in 19th-century painting, exoticism in the decorative arts and interior decoration was associated with fantasies of opulence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34068431",
"title": "Prehistoric technology",
"section": "Section::::Old World.:Stone Age.:Upper Paleolithic Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Cultural aspects emerged, such as art of the Upper Paleolithic period, which included cave painting, sculpture such as the Venus figurines, carvings and engravings of bone and ivory. The most common subject matter was large animals that were hunted by the people of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2482420",
"title": "Pre-Columbian art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "During the period before and after European exploration and conquest of the Americas, indigenous native cultures produced a wide variety of visual arts, including painting on textiles, hides, rock and cave surfaces, bodies especially faces, ceramics, architectural features including interior murals, wood panels, and other available surfaces. For many of these cultures, the visual arts went beyond physical appearance and served as active extensions of their owners and indices of the divine. Artisans of the Ancient Americas drew upon a wide range of materials (obsidian, gold, spondylus shells), creating objects that included the meanings held to be inherent to the materials. These cultures often derived value from the physical qualities, rather than the imagery, of artworks, prizing aural and tactile features, the quality of workmanship, and the rarity of materials. Various works of art have been discovered large distances from their location of production, indicating that many Pre-Columbian civilizations collected items from other cultures or previous cultures. Moreover,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17741443",
"title": "Applied aesthetics",
"section": "Section::::Neuroesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Cognitive science has also considered aesthetics, with the advent of neuroesthetics, pioneered by Semir Zeki, which seeks to explain the prominence of great art as an embodiment of biological principles of the brain, namely that great works of art capture the essence of things just as vision and the brain capture the essentials of the world from the ever-changing stream of sensory input. \"See also\" Vogelkop bowerbird.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f9dde
|
if our blood contains iron, why is it not orange or rust colored?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because we have a very small amount of it in our bodies. We have around 4 grams of iron in our bodies. This is about the weight of a penny.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our intuitive sense is that adding elements to a compound should be like mixing paint. \"Rust is orange, and it contains iron, so compounds that contain iron should be orange-ish\" seems like it should be true.\n\nHowever, the color of a chemical is determined by its overall electron configuration, and not by the colors that the elements involved look like individually. For instance, iron isn't orange. Iron **oxide** is orange. So blood doesn't look red because it doesn't have free-floating iron-oxide. Rather, the iron is bound up in other compounds, which have a different color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The iron in the hemoglobin molecules in our blood is what makes it red in the first place. There are other animals (horseshoe crabs are well known for this) that don't use iron to bind to oxygen, and instead use metals like copper in their blood. As a result, their blood is greenish blue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13483",
"title": "Hemoglobin",
"section": "Section::::In history, art and music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood. Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides gives blood its red color. The color is actually due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* or n to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Blood and other reds in nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Oxygenated blood is red due to the presence of oxygenated hemoglobin that contains iron molecules, with the iron components reflecting red light. Red meat gets its color from the iron found in the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the muscles and residual blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9722260",
"title": "Chemical substance",
"section": "Section::::Substances versus mixtures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in any ratio to form a yellow-grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25206673",
"title": "Iron(II)",
"section": "Section::::Iron(II) in solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "When iron metal is exposed to air and water, usually it turns into rust, a mixure of oxides and oxide-hydroxides. However, in some environments the metal forms a mixed iron(II) and iron(III) salt with hydroxide and other anions, called green rust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22166495",
"title": "Freshwater environmental quality parameters",
"section": "Section::::Chemical constituents.:Metals.:Iron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Iron, usually as Fe is a common constituent of river waters at very low levels. Higher iron concentrations in acidic springs or an anoxic hyporheic zone may cause visible orange/brown staining or semi-gelatinous precipitates of dense orange iron bacterial floc carpeting the river bed. Such conditions are very deleterious to most organisms and can cause serious damage in a river system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15369710",
"title": "Ceramic colorants",
"section": "Section::::Red Iron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Iron is commonly used as a colorant in its red iron oxide form as (FeO). Red iron oxide is commonly used to produce earthy reds and browns. It is the metal responsible for making earthenwares red. Iron is also another tricky colorant because of its ability to yield different colors under different circumstances. At low percentages (.5-1%) and in the presence of potassium, iron will become light blue or light blue-green in reduction (as is seen in traditional celadons). In the presence of barium, iron may become yellow green. When used in combination with calcium, red iron oxide can become pale yellow or amber in oxidation or green in reduction. Common percentages for red iron oxide range from (4 up to 10%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5010912",
"title": "Red pulp",
"section": "Section::::Cells found in red pulp.:Red pulp macrophages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The iron from the red blood cells is either released by the red pulp macrophages or they are stored in the erythrocyte itself in the form of ferritin. Also, the erythrocyte can store larger amounts of iron in the form of hemosiderin (an insoluble complex of partially degraded ferritin), and large deposits of this can be seen in the red pulp macrophages. The red pulp macrophages also obtain iron by scavenging a complex of haemoglobin (released from erythrocytes destroyed intravscularly throughout the body) and haptoglobin via. endocytosis through CD163. The iron stored in the splenic macrophages are released depending on the requirements from the bone marrow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27lvim
|
why can extreme stress cause a psychotic episode?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everyone will break, it's a matter of time and level of perceived stress and bodily fatigue they are going through at the time.\n\nMy first 48 hour shift at the hospital did something similar to me.\n\nAfter finally going home I fell asleep only to wake up in a cold shower, and having my parents (whom I lived with) tell me I had been walking around the house crying about the waffle I had just eaten because it had disappeared and I was hungry. \n\nWas not my best moment and I only vaguely remember cooking the waffle too.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It can happen to anyone sadly, and sometimes permanently. I currently suffer from psychosis after recently losing my mother and being the one to perform CPR. Psychosis can actually lead to other serious mental issues including schizophrenia and PTSD. I think my doctor called it a pre cursor to other disorders. My psychosis is actually on and off at times though, like most recent was running after a lady in the store because she looked like my mom....I felt my heart so happy, then i touched her shoulder and she turned around and it wasnt my mother no more.....just some woman who happened to walk by at the right time. Man did it rip my heart out my chest to find out it wasnt my mother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stress causes the release of hormones that put you into a vigilant state. This state requires a lot of resources to maintain, specifically sugars for your brain to operate. One of the side effects of this vigilant state is digestion is de-prioritized which ends up limiting the amount of sugars available to the brain to process. Sooner or later, your brain runs out of gas and sounds the alarm for emergency stop. It will do anything in its power to get out of the situation which is what results in the psychotic break. Add to the fact that the brain is now functioning at a lower level and the decisions that are made aren't that great.\n\nWhat's worse is prolonged vigilant states lead to feedback cycles between behavior and biology where the body gets stuck, generally causing anxiety disorders. This constant fight or flight state has other health implications due to the other body systems that reduce activity. It's supposed to be a temporary state to get you to safety, not something you live with constantly. This is what makes disorders like PTSD so dangerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neuropsychologist here! Generally speaking, extreme stress may result in a dissociative episode, which may have some psychotic features, but actual brief psychotic episodes caused by stress alone are pretty rare. You'd usually need some contributing factors, like drug use, or family history, or perhaps dehydration or malnutrition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had an episode once, though I'm not sure if psychotic is the technical term. I went into a drug rehab center and was still coming down from a myriad of different things. I checked myself out AMA and wanted to go home. When I was told I wasn't going home I was going to a different (worse) facility I snapped and grabbed the wheel of the car and drove us off of an overpass. We hit several cars, (no one hurt) when we came to a stop I ran three miles across town in flip flops almost fighting two gangster dudes for running through their back yard. I broke down and laid down in the middle of a street before continuing to run. When I finally turned myself in I went to the original facility, but the psychiatric ward. In the waiting area I rearranged all the furniture and kept trying to attack my stepdad. \n\nPoint being: prior to and after that I've never been violent. Never even been in a fight. I don't know if my brain couldn't handle coming off all the drugs at the same time and it caused a disconnect, because I don't feel like I'm capable of anything like that. When I think about it, it's like watching a movie of someone else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have no idea what's happening physiologically, but according to my psychiatrist, it tends to exacerbate an exiting phobia or anxiety, though any particular person's breaking point is impossible to predict. When my dad got sick and we all thought he wasn't going to make, my hypochondria kicked into full gear, and I had a bit of a psychotic break where I was convinced that I was dying of vCJD (mad cow disease).\n\nThe brain's a wacky organ.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24514",
"title": "Psychosis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Psychiatric disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Stress is known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. A history of psychologically traumatic events, and the recent experience of a stressful event, can both contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, and patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks. In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17288361",
"title": "Brief psychotic disorder",
"section": "Section::::Frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The exact cause of brief psychotic disorder is not known. One theory suggests a genetic link, because the disorder is more common in people who have family members with mood disorders, such as depression or bipolar disorder. Another theory suggests that the disorder is caused by poor coping skills, as a defense against or escape from a particularly frightening or stressful situation. These factors may create a vulnerability to develop brief psychotic disorder. In most cases, the disorder is triggered by a major stress or traumatic event. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11062680",
"title": "Stress-related disorders",
"section": "Section::::Stress as in clinical medicine.:Acute stress disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Acute stress disorder occurs in individuals without any other apparent psychiatric disorder, in response to exceptional physical or psychological stress. While severe, such reactions usually subside within hours or days. The stress may be an overwhelming traumatic experience (e.g. accident, battle, physical assault, rape) or unusually sudden change in social circumstances of the individual, such as multiple bereavement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1585862",
"title": "Acute stress reaction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Acute stress disorder (abbreviated ASD, and not to be confused with autism spectrum disorder) is the result of a traumatic event in which the person experiences or witnesses an event that causes the victim/witness to experience extreme, disturbing, or unexpected fear, stress, or pain, and that involves or threatens serious injury, perceived serious injury, or death to themselves or someone else. A study of rescue personnel after exposure to a traumatic event showed no gender difference in acute stress reaction. Acute stress reaction is a variation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8389",
"title": "Major depressive disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:DSM and ICD criteria.:Major depressive episode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "A major depressive episode is characterized by the presence of a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks. Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning). An episode with psychotic features—commonly referred to as \"psychotic depression\"—is automatically rated as severe. If the patient has had an episode of mania or markedly elevated mood, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder is made instead. Depression without mania is sometimes referred to as \"unipolar\" because the mood remains at one emotional state or \"pole\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2721889",
"title": "Psychotic depression",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Psychotic symptoms tend to develop after an individual has already had several episodes of depression without psychosis. However, once psychotic symptoms have emerged, they tend to reappear with each future depressive episode. The prognosis for psychotic depression is not considered to be as poor as for schizoaffective disorders or primary psychotic disorders. Still, those who have experienced a depressive episode with psychotic features have an increased risk of relapse and suicide compared to those without psychotic features, and they tend to have more pronounced sleep abnormalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947189",
"title": "Traumatic stress",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Traumatic stress is a common term for reactive anxiety and depression, although it is not a medical term and is not included in the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM). The experience of traumatic stress includes subtypes of anxiety, depression, and disturbance of conduct along with combinations of these symptoms, resulting from events that are less threatening and distressing than those that lead to post-traumatic stress disorder. The fifth edition of the DSM describes in a section titled \"Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders\" disinhibited social engagement disorder, reactive attachment disorder, acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1usu2p
|
What was so special about the Paris commune uprising that it seems to hold the imagination of communists greater than that of say the French revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "It feels silly to say that the reason the Commume is more idealized is because it's Communistic. While I cannoy speak much on the Paris Commune, something I aim to fix someday, I would argue that the reason is due to the types of governments that were set up.\n\nThe French Revolution and the First Republic were fueled by Rousseau and his Enlightenment philosophy. While Rousseau could be argued as a proto-Communism, all French Revolutions set up Republican governments. So, it is more if a governmental reason, at least how I see it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Paris Commune was one of the first explicitly communist political actions. The 1848 revolutions happened before Marx had written the bulk of his work (and indeed, they both informed his writing). The French Revolution, much like the American revolution, is usually termed by communist academics as a 'bourgeois revolution,' a necessary stage in the historical development of capitalism, but not the proletarian revolution that communists support.\n\nA bourgeois revolution means that it was essentially an anti-aristocratic revolution, but not an anti-class revolution. After the American and French revolutions, there were still rich and poor in America and France, but there were no longer nobles and arbitrary status determined by lineage. However, the Paris Commune, on the other hand, was an exercise in true egalitarianism. \n\nNot sure what that other guy is talking about with Marx saying that the Commune \"needed\" a revolutionary terror; the Communards did kill quite a few members of the French military when they came to recapture the city, but the whole reason that the Paris Commune came to exist in the first place was because all of the people who would've been the target of a revolutionary terror had left the city in fear. Most members of the government, and anyone who had the money or influence to get out did. So really the Commune was created in a power vacuum, and there wouldn't have been anyone to commit a revolutionary terror against. The Communards were interested in other French cities joining them, but with communications at the time, and the commune being surrounded on one side by the Prussian Army, and the other side by the French Army, there wasn't really a good way to get any messages out, and anyway the situation that existed in Paris was pretty unique. Imagine if the city government in your town just left tomorrow. The Commune was less an ideologically-motivated movement and more a natural reaction by the people of Paris, who suddenly needed to organize things on their own.\n\nSo in a nutshell, that's why communists are into the Paris commune. It was a better example of functioning communism, though obviously in a much smaller timeframe, than the Soviet Union or whatever. They practiced proper worker democracy, had free education, and other things that communists like. It really is a very interesting and unique period of time in history, I recommend anyone read more about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One important point is that the Paris Commune was not leaded by communist, it was a regional insurection which led to a form of government idealized by the communist (the elected counsil was politically extremelly divers, lacking only the monarchists: from followers of Proudhom (anarchists) to jacobins (hawkish right wing) and radicaux (radically opposed to monarchism)), and produces socially advanced rules. \nBut the main point of /u/rude_communist is what explain the communist fascination with the Commune : the French revolution was a bourgeois one, while the Commune was a proletarian one. Marx had France and Germany in mind (industrialized and educated countries) when he built his theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59134",
"title": "Paris Commune",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:Radicalisation of the Paris workers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers. This discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut revolts, in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s (a \"canut\" was a Lyonnais silk worker, often working on Jacquard looms). Many Parisians, especially workers and the lower-middle classes, supported a democratic republic. A specific demand was that Paris should be self-governing with its own elected council, something enjoyed by smaller French towns but denied to Paris by a national government wary of the capital's unruly populace. They also wanted a more \"just\" way of managing the economy, if not necessarily socialist, summed up in the popular appeal for \"\"la république démocratique et sociale!\"\" (\"the democratic and social republic!\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1063286",
"title": "History of anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Late 19th century to early 20th century: classical anarchism as a worker's movement.:First International and collectivist anarchism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Meanwhile, the Paris Commune was proclaimed in March 1871. An uprising after the Franco-Prussian War, it was greatly influenced by anarchists and also had a great impact on anarchist history. Anarchists had a prominent role in the Commune, next to Blanquists and to a lesser extent Marxists. Radical socialist views, like Proudhonian federalism, were implemented to a small extent. Most importantly the workers proved they could run their own services and factories. After the defeat of the Commune, anarchists like Eugène Varlin, Louise Michel, and Élisée Reclus were shot or imprisoned. Socialist ideas were persecuted from France for a decade. Leading Internationalists who managed to survive the bloody suppression of the Commune fled to Switzerland where they formed the Anarchist St. Imier International.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5658365",
"title": "Anarchism in France",
"section": "Section::::Anarchist participation in the Paris Commune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1544,
"text": "The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from March 18 (more formally, from March 28) to May 28, 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. They included Louise Michel, the Reclus brothers, and Eugene Varlin (the latter murdered in the repression afterwards). As for the reforms initiated by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised...Moreover, the Commune's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of Proudhon on French radical ideas. Indeed, the Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the \"implementation of the binding mandate\" in 1848...and for federation of communes). Thus both economically and politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas.\". George Woodcock manifests that \"a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18247265",
"title": "Social democracy",
"section": "Section::::History.:First International era (1863–1889).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "In the aftermath of the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, revolution broke out in France, with revolutionary army members along with working-class revolutionaries founding the Paris Commune. The Paris Commune appealed both to the citizens of Paris regardless of class as well as to the working class who were a major base of support for the government by appealing to them via militant rhetoric. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, the Commune also received substantial support from the middle-class bourgeoisie of Paris, including shopkeepers and merchants. In part due to its sizeable number neo-Proudhonians and neo-Jacobins in the Central Committee, it declared that the Commune was not opposed to private property, but it rather hoped to create the widest distribution of it. The political composition of the Commune included twenty-five neo-Jacobins, fifteen to twenty neo-Proudhonians and proto-syndicalists, nine or ten Blanquists, a variety of radical republicans and a few members of the First International influenced by Marx.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23671571",
"title": "The Civilians",
"section": "Section::::Works.:\"Paris Commune\" (2004, 2008).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "\"Paris Commune\" tells the story of the Parisian uprising of 1871, the first socialist rebellion in Europe. The piece was developed as a part of La Jolla Playhouse’s Page-to-Stage program in 2004, and further expanded in 2008 as a part of the Public Lab Series Workshop at the Public Theater. The piece is unique among The Civilians’ early repertoire in that it was not developed through first-person interviews with those directly affected by the topic of the play, but rather through extensive historical research into the actual Paris Commune that had its genesis in the 1871 rebellion. The play was written by Steve Cosson and all of the music was written or adapted by Michael Friedman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24073766",
"title": "Labour revolt",
"section": "Section::::Labour revolts in France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The Paris Commune in France (1871) is hailed by both anarchists and Socialists as the first assumption of power by the working class, but controversy of the policies implemented in the Commune helped the split between the two groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47246185",
"title": "History of socialism",
"section": "Section::::Paris Commune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1714,
"text": "In 1871, in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War an uprising in Paris established the Paris Commune. The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. The 92 members of the \"Communal Council\" included a high proportion of skilled workers and several professionals. Many of them were political activists, ranging from reformist republicans, various types of socialists, to the Jacobins who tended to look back nostalgically to the Revolution of 1789. The \"reforms initiated by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised...Moreover, the Commune's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of Proudhon on French radical ideas. Indeed, the Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the \"implementation of the binding mandate\" in 1848...and for federation of communes). George Woodcock manifests that \"a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organisation of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t1f7s
|
Why do healthy young athletes die suddenly from cardiac arrest?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no way to answer this question precisely, as each case of sudden cardiac arrest is unique. However, in general, healthy athletes who die of cardiac issues often have a congenital (present since birth) structural heart defect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When young athletes die of cardiac arrest it is almost always due due to a heart disease called hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. In fact, it is the leading cause of death of young athletes in America. This is a thickening and stiffness of the heat muscle that causes numerous problems during vigorous exercise that lead to cardiac arrest. \n\nTesting is effective, but the disease is so rare (1 in 220,000) that it is not cost effective to screen all 15 Million youth athletes in the USA alone. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7610506",
"title": "Athletic heart syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Screening for related conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Because several well-known and high-profile cases of athletes experiencing sudden unexpected death due to cardiac arrest, such as Reggie White and Marc-Vivien Foé, a growing movement is making an effort to have both professional and school-based athletes screened for cardiac and other related conditions, usually through a careful medical and health history, a good family history, a comprehensive physical examination including auscultation of heart and lung sounds and recording of vital signs such as heart rate and blood pressure, and increasingly, for better efforts at detection, such as an electrocardiogram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37416497",
"title": "Sudden cardiac death of athletes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "It remains a difficult medical challenge to prevent the sudden cardiac death of athletes, typically defined as natural, unexpected death from cardiac arrest within one hour of the onset of collapse symptoms, excluding additional time on mechanical life support. (Wider definitions of sudden death are also in use, but not usually applied to the athletic situation.) Most causes relate to congenital or acquired cardiovascular disease with no symptoms noted before the fatal event. The prevalence of any single, associated condition is low, probably less than 0.3% of the population in the athletes' age group, and the sensitivity and specificity of common screening tests leave much to be desired. The single most important predictor is fainting or near-fainting during exercise, which should require detailed explanation and investigation. The victims include many well-known names, especially in professional soccer, and close relatives are often at risk for similar cardiac problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7610506",
"title": "Athletic heart syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Clinical relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Athlete's heart is not dangerous for athletes (though if a nonathlete has symptoms of bradycardia, cardiomegaly, and cardiac hypertrophy, another illness may be present). Athlete's heart is not the cause of sudden cardiac death during or shortly after a workout, which mainly occurs due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a genetic disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37416497",
"title": "Sudden cardiac death of athletes",
"section": "Section::::Incidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Sudden cardiac death occurs in approximately one per 200,000 young athletes per year, usually triggered during competition or practice. The victim is usually male and associated with soccer, basketball, ice hockey, or American football, reflecting the large number of athletes participating in these sustained and strenuous sports. For a normally healthy age group, the risk appears to be particularly magnified in competitive basketball, with sudden cardiac death rates as high as one per 3,000 annually for male basketball players in NCAA Division I. This is still far below the rate for the general population, estimated as one per 1,300–1,600 and dominated by the elderly. However, a population as large as the United States will experience the sudden cardiac death of a competitive athlete at the average rate of one every three days, often with significant local media coverage heightening public attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37416497",
"title": "Sudden cardiac death of athletes",
"section": "Section::::Screening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Screening athletes for cardiac disease can be problematic because of low prevalence and inaccurate performance of various tests that have been used. Nevertheless, sudden death among seemingly healthy individuals attracts much public and legislator attention because of its visible and tragic nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8268432",
"title": "List of association footballers who died while playing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The following is a list of association footballers who died while playing, either directly from injuries sustained during a game, or after being taken ill on the pitch. Following an increase in deaths, both during matches and training, the Federation of International Football Associations (FIFA) considered mandatory cardiac testing, already in place for years in some countries, such as Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33849637",
"title": "Health issues in youth sports",
"section": "Section::::Sports-related death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Sometimes sports injuries can be so severe as to result in actual death. Over the past year, 48 youths died from sports injuries. The leading causes of death in youth sports are sudden cardiac arrest, concussion, heat illness and external sickling. Cardiac-related deaths are usually due to an undiagnosed cardiovascular disorder. Trauma to the head, neck and spine can also be lethal. Among young American athletes, more than half of trauma-related deaths are to football players, with track and field, baseball, boxing and soccer also having relatively high fatality rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e42wy
|
how do phones send texts?
|
[
{
"answer": "In much the same way as they send voice to the tower when you talk on the phone. They have circuitry to create a signal, and send one that is the style the tower recognizes as text. They've decided certain bit patterns mean certain characters, and send a combination of address information and the text content as, essentially, a radio-wave pattern. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305854",
"title": "Text messaging",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1259,
"text": "Text messaging is most often used between private mobile phone users, as a substitute for voice calls in situations where voice communication is impossible or undesirable (e.g., during a school class or a work meeting). Texting is also used to communicate very brief messages, such as informing someone that you will be late or reminding a friend or colleague about a meeting. As with e-mail, informality and brevity have become an accepted part of text messaging. Some text messages such as SMS can also be used for the remote controlling of home appliances. It is widely used in domotics systems. Some amateurs have also built own systems to control (some of) their appliances via SMS. Other methods such as group messaging, which was patented in 2012 by the GM of Andrew Ferry, Devin Peterson, Justin Cowart, Ian Ainsworth, Patrick Messinger, Jacob Delk, Jack Grande, Austin Hughes, Brendan Blake, and Brooks Brasher are used to involve more than two people into a text messaging conversation. A Flash SMS is a type of text message that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox. It can be useful in cases such as an emergency (e.g., fire alarm) or confidentiality (e.g., one-time password).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368428",
"title": "Radio",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Data communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "BULLET::::- Text messaging (texting) – this is a service on cell phones, allowing a user to type a short alphanumeric message and send it to another phone number, and the text is displayed on the recipient's phone screen. It is based on the Short Message Service (SMS) which transmits using spare bandwidth on the control radio channel used by cell phones to handle background functions like dialing and cell handoffs. Due to technical limitations of the channel, text messages are limited to 160 alphanumeric characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5426470",
"title": "SMS gateway",
"section": "Section::::Email clients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Text messages can be sent from a personal computer to mobile devices via an SMS gateway or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) gateway, using most popular email client programs, such as Outlook, Thunderbird, and so on. The messages must be sent in ASCII \"text-only\" mode. If they are sent in HTML mode, or using non-ASCII characters, they will most likely appear as nonsense on the recipient's mobile telephone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305854",
"title": "Text messaging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1251,
"text": "As of 2017, text messages are used by youth and adults for personal, family, business and social purposes. Governmental and non-governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues. In the 2010s, the sending of short informal messages has become an accepted part of many cultures, as happened earlier with emailing. This makes texting a quick and easy way to communicate with friends, family and colleagues, including in contexts where a call would be impolite or inappropriate (e.g., calling very late at night or when one knows the other person is busy with family or work activities). Like e-mail and voicemail, and unlike calls (in which the caller hopes to speak directly with the recipient), texting does not require the caller and recipient to both be free at the same moment; this permits communication even between busy individuals. Text messages can also be used to interact with automated systems, for example, to order products or services from e-commerce websites, or to participate in online contests. Advertisers and service providers use direct text marketing to send messages to mobile users about promotions, payment due dates, and other notifications instead of using postal mail, email, or voicemail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5426470",
"title": "SMS gateway",
"section": "Section::::Email clients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "A message sent with an email client can be simultaneously addressed to multiple mobile telephones, whereas text messages sent in the usual manner between mobile telephones can only be sent to a single recipient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11401427",
"title": "Concatenated SMS",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "In the cellular phone industry, mobile phones and their networks sometimes support concatenated short message service (or concatenated SMS) to overcome the limitation on the number of characters that can be sent in a single SMS text message transmission (which is usually 160). Using this method, long messages are split into smaller messages by the sending device and recombined at the receiving end. Each message is then billed separately. When the feature works properly, it is nearly transparent to the user, appearing as a single long text message. Previously, due to incompatibilities between providers and lack of support in some phone models, there was not widespread use of this feature. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10927720",
"title": "Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive 2002",
"section": "Section::::Main provisions.:Unsolicited e-mail and other messages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The sending of unsolicited text messages, either in the form of SMS messages, push mail messages or any similar format designed for consumer portable devices (mobile phones, PDAs) also falls under the prohibition of Article 13.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
315t3e
|
how this battery train experiment works?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This](_URL_1_) should help you out...people on a physics forum explaining it pretty simply\n\nEDIT: Aww hell, I guess I'll copy/paste the answer here...\n\n > If you run a current through a coil; it generates an magnetic field inside the coil [like this](_URL_0_)\n\n > If the field lines are exactly parallel a bar magnet will feel no net force. However at the ends of the coil, where the field lines diverge, a bar magnet will be either pulled into the coil or pushed out of the coil depending on which way round you insert it.\n\n > The trick in the video is that the magnets are made of a conducting material and they connect the battery terminals to the copper wire, so the battery, magnets and copper wire make a circuit that generates a magnet field just in the vicinity of the battery. The geometry means the two magnets are automatically at the ends of the generated magnetic field, where the field is divergent, so a force is exerted on the magnets.\n\n > The magnets have been carefully aligned so the force on both magnets points in the same direction, and the result is that the magnets and battery move. But as they move, the magnetic field moves with them and you get a constant motion.\n\n > If you flipped round the two magnets at the ends of the battery the battery and magnets would move in the reverse direction. If you flipped only one magnet the two magnets would then be pulling/pushing in opposite directions and the battery wouldn't move.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you pass a current through a coiled wire, it generates a magnetic field. If you wind *insulated* wire around a large nail, and connect the ends of the wire to a battery, you can create an electromagnet from the nail. This is the old, boring version of this 'train' experiment. Note that a magnetic field is created whether or not the nail is inside, but the iron nail increases the strength many times.\n\nOK. The magnets that are stuck to the end of the battery (by their own magnetic attraction) form the electrical connection between the battery and the bare wire.\n\nSo, the current that flows through the wire (from the battery) produces a magnetic field, and that field exerts a force on the magnets. As there is nothing to stop the battery from sliding, apart from a small amount of friction, this force pushes the battery along the inside the coil of wire.\n\nAs the magnets move, they keep touching different parts of the wire, and the circuit is maintained.\n\nI would have thought that the magnets would have to be aligned in the same direction (ie attracting each other, rather than repelling) for the train to work. Perhaps I am just not as smart as I think.\n\n\nThis is basically the same principle that describes how a speaker works. It uses a coil, to which variable current is supplied, to slide over a magnet. The moving coil is attached to the speaker cone, and the moving cone generates sound waves by acting directly on the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1661169",
"title": "Walt Disney World Monorail System",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Train safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Safety tests are performed daily to ensure that the MAPO system is working properly on each train. At the direction of the monorail station conducting the test, each train will intentionally overrun a hold point to verify that a red MAPO occurs and that the emergency brakes activate. Pilots perform tests in forward and reverse when bringing a train onto the system for the first time that day. The indications are called into Monorail Central with the emergency brake pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29375992",
"title": "817 series",
"section": "Section::::817-1000 series.:Experimental battery EMU set.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "In March 2013, JR Kyushu converted two-car 817-1000 series set VG114 to a battery electric multiple unit (BEMU) by adding lithium-ion storage batteries to enable the train to run on non-electrified lines. The train has a maximum speed of when running off the 20 kV AC overhead power supply of electrified lines, and when running on battery power over non-electrified lines. It can run a distance of up to on battery power. The train was tested on non-electrified lines from September 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445108",
"title": "Toy train",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Many modern electric toy trains contain sophisticated electronics that emit digitized sound effects and allow the operator to safely and easily run multiple remote control trains on one loop of track. In recent years, many toy train operators will operate a train with a TV camera in the front of the engine and hooked up to a screen, such as computer monitor. This will show an image, similar to that of a real (smaller size) railroad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2842206",
"title": "Borderlands line",
"section": "Section::::Development and electrification.:Proposed battery trains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The operation of battery trains that receive energy from batteries and an electric pick-up has been proposed for operation on unelectrified and electrified sections of the track. Adoption of these types of trains would reduce the need for full line electrification. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11270303",
"title": "Metadyne",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Traction control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "The test train ran through much of 1935 and 1936, and was tried on nearly all of the electrified tracks on the Metropolitan line and the District line. Once the concept had been proved to be reliable, the train was also used in passenger service. Besides the regenerative braking, the acceleration was found to be particularly smooth. When the decision was taken to proceed with the new system on the O and P stock, the test train was dismantled, and the equipment was fitted to three battery locomotives built by the Gloucester Railway Carriage and Wagon Company, which were part of a batch of nine vehicles supplied between 1936 and 1938. The equipment was particularly suitable for battery locomotives, as the lack of starting resistances reduced the amount of power wasted when starting and stopping frequently. At slow speeds, conventional control systems would often overheat, but the metadyne-equipped locomotives could pull trains weighing 100 tons for long distances at speeds as low as without problems. However, the complexity of the equipment, and the difficulty of maintaining the metadyne machine, resulted in the locomotives not being used sufficiently, and they were withdrawn for scrapping in 1977.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9090858",
"title": "Portable appliance testing",
"section": "Section::::Testing.:Earth continuity test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The choice of which of the tests to use is at the operator's discretion as there is merit in each test for given situations. Later model testers that are battery powered are limited to doing the \"screen test\". Older mains powered units can do all tests. The purpose of the high current test is to simulate a fault condition: if a live part contacts the earthed metalwork, the earth conductor should be able to carry sufficient current to blow the fuse and render the appliance safe, without the earth conductor itself burning out. On the other hand, some equipment (especially IT equipment) could be damaged by this test, as the earth connection is only for functional purposes and is not meant to be relied upon for safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2725079",
"title": "SL X60",
"section": "Section::::Higher environmental standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When the trains brake, the 3-phase motors act as generators and return electricity to the system rather than converting power to heat, as on a friction brake system. The current that is produced is conducted back to the overhead lines. If there is another train in the same electrical section, this train will use as much of the generated energy as it can.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tswhk
|
Can 'one' photon technically be divided into anything?
|
[
{
"answer": "Read up on [spontaneous parametric down-conversion](_URL_0_).\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Within the framework of Quantum Electrodynamics, the only thing one photon can do is pair produce - split into an electron and positron. An electron can lose some momentum and split into a photon and slower electron and likewise for a positron, and this process can continue ad infinitum, with appropriate probabilities applied at each step.\n\nThe SPDC process mentioned here isn't exactly the *splitting* of one single photon and it involves an external medium that said photon interacts with, but that might be a matter of semantics and me misinterpreting what you said :S\n\nIt involves a medium with a nonlinear response to an EM field absorbing a photon at a high frequency and emitting two photons at half that frequency. As far as nonlinear optical media are concerned, there are all sorts of up and down conversion processes involving multiple photons and photons 'splitting' in ratios other than 50:50, but AFAIK, SPDC is generally the dominant process and also the best studied and used in experiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "A photon is massless, has no electric charge, and is a stable particle. A photon has two possible polarization states. In the momentum representation of the photon, which is preferred in quantum field theory, a photon is described by its wave vector, which determines its wavelength \"λ\" and its direction of propagation. A photon's wave vector may not be zero and can be represented either as a spatial 3-vector or as a (relativistic) four-vector; in the latter case it belongs to the light cone (pictured). Different signs of the four-vector denote different circular polarizations, but in the 3-vector representation one should account for the polarization state separately; it actually is a spin quantum number. In both cases the space of possible wave vectors is three-dimensional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6432722",
"title": "Photon polarization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "can be described as having right or left circular polarization, or a superposition of the two. Equivalently, a photon can be described as having horizontal or vertical linear polarization, or a superposition of the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1962960",
"title": "Two-photon physics",
"section": "Section::::Processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "a photon can, within the bounds of the uncertainty principle, fluctuate into a virtual charged fermion–antifermion pair, to either of which the other photon can couple. This fermion pair can be leptons or quarks. Thus, two-photon physics experiments can be used as ways to study the photon structure, or, somewhat metaphorically, what is \"inside\" the photon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31986161",
"title": "Single-photon source",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In quantum theory, photons describe quantized electromagnetic radiation. Specifically, a photon is an elementary excitation of a normal mode of the electromagnetic field. Thus a single-photon state is the quantum state of a radiation mode that contains a single excitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31986161",
"title": "Single-photon source",
"section": "Section::::Heralded single photons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Pairs of single photons can be generated in highly correlated states from using a single high-energy photon to create two lower-energy ones. One photon from the resulting pair may be detected to 'herald' the other (so its state is pretty well known prior to detection). The two photons need not generally be the same wavelength, but the total energy and resulting polarisation are defined by the generation process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1025272",
"title": "Bohr–Einstein debates",
"section": "Section::::Post-revolution: Third stage.:The argument of EPR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "6) Since natural and obvious requirements have forced the conclusion that photon \"2\" simultaneously possesses incompatible properties, this means that, even if it is not possible to determine these properties simultaneously and with arbitrary precision, they are nevertheless possessed objectively by the system. But quantum mechanics denies this possibility and it is therefore an incomplete theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748127",
"title": "Bond hardening",
"section": "Section::::A fraction of a photon?:Breakdown of the photon model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "One can say that the photon is not a particle but as a mere quantum of energy that is usually exchanged in integer multiples of ħω, but not always, as it is the case in the above experiment. From this point of view, photons are quasiparticles, akin to phonons and plasmons, in a sense less \"real\" than electrons and protons. Before dismissing this view as unscientific, its worth recalling the words of Willis Lamb, who won a Nobel prize in the area of quantum electrodynamics:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
93nb2p
|
what is wikileaks? what is the current situation with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Wikileaks is a website that originated by civil libertarians who intended to promote transparency by publishing leaks of sensitive information about governments and large corporations, given to them in secret by whistleblowers. They rose to fame in 2010 with the publication of a huge number of military records and diplomatic cables, given to them illegally by the whistleblower, Chelsea Manning, who was a soldier and computer analyst in the US Army. Chelsea Manning was sentenced to 35 years (threatened with a death sentence for “aiding the enemy”) and released after 6 after receiving a commutation of her sentence by President Obama in the last months of his president. Chelsea Manning is a transgender woman and was subject to humiliating treatment and solitary confinement inside of the military prison where she served time. She attempted suicide at least one time that we know of. The US government also put out a warrant for the arrest of one of the founders of Wikileaks, Julian Assange, an Australian citizen.\n\nJulian is also wanted in Sweden on accusations of sexual assault, and the Swedish government has been attempting to extradite him for questioning regarding the allegations against him. \n\nTo avoid these attempts at arrest and extradition, Assange applied for asylum in Ecuador and was granted it, and when blocked from boarding a plane in London, he took literal refuge inside the Ecuadorean embassy, where he has lived for the last 6 years. If he attempts to leave the building, British police intend to arrest him immediately, to extradite him to Sweden. He has said he would be willing to allow himself to be extradited to Sweden to face the sexual assault charges (which he denies) if given promises that he would not be extradited to the US. The Swedish government have said that they wouldn’t, and the British claim they would only extradite him to Sweden, not to America, but he claims to not trust their word on this.\n\nFurther complicating matters, in recent years, Assange and Wikileaks are seen to be biased by many observers. They’ve been accused of softballing or ignoring leaks that are damaging to Russia, and focusing exclusively on leaks that are damaging to the US. They are also seen as having favored Trump in the 2016 US presidential election, and opposed Hillary. Some have gone as far as to say that Wikileaks is basically an arm of FSB, the Russian intelligence agency that is the equivalent of the CIA in America.\n\nAnd then to add to it, Assange seems to have overstayed his welcome in the Ecuadorean embassy, where, as I said, he has lived for 6 years straight now and not once left the building (London police are parked outside the building 24/7 waiting to arrest him should he ever leave). They’ve built him a small residence inside the embassy building, with a bed, bathroom, and small kitchen. And they claim he is obnoxious, doesn’t shower often, and intentionally inflames the situation diplomatically, causing trouble for the Ecuadorean government. They’ve reportedly cut off his access to the Internet so he’ll stop talking. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877168",
"title": "WikiLeaks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "WikiLeaks has drawn criticism for its alleged absence of whistleblowing on or criticism of Russia, and for criticising the Panama Papers' exposé of businesses and individuals with offshore bank accounts. The organization has additionally been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers and details of suicide attempts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877168",
"title": "WikiLeaks",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversies.:Allegations of Russian influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "On 10 December 2016, \"The Washington Post\" reported that the Central Intelligence Agency concluded that Russia intelligence operatives provided materials to WikiLeaks in an effort to help Donald Trump's election bid. WikiLeaks has frequently been criticised for its alleged absence of whistleblowing on or criticism of Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877168",
"title": "WikiLeaks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "WikiLeaks () is an international non-profit organisation that publishes news leaks, and classified media provided by anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, claimed in 2016 to have released online 10 million documents in its first 10 years. Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder and director. Since September 2018, Kristinn Hrafnsson has served as its editor-in-chief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41820203",
"title": "Global surveillance and journalism",
"section": "Section::::Julien Assange and WikiLeaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In 2006 Wikileaks was created by Julien Assange and the goal for Wikileaks is to capture the truth by any means, which has put them in the International Spotlight over the years. Since the birth Wikileaks has released classified documents regarding the war effort in the middle east, document regarding the detainees in Guantanamo Bay, and releasing the emails from Democratic National Committee staffers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51141210",
"title": "2016 Democratic National Committee email leak",
"section": "Section::::Perpetrators.:Cybersecurity analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange initially stuck to WikiLeaks policy of neither confirming or denying sources but in January 2017 said that their \"source is not the Russian government and it is not a state party\", and the Russian government said it had no involvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877168",
"title": "WikiLeaks",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversies.:Allegations of anti-Americanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "WikiLeaks has been accused of purposely targeting certain states and people, and presenting its disclosures in misleading and conspiratorial ways to harm those people. Writing in 2012, \"Foreign Policy\"'s Joshua Keating stated that \"nearly all its major operations have targeted the U.S. government or American corporations.\" In a 2017 speech addressing the Center for Strategic and International Studies, CIA Director Mike Pompeo referred to WikiLeaks as \"a non-state hostile intelligence service\" and described founder Julian Assange as a narcissist, fraud, and coward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53412768",
"title": "Vault 7",
"section": "Section::::Publications.:Part 1 - \"Year Zero\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "WikiLeaks redacted names and other identifying information from the documents before their release, while attempting to allow for connections between people to be drawn via unique identifiers generated by WikiLeaks. It also said that it would postpone releasing the source code for the cyber weapons, which is reportedly several hundred million lines long, \"until a consensus emerges on the technical and political nature of the C.I.A.'s program and how such 'weapons' should be analyzed, disarmed and published.\" WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange claimed this was only part of a larger series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
24rteq
|
how are the us still allowed to use drone strikes when the civilian casualty rate is so high?
|
[
{
"answer": "Who is going to stop us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The United States government believes they are effective enough to justify the high civilian casualty rate. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "\"Allowed\" is an interesting term, isn't it? Any other weapon with such a high civilian casualty rate would have been prohibited by now. \n\nBasically, the ability of legal bodies to create international law prohibiting weapons(like the Geneva Conventions, Hague Law, etc.) is limited by the number of parties you have to get to agree to it, while the USA(the main user of drones as weapons) has developed the technology quite rapidly. To create meaningful prohibitions against drone warfare, you'd have to get all the major international players on the same side, including the USA. That would take a lot of time, work, and lawyering.\n\nTL;DR The ability to wage war grows faster than an international lawyers' ability to argue about it.",
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"answer": "* with sovereign nations, there is really no authority to \"allow\" or not \"allow\" that countries actions\n* the possibility of civilian casualties are an unfortunate reality of any armed conflict, drones or no drones\n* it is unclear whether the civilian casualty rate is high, or what \"too high\" even means...for every highly publicized mission with civilian casualties, there could be a dozen we don't hear about that only hit the intended targets",
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"answer": "Many officials believe that the high casualty rate is due to underdevelopment and unfamiliarity with a new technology. They see this as a step towards reducing unwanted casualties in the long run at the cost of current mistakes. It's the \"you need to crack a few eggs to make an omelette\" mentality, which may or may not prove to be worthwhile (i'm not saying it is).",
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"answer": "No one has pointed out that some countries actually ask for the US to use drones because they don't have the sufficient means to apprehend targets. Even Pakistan has approved the US of drones but publically condemn them.\n\nI haven't seen a report more than 15% civilian casualties, still too high but not nearly as some would have you believe.\n\nPeople are more willing to accept the 15% than risking boots and resources along with potentially more bystanders.\n\nAlso like others have said, who is going to stop the US. By the time anyone complains the US has already moved on to other things. Most of the countries that can stop the attacks are allies or don't care. If the US were to halt all drone attacks then its just going to find other ways to get to its targets. The US isn't just going to stop going after targets because the drones have been grounded. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The military alternative would be just dropping bombs from a plane which would have a higher civilian casualty rate.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Drones have a much lower civilian casualty rate than the weapons they used before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even if it were a big deal, it's like asking \"how is Russia *allowed* to take over parts of Ukraine?\" Even if other nations wanted to stop us or tried to stop us, they couldn't/wouldn't.",
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"answer": "It comes down to International Humanitarian Law, or \"the laws of war\", which state that an attack must be \"proportional\". According to the United States and its lawyers, the US is still in an ongoing armed conflict against Al Qaeda and the Taliban, which means that International Humanitarian Law, and not International Human Rights Law, applies. Although some of the strikes may kill large numbers of civilians, if the strike is targeting a high-level operative, then the collateral damage for the attack, although high, would be considered proportional. \n\nELI5 - Under the laws of war it is legal to kill civilians as long as the target is of sufficient military value to justify the collateral damage. The US Gov't considers its actions to fall under the Laws of War. ",
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"answer": "The OP (and many of the other posters) missunderstand the problem.\n\nSimply put, drones are extremely precise weapon systems. Compared to coventional artillery or GPS guided munitions (such as JDAMS), they offer significant advantages: they are direct fire (so you actually have eyes on target, rather than presumed location), and their CEP is tiny (I think hellfire IIs are something ridiculous like 50% of rounds within a meter of the aim point and 90% within 2?).\n\nSo it's not that drone strikes create more civillian casualties than other kinds of attacks. What they do create however is more opportunities.\n\nDrones are extremely effective. They can fly in circles for hours, using very little fuel and rotating the flight crew on the ground. Bombs and artillery, by contrast, usually require a spotter on the ground. This means that drones are cheap, and keep personel out of harms way, so they can be used with impugnity.\n\nThere is no \"safe\" way to kill someone with a high explosive round. Despite their precision, everyone nearby is still going to get killed or injured, and unfortunately the targets of drone strikes rarely elect to stand out in the open, away from their friends and family. \n\nTLDR: Drones are crazy precise, and you tried to kill the same target with bombs, infantry and artillery, you'd have even higher civillian casualties. But people don't compare casualties of drone strikes to casualties from conventional weapons, they compare it to \"doing nothing at all\", on the (possibly correct) assumption that the military wouldn't engage in so many attacks if they weren't so cheap.\n\nEdit: If you are REALLY wondering why we attack people at all? Good question. War is a terrible way of running foreign policy, but the sad truth is it's easy and appealing to a broad section of every population in every country. So long as there are warriors, there will be war. So long as there is war, the countries without warriors will be destroyed. Good luck trying to solve THAT problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So High??? ~55 million civilians died from world war II, doubt we're REMOTELY near that...\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is the US government allowed? Simple answer really: Who's gonna stop them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"The strong do what they have to do, the weak accept what they have to accept\"\r\r- Thucydides",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because drone strike civilian casualty rates are lower than casualty rates when we put men on the ground. We just don't report when out soldiers accidentally blow up a truck full of civilians because we protect our soldiers identity. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Drones have a 15% civilian casualty rate. Meaning for every 100 targets killed 15 civilians are killed. \n\nIn recent history, including these conflicts where we use drones, putting soldiers on the ground has a civilian casualty rate between 50-70%. Meaning for every 100 targets killed, 50 - 70 civilians are killed. In historical wars civilian casualty rates have normally been over 100%, meaning more civilians were killed than enemy combatants. This pattern of more civilians killed than combatants didn't change for the US until the Korean War. \n\nWWII for example, had a civilian casualty rate of 140%. At least for the US, for Russia, it was approaching 700%.\n\nVietnam was also horrible, with about 180% civilian casualty rate, **on the side that didn't just massacre civilians.**\n\n15% is lower than 50% or 70%. Do the math, drones cause the least civilian casualties. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "337755",
"title": "Unmanned combat aerial vehicle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "In recent years, the U.S. has increased its use of drone strikes against targets in foreign countries and elsewhere as part of the War on Terror. In January 2014, it was estimated that 2,400 people have died from U.S. drone strikes in five years. In June 2015 the total death toll of U.S. drone strikes was estimated to exceed 6,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45671092",
"title": "Civilian casualties from U.S. drone strikes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Drone strikes are part of a targeted killing campaign against jihadist militants; however, non-combatant civilians have also been killed in drone strikes. Determining precise counts of the total number killed, as well as the number of non-combatant civilians killed, is impossible; and tracking of strikes and estimates of casualties are compiled by a number of organizations, such as the \"Long War Journal\" (Pakistan and Yemen), the New America Foundation (Pakistan), and the London-based Bureau of Investigative Journalism (Yemen, Somalia, and Pakistan). The \"estimates of civilian casualties are hampered methodologically and practically\"; for example, \"estimates are largely compiled by interpreting news reports relying on anonymous officials or accounts from local media, whose credibility may vary.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21539058",
"title": "Drone strikes in Pakistan",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Civilian casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A January 2011 report by \"Bloomberg\" stated that civilian casualties in the strikes had apparently decreased. According to the report, the U.S. government believed that 1,300 militants and only 30 civilians had been killed in drone strikes since mid-2008, with no civilians killed since August 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29720951",
"title": "Civilian casualty ratio",
"section": "Section::::US drone strikes in Pakistan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "The civilian casualty ratio for U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan is notoriously difficult to quantify. The U.S. itself puts the number of civilians killed from drone strikes in the last two years at no more than 20 to 30, a total that is far too low according to a spokesman for the NGO CIVIC. At the other extreme, Daniel L. Byman of the Brookings Institution suggests that drone strikes may kill \"10 or so civilians\" for every militant killed, which would represent a civilian to combatant casualty ratio of 10:1. Byman argues that civilian killings constitute a humanitarian tragedy and create dangerous political problems, including damage to the legitimacy of the Pakistani government and alienation of the Pakistani populace from America. An ongoing study by the New America Foundation finds non-militant casualty rates started high but have declined steeply over time, from about 60% (3 out of 5) in 2004–2007 to less than 2% (1 out of 50) in 2012. The study puts the overall non-militant casualty rate since 2004 at 15–16%, or a 1:5 ratio, out of a total of between 1,908 and 3,225 people killed in Pakistan by drone strikes since 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45671092",
"title": "Civilian casualties from U.S. drone strikes",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "It is difficult to reconcile these figures because the drone strikes are often in areas that are inaccessible to independent observers and the data includes reports by local officials and local media, neither of whom are reliable sources. Critics also fear that by making killing seem clean and safe, so-called surgical UAV strikes will allow the United States to remain in a perpetual state of war. However, others maintain that drones \"allow for a much closer review and much more selective targeting process than do other instruments of warfare\" and are subject to Congressional oversight. Like any military technology, armed UAVs will kill people, combatants and innocents alike, thus \"the main turning point concerns the question of whether we should go to war at all.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337755",
"title": "Unmanned combat aerial vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Ethics and laws.:Civilian casualties.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
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"text": "Collateral damage of civilians still takes place with drone combat, although some (like John O. Brennan) have argued that it greatly reduces the likelihood. Although drones enable advance tactical surveillance and up-to-the-minute data, flaws can become apparent. The U.S. drone program in Pakistan has killed several dozen civilians accidentally. An example is the operation in 2010 Feb near Khod, in Urozgan Province, Afghanistan. Over ten civilians in a three-vehicle convoy travelling from Daykundi Province were accidentally killed after a drone crew misidentified the civilians as hostile threats. A force of Bell OH-58 Kiowa helicopters, who were attempting to protect ground troops fighting several kilometers away, fired AGM-114 Hellfire missiles at the vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48980006",
"title": "2016 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:July.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 427,
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"end_paragraph_id": 427,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Obama administration releases a report claiming that between 2009 and the end of 2015 the Central Intelligence Agency and the United States armed forces have carried out a combined 473 airstrikes using unmanned aerial vehicles (or \"drones\") against terrorist targets in countries where it defines the United States as not being at war – not named in the report, but including Libya, Pakistan, Somalia, and Yemen – killing between 2,372 and 2,581 \"combatants\" and inadvertently killing between 64 and 116 civilians. The report excludes deaths in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria, which are countries in which the administration deems the United States to be at war. Critics of the report claim that it underestimates civilian casualties; the Long War Journal puts the civilian death toll at 212, the New America Foundation estimates it at 219, and the Bureau of Investigative Journalism claims it is at least 325.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
b9maav
|
Why dose the Ussr anthem mention Russia
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's the lyrics for the Anthem of the SSSR that were used from from 44-56 - the first stanza is the relevant one:\n\n > Союз нерушимый республик свободных\nСплотила навеки Великая Русь.\nДа здравствует созданный волей народов\nЕдиный, могучий Советский Союз!\n\nRoughly this translates as follows (correct me if I'm wrong):\n\n > The undestroyed union, republic of the free,\n > united forever, the great Rus.\n > May we all greet the creation of the will of the people, \n > the united, the powerful, the soviet union!\n\nThe trick here is that Rus does not necessarily refer to Russia alone, but can also refer to the whole empire, or to the descendants of the Kievan Rus.\n\nThere are a few *possible* reasons why this is worded this way, and the only two that I know of go back to two events: first, the events and thoughts surrounding the initial formation of the Soviet Union, and the events going on at the time the anthem was composed and adopted.\n\nRegarding the beginning of the union, there was debate at the time of the creation of the soviet union regarding whether it was to be a worldwide revolution, or if it was to begin in one spot and the spread. The outcome was that the Communist movement considered the success of the USSR and its beginnings in Russia/Ukraine to be significant, leading to the possible inclusion of Rus in the anthem. \n\nThe second reason is that the anthem was adopted in 1943, towards the high point of the great patriotic war. This was a time during which the Soviet state adopted a lot of openly nationalistic policies and trappings in order to motivate citizens to whatever useful common identity might work to get them to fight for the fatherland, the idea of communism, or anything. This was a time of serious rapprochement with the Orthodox church, and we see lots of famous posters of \"Mother Russia\" (and massive statues built after the war), and keep in mind that in the 20s, mother Russia posters had been generally propoganda for the White Russians (meaning anti-communists, not Belorus).\n\nThe end result of this is that there were some \"communist\" reasons to lift up Russia as the mother of communism worldwide (at least of successful communism) and around the time the anthem was written, the traditional communist suppression of nationalism was dying away in the face of a need to motivate citizens to fight and contribute to the war effort.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "284384",
"title": "National anthem of Russia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The \"State Anthem of the Russian Federation\" () is the name of the official national anthem of Russia. It uses the same melody as the \"State Anthem of the Soviet Union\", composed by Alexander Alexandrov, and new lyrics by Sergey Mikhalkov, who had collaborated with Gabriel El-Registan on the original anthem. From 1944, that earliest version replaced \"The Internationale\", as a new, more Soviet-centric, and Russia-centric Soviet anthem. The same melody, but without lyrics mentioning dead Stalin by name, was used after 1956. A second version of the lyrics was written by Mikhalkov in 1970 and adopted in 1977, placing less emphasis on World War II and more on the victory of communism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "284384",
"title": "National anthem of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Modern adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "The liberal political party Yabloko stated that the re-adoption of the Soviet anthem \"deepened the schism in Russian society\". The Soviet anthem was supported by the Communist Party and by Putin himself. The other national symbols used by Russia in 1990, the white-blue-red flag and the double-headed eagle coat of arms, were also given legal approval by Putin in December, thus ending the debate over the national symbols. After all of the symbols were adopted, Putin said on television that this move was needed to heal Russia's past and to fuse the period of the Soviet Union with Russia's history. He also stated that, while Russia's march towards democracy would not be stopped, the rejection of the Soviet era would have left the lives of their mothers and fathers bereft of meaning. It took some time for the Russian people to familiarize themselves with the anthem's lyrics; athletes were only able to hum along with the anthem during the medal ceremonies at the 2002 Winter Olympics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2012490",
"title": "Russian culture",
"section": "Section::::National symbols.:State symbols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "State symbols of Russia include the Byzantine double-headed eagle, combined with St. George of Moscow in the Russian coat of arms; these symbols date from the time of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Russian flag appeared in the late Tsardom of Russia period and became widely used during the era of the Russian Empire. The current Russian national anthem shares its music with the Soviet Anthem, though not the lyrics (many Russians of older generations don't know the new lyrics and sing the old ones). The Russian imperial motto \"God is with us\" and the Soviet motto \"Proletarians of all countries, unite!\" are now obsolete and no new motto has been officially introduced to replace them. The Hammer and sickle and the full Soviet coat of arms are still widely seen in Russian cities as a part of old architectural decorations. Soviet Red Stars are also encountered, often on military equipment and war memorials. The Soviet Red Banner is still honored, especially the Banner of Victory of 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294356",
"title": "State Anthem of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The \"State Anthem of the Soviet Union\" () was the national anthem of the Soviet Union and the regional anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1944 to 1991 and 1990 respectively, replacing \"The Internationale\". Its lyrics were written by Sergey Mikhalkov (1913–2009) in collaboration with Gabriel El-Registan (1899–1945), and its music composed by Alexander Alexandrov (1883–1946). Although the Soviet Union was dissolved in December 1991, its melody is used since 2000 in the second version Russian national anthem, which has different lyrics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25739052",
"title": "National Anthem of the Sakha Republic",
"section": "Section::::Previous anthems.:State Anthem of the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The \"State Anthem of the Soviet Union\" (; ), was the official national anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the state anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1944 to 1991, replacing \"The Internationale\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113747",
"title": "Anthem of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The anthem was presented to the government of the USSR on May 1944, three months after the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on February 3, 1944, \"On the State Anthems of the Soviet Republics.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284384",
"title": "National anthem of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Public perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The Russian national anthem is set to the melody of the Soviet anthem (used since 1944). As a result, there have been several controversies related to its use. For instance, some—including cellist Mstislav Rostropovich—have vowed not to stand during the anthem. Russian cultural figures and government officials were also troubled by Putin's restoration of the Soviet anthem, even with different lyrics. A former adviser to both Yeltsin and Mikhail Gorbachev, the last President of the Soviet Union, stated that, when \"Stalin's hymn\" was used as the national anthem of the Soviet Union, horrific crimes took place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
28hlli
|
Was the American Western Frontier as deadly as media portrays it? With gun battles, shootings, tons of diseases, etc.? If not, how did we get this impression?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disease was certainly a problem, especially for Native Americans who didn't have the same heritable immunities as people of European descent. But the violence of the American West has been dramatized quite a lot. \n\nYou're statistically more likely to be shot Chicago today than you were to get shot in a place like Abeline. \n\nNow, there were certainly incidents of violence. In the [Coffeyville raid](_URL_0_), for example, the Dalton Gang attempted to rob two Kansas banks but were cut down by armed citizens. Many people, especially ranchers and property owners, kept guns, although six-shooters were rarer than you might think. Shotguns ard rifles were more accurate and more practical for hunting and self-defense. Or the [Lincoln County War](_URL_1_), the basis for the (heavily dramatized) film *Young Guns* and one of several grazing disputes that turned violent during the period.\n\nBut all the same dime novelists and cowboy films have made the \"Wild\" West to be a good deal more violent than it really was. Shootouts make for good drama, but they were something of a rarity. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Like others have said, disease was common, as was drought, and also failed homesteading.\n\nHowever, when you think about duels, cowboys, and saloon doors, that's all a fiction. Cowboys were more like what we now think of as ranchers.\n\nThe misconceptions come from western fiction of the time. Pulp novels that romanticized the west were sold to people in the more populated east, which was escapism from the urban population crisis' of the industrial revolution. They were pretty formulaic with very common themes, which evolved into our conceptions of the west. The genre really took off at the turn of the century, when the west was becoming less of a frontier, and people were nostalgic. That's when you see the popularity of \"Wild West Shows\" skyrocket, which also strengthened these misconceptions.\n\nSource: \"History of the West Through Film,\" taken at the UofO in 2005 (I think) taught by Professor Ostler.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "551678",
"title": "Gunfighter",
"section": "Section::::Famous gunfights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "The image of a Wild West filled with countless gunfights was a myth generated primarily by dime-novel authors in the late 19th century. An estimate of 20,000 men in the American West were killed by gunshot between 1866 and 1900, and over 21,586 total casualties during the American Indian Wars from 1850 to 1890. The most notable and well-known took place in the states/territories of Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Actual gunfights in the Old West were very rare, very few and far between, but when gunfights did occur, the cause for each varied. Some were simply the result of the heat of the moment, while others were longstanding feuds, or between bandits and lawmen. Lawless violence such as range wars like the Lincoln County War and clashes with Indians were also a cause. Some of these shootouts became famous, while others faded into history with only a few accounts surviving. To prevent gunfights from happening, many cities in the American frontier, such as Dodge City and Tombstone, put up a local ordinance to prohibit firearms in the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31593261",
"title": "List of Old West gunfights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "This is a list of Old West gunfights. Gunfights have left a lasting impression on American frontier history; many were retold and embellished by dime novels and magazines like Harper's Weekly during the late 19th century. The most notable shootouts took place in Arizona, California, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Some like the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral were the outcome of long-simmering feuds and rivalries but most were the result of a confrontation between outlaws and law enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8296742",
"title": "Northern (genre)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Besides being set in Canadian Prairies, the stories often contrast the American frontier with the Canadian frontier in several ways. In films such as \"Pony Soldier\" and \"Saskatchewan\" the North-West Mounted Police display reason, compassion and a sense of fair play in their dealings with Aboriginal people (First Nations) as opposed to hotheaded American visitors (often criminals), lawmen or the American Army who seem to prefer extermination with violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419167",
"title": "Creek War",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The Red Sticks subsequently attacked other forts in the area, including Fort Sinquefield. Panic spread among settlers throughout the Southwestern frontier, and they demanded US government intervention. Federal forces were busy fighting the British and Northern Woodland tribes, led by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh in the Northwest. Affected states called up militias to deal with the threat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "136835",
"title": "Decatur, Texas",
"section": "Section::::History.:Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "North Texas was in chaos, with dissenting citizens at risk from military forces. A few weeks later, more suspected Unionist supporters were hanged without trial in several north Texas communities. Five were lynched in Decatur, under the supervision of Confederate Capt. John Hale. The Great Hanging at Gainesville is believed to have been the largest single incident of vigilante violence in U.S. history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151245",
"title": "Round Rock, Texas",
"section": "Section::::Films and television programs in and about Round Rock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "BULLET::::- The 1974 horror movie cult classic \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" was filmed at various Central Texas locations with a majority of shooting at two houses across the road from each other on an old stretch of County Road 172 later diverted in the middle 1980s on what is known as Quick Hill – now the site of the La Frontera commercial development in Round Rock. Contrary to the movie's introduction, the movie is not based on a true story. Tours of local sites are still conducted by avid film buffs. In the early 1980s, the movie's dilapidated two-story house – abandoned long before the movie's filming and across the road from the movie's main Texas Chainsaw House built in 1910 and occupied before and after filming – was torched by local area high school students leaving a charred limestone skeleton of the mostly wooden frame. In 1998, the Texas Chainsaw House was disassembled and moved to Kingsland, Texas, where it was reassembled and fully restored and operates as a restaurant at The Antlers Hotel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "75829",
"title": "Johnson County War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The events have since become a highly mythologized and symbolic story of the Wild West, and over the years variations of the storyline have come to include some of its most famous historical figures. In addition to being one of the most well-known range wars of the American frontier, its themes, especially class warfare, served as a basis for numerous popular novels, films, and television shows in the Western genre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
7z5xu1
|
is it possible to move an object in circular motion using magnets?
|
[
{
"answer": "Absolutely, this is how most electric motors work. They have a coil of wire around the magnet, and adding a current makes the magnet attract or repel other magnets on a part that spins freely. (unless i misunderstood your question!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not really clear what you're asking. Like a perpetual motion machine with permanent magnets? Obviously that's a no. Or like building your own DC electric motor?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Need more info on what you're trying to do and what your current setup is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For example....an electric motor?\n\nIn your device you probably need to find a way to create an Alternating Current of 1-10 cycle/second (AKA Hz.) Common household current is 60 Hz. This is probably too fast to make your device operate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You cannot create continuous motion using permanent magnets. They do not *generate* any energy, merely store it, like springs. You can make something vibrate for a while, until that energy gets dissipated and it comes to equilibrium, exactly like the spring pendulum in a watch winding down.\n\nYou can generate motion with electromagnets, but that's because you have an outside source of energy (chemical reactions in a battery, mechanical motion of a generator, light from the sun, etc.) which is powering your motor.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To move something with a magnet you have to move the magnet, so you're not gaining anything, you're just converting one movement into another. A motor works because there are electromagnets in it that turn on and off or otherwise change their magnetism, not just a bunch of regular magnets with constant strength.\n\nYou could vibrate a magnet with just the right timing to get your PC fan with glued on magnets to spin, but again you're just getting a spinning movement from a vibrating movement. You'd have to force a continuous vibration with some external source of energy to keep it going.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seems to me he's talking the classic Perpetuum mobile...sigh...\n\nBut OP, no. And to understand why, you would not even need magnets. Say, you only have weights attached on the blades, not magnets. You could think now that gravity \"pulls down\" the weights, so from a certain logic, the fan should be spinning from gravity alone.\n\nOf course we know, it doesn't work. And the perpetuum mobile with the magnets, it's basically the same thing.\n\nHere is why all these ideas of perpetuum mobiles do not work: If it would really function, that is, the fan would be spinning (with or without a generator attached to it), it means it would create energy.\n\nBut energy must always come from somewhere, it can only be converted, it cannot be created. This is a fundamental law of physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a little globe that floats suspended in midair on my desk and spins around. It uses magnets for this.\n\nBut here's the kicker- it needs to be plugged in, as the field is constantly being adjusted. Unplug it and it just falls down.\n\nYou would need something similar, a way to constantly adjust the magnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the object is a charged particle, supercolliders use magnets and electromagnetic fields to move them at nearly the speed of light in a circle. Turning on and off a circular array of electromagnets in a circular pattern could move a magnetic object in a circle",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, this is called Electro-Motive Force (Emf), using a magnet passing through a coil in which runs an electric current induces an opposite force that produce motion. Now you just have to adapt for which you want to produce and which you have in the first place. \n(Tell me if something’s wrong, my electricity and magnetism course from Uni is going back a bit)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Not continuously without a changing input.\n\nAfter reading your comment about the PC fan, every time a blade travels around, it will be attracted to the magnet pulling it forward and then backward as it passes. You'll end up pushing it just as fast as you pull it. It's like trying to speed up a merry-go-round at the park by pushing it but not letting go and pulling as it goes by.\n\n\nLet me pose a different idea to you though:\n\n**What if your external magnet(s) moved as the fan blade magnets passed by?** That way you can get the push without the pull, vice versa, or even both a pull then a push?\n\nThis is like pulling the merry-go-round when the bar is behind you and *pushing* when it's ahead of you. Any kid at a playground knows that's one way to get a merry-go-round spinning.\n\n*Ah-ha!* Now we're getting somewhere right? That would surely cause the rotor to spin faster and maintain it's motion. But you'll notice that it requires a changing input. You need to flip that magnet over, and that requires you put some energy into the system, which makes sense right? We can't just break the laws of thermodynamics because of *magnets*.\n\nSo how are we going to flip that magnet back and forth? If you're using an actual magnet, you need to physically move it. That means an external moving part on your motor, and if you keep going down that path it gets really complicated really fast. Next thing you know it'll be magnets all the way down. So what else can we try?\n\nWell instead of an actual magnet on the outside, what if we just used a magnetic field? Magnetic fields can be generated and manipulated using electric currents. [Here's a cool diagram](_URL_0_) of what a magnetic field created by a wire coil will create. Very similar to the magnet right?\n\nWell it turns out we're now in the process of designing an electric motor. First, lets start with a DC motor. DC is Direct Current, which means the electricity always flows in the same direction. Well if we just swapped your external magnets for an electric coil and powered it up do you think we'd see a difference? Probably not at all. It's pretty much the same magnetic field except a coil instead of a magnet.\n\nOne thing that electricity is good at though is turning off and on very easily. Magnets dont turn off and on, but electric coils can. So what if you sat there and flipped a switch as the magnets spun by? Well that's not very practical and your timing would be all off. How can we time it better?\n\nWell what if we put the coin on the fan blade instead? Surely the best way to time a spinning part is to *use the spinning part*. This is exactly how *brushed DC motors* work. They have an electric coil on the spinning part inside that's not directly connected to the power source (e.g. a battery), and stationary magnets on the outside part (called a stator). Also on the stator are metal brushes that connect to the power source. When the inside coil spins around, the brushes contact a metal section on the rotating part and allow current to flow while they're in contact. This \"powers up\" the magnetic field in the coil. If these are in the right places, the field created will oppose the stationary magnets on the outside, and then as it spins around the brushes will lose contact and cut power to the coil before it starts pulling back.\n\nThis ends up being a merry-go-round where the kids all stand on the merry-go-round and push at the same time with one foot each.\n\nIt's a very simple type of motor that doesn't require many complicated parts. You can actually try making something that uses the same concepts yourself. Every toy you've had with a battery powered motor probably uses a brushed DC motor. They're cheap and simple to make and can run off simple DC batteries.\n\nSo how fast will it go? Brushed DC motors will pretty much go as fast as they're allowed. The higher the current going through the coil, or the higher the voltage pushing that current, the harder the motor pushes. The motor speeds up, the brushes make contact more frequently, and eventually it gets to the point where the resistance against rotating matches the force the power source can push in. In this case the resistance would be two things: 1) Friction, 2) The load on the motor i.e. the air the fan is pushing.\n\nThere are brushless DC motors as well, but those have other more complicated parts I don't want to talk about.\n\nBut lets talk about AC now, or Alternating Current. The power in your home uses AC. This is current that doesn't just flow in one direct, but switches back and forth very quickly. In North America, our AC is 120V and 60Hz, meaning it switches back and forth 60 times per second. This ended up being a really efficient way to send power because it can be transformed to different voltages and currents very easily. It's also the reason many of your electronic devices have a black box on the power cord. Those are doing up to two things: 1) Transforming it into a more appropriate voltage, and/or 2) converting it to DC current. But motors happen to really like AC current.\n\nRemember our coil diagram? Well what do you think happens when the direction of electricity reverses? Simple: it reverses the magnetic field. Remember how earlier we said that it might be handy to flip the magnet over so that it pulls *and* pushes the magnet on your fan blade? Well AC is already doing that for you. It's flipping it's power back and forth, and if you hook a coil up to AC power, it will have a magnetic field that flips back and forth.\n\nBefore I go on: **DO NOT** just start connecting things to your home power. In fact, don't do it at all. If you want to play around with AC, go to an electrical hobby forum or something and start learning there. You can pick up a hobbyist power source capable of spitting out multiple voltages, currents, frequencies, and phase numbers of DC and AC. Start there.\n\nIf you use your home power, you're putting yourself at a huge unnecessary risk. With out properly inspected wiring and approved parts, you can easily connect a low or zero-load circuit, and hopefully your home circuit breaker can trip before damage is done. At the very least, you'll still get a nasty shock and you can burn all your components or worse - the wiring in the wall causing a house fire.\n\nAnyways...\n\nUsing alternating current can work really well to get a handy pull+push in your motor. Since the AC current has a timing \"preset\" into it, it means you don't need to use the rotating part to time the motor speed. You can just use the timing of the AC. This lets us put the magnet back on the rotating part instead, and removes the need for electricity to get to the moving part. No more brushes, no more dirty electrical contacts that can fail. The power is always connected.\n\nSo how do we actually make it? Well you could put one magnet on the fan blade and a counter weight on the other side, and then put the AC coil on one side of the housing. Theoretically, it should spin at 60Hz (60 rotations per second) because the AC is able to push and pull it 60 times per second. If you go any faster or slower than that, it won't line up with the AC push and pull as the magnet swings by. If you try to go too slow, the coil will be moving back and forth very quickly when the magnet swings by. Imagine grabbing a merry go round and just pushing and pulling back and forth very quickly. It's not going to make a full circle if you keep pulling it back.\n\nIt would be almost impossible to get the fan spinning at 60Hz in the first place, but once it's there it will work as long as there's enough power to overcome the load.\n\nBut how can we make it more reliable? What if we had 4 magnets on the fan blade equally spaced out? Then the ac only needs to push *a* magnet 60 times/second, and you could have it spin at 15 RPS. That makes it much easier to get started and much more stable. Cool, now we're talking. There's still an issue with it though. The fan blade is only being pushed from one side all the time. Without a balanced force applied, over the long term you're going to have a problem with the motor being pushed to one side all the time. You'll have uneven wear on your bearing, and you might even cause your rotor to become imbalanced, which could make it shake and cause more damage.\n\nNext improvement: 4 coils evenly spaced around the motor. This way, you can balance the forces out. Now we're talking about a nice reliable motor. Still an issue though. All 4 of your pushes happen at the same time, 60 times a second. That means that between each set of pushes, you're going to slow down a bit. So it's kind of like tapping on the gas repeatedly instead of holding it at the position you want. This causes your speed to fluctuate up and down with the pushes, and could end up being another source of wear.\n\nWell we'll never get perfect, but we can get damn close. We could use 3 different AC powers at the same frequency, but offset by 1/3rd of a frequency or \"out of phase\" with each other, and triple down on our coils. This way, each magnets gets a push by 3 different coils in each quarter rotation of the fan. This is like having 12 kids around the merry go round who push 4 at a time. You get near-constant push.\n\nWhat we're talking about now is called 3-phase power. It's AC that comes in three separate phases, each separated by 1/3rd of a full phase period. It's incredibly useful in industrial applications, and it's used in a few standard voltages. This lets motor manufacturers use standard designs. \n\nYour home has dual or split-phase power, which is similar to 3 phase but is only 2 phases and a neutral.\n\nSo how can we control speed? There are tools we can use called Variable Frequency Drives. They're able to change the frequency that the AC operates at. By increasing the frequency, you increase the motor speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yea, they're called motors. The PC fan you're talking about is a motor. As electricity flows through a wire it creates a magnetic field. Coil this wire up and you make the field stronger. Now put that coil into another magnetic field you have a motor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31817651",
"title": "Magnetic field-assisted finishing",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Relative motion between the magnetic/abrasive particle mixture and the workpiece is essential for material removal. There are several options for achieving the necessary motion. A common setup is the rotation of the magnetic pole tip. This is done by either rotating the entire permanent magnet setup or by rotating only the steel pole. Another method which is commonly utilized in internal finishing is the rotation of the workpiece, this is unfortunately limited to axial symmetric workpieces. In addition to rotational motion there is oscillatory and vibrational configurations that are applicable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1155117",
"title": "Darboux vector",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Note that this rotation is kinematic, rather than physical, because usually when a rigid object moves freely in space its rotation is independent of its translation. The exception would be if the object's rotation is physically constrained to align itself with the object's translation, as is the case with the cart of a roller coaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54077",
"title": "Perpetual motion",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The seemingly mysterious ability of magnets to influence motion at a distance without any apparent energy source has long appealed to inventors. One of the earliest examples of a magnetic motor was proposed by Wilkins and has been widely copied since: it consists of a ramp with a magnet at the top, which pulled a metal ball up the ramp. Near the magnet was a small hole that was supposed to allow the ball to drop under the ramp and return to the bottom, where a flap allowed it to return to the top again. The device simply could not work. Faced with this problem, more modern versions typically use a series of ramps and magnets, positioned so the ball is to be handed off from one magnet to another as it moves. The problem remains the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163097",
"title": "Bubble memory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Conventional magnetic materials, like the magnetic tape used in twistor, allowed the magnetic signal to be placed at any location and to move in any direction. Paul Charles Michaelis working with permalloy magnetic thin films discovered that it was possible to move magnetic signals in orthogonal directions within the film. This seminal work led to a patent application. The memory device and method of propagation were described in a paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference on Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Boston, Massachusetts, 15 September 1967. The device used anisotropic thin magnetic films that required different magnetic pulse combinations for orthogonal propagation directions. The propagation velocity was also dependent on the hard and easy magnetic axes. This difference suggested that an isotropic magnetic medium would be desirable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20783",
"title": "Magic lantern",
"section": "Section::::Moving images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Some suggestion of movement could be achieved by alternating between pictures of different phases of a motion, but most magic lantern \"animations\" used two glass slides projected together - one with the stationary part of the picture and the other with the part that could be set in motion by hand or by a simple mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39228560",
"title": "Moving magnet actuator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "A moving magnet actuator is a type of electromagnetic linear actuator. It typically consists of an arrangement of a permanent magnet and coil, arranged so that currents in the coil generate a pair of equal and opposite forces between the coil and magnet. The main difference between this and a voice coil actuator is that in a moving magnet actuator, the magnet is intended to move and the coil to stay still, as opposed to vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31439",
"title": "Tokamak",
"section": "Section::::History.:Magnetic confinement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the lines of force. As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35a7ej
|
how do doctors perform 20+ hour surgeries? don't they get mentally and physically exhausted?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, if it's going to take that long they work in shifts. Even during a more mundane procedure, the surgeon will often have a resident come in to do certain parts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most surgeries (when things go to plan) take around 30 min-2 hours. Some major surgeries e.g. a liver transplant might take ~6-8 hours. \n\n20+ hour surgeries would be exceptional e.g. conjoined twin separations where you actually need multiple different teams e.g. plastic surgeons, neurosurgeons etc.\n\nUsually surgery is a very controlled situation so it would be theoretically possible to take a break. It might be reasonable (e.g. 20-30 min in a 6+ hour surgery) but you don't want to leave the patient open/unconscious too long. \n\nIn most specialty surgeries you would have someone else who can take over for some of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, they do. Although, if you've ever met or dealt with surgeons, they are a separate breed. Due to training and the personality traits that most of them have, they tend to thrive on long hours. Growing up, my friends dad was a Cardiac surgeon, and had a few marathon sessions in his career. He always said that during the surgery, you don't notice it as much, but crash HARD after.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok so ex-surgery resident here. The vast majority of our cases don't go that long. Neurosurgery cases on the other hand can go that long, but surgeons take breaks and if they need to nap. However I've been in a few cases that have gone 8-10 hours, but these cases go this long because either something has really gone awry or the person has terrible anatomy. Also surgery residency trains you to power through anything despite you being dehydrated, hungry, and tired. Honestly though time flies when your having fun and you don't really notice it because of the immediate pressing issues at hand. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People take turns or switch out for various steps. Sometimes they partner up, eg general surgery does the main part and plastics can close and do grafts etc. Honestly, sometimes it's just really interesting and the adrenaline can be enough to keep you comfortably engaged. I can easily stand holding and retracting for a patient more than double my size for eight hours, but have me do paperwork? I'd probably be drooling in forty five minutes. That stamina will probably change after years of grueling work, but for now it's awesome and exciting. Also you kinda know how to prepare, I probably get pretty dehydrated, sorry kidneys, and inhale tons of food in the bathroom beforehand lol. I used to hide a donut in my coat or scrubs and secretly eat in preop and hide a drink in my white coat and cookies for my friends. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3420264",
"title": "Indiana pouch",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Recovery and function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 2197,
"text": "The surgery itself along with recovery time depends on the patient. Robotic surgery can take approximately 6-12 hours. A patient's time in the hospital can take 7–10 days if no complications present themselves. Depending on the type of surgery the abdominal incision for this surgery may be up to eight inches in length and is typically closed with staples on the outside and several layers of dissolvable stitches on the inside. After surgery, patients will have three drainage tubes place while tissues heal: one through the newly created stoma, one through another temporary opening in the abdominal wall into the pouch, and an SP tube (to drain non-specific post-surgical abdominal fluid). In the hospital, the SP tube and external staples will be removed, after several days. The remaining two tubes will each be connected to collection bags worn on each leg and the patient is usually sent home like this. After sufficient healing, and another doctor's visit, the tube will be removed from the stoma. The patient will now begin to catheterize the pouch every two hours. Since one other tube will still be in place, patients can still sleep through the night, since a larger collection bag is attached to that tube at night time. After approximately one month, patients will return to the hospital for a special x-ray. Dye will be instilled into the pouch to verify that there is no leakage of urine. If there is no leakage, this last tube will be removed. Emptying time now may be increased to 3 hours, however, now the patient will need to wake up during the night (every 3 hours) to empty the pouch. Over time, emptying time can possibly be increased up to 4–6 hours. Although to decrease the potential for infections and deterioration of the pouch it is best to continue to cath every 3-4 hours. The pouch will continue to expand and will reach its final size at approximately six months. The pouch will then hold up to 1,200 cubic centimeters (cc). Depending on your doctor's orders, each day, the pouch may need to be irrigated with 60 cc of sterile water in an effort to remove membrane mucus, salts, and bacteria. It can take 6-12 months for your body to adjust to the Indiana pouch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3693855",
"title": "Essure",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In one 2007 prospective study, the mean time for procedure was 6.8 minutes (range = 5–18 minutes). for a trained physician to perform and can be performed in a physician's office. General anesthesia is not required. Despite this, some women have reported considerable pain during the procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2809404",
"title": "Hirsuties coronae glandis",
"section": "Section::::Medical removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "One of the available treatments is performed by a dermatologist, using a CO laser to vaporise the papules. This normally takes only a few minutes to perform. It is simple and does not normally require a hospital stay; discomfort should be minimal and the expected recovery time is one to two weeks. Another procedure involves electrosurgery performed with a hyfrecator and should take less than an hour to perform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20690",
"title": "Modafinil",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Post-anesthesia sedation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "General anesthesia is required for many surgeries, but there may be lingering fatigue, sedation, and/or drowsiness after surgery has ended that lasts for hours to days. In outpatient settings wherein patients are discharged home after surgery, this sedation, fatigue and occasional dizziness is problematic. As of 2006, modafinil had been tested in one small (N=34) double-blind randomized controlled trial for this use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738541",
"title": "Pectus excavatum",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Plastic surgery.:Implants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The recovery after the surgery typically requires only mild pain relief. Post-operatively, a surgical dressing is required for several days and compression vest for a month following the procedure. A check-up appointment is carried out after a week for puncture of seroma. If the surgery has minimal complications, the patient can resume normal activities quickly, returning to work after 15 days and participating in any sporting activities after three months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53596572",
"title": "Per-oral endoscopic myotomy",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The procedure takes roughly 2 hours but can vary on physician and patient characteristics. Patients usually spend 1–3 days in the hospital before going home, and usually undergo a swallow study prior to resuming oral feeding. Patients may return to work and full activity immediately upon discharge from the hospital. Long-term patient satisfaction is similar following POEM compared to standard laparoscopic Heller myotomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70980",
"title": "Appendicitis",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Surgery.:After surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "After surgery, the patient will be transferred to a postanesthesia care unit so his or her vital signs can be closely monitored to detect anesthesia- or surgery-related complications. Pain medication may be administered if necessary. After patients are completely awake, they are moved to a hospital room to recover. Most individuals will be offered clear liquids the day after the surgery, then progress to a regular diet when the intestines start to function properly. Patients are recommended to sit up on the edge of the bed and walk short distances several times a day. Moving is mandatory and pain medication may be given if necessary. Full recovery from appendectomies takes about four to six weeks but can be prolonged to up to eight weeks if the appendix had ruptured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jb8ri
|
in special relativity, how is it determined which reference point will have time slowed down?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Person B gets in a super space ship that launches up and then accelerates to 0.75 times the speed of light and travels for 1 year, then turns around, comes back, and lands on Earth.\nIs time slower for one than the other?\n\nActually, once the traveler lands, he and the person that stayed on earth will experience time at exactly the same rate. However, the traveler will have aged less than the earthling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe what your referring to is called the [\"twin paradox\"](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think you are absolutly correct but I find it hard to follow.\n\nThis is refered to as the [twins paradox](_URL_0_).\n\nA lot of people think that the paradox is one twin leaves earth travels very fast (an apriciable fraction of the speed of light) then come back to earth to find that the other twin has aged more than the other.\n\nBut you are astute in realising that by symetry if A is traveling relative to B then B is equally travelling reative to A. So what breaks the symetry to decide who has aged more than the other: acceleration.\n\nThe one who accelerates is the one who ages less.\n\nWhat if there is no one accelerating? And both people are traveling relative to each other.\n\nthen there is no problem since they never meet together in the end both parties can be happy that they are \"right\" in thinking that the other person is ageing more slowly and than them.\n\nDoes this answer your question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in an inertial frame of reference, a clock that is moving relative to him will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest in his frame of reference. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time dilation. The faster the relative velocity, the greater the time dilation between one another, with the rate of time reaching zero as one approaches the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s). This causes massless particles that travel at the speed of light to be unaffected by the passage of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Hyperbolic motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In special relativity, time dilation is most simply described in circumstances where relative velocity is unchanging. Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow one to calculate proper time and movement in space for the simple case of a spaceship which is applied with a force per unit mass, relative to some reference object in uniform (i.e. constant velocity) motion, equal to \"g\" throughout the period of measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Reciprocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for a moving object, said object would observe the external world's time to be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other, each will measure the other's clock slowing down, in concordance with them being moving relative to the observer's frame of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123450",
"title": "Philosophy of physics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of space and time.:Time travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity (and, by extension, the general theory) predicts time dilation that could be interpreted as time travel. The theory states that, relative to a stationary observer, time appears to pass more slowly for faster-moving bodies: for example, a moving clock will appear to run slow; as a clock approaches the speed of light its hands will appear to nearly stop moving. The effects of this sort of time dilation are discussed further in the popular \"twin paradox\". These results are experimentally observable and affect the operation of GPS satellites and other high-tech systems used in daily life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230487",
"title": "Poincaré group",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "A Minkowski spacetime isometry has the property that the interval between events is left invariant. For example, if everything were postponed by two hours, including the two events and the path you took to go from one to the other, then the time interval between the events recorded by a stop-watch you carried with you would be the same. Or if everything were shifted five kilometres to the west, or turned 60 degrees to the right, you would also see no change in the interval. It turns out that the proper length of an object is also unaffected by such a shift. A time or space reversal (a reflection) is also an isometry of this group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531373",
"title": "Gravity Probe A",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "There is a similar idea of time dilation occurrence in Einstein's theory of special relativity (which deals with neither gravity nor the idea of curved spacetime). Such time dilation appears in the Rindler coordinates, attached to a uniformly accelerating particle in a flat spacetime. Such a particle would observe time passing faster on the side it is accelerating towards and more slowly on the opposite side. From this apparent variance in time, Einstein inferred that change in velocity affects the relativity of simultaneity for the particle. Einstein's equivalence principle generalizes this analogy, stating that an accelerating reference frame is locally indistinguishable from an inertial reference frame with a gravity force acting upon it. In this way, the Gravity Probe A was a test of the equivalence principle, matching the observations in the inertial reference frame (of special relativity) of the Earth's surface affected by gravity, with the predictions of special relativity for the same frame treated as being accelerating upwards with respect to free fall reference, which can thought of being inertial and gravity-less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20069953",
"title": "Special relativity (alternative formulations)",
"section": "Section::::Taiji relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "The transformations are derived using just the principle of relativity and have a maximal speed of 1, which is quite unlike \"single postulate\" derivations of the Lorentz transformations in which you end up with a parameter that may be zero. So this is not the same as other \"single postulate\" derivations. However the relationship of taiji time \"w\" to standard time \"t\" must still be found, otherwise it would not be clear how an observer would measure taiji time. The taiji transformations are then combined with Maxwell's equations to show that the speed of light is independent of the observer and has the value 1 in taiji speed (i.e. it has the maximal speed). This can be thought of as saying: a time of 1 metre is the time it takes for light to travel 1 metre. Since we can measure the speed of light by experiment in m/s to get the value c, we can use this as a conversion factor. i.e. we have now found an operational definition of taiji time: w=ct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cfgphn
|
what is asmr exactly and how is it supposedly pleasant to the ears?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is the best answer I've ever found.\n_URL_0_\n\nPlus it comes from a great comic to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ASMR is an actual physical sensation, it’s not just a metaphor. It’s hard to explain if you’ve never felt it, kinda like trying to explain colour to a blind person, but it’s tingly and sorta runs down your back. If you’ve ever gotten shivers from music (which is called frisson by the way, and some people don’t get these either), it kinda feels like that but a bit warmer and originating from your head. It’s usually triggered by sound, but sight and touch can do it too, at least it can for me.\n\nThere is little scientific knowledge of what ASMR actually is and what it is caused by, but it is accepted to be a real phenomenon in the sense that “enough people have claimed to have experienced it, therefore it exists, whatever the hell it is.”\n\nASMR, the videos, arose to try to create ASMR, the feeling, manually. Obviously, if you don’t experience ASMR, the videos are gonna seem a little pointless, maybe even weird. That being said, some people find ASMR videos relaxing, even if they don’t get ASMR tingles, which is why you sometimes see ASMR being used as a blanket term for anything relaxing.\n\ntl;dr: For some people, certain sounds and maybe other senses create pleasant tingles called ASMR. ASMR videos try to create ASMR tingles and sometimes also try to be relaxing, your mileage may vary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Sensation and triggers.:Triggers.:Personal attention role play triggers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "In addition to the effectiveness of specific auditory stimuli, many subjects report that ASMR is triggered by the receipt of tender personal attention, often comprising combined physical touch and vocal expression, such as when having their hair cut, nails painted, ears cleaned, or back massaged, whilst the service provider speaks quietly to the recipient. Furthermore, many of those who have experienced ASMR during these and other comparable encounters with a service provider report that watching an \"ASMRtist\" simulate the provision of such personal attention, acting directly to the camera as if the viewer were the recipient of a simulated service, is sufficient to trigger it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Sensation and triggers.:Triggers.:Auditory triggers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Many of those who experience ASMR report that non-vocal ambient noises performed through human action are also effective triggers of ASMR. Examples of such noises include fingers scratching or tapping a surface, brushing hair, hands rubbing together or manipulating fabric, the crushing of eggshells, the crinkling and crumpling of a flexible material such as paper, or writing. Many YouTube videos that are intended to trigger ASMR responses feature a single person performing these actions and the sounds that result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons and associations with other phenomena.:Comparison with misophonia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Some people have sought to relate ASMR to misophonia, which literally means the 'hatred of sound', but manifests typically as 'automatic negative emotional reactions to particular sounds – the opposite of what can be observed in reactions to specific audio stimuli in ASMR'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Sensation and triggers.:Triggers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "ASMR is usually precipitated by stimuli referred to as 'triggers'. ASMR triggers, which are most commonly auditory and visual, may be encountered through the interpersonal interactions of daily life. Additionally, ASMR is often triggered by exposure to specific audio and video. Such media may be specially made with the specific purpose of triggering ASMR or originally created for other purposes and later discovered to be effective as a trigger of the experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54616558",
"title": "Russ Ptacek",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "What is ASMR? The current foundation definition of Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response includes soothing, satisfying and comforting emotional and/or physical responses to audio and/or visual triggers. Anecdotal and scientific studies indicate most people are ASMR responsive with many users reporting sleep, physical and emotional relief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1706699",
"title": "Endaural phenomena",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Endaural phenomena are sounds that are heard without any external acoustic stimulation. Endaural means \"in the ear\". Phenomena include transient ringing in the ears (that sound like sine tones), white noise-like sounds, and subjective tinnitus. Endaural phenomena need to be distinguished from otoacoustic emissions, in which a person's ear emits sounds. The emitter typically cannot hear the sounds made by his or her ear. Endaural phenomena also need to be distinguished from auditory hallucinations, which are sometimes associated with psychosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons and associations with other phenomena.:Comparison with frisson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Few legitimate studies have been done on ASMR, and even fewer have discussed the link between it and frisson specifically. At this time, much of the data on ASMR comes from primarily anecdotal sources. Although ASMR and frisson are \"interrelated in that they appear to arise through similar physiological mechanisms\", individuals who have experienced both describe them as qualitatively different, with different kinds of triggers. A 2018 fMRI study showed that the major brain regions already known to be activated in frisson are also activated in ASMR, and suggests that \"the similar pattern of activation of both ASMR and frisson could explain their subjective similarities, such as their short duration and tingling sensation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6b0by2
|
How quickly did prejudice towards Japanese-Americans by the general American population end after WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a great book about this topic called \"America's Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japense Enemy\" by Naoko Shibusawa. It goes into great detail about the United States government entering into the \"reverse course\" following WWII. What this basically means is that during and directly after the war, the general consensus of the government and populace of the United States was that Japan was going to pay dearly for its aggressive war. However, because of the looming threat of communism in the far east, and the capitalist framework that Japan had in place (infrastructure, skilled and disciplined workforce, industry, etc.) these plans were scrapped in favor of a program that would promote Japanese economic strength and stability. The United States went through great lengths to basically 'retrain' its populace from seeing the Japanese as a hated natural enemy to seeing them as effeminate and weak and in need of pity. Great book if you get a chance to check it out!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > How quickly did prejudice towards Japanese-Americans by the general American population end after WW2?\n\nAny academic who studies race and racism in the US will tell you that prejudice and discrimination has not ended against Japanese people in the US. It may not be as widespread as it was decades earlier, but many US citizens hold stereotypes about the Japanese. Some of this discrimination is related to WW2. Prejudice and stereotypes are passed down in families and across generations. Some discrimination is related to portrayal of Asians and Japanese in the US media. \n\nJapanese in the US today often face discrimination, just as other non-white people do. The degree of this varies across US states, cities and rural locations. There is less discrimination in places that are more diverse, such as parts of California. Strong anti-Japanese feelings are also more common in older people in the US. It is also true that anti-Japanese discrimination has decreased in the last two decades. \n\nMost experts would not say discrimination against Japanese in the US has ended, but may agree that attitudes towards Japanese people have changed over time (and become less negative). Note that the perspectives on historical and contemporary racism in the US vary greatly between these three groups: academic experts on race relations; whites; and non-whites that experience discrimination (including Japanese Americans and immigrants). \n\nFrom [Racial Microaggressions and the Asian American, 2007, Columbia University](_URL_1_) \n\nThe next three quotes are from this source: \n\n > Despite the belief that Asian Americans have somehow “made\nit” in our society and are “immune” to racism, widespread prejudice\nand discrimination continue to take a toll on their standard of\nliving, self-esteem, and psychological well being (Wong & Halgin,\n2006). Indeed, the study of Asians in America is the study of\nwidespread prejudice and discrimination leveled at this group. \n\nEvidence of prejudice and discrimination today: \n\n > most of the racial microagressions that occurred came\nfrom peers, neighbors, friends or authority figures. It disturbed\nthem that personal or respected acquaintances could make such\ninsensitive or hurtful remarks. What bothered them most, however,\nwas their occasional tendency to “make excuses” for friends by\nrationalizing away their biases and by denying their own racial\nreality. \n \nMany whites and non-whites in the US are in denial and dismiss the idea that discrimination exists and is widespread in the US. Many non-whites have a different view based on their personal experiences of discrimination. \n\n\n > it is important for social scientists and the general public to possess a realistic picture of Asian Americans and to understand the many overt and covert manifestations of racism directed at them. \n\nGiven all of this, including the existence of frequent, subtle discrimination today against Japanese Americans, it is still true that the view of Japanese by the general public is very different today than in the decades after WW2. Discrimination and prejudice in the US changes and evolves over time. \n\nBased on your example of Norman Mineta, your question may really be: \nWhen did the strongest forms of overt racism and prejudice against Japanese and Japanese Americans end in the US? You note this Japanese American Congressman as evidence that this prejudice has ended. \n\nAdditional Source: \n \n[*Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience*](_URL_0_), Angelo N Ancheta, Rutgers University Press, 2006. \n > racial discrimination, both subtle and overt, persists in many sectors of American life, and Asian Americans still suffer from treatment both as \"perpetual foreigners\" and as a \"model minority\" group. \n\nFor anyone who wants to learn more about race relations in the US (from an academic perspective) I highly recommend taking a college course on racism, or using a syllabus from such a course as a guide to reading materials that serve as an introduction to the subject. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446110",
"title": "442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::After the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The record of the Japanese Americans serving in the 442nd and in the Military Intelligence Service (U.S. Pacific Theater forces in World War II) helped change the minds of anti-Japanese American critics in the U.S. and resulted in easing of restrictions and the eventual release of the 120,000-strong community well before the end of World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4820743",
"title": "Asian Pacific American Heritage Month",
"section": "Section::::History.:Introduction to Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "By the mid-1900s, generations of Asian Americans had built enduring communities throughout the United States. However, Japan’s attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in 1941 revived existing hostility towards Japanese Americans. In response to public outcry against the attack and widespread fear of Japanese American disloyalty, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which forcibly relocated over 120,000 Japanese Americans from their homes on the West Coast to one of ten Relocation Centers. The Minidoka National Historic Site is one of the places that interprets this largest forced relocation of American citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43850540",
"title": "Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee",
"section": "Section::::Background and formation of the FPC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "After Japan's December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor pulled the United States into World War II, Japanese Americans quickly became conflated with the enemy, in large part due to existing prejudices and competing business interests. Especially on the West Coast, where the mainland Japanese American population and the nativist groups who lobbied for their incarceration were concentrated, political leaders and well-connected citizens pushed for a solution to the \"Japanese problem.\" On February 19, 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing military commanders to designate areas from which \"any or all persons may be excluded.\" Over the next few months some 112,000 to 120,000 West Coast Japanese were forcibly removed to inland concentration camps. Two-thirds of them were American citizens born in the United States. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507096",
"title": "History of Los Angeles",
"section": "Section::::World War II: 1941–1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The Japanese-American community in L.A. was greatly impacted since Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor pulled the U.S. into World War II, and America feared that the fifth column was widespread among the community. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing military commanders to exclude \"any or all persons\" from certain areas in the name of national defense. The Western Defense Command began ordering Japanese Americans living on the West Coast to present themselves for \"evacuation\" from the newly created military zones. This included many Los Angeles families, of which 80,000 were relocated to the Japanese-American internment camps throughout the duration of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11374117",
"title": "Japanese-American life after World War II",
"section": "Section::::Congress’ investigation of WWII Japanese-American imprisonment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The effort to rebuild for the Japanese Americans in America after the war was difficult because memories of imprisonment still surfaced. Many wanted justification for the harsh conditions they experienced during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14181288",
"title": "Propaganda for Japanese-American internment",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "After the attack by the Japanese Empire on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, American attitudes towards people of Japanese ancestry indicated a strong sense of racism. This sentiment became further intensified by the media of the time, which played upon issues of racism on the West Coast, the social fear of the Japanese people, and citizen-influenced farming conflicts with the Japanese people. This, along with the attitude of the leaders of the Western Defense Command and the lack of perseverance by the Justice Department to protect the civil rights of Japanese Americans led to the successful relocation of both native and foreign born Japanese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9778",
"title": "Executive Order 9066",
"section": "Section::::Exclusion under the order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "Japanese Americans and other Asians in the U.S. had suffered for decades from prejudice and racially-motivated fear. Laws preventing Asian Americans from owning land, voting, testifying against whites in court, and other racially discriminatory laws existed long before World War II. Additionally, the FBI, Office of Naval Intelligence and Military Intelligence Division had been conducting surveillance on Japanese American communities in Hawaii and the continental U.S. from the early 1930s. In early 1941, President Roosevelt secretly commissioned a study to assess the possibility that Japanese Americans would pose a threat to U.S. security. The report, submitted exactly one month before Pearl Harbor was bombed, found that, \"There will be no armed uprising of Japanese\" in the United States. \"For the most part,\" the Munson Report said, \"the local Japanese are loyal to the United States or, at worst, hope that by remaining quiet they can avoid concentration camps or irresponsible mobs.\" A second investigation started in 1940, written by Naval Intelligence officer Kenneth Ringle and submitted in January 1942, likewise found no evidence of fifth column activity and urged against mass incarceration. Both were ignored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31r47t
|
When and why did the US stop allowing (literal) boatloads of immigrants to just show up at a port and begin living in the US?
|
[
{
"answer": "It wasn't just one single law but rather a series of laws. The first was the Page Act of 1875 that primarily targeted Asians, particularly Chinese people, that were immigrating to the western United States to work menial jobs like railroads. Just like we see in the debates today about Hispanic people coming to the United States to work mostly low-wage jobs, there were concerns about taking jobs away from white Americans, as well as diseases, immorality, and integration of the Chinese into American culture.\n\nAnother major law was the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely limited the number of people that could come from any one country to 2% of the number of people from that country that had already immigrated. This was similar to the Page Act in that it was designed to preserve a certain ethnic makeup of the country. But these laws continue to change over time and even now we see debates about how to \"fix\" them. The shift from almost entirely open borders to what we have now was very slow and incremental.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the early laws was the[ Page Act of 1875](_URL_0_) (PDF). It imposed restrictions on Asian immigration to the US,, and further stated that:\n\n > [I]t shall be unlawful for aliens of the following classes to immigrate into the United States, namely, persons who are undergoing a sentence for conviction in their own country of felonious crimes other than political or growing out of or the result of such political offenses, or whose sentence has been remitted on condition of their emigration, and women \"imported for the purposes of prostitution.\" **Every vessel arriving in the United States may be inspected under the direction of the collector at the port at which it arrives, if he shall have reason to believe that any such obnoxious persons are on board**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83410",
"title": "RMS Olympic",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Post-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Changes in immigration laws in the United States in the 1920s greatly restricted the number of immigrants allowed to enter. The law limited the number of immigrants to about 160,000 per year in 1924. This led to a major reduction in the immigrant trade for the shipping lines, forcing them to cater to the tourist trade to survive. At the turn of 1927–28, \"Olympic\" was converted to carry tourist third cabin passengers as well as first, second and third class. Tourist third cabin was an attempt to attract travellers who desired comfort without the accompanying high ticket price. New public rooms were constructed for this class, although tourist third cabin and second class would merge to become 'tourist' by late 1931.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53027837",
"title": "Carriage of Passengers Act of 1855",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.:Steerage Act of 1819.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "On March 2, 1819, the United States government passed the first legislation regulating the conditions of sea transportation for migrants. The legislation is known as the Steerage Act of 1819 and also as the Manifest of Immigrants Act, the latter name because one of its provisions was a requirement for ships to submit a manifest of immigrants on board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624953",
"title": "Cabotage",
"section": "Section::::In shipping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In the United States, the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (Jones Act) requires that all goods transported by water between U.S. ports be carried on U.S.-flag ships, constructed in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and crewed by U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents. The Passenger Vessel Services Act of 1886 states that no foreign vessels shall transport passengers between ports or places in the United States, either directly or by way of a foreign port.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16411325",
"title": "Main Street Historic District (Danbury, Connecticut)",
"section": "Section::::History.:1996–present: Revitalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "As they had in the mid-19th century, immigrants helped revitalize downtown in the early 21st century. This time they were from Latin America, primarily Ecuador and Brazil, working as day labor at construction sites all over Fairfield County. Not all of them were in the U.S. legally, and this created tensions between their community and Mayor Mark Boughton, who unsuccessfully asked Governor Jodi Rell to have city police deputized as Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) agents so they could legally enforce federal immigration laws. The immigrant community was in turn angered by police efforts to close down their volleyball games and sting operations that turned some of them over to the BCIS. In 2005 they staged a mile-long march down Main Street in protest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46576245",
"title": "Howard Andrew Knox",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Civilian career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1935,
"text": "At the time there was a movement to restrict immigration into the US, as it was widely believed that “morons” or feebleminded individuals were the cause of many societal problems and that border authorities were weakening the nation by allowing far too many of these individuals to enter the country. Ellis Island on New York Harbor was the hub for arrival when the immigration station there was rebuilt in 1900. At first, emigrants were lined up and inspected primarily for medical ailments, initially based on the individual's overall appearance. More scrutizing inspections were conducted if an individual was flagged for some ailment. For the most part, until this time, any concern regarding mental disorders was limited to psychiatric illnesses. However, as Francis Galton’s ideas regarding eugenics. became more popular in the early 1900s, concerns for that feebleminded individuals were weakening society grew, and mental deficiency among emigrants also became a concern. Another important contributing factor was the development of intelligence tests during this time. Both Alfred Binet and his student Theodore Simon were leaders in this development. Henry Goddard, a prominent eugenicist of the time who had been using Binet and Simon’s scale to measure intelligence in adults, suggested that theses could be used to identify feebleminded or mentally deficient individuals at Ellis Island who posed a threat to the integrity of society. By 1910, the concerns for mentally defective people entering the United States had grown to such an extent that the officials at Ellis Island invited Henry Goddard to teach the physicians about intelligence testing. However, after spending an entire day there, Goddard had no recommendations for the physicians, as he was impressed by both the size of the problem as well as the physicians ability to detect defect given the number of individuals coming through the immigration station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4319287",
"title": "Immigration to Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Also during this period, Canada became a port of entry for many Europeans seeking to gain entry into the U.S. Canadian transportation companies advertised Canadian ports as a hassle-free way to enter the U.S. especially as the U.S. began barring entry to certain ethnicities. The U.S. and Canada mitigated this situation in 1894 with the Canadian Agreement which allowed for U.S. immigration officials to inspect ships landing at Canadian ports for immigrants excluded from the U.S. If found, the transporting companies were responsible for shipping the persons back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33876845",
"title": "Canadian Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "During the 1880s and 1890s, the U.S. began tightening its immigration laws by barring certain ethnic groups from entering, for example the Chinese. Transportation companies that brought these barred individuals to the U.S. would be responsible for their return to their country of origin. Transportation companies, however, got around this restriction by landing barred people at Canadian ports. The immigrants would then come into the United States through the Canada–United States border. During the mid-to-late nineteenth century, the Canadian immigration route was preferred for Scandinavians, Russians, and other northern Europeans immigrating to Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, or other states on the Upper Great Plains. By 1892, Canadian carriers were advertising in Europe that entry at Canadian ports was a hassle-free way to enter the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23bkik
|
Does quantum mechanics apply to energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's not really what quantum mechanics is about. Energy is conserved in quantum systems unless there is an external reason for it not to be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If the universe continues to exist forever, does the most improbable things have to happen eventually?\n\nNo. Quantum mechanics is not a magic ticket that makes all things possible. Quantum mechanics still obeys all the usual conservation laws. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "Quantum mechanics is the science of the very small. It explains the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. By contrast, classical physics explains matter and energy only on a scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as the Moon. Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to two major revolutions in physics that created a shift in the original scientific paradigm: the \"theory of relativity\" and the development of \"quantum mechanics\". This article describes how physicists discovered the limitations of classical physics and developed the main concepts of the quantum theory that replaced it in the early decades of the 20th century. It describes these concepts in roughly the order in which they were first discovered. For a more complete history of the subject, see \"History of quantum mechanics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20580",
"title": "Motion",
"section": "Section::::Laws of motion.:Quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, and even smaller elementary particles such as quarks). These descriptions include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation energy as described in the wave–particle duality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22688097",
"title": "Branches of physics",
"section": "Section::::Quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles called \"quanta\". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of wave functions. The Schrödinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics that Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanics—i.e., it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic system—and is a wave equation that is used to solve for wavefunctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25941505",
"title": "Quantum dynamics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "In physics, quantum dynamics is the quantum version of classical dynamics. Quantum dynamics deals with the motions, and energy and momentum exchanges of systems whose behavior is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum dynamics is relevant for burgeoning fields, such as quantum computing and atomic optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55073264",
"title": "Pittsburgh Quantum Institute",
"section": "Section::::Basic scientific research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Quantum mechanics is the firm foundation on which all of physical science rests. It is the study of a system in terms of its most fundamental (and tiny) constituents such as electrons, neutrons, photons: particles that also act like waves—or is it waves having the properties of particles? On this atomic scale, which is governed by Planck's constant, the properties of a system are very different than that of bulk matter. This diverging behavior leads to emerging phenomena that cannot be explained or accounted for in classical terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25202",
"title": "Quantum mechanics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55073264",
"title": "Pittsburgh Quantum Institute",
"section": "Section::::Basic scientific research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "All those quantum phenomena and many more are the basis of technologies that are surreptitiously invading our daily life. Quantum mechanics is what drives lasers or determines the bonding of a drug to a protein. It is the basis of light-matter interactions and spectroscopic techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6nvu4e
|
What terms did people use to describe rotation before clocks were common?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Northern Europe, people would refer to the direction of the sun - indicating a direction was either \"sunwise\" or \"against the sun\": In the north, if one faces south to watch the path the sun takes, it moves in an arc that moves from the left to the right - \"sunwise\" or in today's term \"clockwise.\" Clocks moved in the direction of the sun because that was the preferred, \"safe\" direction. Moving against the sun - today's counterclockwise\" - was regarded as going again the natural order of things. It was potentially dangerous in magical terms to do things - stirring food or walking around a church - in a direction that was \"against the sun.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569682",
"title": "Clockwise",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Before clocks were commonplace, the terms \"sunwise\" and \"deasil\", \"deiseil\" and even \"deocil\" from the Scottish Gaelic language and from the same root as the Latin \"dexter\" (\"right\") were used for clockwise. \"Widdershins\" or \"withershins\" (from Middle Low German \"weddersinnes\", \"opposite course\") was used for counterclockwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569682",
"title": "Clockwise",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1463,
"text": "Clocks traditionally follow this sense of rotation because of the clock's predecessor: the sundial. Clocks with hands were first built in the Northern Hemisphere (see \"Clock\"), and they were made to work like horizontal sundials. In order for such a sundial to work north of the equator during spring and summer, and north of the Tropic of Cancer the whole year, the noon-mark of the dial must be placed northward of the pole casting the shadow. Then, when the Sun moves in the sky (from east to south to west), the shadow, which is cast on the sundial in the opposite direction, moves with the same sense of rotation (from west to north to east). This is why hours must be drawn in horizontal sundials in that manner, and why modern clocks have their numbers set in the same way, and their hands moving accordingly. For a vertical sundial (such as those placed on the walls of buildings, the dial being \"below\" the post), the movement of the sun is from right to top to left, and, accordingly, the shadow moves from left to down to right, i.e., counterclockwise. This effect is caused by the plane of the dial having been rotated through the plane of the motion of the sun and thus the shadow is observed from the other side of the dial's plane and is observed as moving in the opposite direction. Some clocks were constructed to mimic this. The best-known surviving example is the astronomical clock in the Münster Cathedral, whose hands move counterclockwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1504893",
"title": "Balance wheel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "The balance wheel appeared with the first mechanical clocks, in 14th century Europe, but it seems unknown exactly when or where it was first used. It is an improved version of the foliot, an early inertial timekeeper consisting of a straight bar pivoted in the center with weights on the ends, which oscillates back and forth. The foliot weights could be slid in or out on the bar, to adjust the rate of the clock. The first clocks in northern Europe used foliots, while those in southern Europe used balance wheels. As clocks were made smaller, first as bracket clocks and lantern clocks and then as the first large watches after 1500, balance wheels began to be used in place of foliots. Since more of its weight is located on the rim away from the axis, a balance wheel could have a larger moment of inertia than a foliot of the same size, and keep better time. The wheel shape also had less air resistance, and its geometry partly compensated for thermal expansion error due to temperature changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564384",
"title": "Clock face",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Before the late 14th century, a fixed hand (often a carving literally shaped like a hand) indicated the hour by pointing to numbers on a rotating dial; after this time, the current convention of a rotating hand on a fixed dial was adopted. Minute hands (so named because they indicated the small, or \"minute\", divisions of the hour) only came into regular use around 1690, after the invention of the pendulum and anchor escapement increased the precision of time-telling enough to justify it. In some precision clocks, a third hand, which rotated once a minute, was added in a separate subdial. This was called the \"second-minute\" hand (because it measured the \"secondary minute\" divisions of the hour), which was shortened to \"second\" hand. The convention of the hands moving clockwise evolved in imitation of the sundial. In the Northern hemisphere, where the clock face originated, the shadow of the gnomon on a horizontal sundial moves clockwise during the day. This was also why noon or 12 o'clock was conventionally located at the top of the dial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569682",
"title": "Clockwise",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Occasionally, clocks whose hands revolve counterclockwise are nowadays sold as a novelty. Historically, some Jewish clocks were built that way, for example in some synagogue towers in Europe such as the Jewish Town Hall in Prague, to accord with right-to-left reading in the Hebrew language. In 2014 under Bolivian president Evo Morales, the clock outside the Legislative Assembly in Plaza Murillo, La Paz, was shifted to counterclockwise motion to promote indigenous values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72907",
"title": "Sundial",
"section": "Section::::Adjustments to calculate clock time from a sundial reading.:Equation of time correction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Prior to the invention of accurate clocks, in the mid-17th Century, sundials were the only timepieces in common use, and were considered to tell the \"right\" time. The Equation of Time was not used. After the invention of good clocks, sundials were still considered to be correct, and clocks usually incorrect. The Equation of Time was used in the opposite direction from today, to apply a correction to the time shown by a clock to make it agree with sundial time. Some elaborate \"equation clocks\", such as one made by Joseph Williamson in 1720, incorporated mechanisms to do this correction automatically. (Williamson's clock may have been the first-ever device to use a differential gear.) Only after about 1800 was uncorrected clock time considered to be \"right\", and sundial time usually \"wrong\", so the Equation of Time became used as it is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206242",
"title": "Differential (mechanical device)",
"section": "Section::::Non-automotive applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The earliest definitely verified use of a differential was in a clock made by Joseph Williamson in 1720. It employed a differential to add the equation of time to local mean time, as determined by the clock mechanism, to produce solar time, which would have been the same as the reading of a sundial. During the 18th Century, sundials were considered to show the \"correct\" time, so an ordinary clock would frequently have to be readjusted, even if it worked perfectly, because of seasonal variations in the equation of time. Williamson's and other equation clocks showed sundial time without needing readjustment. Nowadays, we consider clocks to be \"correct\" and sundials usually incorrect, so many sundials carry instructions about how to use their readings to obtain clock time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bb9z0
|
how do we know cold is the absence of heat and not the other way around?
|
[
{
"answer": "Temperature is a measurement of energy, specifically kinetic energy on a molecular scale with warmer things having more of this energy than colder things.\nBecause we warm something up by adding energy we define warm/hot as the presence of this energy. Since there is nothing that we can \"add\" to make an object colder, cold is inherently the absence of this energy or in other words, the absence of heat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cold is the absence of heat just like darkness is the absence of light. So, you can't \"add cold\" to something just like you can't make a room less bright by \"adding darkness.\" You can only add heat or take away heat, and add light or take away light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725090",
"title": "Cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Cold is the presence of low temperature, especially in the atmosphere. In common usage, cold is often a subjective perception. A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero, defined as 0.00K on the Kelvin scale, an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. This corresponds to on the Celsius scale, on the Fahrenheit scale, and on the Rankine scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3330262",
"title": "Naturalistic disease theories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Other cultures have developed different naturalistic disease theories. One specific example lies in Latin cultures, which place \"hot\" or \"cold\" classifications on things like food, drink, and environmental conditions. They believe that the combination of hot and cold substances will cause an unbalanced system that leads to disease. Therefore, one is expected not to have a cold drink after taking a hot bath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6003086",
"title": "Apparent temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418",
"title": "Absolute zero",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 \"New Experiments and Observations touching Cold\", articulated the dispute known as the \"primum frigidum\". The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, \"There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19154090",
"title": "Kenneth S. Wagoner",
"section": "Section::::Academic career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Wagoner is credited with discovering new ways that humans perceive hot and cold in the skin senses. \"He isolated vasodilation and vasoconstriction as mechanisms that signal the brain that we are hot and cold.\" In addition, he discovered a key homeostasis feedback mechanism that helps humans maintain survival temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51796195",
"title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of \"Homo sapiens\". Adaptations in humans can be physiological, genetic, or cultural, which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates. There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment, acclimatization, and cultural practices, but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39096026",
"title": "Effect of radiation on perceived temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ksc43
|
what does being turing complete means?
|
[
{
"answer": "In colloquial usage, the terms \"Turing complete\" or \"Turing equivalent\" are used to mean that any real-world general-purpose computer or computer language can approximately simulate the computational aspects of any other real-world general-purpose computer or computer language.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Turing described a minimal, hypothetical computer which he used to mathematically prove results, known as a Turing Machine. It wasn't intended as a practical device, but rather to be as simple as possible to make proofs easier. A computing device that is capable of doing everything that a Turing Machine can is Turing Complete. One way to show that a computer or programming environment is Turing Complete is to implement a Turing Machine emulator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer engineer here,\n\nA computational device is said to be Turing complete if it can simulate any other Turing machine.\n\nIn practical terms, Turing completeness specifies a minimum set of instructions that an instruction set architecture must implement, including conditional flow control, arithmetic (addition, multiplication, division), logic (predicate and boolean), and a reasonable (technically arbitrary, but this is not realistic) amount of memory.\n\nMany programmable processors, such as DMA processors used to transfer memory between peripheral devices and main memory, are not Turing complete because they do not need to be. They have a specific set of instructions tailored to the task for which they are designed; they can be simulated by any machine that is Turing complete but they cannot perform Turing complete simulation on their own.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A Turing machine consists of only a few things. A paper tape, a head that can either read, erase, or write a symbol on that tape, and advance/reverse the tape by one step. It's an impractical computer design, but very easy to reason about and prove properties. It turns out that this extremely limited machine can compute anything that is computable - the mathematician Turing proved this, and so it is a very important mathematical result. \n\nNow, your PC is not designed like a Turing machine. For example, its memory is random access - you can read any memory location you want, you don't have to advance a paper tape 10,000,000 positions. \n\nHowever, it is \"turing complete\" - we can prove that it can do everything that the Turing machine can do, which therefore means it can compute anything that is computable. \n\nThis makes the proof easy. If you show a device can do the few simple things the Turing machine does, it must be a general purpose computing machine. It can be very difficult to proof that it is general purpose otherwise, if you try to take all its capabilities into account. But you don't have to perform that difficult action since this much easier proof is available to you.\n\n In summary, it is a way of saying 'we know this machine can compute anything that is computable', and we know from Turing's work what is computable and what isn't. ~~~~",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30403",
"title": "Turing machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Turing completeness is the ability for a system of instructions to simulate a Turing machine. A programming language that is Turing complete is theoretically capable of expressing all tasks accomplishable by computers; nearly all programming languages are Turing complete if the limitations of finite memory are ignored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404048",
"title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Learning machines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Turing concludes by speculating about a time when machines will compete with humans on numerous intellectual tasks and suggests tasks that could be used to make that start. Turing then suggests that abstract tasks such as playing chess could be a good place to start another method which he puts as \"..it is best to provide the machine with the best sense organs that money can buy, and then teach it to understand and speak English.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404048",
"title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Turing's test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Some have taken Turing's question to have been \"Can a computer, communicating over a teleprinter, fool a person into believing it is human?\" but it seems clear that Turing was not talking about fooling people but about generating human cognitive capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3739933",
"title": "Turing's proof",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Turing's proof is a proof by Alan Turing, first published in January 1937 with the title On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. It was the second proof of the assertion (Alonzo Church's proof was first) that some decision problems are \"undecidable\": there is no single algorithm that infallibly gives a correct \"yes\" or \"no\" answer to each instance of the problem. In his own words:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30621",
"title": "Turing completeness",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Turing completeness is significant in that every real-world design for a computing device can be simulated by a universal Turing machine. The Church–Turing thesis states that this is a law of mathematics that a universal Turing machine can, in principle, perform any calculation that any other programmable computer can. This says nothing about the effort needed to write the program, or the time it may take for the machine to perform the calculation, or any abilities the machine may possess that have nothing to do with computation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404048",
"title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Nine common objections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "BULLET::::5. \"Arguments from various disabilities\". These arguments all have the form \"a computer will never do \"X\"\". Turing offers a selection:Be kind, resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense of humour, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy strawberries and cream, make someone fall in love with it, learn from experience, use words properly, be the subject of its own thought, have as much diversity of behaviour as a man, do something really new.Turing notes that \"no support is usually offered for these statements,\" and that they depend on naive assumptions about how versatile machines may be in the future, or are \"disguised forms of the argument from consciousness.\" He chooses to answer a few of them:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405493",
"title": "Digital physics",
"section": "Section::::Computational foundations.:The Church–Turing–Deutsch thesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "\"Turing did not show that his machines can solve any problem that can be solved 'by instructions, explicitly stated rules, or procedures', nor did he prove that the universal Turing machine 'can compute any function that any computer, with any architecture, can compute'. He proved that his universal machine can compute any function that any Turing machine can compute; and he put forward, and advanced philosophical arguments in support of, the thesis here called Turing's thesis. But a thesis concerning the extent of effective methods—which is to say, concerning the extent of procedures of a certain sort that a human being unaided by machinery is capable of carrying out—carries no implication concerning the extent of the procedures that machines are capable of carrying out, even machines acting in accordance with 'explicitly stated rules.' For among a machine's repertoire of atomic operations there may be those that no human being unaided by machinery can perform.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n5ja2
|
If the Great Depression didn't truly end until the start of WWII, how come the US economy didn't dip in the post war years?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a recession in 1945. GDP fell by 12.7% in that recession. By comparison, the recession of 2007 lowered GDP by 4.3%.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "588829",
"title": "Employment Act of 1946",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "By 1940 the Great Depression was finally over. A remarkable burst of economic activity and full employment came during the war years (1941–45). Fears of a postwar depression were widespread since the massive military spending was ending, the war plants were shutting down, and 12 million soldiers were coming home. Congress, fearful of a return to a state of depression, sought to establish preemptive safeguards against an economic downturn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251024",
"title": "Downtown",
"section": "Section::::History.:Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The slow recovery from the effects of the Great Depression began in the mid-1930s, decelerated at the end of the 1930s, and picked up speed with the start of World War II, so that by the early 1940s the country was for the most part out of the Depression. Excess commercial space began to be used, vacancy rates dropped, department store sales rose, hotel occupancy rates went up, and revenues increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26271982",
"title": "Panic selling",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:The Stock Market Crash of 1929.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "After World War I, the United States experienced significant economic growth that was fueled by new technologies and improved production processes. Industrial production output increased 25% between the years 1927 and 1929. The speculative boom in the stock market resulted from the expanding economy and the market indices moved up nearly 400% from 1926 to 1929. In late October 1929, the decline emerged in the market and led to panic selling as more investors were unwilling to risk additional losses. The market sharply declined and was followed by the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5266241",
"title": "Modern liberalism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:New Deal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The Great Depression seemed over in 1936, but a relapse in 1937–1938 produced continued long-term unemployment. Full employment was reached with the total mobilization of the United States economic, social and military resources in World War II. At that point, the main relief programs such as the WPA and the CCC were ended. Arthur Herman argues that Roosevelt restored prosperity after 1940 by cooperating closely with big business, although when asked \"Do you think the attitude of the Roosevelt administration toward business is delaying business recovery?\", the American people in 1939 responded \"yes\" by a margin of more than 2-to-1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42549244",
"title": "The Living New Deal",
"section": "Section::::New Deal's legacy of public works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "When President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, America was in the depths of the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929 led the implosion and the downturn continued for over three years as thousands of banks and businesses failed and millions of people lost their life savings, farms, and homes. At the nadir, one-quarter of the U.S. workforce was unemployed and national output had fallen by one-third.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63876",
"title": "History of the United States",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Great Depression and New Deal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "During the 1920s, the nation enjoyed widespread prosperity, albeit with a weakness in agriculture. A financial bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929. This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression known as the Great Depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation as prices fell, unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and manufacturing output plunged by one-third.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84271",
"title": "John Kenneth Galbraith",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The United States went into WWII with an economy still not fully recovered from the Great Depression. Because wartime production needs mandated large budget deficits and an accommodating monetary policy, inflation and a runaway wage-price spiral was seen as likely. As a part of a team charged with keeping inflation from crippling the war effort, Galbraith served as a deputy head of the Office of Price Administration (OPA) during the Second World War in 1941–1943. The OPA directed the process of stabilization of prices and rents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kfpvq
|
What "generation" star is our Sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Sun is a Population I star, meaning it contains metals from previous generations of stars. By measuring the spectral characteristics of stars, we can observe the ratios of metals to hydrogen or helium, and from this, we can determine how many generations of \"ancestors\" the star has had.\n\n > Stars may be classified by their heavy element abundance, which correlates with their age and the type of galaxy in which they are found.\n\n > Population I stars include the sun and tend to be luminous, hot and young, concentrated in the disks of spiral galaxies. They are particularly found in the spiral arms. With the model of heavy element formation in supernovae, this suggests that the gas from which they formed had been seeded with the heavy elements formed from previous giant stars. About 2% of the total belong to Population I.\n\n > Population II stars tend to be found in globular clusters and the nucleus of a galaxy. They tend to be older, less luminous and cooler than Population I stars. They have fewer heavy elements, either by being older or being in regions where no heavy-element producing predecessors would be found. Astronomers often describe this condition by saying that they are \"metal poor\", and the \"metallicity\" is used as an indication of age. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nAstronomers also theorize that there was a generation of very old stars with extremely low metallicity. These are Population III stars. Recently, some astronomers have found evidence there may be Population III stars in a very bright, distant galaxy.\n\nAs a side note, the sun will not go supernova. It will become a red giant, shedding its outer layers, and making it very easy to roast hot dogs on Earth.\n\nedit: red giant",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26903",
"title": "Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The Sun is a population I star; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (\"metals\" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the Universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of \"metals\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Life phases.:Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1341,
"text": "The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1619553",
"title": "Gliese 777",
"section": "Section::::Stellar components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The primary star of the system (catalogued as Gliese 777A) is a yellow subgiant, a Sun-like star that is ceasing fusing hydrogen in its core. The star is much older than the Sun, about 6.7 billion years old. It is 4% less massive than the Sun. It is also rather metal-rich, having about 70% more \"metals\" (elements heavier than helium) than the Sun, which is typical for stars with extrasolar planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1589445",
"title": "Flare star",
"section": "Section::::Nearby flare stars.:Barnard's Star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Barnard's Star is the second nearest star system to Earth. Given its age, at 7–12 billion years of age, Barnard's Star is considerably older than the Sun. It was long assumed to be quiescent in terms of stellar activity. However, in 1998, astronomers observed an intense stellar flare, showing that Barnard's Star is a flare star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich, star. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26903",
"title": "Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses), which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System, produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4196",
"title": "Barnard's Star",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "At 7–12 billion years of age, Barnard's Star is considerably older than the Sun, which is 4.5 billion years old, and it might be among the oldest stars in the Milky Way galaxy. Barnard's Star has lost a great deal of rotational energy, and the periodic slight changes in its brightness indicate that it rotates once in 130 days (the Sun rotates in 25). Given its age, Barnard's Star was long assumed to be quiescent in terms of stellar activity. In 1998, astronomers observed an intense stellar flare, showing that Barnard's Star is a flare star. Barnard's Star has the variable star designation V2500 Ophiuchi. In 2003, Barnard's Star presented the first detectable change in the radial velocity of a star caused by its motion. Further variability in the radial velocity of Barnard's Star was attributed to its stellar activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nepjr
|
why do we have sports commentators on television that talk non stop during the games?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably carry over from before people could watch games on their television. The commentators would give a play by play to those listening on the radio. And now it is tradition. Though they're supposed to be \"analyzing\" the game as well. Or telling people things they might have missed ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is to keep people watching the game. You can find some YouTube videos of sporting events without the commentary. If you try watching them, you will see how hard it is to watch. Like between plays, there would be silence. Silence is hard for people to take. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1662121",
"title": "Sports commentator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer, sportscaster or play-by-play announcer) gives a running commentary of a game or event in real time, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1260585",
"title": "Color commentator",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "In some countries, the two-person commentating team is not used as much as elsewhere. In Germany, most broadcasts of sports matches traditionally feature a single play-by-play announcer who also provides commentary, background information, and statistics. If the broadcast is on TV, the announcer will usually not comment on visually obvious things. A two-person commentating team is used more often for sports where understanding of events depends more on details and subtle visual cues that not everybody might instantly get or might need extra information in order to reasonably understand – for example in auto racing or winter sport. In those cases, a current or former athlete or coach is often used as co-commentator or \"Experte\" (expert).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48842531",
"title": "Announcerless game",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "No other United States broadcaster has ever purposely replicated the experiment, with football or any of the other major team professional sports; the networks have produced announcerless broadcasts but only as an alternate feed (with the main network always carrying announcers). ESPN has regularly included announcerless broadcasts as part of its Full Circle and Megacast multi-channel broadcasts, usually on ESPN Classic. In select versions of the MLB.tv app, a 'ballpark sound' option is available on most games with only natural ballpark audio. In 2013, Fox Sports Detroit Plus offered its viewers a \"Natural Sounds at Comerica Park\" channel in which they could watch occasional Tigers baseball games with just the ambient sound from games at the team's home stadium, with information about the game coming via increased graphics as it did in the Announcerless Game. It was, however, offered only on a premier channel for those who paid the highest rates; the regular channel included the team's announcing duo of Mario Impemba and Rod Allen. The Alliance of American Football regularly offers live announcerless streams of its games, billed as \"AAF Raw.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571993",
"title": "Simulcast",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Simulcasting of sporting events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In sports, such as American football and baseball, simulcasts are when a single announcer broadcasts play-by-play coverage both over television and radio. The practice was common in the early years of television, but since the 1980s, most teams have used a separate team for television and for radio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48842531",
"title": "Announcerless game",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "To replace the announcers, the network used more on-screen graphics than usual and asked the public address announcer at Miami's Orange Bowl to impart more information than he typically did. Efforts to use more sensitive microphones and pick up more sound from the field, however, did not succeed. While the experiment did increase the telecast's ratings, it was widely regarded as a failure since it did not provide sufficient context for viewers. No network broadcasting any major U.S. professional team sport has ever tried it again, except through alternate feeds of games offered with announcers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2941848",
"title": "List of World Series broadcasters",
"section": "Section::::Television.:1960s.:Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "BULLET::::- Before , NBC typically paired the top announcers for the respective World Series teams to alternate play-by-play during each game's telecast. For example, if the Yankees played the Dodgers in the World Series, Mel Allen (representing the Yankees) would call half the game and Vin Scully (representing the Dodgers) would call the other half of the game. But in 1966, NBC wanted their regular network announcer, Curt Gowdy, to call most of the play-by-play at the expense of the top local announcers. So instead of calling half of every World Series game on television (as Vin Scully had done in , , , , and ) they would only get to call half of all home games on TV, providing color commentary while Gowdy called play-by-play for the remaining half of each game. The visiting teams' announcers would participate in the NBC Radio broadcasts. In broadcasts of Series-clinching (or potentially Series-clinching) games on both media, NBC would send the announcer for whichever team was ahead in the game to that team's clubhouse in the ninth inning in order to help cover the trophy presentation and conduct postgame interviews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2798677",
"title": "Major League Baseball on NBC",
"section": "Section::::History.:The \"Game of the Week\" exclusivity era (1966–89).:1960s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "As previously mentioned, before , NBC typically paired the top announcers for the respective World Series teams to alternate play-by-play during each game's telecast. For example, if the Yankees played the Dodgers in the World Series, Mel Allen (representing the Yankees) would call half the game and Vin Scully (representing the Dodgers) would call the other half of the game. However, in 1966, NBC wanted its regular network announcer, Curt Gowdy, to call most of the play-by-play at the expense of the top local announcers. So instead of calling half of every World Series game on television (as Vin Scully had done in , , , , and ) they would only get to call half of all home games on TV, providing color commentary while Gowdy called play-by-play for the remaining half of each game. The visiting teams' announcers would participate in the NBC Radio broadcasts. In broadcasts of Series-clinching (or potentially Series-clinching) games on both media, NBC would send the announcer for whichever team was ahead in the game to that team's clubhouse in the ninth inning in order to help cover the trophy presentation and conduct postgame interviews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xvglf
|
How do we perceive things through light bouncing off of the objects we see and entering our eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The secret to the eye being able to resolve things is the fact that the pupil is really small. [Look at this image](_URL_0_) of how a pinhole camera works. Your eye is much the same- replacing the pinhole with pupil. \n\nImagine a red light up above you, and a blue light down below. The red light shines light in every direction. But only the one direction that passes through the narrow opening of your pupil will actually hit the back of your eye (retina). So, the red light entering into your eye will come from the top, be heading down, and thus will hit the bottom of your retina. The blue light will be the opposite, the only one which will pass through your pupil will be the one beam headed up, and thus will hit the top of your retina. \n\nThis is why your pupil has to be small. Imagine the pinhole camera, but the pinhole being replaced by a window. Now, many light beams from the same object can pass through the window- headed in many directions and thus no coherent image is formed on the wall. \n\nThis is why squinting helps you see better. You reduce the effective size of your pupil, as your eye lids block more of the light from different directions, thus giving a sharper image. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2094955",
"title": "Salience (language)",
"section": "Section::::Communication studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Our minds and bodies are bombarded by relevant and irrelevant knowledge and experiences every day. We will tune into salient ones (crane the ears to more fully hear enjoyable music) and tune-out non-salient ones (cover our ears from jackhammer noise). There is difference between seeing something and looking at it. In seeing, the capacity of our retina to take in the light energy is engaged and the brain processes that information into an image. When one looks at an object, not only are visual perceptive capacities engaged, but other mental processes for evaluation and ordering of the object are activated (Skinner, 1974).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48193",
"title": "Camera obscura",
"section": "Section::::Physical explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a screen only lets through rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side, and these rays form an image of that scene when they are collected on a surface opposite from the opening. In simple terms, the way your retina sees a specific image through your eye is vertically switched to the object you see and how pieces in your brain are shown to switch that object right-side up to the way you see normally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24965027",
"title": "Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition",
"section": "Section::::Recognition memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "When someone sees an object, they know what the object is because they've seen it on a past occasion; this is recognition memory. Not only do abnormalities to the ventral (what) stream of the visual pathway affect our ability to recognize an object but also the way in which an object is presented to us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24990312",
"title": "Optics and vision",
"section": "Section::::Visual perception.:Human Visual system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The visual system in humans allows individuals to assimilate information from the environment. The act of seeing starts when the lens of the eye focuses an image of its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina converts patterns of light into neuronal signals. The lens of the eye focuses light on the photoreceptive cells of the retina, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses. These signals are processed in a hierarchical fashion by different parts of the brain, from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus, to the primary and secondary visual cortex of the brain. Signals from the retina can also travel directly from the retina to the Superior colliculus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29150377",
"title": "Empirical theory of perception",
"section": "Section::::Empirical accounts of vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Visual perception is initiated when objects in the world reflect light rays towards the eye. Most empirical theories of visual perception begin with the observation that stimulation of the retina is fundamentally ambiguous. In empirical accounts, the most commonly proposed mechanism for circumventing this ambiguity is \"unconscious inference,\" a term that dates back to Helmholtz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25140",
"title": "Perception",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to the brain proper via the optic nerve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569399",
"title": "Stimulus (physiology)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:External.:Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Vision provides opportunity for the brain to perceive and respond to changes occurring around the body. Information, or stimuli, in the form of light enters the retina, where it excites a special type of neuron called a photoreceptor cell. A local graded potential begins in the photoreceptor, where it excites the cell enough for the impulse to be passed along through a track of neurons to the central nervous system. As the signal travels from photoreceptors to larger neurons, action potentials must be created for the signal to have enough strength to reach the CNS. If the stimulus does not warrant a strong enough response, it is said to not reach absolute threshold, and the body does not react. However, if the stimulus is strong enough to create an action potential in neurons away from the photoreceptor, the body will integrate the information and react appropriately. Visual information is processed in the occipital lobe of the CNS, specifically in the primary visual cortex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o87z3
|
What is e in regards to natural logarithms?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oh this is such a fun question!\n\nThe number's importance starts with one key observation. \n\nLet a > 0 be a real number, we can define a function f(x)=a^x \n\nWhat is the derivative of this function?\n\nIf we look at the limit definition of the derivative we get\n\nf'(x) = lim h- > 0 ( a^(x+h) - a^x )/h = lim h- > 0 a^x (a^h - 1 )/h = a^x lim h- > 0 (a^h - 1 )/h\n\nWe can see that if the limit exists then the form of the derivative is \n\nf'(x) = a^x g(a)\n\nwhere g(a) is a function that depends only on a, which is a fixed number. We also notice that if the function is once differentiable (it is, I just don't know how to simplify that limit off the top of my head, but it should give the result log(a)) it is twice differentiable with derivative\n\nf''(x) = a^x g(a)^2 \n\nand more generally \n\nf^(n) (x) = a^x g(a)^n\n\nWe can then write a Taylor approximation to this function as\n\nf(x) = 1 + g(a) x + x g(a)^2 /2 + ...\n\nNow we note that the function has a very special property if g(a)=1, it is its own derivative, and note that if we find f(1) we get f(1)=a^1 =a\n\nSo computing f(1), g(a)=1, this let's us compute the number a such that the function a^x is its own derivative (we've named this number e). The Taylor approximation here becomes\n\ne=1+1+1/2+... = sum_n=0^infinity 1/n! = lim n- > infinity (1+1/n)^n (this can be shown using the binomial theorem)\n\nTl;dr, e is the unique number that defines a function (e^x ) so that the function is its own derivative. (d/dx e^x = e^x )",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "e appears in lots of places one might not expect, but one of the simpler appearances can be seen in terms of a financial application. \n\nLet's suppose you invest some money ($100) in an account earning 10% interest (wow!), but the bank only compounds the interest once a year. How much do you have after a year?\n\n 100 + 100*10% = 110\n\nright? Or, I can write this in the following way:\n\n 100 (1 + 0.10) = 110\n\ni.e. at the end of the year, I still have my principal, and I have 10% of my principal.\n\nIf I switch to an account that compounds **twice** a year, how much money will I have?\n\nAt the end of the first six month period, they pay me 5% = 10% / 2 of my principal:\n\n balance after 6 months: 100(1 + 0.10/2)\n\nand at the end of the year, I earn another 5% of my *new* principal:\n\n balance after 1 year = (bal after 6 moz)*(1 + 0.10/2)\n\nI can write this relative to my original principal as\n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/2)(1 + 0.10/2) = 100*(1 + 0.10/2)^2 = 110.25\n\n(I've earned $0.25 more this way!) Now, suppose they offer to compound my interest quarterly. After the first three months, I have\n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/4)\n\nafter 6 months, it's\n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/4)^2\n\netc., and after the whole year, it's \n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/4)^4 = 110.38\n\nNow, hopefully you can see that, if your interest rate is *i*, and the interest is compounded *n* times per year, at the end of the year, you have\n\n 100*(1 + i/n)^n\n\nIf our bank offered to compound our interest daily (n = 365), at the end of a year, we would have\n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/365)^365 = $110.51\n\nNow, what's the natural 'limit' to this process? Compounding every hour? There are 8760 hours in a year, so\n\n 100*(1 + 0.10/8760)^8760 = $110.52\n\nbut we could go further, and compound every minute, every second, every millisecond... etc. We're not going to get as much gain at each of these additional increases, but what is the upper limit of this process? \n\nMathematically, the question is, what is the limit, as n goes to infinity of\n\n (1 + i/n)^n ?\n\nI claim that it is e^i . I won't give a proof of this, but I invite you to use your calculator and see what\n\n 100*e^(0.10)\n\nis.",
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{
"answer": "'e' is one of the most beautiful numbers in all of existence. Sometimes called 'Euler's number', it is more appropriate to think of 'e' as standing for 'exponential' due to its unique property where d(e^x)/dx = e^x. This is the purest definition of 'e', and series solutions exist to calculate its value.\n\n'e' also has a starring role in the most elegant equation in all of mathematics: e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0.\n\nWith regard to logarithms, we typically use two types: natural and base-10, even though all logarithm bases have the same useful properties and one can easily convert from one to the other. The base-10 logarithm is useful because we use a base-10 number system and it can provide order of magnitude.\n\nThe natural logarithm is much more fundamental because it inverts the most fundamental exponential function, e^x. The natural logarithm also has another extremely useful property in that d(ln x)/dx = 1/x. While 1/x behavior exists with other bases, the constant of proportionality being unity occurs only with the natural logarithm. In this regard, the natural logarithm can even be thought of as part of the power series, i.e. A*(1/x) + B*(ln x) + C + D*x + E*x^2 + F*x^3.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The natural logarithm is the area under the curve y=1/x between 1 and some number. When that number is e, the value of the natural logarithm is 1. So the area under the curve y=1/x between 1 and e, is 1. Between 1 and e^2 it's 2. Between 1 and e^3, it's 3. So you can see that the natural logarithm gives you the power that e is being raised to.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Assuming that you're familiar with basic calculus, e is just the value a that satisfies d/dx a^x = a^x. The exact value can be calculated by the process described by /u/dogdiarrhea. \n\nIf you don't have a background in calc, let's take a look at the [graph of f(x)=e^x .](_URL_0_) If you draw a tangent line (a line just barely 'kissing' the curve at some point) anywhere along that curve, that line will have the same slope as the value of f(x) at that value x.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476",
"title": "Natural logarithm",
"section": "Section::::The natural logarithm in integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The natural logarithm allows simple integration of functions of the form \"g\"(\"x\") = \"f\" '(\"x\")/\"f\"(\"x\"): an antiderivative of \"g\"(\"x\") is given by ln(|\"f\"(\"x\")|). This is the case because of the chain rule and the following fact:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476",
"title": "Natural logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 249,
"text": "The natural logarithm of \"x\" is the power to which \"e\" would have to be raised to equal \"x\". For example, ln(7.5) is 2.0149..., because . The natural log of \"e\" itself, ln(\"e\"), is 1, because , while the natural logarithm of 1, ln(1), is 0, since .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476",
"title": "Natural logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The natural logarithm can be defined for any positive real number \"a\" as the area under the curve from 1 to \"a\" (the area being taken as negative when \"a\" < 1). The simplicity of this definition, which is matched in many other formulas involving the natural logarithm, leads to the term \"natural\". The definition of the natural logarithm can be extended to give logarithm values for negative numbers and for all non-zero complex numbers, although this leads to a multi-valued function: see Complex logarithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50347",
"title": "Multivariate normal distribution",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Kullback–Leibler divergence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The logarithm must be taken to base \"e\" since the two terms following the logarithm are themselves base-\"e\" logarithms of expressions that are either factors of the density function or otherwise arise naturally. The equation therefore gives a result measured in nats. Dividing the entire expression above by log 2 yields the divergence in bits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476",
"title": "Natural logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, not only \"e\". However, logarithms in other bases differ only by a constant multiplier from the natural logarithm, and are usually defined in terms of the latter. For instance, the binary logarithm is the natural logarithm divided by ln(2), the natural logarithm of 2. Logarithms are useful for solving equations in which the unknown appears as the exponent of some other quantity. For example, logarithms are used to solve for the half-life, decay constant, or unknown time in exponential decay problems. They are important in many branches of mathematics and the sciences and are used in finance to solve problems involving compound interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The logarithm to base (that is ) is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the number (that is ) as its base; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics, because of its simpler integral and derivative. The binary logarithm uses base (that is ) and is commonly used in computer science. Logarithms are examples of concave functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476",
"title": "Natural logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The natural logarithm of a number is its logarithm to the base of the mathematical constant \"e\", where \"e\" is an irrational and transcendental number approximately equal to . The natural logarithm of \"x\" is generally written as , , or sometimes, if the base \"e\" is implicit, simply . Parentheses are sometimes added for clarity, giving ln(\"x\"), log(\"x\") or log(\"x\"). This is done in particular when the argument to the logarithm is not a single symbol, to prevent ambiguity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23awmx
|
How did most Medieval kings die?
|
[
{
"answer": "Edited to remove typos.\n\nYour question is far too broad for anyone to answer (at least to the standard expected). I'm sorry. To explain: 1) the death of major figures is not always clear cut. 2) this means a respondant requires exhaustive contextual knowledge of a thousand years of history across medieval Europe (to assume you are just considering that region). \n\nOur major sources at this level are chronicles - and these writers may be writing.some time after the events they describe. This might mean they have been influenced (or consciously decided to perpetuate) by rumours surrounding a monarch's death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most medieval kings died of old age, illness, or some other \"natural cause.\" If a king died from something more nefarious, it usually stands out in the historical record. Take the English monarchs, of which there have been about 50 if we count liberally between Alfred the Great and Charles I (by liberally I mean including people like Lady Jane Grey and Matilda). \n\nThree were killed in battle or by wounds sustained in battle (Harold Godwinson, Richard the Lion Heart, and Richard III)\n\nOne king (Edmund I) died in a brawl that he probably started.\n\nThree were definitely murdered (Edward the Martyr, Edward II, and Richard II).\n\nTwo were probably murdered (William Rufus and Henry VI [who was already deposed])\n\nAnd two were beheaded (Lady Jane Grey and Charles I).\n\nSo, that's 11 deaths total that weren't natural causes, out of 50 people, and two of those are only suspicious deaths, not confirmed assassinations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7176467",
"title": "Philip of Cognac",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The king was mortally wounded during the suppression of a revolt by Viscount Aimar V of Limoges in 1199, and died without legitimate heirs. The chronicler Roger of Howden claimed that later that same year,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50775195",
"title": "Historical murders and executions in Stockholm",
"section": "Section::::The Middle Ages.:Political murders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "In some cases, kings have personally murdered people. In 1568, King Eric XIV beat his secretary Martin Olai Helsingius to death with a stove poker. Martin had allegedly advised the king against pardoning his former secretary Jöran Persson, who was a very trusted advisor and friend of the king, but whom the Swedish people despised. Persson had been accused of causing the looting of Svartsjö Palace in 1567 and the Sture murders the same year. He received his verdict on 28 September 1568 and was punished \"as an honorless, faithless and perjurous traitor, rogue and villain\". Martins punishment was cruel. Both of his ears were nailed against the gallows, along with his patent of nobility. He was later hinged onto the gallows, but before his death he was brought down again. and subjected to breaking wheel torture at Brunkebergstorg. He was eventually beheaded and his body was nailed to a stake, where his body could be observed in public. This was a regular practice during the Middle Ages in Sweden, until it was outlawed in 1841.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8455760",
"title": "History of assassination",
"section": "Section::::The Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Although in that period intentional regicide was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the Renaissance when the ideas of \"tyrannomachy\" (i.e. killing of a King when his rule becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained recognition. Several European monarchs and other leading figures were assassinated during religious wars or by religious opponents, for example Henry III and Henry IV of France, and the Protestant Dutch leader, William the Silent. There were also many unsuccessful assassination plots against rulers such as Elizabeth I of England by religious opponents. There were notable detractors, however; Abdülmecid of the Ottoman Empire refused to put to death plotters against his life during his reign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28323",
"title": "Samhain",
"section": "Section::::History.:In Irish mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "The legendary kings Diarmait mac Cerbaill and Muirchertach mac Ercae each die a threefold death on Samhain, which involves wounding, burning and drowning, and of which they are forewarned. In the tale \"Togail Bruidne Dá Derga\" ('The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel'), king Conaire Mór also meets his death on Samhain after breaking his \"geasa\" (prohibitions or taboos). He is warned of his impending doom by three undead horsemen who are messengers of Donn, god of the dead. \"The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn\" tells how each Samhain the men of Ireland went to woo a beautiful maiden who lives in the fairy mound on Brí Eile (Croghan Hill). It says that each year someone would be killed \"to mark the occasion\", by persons unknown. Some academics suggest that these tales recall human sacrifice, and argue that several ancient Irish bog bodies (such as Old Croghan Man) appear to have been kings who were ritually killed, some of them around the time of Samhain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20119302",
"title": "Threefold death",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The threefold death, which is suffered by kings, heroes, and gods, is a putatively Proto-Indo-European theme, reconstructed from medieval accounts of Celtic and Germanic mythology and archaeologically attested from ancient bodies such as Lindow Man.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157050",
"title": "Regicide",
"section": "Section::::The regicide of Mary, Queen of Scots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Before the Tudor period, English kings had been murdered while imprisoned (for example Edward II or Edward V) or killed in battle by their subjects (for example Richard III), but none of these deaths are usually referred to as regicide. The word regicide seems to have come into popular use among foreign Catholics when Pope Sixtus V renewed the papal bull of excommunication against the \"crowned regicide\" Queen Elizabeth I, for—among other things—executing Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587. Elizabeth had originally been excommunicated by Pope Pius V, in \"Regnans in Excelsis\", for converting England to Protestantism after the reign of Mary I of England. The defeat of the Spanish Armada and the \"Protestant Wind\" convinced most English people that God approved of Elizabeth's action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48303866",
"title": "Execution Bridge (Ghent)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Since 1371 or earlier murderers and rapists have been executed by decapitation on the medieval stone bridge. The most recent recorded execution took place in 1585. Till 1799 the bridge was decorated with the statues of two figures, recalling an oft-repeated legend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19t45f
|
Is the Mandate of Heaven directly responsible for the technological and philosophical advances in the early history of dynastic China?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you have elevated the mandate to a height that it doesn't deserve. Innovations in China did not depend at all on unification. Some examples: \nThe great advances in military tactics, poetry, and paper all occurred in the six dynasties period, that which lies between the Han and sui/tang. The next great innovation was the printing press, which saw it's first major use in the five dynasties/ten kingdoms period between the tang and song. There is no great correlation between unification and innovation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "215214",
"title": "Mandate of Heaven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), and legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty (1600–1069 BCE). It was used throughout the history of China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new emperors, including non-Han ethnic monarchs such as the Qing dynasty (1636–1912).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30252",
"title": "Justification for the state",
"section": "Section::::Transcendent sovereignty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "The political ideas current in China at that time involved the idea of the mandate of heaven. It resembled the theory of divine right in that it placed the ruler in a divine position, as the link between Heaven and Earth, but it differed from the divine right of kings in that it did not assume a permanent connection between a dynasty and the state. Inherent in the concept was that a ruler held the mandate of heaven only as long as he provided good government. If he did not, heaven would withdraw its mandate and whoever restored order would hold the new mandate. This is true theocracy; the power and wisdom to govern is granted by a higher power, not by human political schemes, and can be equally removed by heaven. This has similarities to the idea presented in the Judeo-Christian Bible from the time when Israel requests \"a king like the nations\" () through to Christ himself telling his contemporary leaders that they only had power because God gave it to them. The classic Biblical example comes in the story of King Nebuchadnezzar, who according to the Book of Daniel ruled the Babylonian empire because God ordained his power, but who later ate grass like a ox for seven years because he deified himself instead of acknowledging God. Nebuchadnezzar is restored when he again acknowledges God as the true sovereign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "680703",
"title": "Later Liang (Five Dynasties)",
"section": "Section::::Conference of the Mandate of Heaven on the Later Liang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Generally through Chinese history, it was historians of later kingdoms whose histories bestowed the Mandate of Heaven posthumously on preceding dynasties. This was typically done for the purpose of strengthening the present rulers' ties to the Mandate themselves. Song Dynasty historian Xue Juzheng did exactly this in his work \"History of the Five Dynasties\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387759",
"title": "Dynastic cycle",
"section": "Section::::The cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The Mandate of Heaven was the idea that the Emperor was favored by Heaven to rule over China. The Mandate of Heaven explanation was championed by the Chinese philosopher Mencius during the Warring States period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3438593",
"title": "Right of revolution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early precedent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on. Throughout Chinese history, rebels who opposed the ruling dynasty made the claim that the Mandate of Heaven had passed, giving them the right to revolt. Ruling dynasties were often uncomfortable with this, and the writings of the Confucian philosopher Mencius (372–289 BC) were often suppressed for declaring that the people have the right to overthrow a ruler that did not provide for their needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37501020",
"title": "Shamanism in the Qing dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins to 1644.:Shamanism after the rise of Nurhaci.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1101,
"text": "In another transformation that \"mirrored the process of political centralization\" in Nurhaci's state, the traditional Jurchen belief in multiple heavens was replaced by one Heaven called \"Abka \"ama\"\" or \"Abka \"han\".\" This new shamanic Heaven became the object of a state cult similar to that of the Jurchen rulers' cult of Heaven in the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) and to Chinggis Khan's worship of Tengri in the thirteenth century. This state sacrifice became an early counterpart to the Chinese worship of Heaven. From as early as the 1590s, Nurhaci appealed to Heaven as, \"the arbiter of right and wrong.\" He worshipped Heaven at a shamanic shrine in 1593 before leaving for a campaign against the Yehe, a Jurchen tribe that belonged to the rival Hūlun confederacy. Qing annals also report that when Nurhaci announced his Seven Great Grievances against the Ming dynasty in April 1618, he conducted a shamanic ceremony during which he burned an oath to Heaven written on a piece of yellow paper. This ceremony was deliberately omitted from the later Chinese translation of this event by the Qing court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51399846",
"title": "Benevolence and the Mandate of Heaven: Transformation of pre-Qin Confucian Classics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Benevolence and the Mandate of Heaven: Transformation of pre-Qin Confucian Classics is a book by a Taiwanese historian Olga Gorodetskaya (Kuo Ching-yun), published in 2010 in Taipei. The book concerns itself with the Confucian philosophical concepts of Benevolence (Ren) and the Mandate of Heaven and their evolution during the period before the establishment of the empire by Qin dynasty. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dab6t
|
Is there an increased risk of lung cancer by just being in a room that smells like cigarette smoke with no one actually smoking in it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes it appears so;\n\n\" \n\nResearchers now know that residual tobacco smoke, dubbed thirdhand smoke, combines with indoor pollutants such as ozone and nitrous acid to create new compounds. Thirdhand smoke mixes and settles with dust, drifts down to carpeting and furniture surfaces, and makes its way deep into the porous material in paneling and drywall. It lingers in the hair, skin, clothing, and fingernails of smokers—so a mother who doesn't smoke in front of her kids, smokes outside, then comes inside and holds the baby is exposing that child to thirdhand smoke. The new compounds are difficult to clean up, have a long life of their own, and many may be carcinogenic.\n\n \"\n\n\\- [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, this is the \"3rd hand smoke\" danger, which has recently been studied and has been linked to the same sort of dangers as second hand smoke. The dangerous smoke particles cling to carpets and drapes and wallpaper, car upholstery, etc.\n\nThe toxins include arsenic and cyanide. [link](_URL_0_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't believe I'm going to defend Tabaco here -- but looking at the Scientific American article, there's a lot of speculation and not really hard data. \n\nWorse, the Scientific American article misstates the original source, which is a 2006 Surgeon General report. The Surgeon General report says that there's no safe level of secondhand smoke. The Scientific American article extends that (with no written justification) to third-hand smoke.\n\nWhich is not to say that the residue of tobacco smoke is safe. I can easily and trivially believe that modern chemical testing can detect the nasty chemicals. But my personal thinking is that I care most about relative risk. I don't see any evidence of any particular harm from third-hand smoke.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25604",
"title": "Radon",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.:Relationship to smoking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Results from epidemiological studies indicate that the risk of lung cancer increases with exposure to residential radon. A well-known example of source of error is smoking, the main risk factor for lung cancer. In the West, tobacco smoke is estimated to cause about 90% of all lung cancers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25533720",
"title": "Health effects of radon",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The risk of lung cancer caused by smoking is much higher than the risk of lung cancer caused by indoor radon. Radiation from radon has been attributed to increase of lung cancer among smokers too. It is generally believed that exposure to radon and cigarette smoking are synergistic; that is, that the combined effect exceeds the sum of their independent effects. This is because the daughters of radon often become attached to smoke and dust particles, and are then able to lodge in the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25604",
"title": "Radon",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.:Relationship to smoking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "According to the EPA, the risk of lung cancer for smokers is significant due to synergistic effects of radon and smoking. For this population about 62 people in a total of 1,000 will die of lung cancer compared to 7 people in a total of 1,000 for people who have never smoked. It cannot be excluded that the risk of non-smokers should be primarily explained by a combination effect of radon and passive smoking (see below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10934212",
"title": "Air pollution",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Cancer (lung cancer).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Other harm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Current research shows that tobacco smokers who are exposed to residential radon are twice as likely to develop lung cancer as non-smokers. As well, the risk of developing lung cancer from asbestos exposure is twice as likely for smokers than for non-smokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Lung cancer risk is highly affected by smoking with up to 90% of cases being caused by tobacco smoking. Risk of developing lung cancer increases with number of years smoking and number of cigarettes smoked per day. Smoking can be linked to all subtypes of lung cancer. Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (SCLC) is the most closely associated with almost 100% of cases occurring in smokers. This form of cancer has been identified with autocrine growth loops, proto-oncogene activation and inhibition of tumour suppressor genes. SCLC may originate from neuroendocrine cells located in the bronchus called Feyrter cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386818",
"title": "Smoking ban",
"section": "Section::::Evidence basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Research has generated evidence that second-hand smoke causes the same problems as direct smoking, including lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and lung ailments such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma. Specifically, meta-analyses show that lifelong non-smokers with partners who smoke in the home have a 20–30% greater risk of lung cancer than non-smokers who live with non-smokers. Non-smokers exposed to cigarette smoke in the workplace have an increased lung cancer risk of 16–19%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
395eaq
|
how did children from completely different parts of the world come up with the exact-same schoolyard games?
|
[
{
"answer": "Think you are underestimating both the time these games have been around for and the extent to which families move around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kids talk to other kids and go to summer camp. Stuff like that packed with games their parents tell them really.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33570472",
"title": "Girls' toys and games",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Children's games during the Middle Ages and earlier are something of a mystery, since the rules of the games were passed from generation to generation orally. In rare cases, the games survived long enough to be recorded in later centuries. Pieter Bruegel's painting \"Children's Games\" (1560) depicts many games popular with Flemish children of the time. Girls can be shown playing games that involve balls, musical instruments, and games that involved carrying other children or performing other challenges. Hide-and-seek, leapfrog and tag are some perennially popular games that seem to have survived over the centuries in Europe and North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1677928",
"title": "Children's song",
"section": "Section::::Children’s playground and street songs.:Game songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Many children's playground and street songs are connected to particular games. These include clapping games, like \"Miss Susie', played in America; \"A sailor went to sea\" from Britain; and \"Mpeewa\", played in parts of Africa. Many traditional Māori children's games, some of them with educational applications—such as hand movement, stick and string games—were accompanied by particular songs. In the Congo, the traditional game \"A Wa Nsabwee\" is played by two children synchronising hand and other movements while singing. Skipping games like Double Dutch have been seen as important in the formation of hip hop and rap music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402942",
"title": "List of traditional children's games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Traditional children's games are defined, \"as those that are played informally with minimal equipment, that children learn by example from other children, and that can be played without reference to written rules. These games are usually played by children between the ages of 7 and 12, with some latitude on both ends of the age range.\" \"Children's traditional games (also called folk games) are those that are passed from child to child, generation to generation, informally by word of mouth,\" and most children's games include at least two of the following six features in different proportion: physical skill, strategy, chance, repetition of patterns, creativity, and vertigo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2227998",
"title": "Seven Up (game)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The origin of this elementary school game being played in American classrooms goes back to at least the 1950s, perhaps earlier. A game called seven-up is mentioned in the Ansonia (Ohio) \"Mirror\" newspaper issue of May 13, 1882.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45425947",
"title": "Sansukumi-ken",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Ken games underwent a transformation from drinking games played by adults into children's games. Several Japanese writers made note of the observation that children were playing a game once associated with brothels. The author of Asukawa, an essay in Bunka 7, admonishes children for playing hand games. He had this to say: \"In former days children used to play red-shell-horse-riding or they fought with the shell of mussels. Of today's children nobody knows these games. The games which children play when they come together are \"The old man goes to the mountain to cut wood, while the old woman goes to the river to wash\" like in former times, but now they play also mushi-ken, fox ken, and original ken. How funny!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604532",
"title": "The Crystal Maze",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Several games were derived from familiar, commercially available children's or fairground games, including steady hand testers, mazes, and sliding puzzles; games in some zones sometimes appeared in other zones with some cosmetic changes and some variations to previous incarnations, with some game designs tending to become more elaborate in later series. A small number of games differed from the traditional style of those that were featured; while they fell under one of the four categories available, they did not comply to the traditional style for the games on the show:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9262",
"title": "Entertainment",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Children have always played games. It is accepted that as well as being entertaining, playing games helps children's development. One of the most famous visual accounts of children's games is a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called \"Children's Games\", painted in 1560. It depicts children playing a range of games that presumably were typical of the time. Many of these games, such as marbles, hide-and-seek, blowing soap bubbles and piggyback riding continue to be played.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ql8ry
|
Why are there only 4 "letters" of DNA?
|
[
{
"answer": "Only 4 different nitrogenous bases might seem like too few to encode the diverse complexity of life, but your computer is coded completely in binary (1s and 0s). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " The interesting thing is that the Adenosine, Thymine (Uracil for RNA), Cytosine and Guanine are NOT the only nucleotides that are present in nature. There is also xanthine, hypoxanthine, and inosine. \n Also, the traditional Watson-Crick bases that are said to be present in RNA are NOT the ONLY bases that can be present in RNA. For example, there is an enzyme called Adenosine deaminase (ADA for short) that deaminates adenosine to form inosine (which is a non-Watson-Crick nuceloside) and if the enzyme does not deaminate a specific nucleotide in a specific gene, this results in ALS (or Lou-Gerrig's disease). In short, the \"four nitrogenous bases rule\" is an over simplification of RNA since other nitrogenous bases can be present in mainly RNA structures. \n As to if it is possible that a similar DNA structure could exist that is double helical and self-replicating (DNA actually uses protien enzymes to replicate and is generally considered to have very little catalytic activity. RNA is the one that is self-replicating and has catalytic activity), it is entirely possible that very similar nitrogenous bases could be arranged with a phosphate backbone to form another organism's \"basis of life\" but the problem is that the structure of said molecule would be hard to determine unless we were exposed to it and were able to determine the structure. In the scenario in which we discover a new \"basis of life,\" the structure of the molecule does not necessarily matter if the organism finds a way to deal with the structure and replicate. The reason that we care that DNA is helical is that the enzymes that bind DNA as well as unzip it to make more DNA (the enzymes that make DNA are called polymerases whereas the enzymes that unzip the DNA are called helicases) are specifically tuned to work with that helical structure. \n\nedit: mindule pointed out my error in saying that DNA contains Inosine; RNA actually contains Inosine. For RNA, there is more variation with the types of nitrogneous bases that are present, but in general, DNA does only contain 4 nitrogenous bases. I do think that jurble and smashy_smashy made some excellent points as to how this necessarily a limitation since it leaves a lot of room for genetic variation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not a limitation, 4 is more than enough to code for all the amino acids we need. A codon is 3-base pairs long, and 4x4x4 = 64 possible combinations. There are only 20 standard and 2 non-standard amino-acids. We would have to add > 42 amino acids to our repertoire in order for more DNA bases to make sense. \n\n ((Well... maybe. If we were theoretically designing a hypothetical organism with more amino acids, it might make sense to throw in an extra-base at around maybe 35-ish, or something. This gives you the benefit of redundancy in code. Our 64 possible codon combinations vs the 20 amino acids they code for allow for redundancy, so we can absorb a bit of mutation without breaking down.))\n\n\nHere's a thread that explains codons and shit:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Useful reading on the subject: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may wish to look into: 5-methyl cytosine, 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, 5-formylcytosine, 5-carboxycytosine, N-6 methyladenine, 'Base J', putrescinyl thymine. These are a selection of bases found in DNA across various branches of the tree of life; there are more.\n\nRelevant paper/review authors: Gommers-Ampt, Borst, Warren, Ratel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "331535",
"title": "Nucleic acid sequence",
"section": "Section::::Nucleotides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The possible letters are \"A\", \"C\", \"G\", and \"T\", representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand — adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine — covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3110015",
"title": "Ancient Greek phonology",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Older literature.:Ancient Greek sources.:Dionysius Thrax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 360,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 360,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "The remaining seventeen letters are consonants [pronounced-with]: \"b, g, d, z, th, k, l, m, n, x, p, r, s, t, ph, kh, ps\". They are called consonants because they do not have a sound on their own, but they form a complete sound when arranged with vowels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34720497",
"title": "Taylor shorthand",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The shapes of the letters are as follows. Because they are not supported by computer fonts, Canadian syllabics have been substituted where these have approximately the same shape (though they tend to have deeper curves and shorter lines than the shorthand letters); where a symbol is not available, a description is given. \"L\" and \"r\" are written upwards; all other vertical and diagonal letters are written downwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848217",
"title": "Persian alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Letters.:Letters that do not link to a following letter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Seven letters (, , , , , , ) do not connect to a following letter, unlike the rest of the letters of the alphabet. The seven letters have the same form in isolated and initial position and a second form in medial and final position. For example, when the letter is at the beginning of a word such as (\"here\"), the same form is used as in an isolated . In the case of (\"today\"), the letter takes the final form and the letter takes the isolated form, but they are in the middle of the word, and also has its isolated form, but it occurs at the end of the word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199662",
"title": "Rock (confectionery)",
"section": "Section::::Making rock.:Lettering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The letters are not made in order of appearance in the name (B, L, A, C, K, P, O, O, L) but by their shape; \"square\" letters, (B, E, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, T, W, X, Y and Z), are made first, as they will not lose their shape, while \"triangle\" (A and V) and \"round\" (C, D, G, O, Q, S, U) letters are made last to prevent them from losing their shape, as the toffee is still reasonably soft at this point. For example, the letters that make up \"BLACKPOOL ROCK\" may be made in this order: B, P, R, K(×2), L(×2), A, C(×2) and O(×3). The individual letters are placed between blocks or sticks at this point, to prevent them from losing shape and going flat. The letters are then placed in their correct spelling order with a \"strip\" of white, aerated toffee between each letter to make it readable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1971339",
"title": "History of the Arabic alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "After all this, there were only 17 letters that were different in shape. One letter-shape represented 5 phonemes (\"b t th n\" and sometimes \"y\"), one represented 3 phonemes (\"j ħ kh\"), and 5 each represented 2 phonemes. Compare the Hebrew alphabet, as in the table at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2265435",
"title": "Arabic chat alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Comparison table.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Since many letters are distinguished from others solely by a dot above or below the main portion of the character, the transliterations of these letters frequently use the same letter or number with an apostrophe added before or after (e.g. \"'3\" is used to represent ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yo5jl
|
If you were placed in a room with 30% oxygen and 70% helium, would you be able to breathe normally?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes; you can breathe this just fine. Deep sea divers utilize HeliOx to avoid nitrogen narcosis. You would take funny, but could breathe it just fine at least short term.\n\nThis assumes that you're breathing this at a normal pressure. If you were actually diving or in a compression chamber, you have to consider the partial pressure of the gases.\n\nI'm not sure the long term effect of the elevated O2 percentage. Someone else will need to address that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wouldn't this scenario be fatal? I assume the helium would occupy the upper 70 percent of the room (likely where you are breathing from) and the oxygen the remainder? Which makes me wonder how the \"normal air\" that we breath contains so many different gases? And what is the by-product of a human exhaling consumed helium?\n\nCool question - breathing (and the effects) is certainly something that I had taken for granted and not paid much thought to!\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Helium can be combined with oxygen to treat diseases such as severe asthma. The combination is called Heliox and is used because when oxygen is combined with helium, the density of the gas mixture decreases which improves the flow of turbulent gas through constricted airways such as in acute asthma attacks. So breathing helium and oxygen is possible and is an actual medical treatment. \n\nAlso, for the others who have commented that inert gases do not have biological interactions, that statement is not true. Xenon is an inert gas but can be used as an anesthetic for general anesthesia. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13256",
"title": "Helium",
"section": "Section::::Inhalation and safety.:Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration. Fatalities have been recorded, including a youth who suffocated in Vancouver in 2003 and two adults who suffocated in South Florida in 2006. In 1998, an Australian girl (her age is not known) from Victoria fell unconscious and temporarily turned blue after inhaling the entire contents of a party balloon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130492",
"title": "Suicide bag",
"section": "Section::::Short term physiological effects and hazards of the gases used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Helium and nitrogen are non toxic and can be breathed with no ill effects over short or long term when oxygen levels are sufficient, and present no health risk to third parties except asphyxiation. The danger lies in that they are undetectable by human senses, and the first warning of their presence in asphyxiant concentrations may be loss of consciousness. Lower concentrations may cause confusion and weakness. Use of a suicide bag in a well ventilated room using either of these gases is unlikely to pose a hazard for other people, and there is no fire hazard. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31489",
"title": "Trimix (breathing gas)",
"section": "Section::::History as a diving gas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1919: Professor Elihu Thomson speculates that helium could be used instead of nitrogen to reduce the breathing resistance at great depth. Heliox was used with air tables resulting in a high incidence of decompression sickness, so the use of helium was discontinued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489941",
"title": "Saturation diving",
"section": "Section::::Medical aspects.:Extreme depth effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "A breathing gas mixture of oxygen, helium and hydrogen was developed for use at extreme depths to reduce the effects of high pressure on the central nervous system. Between 1978 and 1984, a team of divers from Duke University in North Carolina conducted the \"Atlantis\" series of on-shore-hyperbaric-chamber-deep-scientific-test-dives. In 1981, during an extreme depth test dive to 686 metres (2251 ft) they breathed the conventional mixture of oxygen and helium with difficulty and suffered trembling and memory lapses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31489",
"title": "Trimix (breathing gas)",
"section": "Section::::Mixes.:Advantages of helium in the mix.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The main reason for adding helium to the breathing mix is to reduce the proportions of nitrogen and oxygen below those of air, to allow the gas mix to be breathed safely on deep dives. A lower proportion of nitrogen is required to reduce nitrogen narcosis and other physiological effects of the gas at depth. Helium has very little narcotic effect. A lower proportion of oxygen reduces the risk of oxygen toxicity on deep dives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33209445",
"title": "Fraction of inspired oxygen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Fraction of inspired oxygen (\"Fi\"O) is the fraction of oxygen in the volume being measured. Medical patients experiencing difficulty breathing are provided with oxygen-enriched air, which means a higher-than-atmospheric \"Fi\"O. Natural air includes 21% oxygen, which is equivalent to \"Fi\"O of 0.21. Oxygen-enriched air has a higher \"Fi\"O than 0.21; up to 1.00 which means 100% oxygen. \"Fi\"O is typically maintained below 0.5 even with mechanical ventilation, to avoid oxygen toxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31489",
"title": "Trimix (breathing gas)",
"section": "Section::::History as a diving gas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1924: The US Navy begins examining helium's potential usage and by the mid-1920s lab animals were exposed to experimental chamber dives using heliox. Soon, human subjects breathing heliox 20/80 (20% oxygen, 80% helium) had been successfully decompressed from deep dives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6v8wpr
|
What parts of WW2 fighter aircraft were armored?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the most part there was very little armor included in fighter aircraft of WWII. The Japanese Ki-43-II only had a single 13mm steel plate behind the pilot. Even planes renowned for their ruggedness such as the P-47 had only minor armor. The P-47D had a 10mm plate behind the pilot and a small plate in front of the pilot under the canopy. For fighters, armor played only a small role in the durability of the plane. Fighters had to be light and manoeuvrable in order to effectively fit their role. The Bf-109 came with an additional armor plate behind the headrest, but this was often removed by pilots who considered increased visibility to be more valuable. \n\nThe only other protection resembling armor on fighters would be strengthened glass which could withstand a few hits from low calibre rounds. This would only be found right in front of the pilot, with few exceptions. The skin on the wings and fuselage were not thickened because the disadvantage of the extra mass far outweighed any small increase that may have been gained in this manner.\n\nIf you would like to know more about planes with heavier armor we would need to look at ground attackers such as the legendary IL-2 and the Hs.129. A modern example of such a plane would be the A-10 Warthog currently in service with the US military.\nI would suggest you watch [this](_URL_0_) video by youtuber Bismark for a good overview of this topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6623866",
"title": "Aircraft of the Battle of Britain",
"section": "Section::::Fighter aircraft.:Main types: Hurricane, Spitfire and Bf 109.:Durability and armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Spitfire, from about mid-1940, had 73 pounds (33 kg) of armoured steel plating in the form of head (of 6.5 mm thickness) and back protection on the seat bulkhead (4.5 mm), and covering the forward face of the glycol header tank. The Hurricane had a similar armour layout to the Spitfire, and was the toughest and most durable of the three. Serviceability rates of Hawker's fighter were always higher than the complex and advanced Spitfire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8058105",
"title": "Oliver Goodall",
"section": "Section::::The B25.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Besides firepower the B-25's had some pretty good armor. The B-25's were equipped with ¼ inch (6 mm) armor along the bombardier compartment, the pilot compartment and the upper turret. Then the rest of the plane had 3/8 inch (10 mm) armor around most of the hull, but an interesting note is that there is ½ inch armor behind the tail gunner that was used to protect the tail gunner from the upper turret gunner. (Heavenly Body)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10929",
"title": "Fighter aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Piston engine fighters.:World War II.:Technological innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "World War II fighters also increasingly featured monocoque construction, which improved their aerodynamic efficiency while adding structural strength. Laminar flow wings, which improved high speed performance, also came into use on fighters such as the P-51, while the Messerschmitt Me 262 and the Messerschmitt Me 163 featured swept wings that dramatically reduced drag at high subsonic speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6623866",
"title": "Aircraft of the Battle of Britain",
"section": "Section::::Fighter aircraft.:Main types: Hurricane, Spitfire and Bf 109.:Fuel tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The main fuel tanks of the Spitfire, which were mounted in the fuselage forward of the cockpit, were better protected than that of the Hurricane; the lower tank was self-sealing and a panel of 3 mm thick aluminium, sufficient to deflect small calibre bullets, was wrapped externally over the top tanks. Internally they were coated with layers of \"Linatex\" and the cockpit bulkhead was fireproofed with a thick panel of asbestos .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164892",
"title": "Heavy fighter",
"section": "Section::::Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "A major heavy fighter design was the Messerschmitt Bf 110, a German fighter that, prior to the war, was considered by the German Luftwaffe more important than their single-engine fighters. Many of the best pilots were assigned to Bf 110 wings, specifically designated as \"Zerstörergeschwader\" (\"destroyer squadron\") wings. While lighter fighters were intended for defense, the destroyers were intended for offensive missions: to escort bombers on missions at long range, then use its superior speed to outrun defending fighters that would be capable of outmaneuvering it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9601909",
"title": "Bubble canopy",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The open-cockpit design combat aircraft of World War I had narrow fuselages, which often were not tall enough to block visibility to the rear, especially with seating positions that generally elevated the pilot's head well above the cockpit's edges. As planes became larger, heavier and faster, designs had to be made stronger, which often meant a taller rear fuselage, but designers tried to maintain the narrow fuselage for visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26103",
"title": "Rotary engine",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The favourable power-to-weight ratio of the rotaries was their greatest advantage. While larger, heavier aircraft relied almost exclusively on conventional in-line engines, many fighter aircraft designers preferred rotaries right up to the end of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o2w1a
|
Why is a lump of coal black, but a diamond is clear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of many minerals. Diamond is a mineral composed of a carbon-based crystal structure. If impurities are present in that structure, the clarity of diamond (or any mineral) can be altered. That is why we see varying colors of diamonds.\n\nA better question would ask why graphite (also a cabon-based structure) is gray/black and diamonds are clearer. Both are considered allotropes of carbon with different crystal structures that propagate light differently, which varies their appearance. \n\nFun fact: Diamond is not stable at our atmospheric temperature and pressure (think ground surface and areas we inhabit) and will eventually break down to graphite. Although, this could take a few billion years. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're probably thinking \". . .if they're both made of carbon?\" But they're still very different substances. Coal is a mixture of who-knows-how-many different compounds, most of them of very high molecular weight. There are a lot of aromatic rings in there, but it's not an easy mixture to analyze. The key thing is that it's a very heterogeneous material. Light gets absorbed by the huge delocalized aromatic compounds, and it gets scattered by the fine-grained non-crystalline nature of the bulk solid.\n\nDiamond, on the other hand, is as homogeneous as it gets. It's all single-bonded carbon atoms in a regular lattice, and it's only when you get defects and the inclusion of other elements that you see any colors at all. Visible light isn't absorbed at all by carbon-carbon single bonds, which is why gases like butane and liquids like hexane are colorless as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To build on the other answers here, visible light is absorbed by electronic transitions in molecules, i.e. by exciting electrons to a higher energy state (vibrational and rotational transitions are too low in energy for visible light, absorbing in the infrared and microwave range respectively). However, the transitions of most bonds, including single bonds, are too high in energy and only absorb in the UV. Pure diamond has only carbon-carbon single bonds, so it doesn't absorb any visible light. It does, however, absorb UV light with wavelengths below 225 nm (short wave UV). \n\nThe lower the gap between electronic energy levels, the lower energy of radiation capable of being absorbed. Delocalized pi systems allow many electrons to share a system of closely spaced levels. Ozone has a three-atom pi system, which is what causes its absorption of mid-sized UV in the range of 200 nm - 315 nm which makes it famous. Larger pi systems generally have smaller spacing between their energy levels, allowing them to absorb down into the visible range. The indicator [Phenolphthalein](_URL_2_) is an example of this. In its basic form, it has a large pi system consisting of two coplanar benzene rings connected by a pi system, which causes it to absorb visible light and appear purple. However, in its acidic form, the system is disrupted into two unconnected benzene rings, meaning it only absorbs in the UV.\n\nOne class of compounds with large pi systems is [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons](_URL_0_), which are systems of multiple benzene rings sharing edges. As shown is [this image](_URL_3_), from [this page](_URL_1_), larger PAHs absorb lower energy light, as we would expect. High grade coal is composed almost entirely carbon, much of it in the form of PAHs of varying sizes, because there is so much, in all different sizes, along with other compounds and impurities, coal absorbs basically all visible light, making it appear black. Graphite can be thought of as the highest grade of coal, consisting of stacked sheets of what are basically gigantic PAH systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59603638",
"title": "Michael Morris (oceanographer)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Blue diamonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The researchers discovered that all blue diamonds show red and green peaks in their phosphorescence spectrum, due to the presence of nitrogen and boron in the stones. The intensity and rate of decay of the spectrum varies from diamond to diamond. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19846028",
"title": "Diamond type",
"section": "Section::::Types of Diamond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1233,
"text": "BULLET::::- Type Ia diamonds make up about 95% of all natural diamonds. The nitrogen impurities, up to 0.3% (3000 ppm), are clustered within the carbon lattice, and are relatively widespread. The absorption spectrum of the nitrogen clusters can cause the diamond to absorb blue light, making it appear pale yellow or almost colorless. Most Ia diamonds are a mixture of IaA and IaB material; these diamonds belong to the \"Cape series\", named after the diamond-rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa, whose deposits are largely Type Ia. Type Ia diamonds often show sharp absorption bands with the main band at 415.5 nm (N3) and weaker lines at 478 nm (N2), 465 nm, 452 nm, 435 nm, and 423 nm (the \"Cape lines\"), caused by the N2 and N3 nitrogen centers. They also show blue fluorescence to long-wave ultraviolet radiation due to the N3 nitrogen centers (the N3 centers do not impair visible color, but are always accompanied by the N2 centers which do). Brown, green, or yellow diamonds show a band in the green at 504 nm (H3 center), sometimes accompanied by two additional weak bands at 537 nm and 495 nm (H4 center, a large complex presumably involving 4 substitutional nitrogen atoms and 2 lattice vacancies).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28951073",
"title": "Pink Panther jewel",
"section": "Section::::Pink diamonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Type II diamonds have almost no nitrogen impurities in them. Their coloration is due to structural anomalies caused by Plastic Deformation during crystal growth. The intense pressure changes the lattice structure of diamonds and leads to the formation of pink, red, and brown diamonds. Only one of the 66 largest diamonds in the world is pink. When Ben Affleck gave Jennifer Lopez a pink diamond solitaire engagement ring, traffic to Web sites that sold pink diamonds increased by around 300 to 400 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082",
"title": "Diamond",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions being boron and nitrogen). Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion (ability to disperse light of different colors).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082",
"title": "Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Material properties.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1442,
"text": "Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. \"Black\", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the \"normal color range\", and applies a grading scale from \"D\" (colorless) to \"Z\" (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color, such as blue, are called \"fancy colored\" diamonds and fall under a different grading scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1953716",
"title": "Carbonado",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Carbonado, commonly known as the \"black diamond\", is the toughest form of natural diamond. It is an impure form of polycrystalline diamond consisting of diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. It is found primarily in alluvial deposits in the Central African Republic and in Brazil. Its natural colour is black or dark grey, and it is more porous than other diamonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17855617",
"title": "Diamond flaw",
"section": "Section::::External flaws.:Carbons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Diamonds are made from carbon, usually graphite. Nevertheless, while a diamond is being formed, it may not totally crystallize, leading to the presence of small dots of black carbon. These black spots have been classified to be those of graphite, pyrrhotite and pentlandite. These surface flaws resemble a small black dot and may affect the clarity of the stone depending on the size of the imperfection. The occurrence of this kind of flaw is less common in diamonds compared to pinpoint inclusions. Carbons are usually seen in white or blue-white stones. Carbons are not commonly found in diamonds of poorer colors. Within the trade, these are called \"carbon spots\" and may be cleavage cracks which have developed through uneven heating or a blow. Cleavage cracks often appear to be dark or black in normal lighting conditions because of light reflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ms8zb
|
Why was the SA and SS allowed/accepted in Germany before Hitler ultimately took power in 1933?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Republic did have the legal power to ban both of these organizations as early as 1922. The *Republikschutzgesetz* (Law for the Protection of the Republic) gave both the *Land* and central governments broad authority to suppress organizations deemed a threat to the Republic. These laws allowed for the temporary bans of media that encourage violence. Under the rubric of \"endangering public safety,\" the *Republikschutzgesetz* outlawed the organizations from owning unauthorized weapons, the creation and brandishing of a weapons arsenal, and criminalized the failure to report on the existence of weapons arsenal. But gun control and regulation was not the primary focus of the *Republikschutzgesetz* but rather to restrict the operations of various anti-republican groups and provide grounds for their prosecution. The *Republikschutzgesetz*'s provisions on firearms were predicated upon a pre-existing January 1919 Reichstag legislation which banned the private ownership of firearms to meet provisions of the Versailles Treaty which called for a wide-ranging German disarmament, including non-state affiliated militias. \n\nThe Law had a five-year life, but was extended in both 1927 and 1929. Inn the latter year, the Republic used the *Republikschutzgesetz* to ban the KPD's paramilitary wing, the *Roter Frontkämpferbund* (RFB). The ban was relatively ineffective; Berlin police reported that the RFB still collected dues and many RFB members simply did not wear their uniforms and insignia, but still hewed to their paramilitary organization. The ban restricted membership and new recruitment, but did not kill the organization. \n\nNonetheless, the ban of the RFB did send a clear signal as to the authorities' thoughts on Communist paramilitaries. But neither the NSDAP's SA or SS were banned in 1929, despite evidence of considerable violence by the NSDAP groups. Nor did the ban the *Stahlhelm* paramilitary of the right-wing DNVP or the socialist *Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold* of the SDP. These paramilitaries continued to function in the chaos years of the Depression and their street brawls contributed to a larger sense of the Republic's terminal decline. \n\nThe nominal reason for not banning these organizations was that a group like the SA was only open to NSDAP members. Therefore, applying the *Republikschutzgesetz* to the SA or SS was not banning a paramilitary organization, but suppressing an internal part of a political party, which the Constitution forbid. But this type of rationale could have also applied to the RFB. The continued survival of both the *Stahlhelm* and the RSRG point to favortism on the part of the state towards those in power, but this still does not explain the reluctance to apply the law to the NSDAP, who were self-described political outsiders. There were repeated calls between 1930 and 1931 to ban the NSDAP's paramilitary wing, but the state and *Land* governments dragged their feet until April 1932 and the Brüning government banned the SA and SS. \n\nBut by this time, the SA, and to a lesser extent, the SS, had a large enough following to make the ban toothless. SA men simply wore insignia on the inside of their lapels or marched in plain white shirts. Various *Land* laws against uniforms were evaded through such measures. Moreover, both the SA and SS tended to frame their flaunting of the ban or *ersatz* uniforms as an issue of free speech protected by the constitution. The fall of the Brüning led to a reversal of the NSDAP ban by von Papen the following June.\n\nThis reluctance and von Papen's reversal showcases one of the fundamental problems of the *Republikschutzgesetz*: although the law itself was politically neutral, its application was not. Von Papen and his entourage certainly thought they could use the NSDAP for its own ends, but the reluctance to use the law against right-wing groups ran deeper than the immediate political milieu of 1932. The Weimar justice system, ranging from police to judges, was \"blind in the right eye,\" meaning that right-wing radicals received far less attention for their activities than those on the left. Hitler and his fellow defendants' slap on the wrist for the Beer Hall Putsch was only one example of a justice system that was quite lenient for right-wing radicalism. In all the debates over applying the law to the NSDAP, few in the central government considered reversing the RFB ban. The various Weimar police departments investigated the KPD's groups with far more alacrity than equivalent right-wing opponents of the Republic. \n\nThis selective legal astigmatism did not prevent Hitler from making political hay from the few times the NSDAP felt state repression. Both in his run-up to power and after Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, the NSDAP would use these few examples of the *Republikschutzgesetz* as evidence that the NSDAP had triumphed against a hostile establishment that had stacked the odds against them. The Republic's use of political suppression became an opportunity for the NSDAP to cast democratic opponents of the Nazi seizure of power as hypocrites. When the Centre Württemberg State President, Eugen Bolz critiqued the NSDAP's antidemocratic moves in February 1933, Hitler responded in a speech attacking both Bolz and presenting his Chancellorship as a true defense of freedom:\n\n > Those who made no mention of our freedom for fourteen years have no right to talk about it today. As Chancellor I need only use one law for the protection of the national state, just as they made a law for the protection of the Republic back then, and then they would realize that not everything they called freedom was worthy of the name. \n\nBolz ended up forced out of office, spent a few weeks inside a concentration camp, and then in the political wilderness of the 1930s under Gestapo surveillance. \n\nIt is possible that Hitler and other NSDAP leaders may have believed that the main ire *Republikschutzgesetz* was directed at them. The NSDAP soon enacted their own version of *Republikschutzgesetz* in February 1933 as part of the Reichstag Fire Decrees, and Goebbels's diary entries from this period show a certain glee at meeting out vengeance and bans against their political enemies of the 1929-33 period. But the NSDAP's public rhetoric about the *Republikschutzgesetz* was half-right. The application of the law did stack the deck, but in *favor* of the NSDAP and their fellow-travelers on the right. They saw not only their ideological rivals on the left suppressed by the law, but could benefit from knowing how the RFB evaded it when the *Republikschutzgesetz* belatedly came for them. \n\n*Sources*\n\nEvans, Richard J. *The Coming of the Third Reich*. New York: Penguin Press, 2004. \n\nFulda, Bernhard. *Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. \n\nSwett, Pamela E. *Neighbors and Enemies: The Culture of Radicalism in Berlin, 1929-1933*. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12485421",
"title": "Marie Juchacz",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Exile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "On 30 January 1933 Adolf Hitler was appointed Reichs Chancellor. The AWO continued to function for a few more months, but after the Reichstag fire at the end of February and the Reichstag election of 5 March 1933, political parties found themselves banned, with the SPD, second only to the Nazi party in the March elections, prominent in the firing line. SPD members were killed or arrested while others lost their jobs. The AWO, like other organisations that had opposed the Nazi tide, disintegrated. The SPD leadership fled to Prague while Juchacz, now aged 54, and together with her sister's widower, , whom she had now married, fled to Saarbrücken, which at this stage was still under French military control. In Saarbrücken she continued to campaign against National Socialism, and also set up a lunch centre to provide some contact for refugees from Germany who suddenly found themselves stateless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27040",
"title": "Schutzstaffel",
"section": "Section::::Pre-war Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "After Hitler and the NSDAP came to power on 30 January 1933, the SS were considered a state organization and a branch of the government. Law enforcement gradually became the purview of the SS, and many SS organizations became de facto government agencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34036917",
"title": "Altona Bloody Sunday",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Following a policy of appeasing the Nazi Party, Franz von Papen's government on 28 June 1932 lifted a ban on the SA and SS which had been in place since April. This led to recurrent riots and open street fighting between Nazis and Communists. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5806746",
"title": "Tri-Ergon",
"section": "Section::::History.:1932 Paris conference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Following the Reichstag fire, the NSDAP (Nazi Party) began to suspend civil liberties and eliminate political opposition. The Communists were excluded from the Reichstag. Adolf Hitler called on Reichstag members to vote for the Enabling Act on 24 March 1933, completing his rise to power from 1919 through the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 to Chancellor ('Reichkanzler') of the German Reich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163105",
"title": "Sicherheitspolizei",
"section": "Section::::Nazi Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "When the Nazis came to national power, Germany, as a federal state, had myriad local and centralised police agencies, which often were un-coordinated and had overlapping jurisdictions. Himmler and Heydrich's grand plan was to fully absorb all the police and security apparatus into the structure of the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS). To this end, Himmler took command first of the Gestapo (itself developed from the Prussian Secret Police). Then on 17 June 1936 all police forces throughout Germany were united, following Adolf Hitler's appointment of Himmler as \"Chef der Deutschen Polizei\" (Chief of German Police). As such he was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, but in practice Himmler answered only to Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54378",
"title": "Sturmabteilung",
"section": "Section::::After the purge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The SA officially ceased to exist in May 1945 when Nazi Germany collapsed. The SA was banned by the Allied Control Council shortly after Germany's capitulation. In 1946, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg formally judged the SA not to be a criminal organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "The \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA) and the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS) functioned as the paramilitary organizations of the Nazi Party. Using the SS for the task, Hitler purged the party's more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives, including the leadership of the SA. After the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in Hitler's hands and he became Germany's head of state as well as the head of the government, with the title of \"Führer\", meaning \"leader\". From that point, Hitler was effectively the dictator of Nazi Germany, which was also known as the \"Third Reich\", under which Jews, political opponents and other \"undesirable\" elements were marginalized, imprisoned or murdered. Many millions of people were eventually exterminated in a genocide which became known as the Holocaust during World War II, including around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
364r80
|
credit score lookup. why does it impede your credit score? seems like a basic, no hassle thing to find like checking your bank account.
|
[
{
"answer": "There's two types of credit checks. \"Soft\" checks are done when you want to look at your score or somebody's doing a background check on you. \"Hard\" checks are done when somebody's checking your score for the sake of lending you money.\n\nThe logic is that if somebody has suddenly started applying for lots of credit, they might be on the edge of a serious financial problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To keep you toiling away in the dirt. It's all a massive scam. They ping you for looking at it, they ping you for paying on time but not all in one payment. Come on, lets be 100% honest. The financial system is set up so idiots fail. Banks made $30billion (with a B) off of overdraft fees. This nation is making BILLIONS off of the most broke citizens in society. Yes, we have cable and walmart, we're free!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's like asking \"am I cool?\".\n\nAsking the question automatically makes you less cool. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10595597",
"title": "Identity score",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Credit scores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Credit scores are compiled from information sources relating to credit, such as number of credit accounts held, balances on each account, dates of collection activity, and so on. Credit scores do not measure any financial or personal activity that is not related to credit, and identity fraud that does not involve credit will not appear on your credit report or affect your credit score. Credit scores and the credit scoring system are also very predictable—there are specific steps you follow to improve your credit score, dispute errors in credit reports, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "It is very difficult for a consumer to know in advance whether they have a high enough credit score to be accepted for credit with a given lender. This situation is due to the complexity and structure of credit scoring, which differs from one lender to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Lenders need not reveal their credit score head, nor need they reveal the minimum credit score required for the applicant to be accepted. Owing only to this lack of information to the consumer, it is impossible for him or her to know in advance if they will pass a lender's credit scoring requirements. However, it may still be useful for consumers to gauge their chances of being successful with their credit or loan applications by checking their credit score prior to applying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Credit scoring models.:FICO score.:Makeup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Credit scores are designed to measure the risk of default by taking into account various factors in a person's financial history. Although the exact formulas for calculating credit scores are secret, FICO has disclosed the following components:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In the United States, a credit score is a number based on a statistical analysis of a person's credit files, that in theory represents the creditworthiness of that person, which is the likelihood that people will pay their bills. A credit score is primarily based on credit report information, typically from one of the three major credit bureaus: Experian, TransUnion, and Equifax. Income and employment history (or lack thereof) are not considered by the major credit bureaus when calculating credit scores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10279219",
"title": "Credit scorecards",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "A typical mistaken belief about credit scoring is that the only trait that matters is whether you have actually made payments on time as well as satisfied your monetary obligations in a prompt way. While payment background is essential, however it still just composes just over one-third of the credit rating score. Furthermore, the repayment background is only shown in your credit history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Several factors affect individual's credit scores. One factor is the amount an individual borrowed as compared to the amount of credit available to the individual. As an individual borrows, or leverages, more money, the individual's credit score decreases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
816efp
|
How , and how often, did American GIs clean their rifles in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might be best served by posting this in r/guns. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As with today, the [field manuals](_URL_1_) outline the expected care for issued rifles and equipment. \n\nAs an example: \nFM 23-6 covers the M1917 .30 Enfield \nFM 23-7 covers the M1 \nFM 23-35 covers pistols \nFM 23-15 the BAR \n\nThe [technical manuals](_URL_0_) covered what what ordnance teams would look at to service guns that needed maintenance. \n\n[TM 9-1270](_URL_2_) covers rifles \nTM 9-1295 covers pistols\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3480160",
"title": "M1917 Enfield",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1519,
"text": "Before and during World War II, stored rifles were reconditioned for use as reserve, training and Lend-Lease weapons; these rifles are identified by having refinished metal (sandblasted and Parkerized) and sometimes replacement wood (often birch). Some of these rifles were reconditioned with new bolts manufactured by the United Shoe Machinery Company and stamped USMC leading to the mistaken impression these were United States Marine Corps rifles. Many were bought by the United Kingdom through the British Purchasing Commission for use by the Home Guard; 615,000 arrived in Britain in the summer of 1940, followed by a further 119,000 in 1941. These were prominently marked with a red paint stripe around the stock to avoid confusion with the earlier P14 that used the British .303 round. Others were supplied to the Nationalist Chinese forces, to indigenous forces in the China-Burma-India theatre, to Filipino soldiers under the Philippine Army and Constabulary units and the local guerrilla forces and to the Free French Army, which can occasionally be seen in wartime photographs. The M1917 was also issued to the Local Defence Force of the Irish Army during World War II, these were part-time soldiers akin to the British Home Guard. In an ironic reversal of names, in Irish service the M1917 was often referred to as the \"Springfield\"; presumably since an \"Enfield\" rifle was assumed to be the standard Irish MkIII Short Magazine Lee–Enfield, while \"Springfield\" was known to be an American military arsenal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1247363",
"title": "Camillus Cutlery Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:1914–1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "During World War II, Camillus shipped more than 13 million knives of various styles to the Allied troops. In 1942, U.S. Marine Corps officers Colonel John M. Davis and Major Howard E. America working in conjunction with cutlery technicians at Camillus developed the KA-BAR Fighting Utility Knife. After extensive trials, the KA-BAR prototype was recommended for adoption, and Camillus was awarded the first contract to produce the KA-BAR for the Marine Corps. Camillus made more KA-BARs than any other knife manufacturer producing the model during World War II. During the war, Camillus also made the M3 fighting knives, the M4 bayonets and many other utility knives for U.S. forces, including machetes, multi-blade utility knives, TL-29 Signal Corps pocket knives for signalmen, electrician's mates, and linesmen, and combination knife/marlinspike pocket knives for use by the U.S. Navy in cutting and splicing lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "536197",
"title": "Can opener",
"section": "Section::::Military use can openers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "P-38s are no longer used for individual rations by the United States Armed Forces, as canned C-rations were replaced by soft-pack MREs in the 1980s. They are, however, included with United States military \"Tray Rations\" (canned bulk meals). They are also still seen in disaster recovery efforts and have been handed out alongside canned food by rescue organizations, both in America and abroad in Afghanistan. The original US-contract P-38 can openers were manufactured by J. W. Speaker Corp. (stamped \"US Speaker\") and by Washburn Corp. (marked \"US Androck\"), they were later made by Mallin Hardware (now defunct) of Shelby, Ohio and were variously stamped \"US Mallin Shelby O.\" or \"U.S. Shelby Co.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5374",
"title": "Condom",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Ongoing military utilization began during World War II, and includes covering the muzzles of rifle barrels to prevent fouling, the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater demolitions, and storage of corrosive materials and garrotes by paramilitary agencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10698196",
"title": "Remington Model 513",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "There was a contract from the government to Remington for 10,000 .22 target rifles in 1940. During World War II, 513T rifle were used by the Army for training purposes. This included issue to DCM affiliated clubs for training juniors, and to ROTC units. Those rifles that were purchased by the Army were stamped \"U.S. PROPERTY\" on the barrel and the receiver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1637484",
"title": "Winchester Model 70",
"section": "Section::::Military use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1785,
"text": "The United States Marine Corps purchased 373 Model 70 rifles in May, 1942. Although the Marine Corps officially used only the M1 Garand and the M1903 Springfield as sniper rifles during the Second World War, \"many Winchester Model 70s showed up at training camps and in actual field use during the Pacific campaign.\" These rifles had 24-inch shorter barrels chambered for .30-06 Springfield. They were serial numbered in the 41000 to 50000 range and were fitted with leaf sights and checkered stocks with steel butt plates, one-inch sling swivels, and leather slings. It has been reported that some of these rifles were equipped with 8X Unertl telescopic sights for limited unofficial use as sniper weapons on Guadalcanal and during the Korean War. Many of the surviving rifles, after reconditioning with heavier Douglas barrels and new stocks between 1956 and 1963 at the Marine Corps match rebuild shop in Albany, Georgia, were fitted with 8× Unertl sights from M1903A1 sniper rifles. The reconditioned rifles were used in competitive shooting matches; and the United States Army purchased approximately 200 new Model 70 National Match Rifles with medium heavy barrels for match use between 1954 and 1957. Many of the reconditioned Marine Corps match rifles were used by Marine Corps snipers during the early years of the Vietnam war with M72 match ammunition loaded with 173-grain boat-tailed bullets. A smaller number of the Army's Model 70 rifles also saw combat use by Army snipers; and some were equipped with silencers for covert operations in Southeast Asia. These Model 70 rifles never achieved the status of a standard military weapon; but were used until replaced by the Remington Model 700 series bolt-action rifles which became the basis for the M40 series sniper rifle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4312006",
"title": "British military rifles",
"section": "Section::::Rifle, Number 4 aka the Lee Enfield rifle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "During the Second World War, the British government also contracted with Canadian and US manufacturers (notably Long Branch and Savage) to produce the No. 4 Mk I* rifle. US-manufactured rifles supplied under the Lend Lease program were marked US PROPERTY on the left side of the receiver. Canada's Small Arms Limited at Long Branch made over 900,000. Many of these equipped the Canadian Army and many were supplied to the UK and New Zealand. Over a million No. 4 rifles were built by Stevens-Savage in the United States for the UK between 1941 and 1944 and all were originally marked \"U.S. PROPERTY\". Canada and the United States manufactured both the No. 4 MK. I and the simplified No. 4 MK. I*. The UK and Canada converted about 26,000 No. 4 rifles to sniper equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7aa9nz
|
how are car batteries able to be charged up with a jump start, if car batteries use chemicals for energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a battery, you have electrons moving from one of these chemicals to the other (it's a one-way road), and that motion is the \"electricity\" we use.\n\nThink of the chemicals as workers : when they run out of energy (let's say they ran out of food), you do not need to get new workers, but could get them food instead. That's what the charging process is about : you are bringing electrons back to the part of the battery that has been losing electrons while you were using it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The jump start doesn't charge the battery, it just starts the car.\n\nWhen the car is running, it charges the battery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not specific to car batteries but the chemical reaction in most batteries is a reversible process.\n\nBy putting an electrical charge back into the battery the chemicals slowly revert to their unreacted state by a process known as electrolysis.\n\nWhen you jump start a car it is too little time for the borrowed energy to have any effect on the depleted battery, you are simply allowing the starter motor to turn over and get the engine running. Once running it is self sustaining, and so long as the engine is not switched off it will slowly recharge the battery via the alternator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Car batteries are always being constantly recharged by the alternator, which is in your engine. They are not one - time - use batteries. If you leave your headlights on overnight or something and drain your battery, you hook it up to another car's battery to charge up a bit. Once you have enough in there to start your car, the alternator will recharge it the rest of the way. \n\nWhat's really fun is when your alternator dies. Then you sit there with the jumper cables on for 10-20 minutes to get enough charge into the battery so you can drive home, or to the shop. Driving a car with a dying battery is interesting, the radio goes out, the headlights flicker, and the engine starts misfiring. Then when your engine dies at 45 mph, the power steering goes with it! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:Explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when \"jump starting\" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a jumper cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "Section::::Type.:Motion-powered charger.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Several companies have begun making devices that charge batteries based on human motions. One example, made by Tremont Electric, consists of a magnet held between two springs that can charge a battery as the device is moved up and down, such as when walking. Such products have not yet achieved significant commercial success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298814",
"title": "Jump start (vehicle)",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Operation of a lead-acid battery may, in case of overcharge, produce flammable hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water inside the battery. Jump start procedures are usually found in the vehicle owner's manual. The recommended sequence of connections is intended to reduce the chance of accidentally shorting the good battery or igniting hydrogen gas. Owner's manuals will show the preferred locations for connection of jumper cables; for example, some vehicles have the battery mounted under a seat, or may have a jumper terminal in the engine compartment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2740328",
"title": "Peukert's law",
"section": "Section::::Fire Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The primary fire-danger with lead-acid batteries occurs during over-charging when hydrogen gas is produced. This danger is easily controlled by limiting the available charge voltage, and ensuring ventilation is present during charging to vent any excess hydrogen gas. A secondary danger exists when broken plates inside the battery short out the battery, or reconnect inside the battery causing an internal spark, igniting the hydrogen and oxygen generated inside the battery during very fast discharge. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277603",
"title": "Mitsubishi Outlander",
"section": "Section::::Third generation (GF/GG/ZJ/ZK; 2013–present).:Plug-in hybrid.:Specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "BULLET::::- Battery Charge Mode: when activating, whether the vehicle is in motion or at a standstill, the engine will generate electricity to be fed into the battery pack, forcing the vehicle to operate in hybrid mode. For example, if the engine is idling and the vehicle is not moving, selecting this mode will replenish a low energy level within the battery pack back up to 80% fully charged in approximately 40 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (HO) molecules are formed from H ions of the acid and O ions of PbO. Conversely, during charging the battery acts as a water-splitting device, and in the charged state the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the Sulphuric Acid in aqueous condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
254vv3
|
Are there any organisms that live their entire existence in the air?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are living bacteria in clouds. I don't think any are native to clouds, but I wouldn't be surprised if a fair number spend an entire generation (the duration of a bacteria's \"life\" is a bit hard to define) suspended in the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1596317",
"title": "Habitat",
"section": "Section::::Extreme habitats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Besides providing locomotion opportunities for winged animals and a conduit for the dispersal of pollen grains, spores and seeds, the atmosphere can be considered to be a habitat in its own right. There are metabolically active microbes present that actively reproduce and spend their whole existence airborne, with hundreds of thousands of individual organisms estimated to be present in a cubic meter of air. The airborne microbial community may be as diverse as that found in soil or other terrestrial environments, however these organisms are not evenly distributed, their densities varying spatially with altitude and environmental conditions. Aerobiology has been little studied, but there is evidence of nitrogen fixation in clouds, and less clear evidence of carbon cycling, both facilitated by microbial activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5261250",
"title": "Sergyar",
"section": "Section::::Native life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Smaller creatures, radial in design, seem to fill the ecological niches filled by insects on Earth. There are also mentions of airborne lifeforms, similar in appearance to jellyfish, that float through the atmosphere, supported by gas-filled sacs, that descend from above to leech blood from larger, moribund lifeforms. The gas is mostly hydrogen, and will explode if exposed to fire. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6470462",
"title": "List of Vorkosigan Saga planets",
"section": "Section::::Sergyar.:Native life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Smaller creatures, radial in design, seem to fill the ecological niches filled by insects on Earth. There are also mentions of airborne lifeforms, similar in appearance to jellyfish, that float through the atmosphere, supported by gas-filled sacs, that descend from above to leech blood from larger, moribund lifeforms. The gas is mostly hydrogen, and will explode if exposed to fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676889",
"title": "Aeroplankton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The aeroplankton comprises numerous microbes, including viruses, about 1000 different species of bacteria, around 40,000 varieties of fungi, and hundreds of species of protists, algae, mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores, pollen, and wind-scattered seeds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Locomotion.:Swimming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater. In many of the more primitive orders of insect, the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment. Some groups of insects, like certain water beetles, have aquatic adults as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92635",
"title": "Aerobic organism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment. In contrast, an anaerobic organism (anaerobe) is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth. Some anaerobes react negatively or even die if oxygen is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59238",
"title": "Entomology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "At some 1.3 million described species, insects account for more than two-thirds of all known organisms, date back some 400 million years, and have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ihjqb
|
lightspeed
|
[
{
"answer": "The absolute speed limit of the universe, very close to 300,000,000 meters per secend. It is the most accurately known physical constant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6642115",
"title": "Litespeed",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Titanium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Litespeed uses 6/4 titanium, which is an alloy of titanium with 6 percent aluminum and 4 percent vanadium, instead of the more-common 3/2.5 titanium. It is more difficult to work with, but has a better strength to weight ratio than other available alloys. It was initially not available as tubes, so Litespeed bought thin plates and cold-rolled and welded their own tubes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198661",
"title": "Fuzion",
"section": "Section::::Games that use \"Fuzion\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Lightspeed\": High-fantasy space opera, inspired by Star Trek and Star Wars, as well as a dozen other sci-fi settings, with two support books. (The company and the product have the same name, as Lightspeed is the only product Lightspeed makes.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31037135",
"title": "Lightspeed (magazine)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "\"Lightspeed\" was founded and run as a science fiction magazine by publisher Sean Wallace of Prime Books with John Joseph Adams as editor. Wallace also published \"Lightspeed\"'s sister companion \"Fantasy Magazine\"; Adams came on as editor of \"Fantasy Magazine\" with the March 2011 issue. \"Lightspeed\" became an SFWA-qualifying market in July of 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31037135",
"title": "Lightspeed (magazine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Lightspeed is an American online fantasy and science fiction magazine edited and published by John Joseph Adams. The first issue was published in June 2010 and it has maintained a regular monthly schedule since. The magazine currently publishes four original stories and four reprints in every issue, in addition to interviews with the authors and other nonfiction. All of the content published in each issue is available for purchase as an ebook and for free on the magazine's website. \"Lightspeed\" also makes selected stories available as a free podcast, produced by Audie Award-winning editor Stefan Rudnicki.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5004905",
"title": "Lightspeed (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Lightspeed is a video game developed and released by MicroProse in 1990. It features a space flight simulator game and action game elements with an emphasis on strategy and exploration. The box describes the title as an \"Interstellar Action and Adventure\" game. The game features space exploration, trade, combat and diplomacy in the same vein as 4X s such as \"Master of Orion\". \"Lightspeed\", unlike the popular series of turn-based strategy games, plays out in real-time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45391597",
"title": "Lightspeed (Dev song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "\"Lightspeed\" is a song by Dev from her first studio album, \"The Night the Sun Came Up\". It was released with a music video on November 22, 2011 as a promotional single. It's primarily a futuristic hip-hop song with the presence of panflute sound, articulating basses and a coughing effect after the chorus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44627885",
"title": "Lightspeed (company)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Lightspeed is a point-of-sale and e-commerce software provider based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Lightspeed provides small and medium sized retail and restaurant businesses with point of sale solutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fgetr
|
Where does (more) space come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its more like the space we have is stretching than more space is being added. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7108658",
"title": "Jain cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Six eternal substances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Ākāśa\" (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243273",
"title": "Elements of art",
"section": "Section::::Space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Space is any conducive area that an artist provides for a particular purpose. Space includes the background, foreground and middle ground, and refers to the distances or area(s) around, between, and within things. There are two kinds of space: negative space and positive space. Negative space is the area in between, around, through or within an object. Positive spaces are the areas that are occupied by an object and/or form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20876323",
"title": "Tattva (Jainism)",
"section": "Section::::Ajīva.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56865853",
"title": "Ākāśa (Jainism)",
"section": "Section::::Attributes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Space provides room to all other substances of the universe. The characteristic of space is to give room to or accommodate the other substances. The special feature of space is that it is not restricted to the universe like other substances but extends beyond the universe to the non-universe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7331209",
"title": "Thaddeus Golas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Golas posits there is no such thing as empty space. What is called space is actually a vital \"substance\" generated by living beings who are highly intelligent, identical and equal. They are quite tangible yet they are invisible to our senses and our instruments except in their effect on energy/matter. Golas suggests these beings generate a strong expansive force which pressurizes space thereby creating gravity since the pressure of space pushes us toward the Earth. Therefore, space is far denser and more forceful than the thinly spread arrays of atomic particles and photons we perceive as materials and energies; space is substantial and energy/matter is ghostly. This model offers a solution to the problem of “The Missing Matter”. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27667",
"title": "Space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19991258",
"title": "Sociology of space",
"section": "Section::::Definition of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In short, \"space\" is the social space in which we live and create relationships with other people, societies and surroundings. Space is an outcome of the hard and continuous work of building up and maintaining collectives by bringing different things into alignments. All kinds of different spaces can and therefore do exist which may or may not relate to each other. Thus, through space, we can understand more about social action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
792y84
|
I mostly know the "Magic Bullet" theory of the JFK assassination from the Seinfeld parody. What is the conspiracy theorists' claim, and why is it wrong?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow-up: when did this theory rise to prominence? Is it just with the film JFK? Or had it been in the public consciousness for a while?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The magic bullet theory is, indeed, the claim that the trajectory of the bullet was impossible, requiring several turns in mid air, and thus that there was a second gunman. \n\nIn reality the magic bullet theory is based on some false premises, and itself ignores some of the critical evidence. As in, if the magic bullet was fired by a second gunman we are short one bullet hole in the car...\n\nNote, the 'magic bullet' was the 2nd (of 3) Oswald fired. The 1st missed cleanly. The 3rd was the head shot that killed Kennedy.\n\nAlso, given the range and circumstances, this did not require nor did Oswald demonstrate unusual marksmanship.\n\nSome issues-\n\nKennedy was shot from behind, why did his head jerk *backwards*. This is a subtle effect of physics. Penn and Teller (among others) recreated it exactly with a melon. Not an issue.\n\nBullet trajectory- The Magic Bullet Theory assumes several things there were not, in fact, correct. \n\nThe car they were in was not a normal model. It was specifically modified for parades, to show off the important passenger. \n\nAs a consequence-\n\nA) Kennedy and Connolly were not aligned front to back. Connolly was closer to the center.\n\nB) Kennedy and Connolly were not at the same height. Kennedy's seat was higher, so the crowds could get a better look.\n\nC) Kennedy was not sitting upright at the time. He had leaned forward to talk to Connolly ('was that a gunshot?')\n\nD) Connolly was not facing forward at the time, he had twisted around to listen to Kennedy.\n\nAs a consequence of all of this, there was, indeed a straight line through Kennedy and Connolly, and thus no need for turns in mid air and no actual 'magic bullet'.\n\nWhy was the bullet not deformed? Until it ended up in Connolly's wrist, it passed entirely through soft tissue. And the bullet was, in fact, deformed. \n\nKennedy's as the most investigated murder in world history. And the committee doing the investigation was *extremely* thorough. There was no conspiracy, no second gunman. There was just a lone man with an opportunity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32866171",
"title": "John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Public opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "According to author John C. McAdams, \"[t]he greatest and grandest of all conspiracy theories is the Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory.\" Others have often referred to it as \"the mother of all conspiracies\". The number of books written about the assassination of Kennedy has been estimated to be between 1,000 and 2,000. According to Vincent Bugliosi, 95% of those books are \"pro-conspiracy and anti-Warren Commission\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2693399",
"title": "Richard Belzer",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Author.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Belzer believes there was a conspiracy to assassinate President John F. Kennedy and has written four books discussing conspiracy theories: \"UFOs, JFK, and Elvis: Conspiracies You Don’t Have to Be Crazy to Believe\"; \"Dead Wrong: Straight Facts on the Country’s Most Controversial Cover-Ups\"; \"Hit List: An In-Depth Investigation into the Mysterious Deaths of Witnesses to the JFK Assassination\"; and \"Someone Is Hiding Something: What Happened to Malaysia Airlines Flight 370?\" \"Dead Wrong\" and \"Hit List\" were written with journalist David Wayne and reached \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list. \"Someone Is Hiding Something\" was also written with David Wayne as well as radio talk show host George Noory. Belzer's long-time character, John Munch, is also a believer in conspiracy theories, including the JFK assassination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360128",
"title": "List of conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Deaths and disappearances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Today, there are many conspiracy theories concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. Vincent Bugliosi estimates that over 1,000 books have been written about the Kennedy assassination, at least ninety percent of which are works supporting the view that there was a conspiracy. As a result of this, the Kennedy assassination has been described as \"the mother of all conspiracies\". The countless individuals and organizations that have been accused of involvement in the Kennedy assassination include the CIA, the Mafia, sitting Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro, the KGB, or even some combination thereof. It is also frequently asserted that the United States federal government intentionally covered up crucial information in the aftermath of the assassination to prevent the conspiracy from being discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383715",
"title": "Nothing So Strange",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Flemming was inspired to make a film about a contemporary assassination that grabbed the public attention after wondering what would happen if a Kennedy-style assassination happened during modern times. Through his research on the Kennedy assassination, he became convinced that there was no conspiracy. Flemming himself has no animosity toward Bill Gates, and used many Microsoft products during the making of \"Nothing So Strange\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320425",
"title": "Single-bullet theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "Most pro- and anti-conspiracy theorists believe that the single-bullet theory is essential to the Warren Commission's conclusion about how Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. The reason for this is timing: if, as the Warren Commission found, President Kennedy was wounded some time between frames 210 and 225 of the Zapruder film, and Governor Connally was wounded in the back/chest no later than frame 240, there would not have been enough time between the wounding of the two men for Oswald to have fired two shots from his bolt-action rifle. FBI marksmen, who test-fired the rifle for the Warren Commission, concluded that the \"minimum time for getting off two successive well-aimed shots on the rifle is approximately 2 and a quarter seconds\" or 41 to 42 Zapruder frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32866171",
"title": "John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Other published theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Who Shot JFK? : A Guide to the Major Conspiracy Theories\" (1993) by Bob Callahan and Mark Zingarelli explores some of the more obscure theories regarding JFK's murder, such as \"The Coca-Cola Theory\". According to this theory, suggested by the editor of an organic gardening magazine, Oswald killed JFK due to mental impairment stemming from an addiction to refined sugar, as evidenced by his need for his favorite beverage immediately after the assassination. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38238581",
"title": "Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Conspiracy claims.:Other conspiracy theorists and claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Other conspiracy theorists have tried to connect the shooting to references in popular culture. Prison Planet, a website owned by British conspiracy theorist Paul Joseph Watson, mentioned that Newtown-based author Suzanne Collins wrote \"The Hunger Games\" books, in which 22 children are \"ritualistically\" killed, while 20 children were killed in the shooting. Others pointed out that \"Sandy Hook\" can be seen on a map in the 2012 Batman film \"The Dark Knight Rises\" despite Sandy Hook also being the name of the New Jersey peninsula just south of New York Harbor. This is what some conspiracy theorists refer to as predictive programming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mw0jf
|
renouncing citizenship
|
[
{
"answer": "1. It sometimes has benefits. Some countries don't allow for dual citizenship, so you must renounce your old one to get a new one. In some cases having a foreign citizenship can bar you from certain jobs, especially dealing with secret government information.\n\n2. Usually yes. Most countries won't allow you to become a stateless person.\n\n3. You lose all the privileges associated with being a citizen. The legal system treats you differently, you no longer have free access to your former country, etc.\n\n4. Benefits are things like avoiding a certain cost of citizenship (like mandatory military service in some countries) or being granted another citizenship that conflicts with your old one.\n\n5. You can, but you would have to file as a non-citizen resident. You would require a visa and other immigration documents to be able to work and live in the US.\n\n6. You know, maybe you could, but probably not. The Constitution requires the President be a \"natural born citizen\" which could apply to someone who renounced, but it would be a tough case for the courts. Congress would probably also seek to bar any non-citizen from being elected, by a Constitutional amendment if necessary.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "39837580",
"title": "Renunciation Act of 1944",
"section": "Section::::World War II renunciations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "San Francisco attorney Wayne M. Collins helped many people who had renounced citizenship under the provisions of the 1944 Act to have the government's recognition of their renunciations reversed. On Independence Day in 1967, the Department of Justice promulgated regulations which would make it unnecessary for renunciants to resort to the courts; they could instead fill out a standard form to request an administrative determination of the validity of their earlier renunciations. However, not all renunciants sought to regain their citizenship; Joseph Kurihara, for example, chose instead to accept repatriation to Japan, and lived out the rest of his life there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36113416",
"title": "Expatriation Act of 1868",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The Expatriation Act of 1868 was an act of the 40th United States Congress regarding the right to renounce one's citizenship. It states that \"the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people\" and \"that any declaration, instruction, opinion, order, or decision of any officers of this government which restricts, impairs, or questions the right of expatriation, is hereby declared inconsistent with the fundamental principles of this government\". Its intent was to counter other countries' claims that U.S. citizens owed them allegiance; it was an explicit rejection of the feudal common law principle of perpetual allegiance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4964120",
"title": "Renunciation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Legally, renunciation arises in nationality law with the renunciation of citizenship, a formal process by which the renouncer ceases to hold citizenship with a specific country. A person can also renounce property, as when a person submits a disclaimer of interest in property that has been left to them in a will.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8748788",
"title": "Renunciation of citizenship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Renunciation is the voluntary act of relinquishing one's citizenship or nationality. It is the opposite of naturalization–whereby a person voluntarily acquires a citizenship, and is distinct from denaturalization–where the loss of citizenship is forced by a state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54362192",
"title": "Relinquishment of United States nationality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "Relinquishment of United States nationality is the process under federal law by which a U.S. citizen or national voluntarily and intentionally gives up that status and becomes an alien with respect to the United States. In U.S. law, renunciation of United States citizenship is a legal term encompassing two specific procedures for giving up U.S. citizenship by swearing an oath of renunciation before a designated U.S. government official, but there are five other acts by which an American may give up U.S. citizenship as well, and \"relinquishment of citizenship\" rather than \"renunciation of citizenship\" is the term which encompasses all seven acts. explicitly lists all seven potentially expatriating acts by which a U.S. citizen can relinquish U.S. citizenship: naturalization in a foreign country; taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign country; serving in a foreign military; serving in a foreign government; renouncing his or her citizenship in a U.S. embassy or consulate in foreign territory; renouncing his or her citizenship while in U.S. territory; and committing treason, rebellion, or similar crimes, such as seditious conspiracy. Relinquishment is distinct from denaturalization, which in U.S. law refers solely to cancellation of illegally procured naturalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54362192",
"title": "Relinquishment of United States nationality",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "In U.S. law, \"relinquishment\" and \"renunciation\" are terms used in Subchapter III, Part 3 of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (). The term \"expatriation\" was used in the initial version of that act (, 268) up until the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1986, when it was replaced by \"relinquishment\". The State Department continues to use both the terms \"expatriation\" and \"relinquishment\", and refers to the acts listed in as \"potentially expatriating acts\". \"Renunciation\" specifically describes two of those acts (swearing an oath of renunciation before a U.S. diplomatic officer outside of the United States, or before a U.S. government official designated by the Attorney-General inside the United States during a state of war), while \"relinquishment\" may refer to any of those acts or to any of those acts besides swearing an oath of renunciation. In contrast, \"denaturalization\" is distinct from expatriation: that term is used solely in Subchapter III, Part 2 of the 1952 INA () to refer to court proceedings for cancellation of fraudulently procured naturalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8748788",
"title": "Renunciation of citizenship",
"section": "Section::::Renunciation law in specific countries.:United States.:Taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Additionally, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 included a provision, the Reed Amendment (), to bar entry to any individual \"who officially renounces United States citizenship and who is determined by the Attorney General to have renounced United States citizenship for the purpose of avoiding taxation by the United States\". However, former IRS lawyers, as well as the Department of Homeland Security, have indicated that the provision is unenforceable because there is no authority for the IRS to share tax return information to enforce it. DHS stated that they can only enforce the Reed Amendment when former U.S. citizens \"affirmatively admit to renouncing their U.S. citizenship for the purpose of avoiding U.S. taxation\", and between 2002 and 2015 they denied entry to only two former U.S. citizens on the basis of the amendment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22p4yv
|
i was recently diagnosed with coeliac (gluten allergy) and of course need to change my diet. how does this come about when for the last 30 years or so i was fine?
|
[
{
"answer": "ELur5? Honestly, we don't know. The genetic markers for Celiac are fairly common, but most people with those genes never develop an immune problem. \n\nThere seems to be a correlation between heavy antibiotic use and developing Celiac Disease, so one hypothesis is that the antibiotics kill off some kind of friendly gut bacteria that help prevent the immune response. \n\nLow Vitamin D levels also seems to correlate with adult-onset Celiac, moreso than it correlates with childhood and adolescent onset. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Celiac is an autoimmune disorder. It is not an allergy.\n\nYou absorb gluten as well as nutrients through villi in your intestines. Because your immune system immune system thinks that gluten is a foreign invader, it will try to destroy it. In the process, it will actually destroy your villi, meaning eventually you not only stop digesting gluten but all other nutrients as well... and that can kill you, puts you at increased risk of prostate cancer, and other fun stuff.\n\nAs for what triggers Celiac, it can be any number of things. [Stressful life events may be a cause](_URL_0_). It could just be bad luck!\n\nIn some ways, you are very lucky to be diagnosed now. 10 years ago, there was basically nothing in the way of gluten free options. Today GF is everywhere and you should have not trouble adjusting to a GF lifestyle. \n\nIf you want advice, recipes, or support, I am happy to share with you. Just send me a PM :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People with celiac disease is born with the genes necessary to \"release\" the disease. But you need something to trigger it, and we don't know exactly what that is yet (there are several different theories). So you can be one year or a hundred years old before the disease kicks in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The damage to your intestines has to reach a certain level before it can be detected by that stupid blood test, if you aren't willing to go on a high gluten diet for two months, drink liquid barium, and let them stick a camera up your ass while spinning you really fast. So I guess in short, yes; you have always been a celiac and it just took this long for the damage to be bad enough for you and the doctors to notice.\n\nOne tip; once you quit gluten cold turkey and it all flushes out of your system, you can never go back. Your body will begin to react badly to smaller and smaller amounts of gluten so you really do have to be careful of what you put in your face. Even some generic brands of tylenol throw wheat down on the conveyor belts to keep the ingredients from sticking, shit's everywhere. Nutritional labels are about to become your best friends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My girlfriend has celiac, and is a nutritionist graduating from Johnson & Wales in May (and about be begin her dietetic internship to become a registered dietician).\n\nShe has run a gluten-free blog for the past several years and is extremely knowledgeable. If you have any questions, I'm sure she would be glad to answer them for you (just contact her through her website). She's busy finishing up classes for the semester so please be patient if she doesn't respond right away.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere are a lot of great recipes and numerous product reviews. Honestly, she's a fantastic cook, and the vast majority of the time I do not miss eating gluten (exceptions: pizza and bagels).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Get a second opinion, if you're able to. Misdiagnosis is very common. Best of luck to you. I know many allergies and autoimmune disorders develop later in life. I developed my two allergies at age 19, ironically just as I outgrew my autoimmune disorder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My Mother and her sisters and brother were all diagnosed after age 30. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "708662",
"title": "Gluten-free diet",
"section": "Section::::Rationale behind adoption of the diet.:Non-coeliac gluten sensitivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Non-coeliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is described as a condition of multiple symptoms that improves when switching to a gluten-free diet, after coeliac disease and wheat allergy are excluded. People with NCGS may develop gastrointestinal symptoms, which resemble those of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or a variety of nongastrointestinal symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708662",
"title": "Gluten-free diet",
"section": "Section::::Rationale behind adoption of the diet.:Non-coeliac gluten sensitivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "After exclusion of coeliac disease and wheat allergy, the subsequent step for diagnosis and treatment of NCGS is to start a strict gluten-free diet to assess if symptoms improve or resolve completely. This may occur within days to weeks of starting a GFD, but improvement may also be due to a non-specific, placebo response. Recommendations may resemble those for coeliac disease, for the diet to be strict and maintained, with no transgression. The degree of gluten cross contamination tolerated by people with NCGS is not clear but there is some evidence that they can present with symptoms even after consumption of small amounts. It is not yet known whether NCGS is a permanent or a transient condition. A trial of gluten reintroduction to observe any reaction after 1–2 years of strict gluten-free diet might be performed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2052597",
"title": "Whole grain",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "While coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as a wheat allergy. Other diseases triggered by eating gluten are non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, (estimated to affect 0.5% to 13% of the general population), gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13152",
"title": "Gluten",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.:Non-celiac gluten sensitivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is described as a condition of multiple symptoms that improves when switching to a gluten-free diet, after celiac disease and wheat allergy are excluded. Recognized since 2010, it is included among gluten-related disorders. Its pathogenesis is not yet well understood, but the activation of the innate immune system, the direct negative effects of gluten and probably other wheat components, are implicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63526",
"title": "Coeliac disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to gluten, a group of various proteins found in wheat and in other grains such as barley and rye. Moderate quantities of oats, free of contamination with other gluten-containing grains, are usually tolerated. The occurrence of problems may depend on the variety of oat. It occurs in people who are genetically predisposed. Upon exposure to gluten, an abnormal immune response may lead to the production of several different autoantibodies that can affect a number of different organs. In the small bowel, this causes an inflammatory reaction and may produce shortening of the villi lining the small intestine (villous atrophy). This affects the absorption of nutrients, frequently leading to anaemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3174918",
"title": "Female infertility",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Acquired.:Other acquired factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "BULLET::::- Coeliac disease. Non-gastrointestinal symptoms of coeliac disease may include disorders of fertility, such as delayed menarche, amenorrea, infertility or early menopause; and pregnancy complications, such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), small for gestational age (SGA) babies, recurrent abortions, preterm deliveries or low birth weight (LBW) babies. Nevertheless, gluten-free diet reduces the risk. Some authors suggest that physicians should investigate the presence of undiagnosed coeliac disease in women with unexplained infertility, recurrent miscarriage or IUGR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12034989",
"title": "Gluten-related disorders",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS), or gluten sensitivity (GS), is a syndrome in which people develop a variety of intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms that improve when gluten is removed from the diet, after coeliac disease and wheat allergy are excluded. NCGS, which is possibly immune-mediated, now appears to be more common than coeliac disease, with a prevalence estimated to be 6–10 times higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vb95b
|
What would the world be like if the Planck Constant were large enough to experience "quantum weirdness" at a macroscopic scale?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two points:\n\nIt may sound pendantic, but you cannot imagine changing fundamental dimensionful constants, like hbar or c. Their value is meaningless, being just a property of your system of units. All speeds in the universe are proportional to c, and all quantities with units of angular momentum are proportional to hbar. So \"changing\" any of those two has no effect - not even their value in SI units changes, as the units get rescaled accordingly.\n\nWhat the title of the game really stands for is that they're imagining stretching your units so as to make c have a small numeric value. Essentially you're not making c small, you're just making the user much faster than a human would be, so increasing the ratio (player walking speed)/c which is an adimensional ratio and so meaningful. Identically, in your hypothetical simulation you'd stretch units as to make hbar's value in those units large - you'd be shrinking down the user, not making hbar big.\n\nSorry for this correction, but it's actually a subtle and very misunderstood point.\n\nNow, for the second part: quantum systems can always be simulated to arbitrary accuracy by a classical computer, but the computational costs grow unpractically large with the size of the system, to the point that systems with what we'd call a small number of components are absolutely outside the possibilities of any plausibly-sized classical computer. So... no, unless you want to omit essential parts of quantum mechanics from your simulation, or you're content with simulating a small system.\n\nQuantum computers wouldn't in principle have this problem.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "35543722",
"title": "Macroscopic quantum phenomena",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Macroscopic quantum phenomena refer to processes showing quantum behavior at the macroscopic scale, rather than at the atomic scale where quantum effects are prevalent. The best-known examples of macroscopic quantum phenomena are superfluidity and superconductivity; other examples include the quantum Hall effect. Since 2000 there has been extensive experimental work on quantum gases, particularly Bose–Einstein Condensates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11701033",
"title": "Scale relativity",
"section": "Section::::Applications to other fields.:Superconductivity and macroquantum phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The generalized Schrödinger equation, under certain conditions, can apply to macroscopic scales. This leads to the proposal that quantum-like phenomena need not to be only at quantum scales. In a recent paper, Turner and Nottale proposed new ways to explore the origins of macroscopic quantum coherence in high-temperature superconductivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33710707",
"title": "Planck units",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240011",
"title": "Coherence (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Quantum coherence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Macroscopic scale quantum coherence leads to novel phenomena, the so-called macroscopic quantum phenomena. For instance, the laser, superconductivity and superfluidity are examples of highly coherent quantum systems whose effects are evident at the macroscopic scale. The macroscopic quantum coherence (Off-Diagonal Long-Range Order, ODLRO) for superfluidity, and laser light, is related to first-order (1-body) coherence/ODLRO, while superconductivity is related to second-order coherence/ODLRO. (For fermions, such as electrons, only even orders of coherence/ODLRO are possible.) For bosons, a Bose–Einstein condensate is an example of a system exhibiting macroscopic quantum coherence through a multiple occupied single-particle state. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35543722",
"title": "Macroscopic quantum phenomena",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Quantum phenomena are generally classified as macroscopic when the quantum states are occupied by a large number of particles (typically Avogadro's number) or the quantum states involved are macroscopic in size (up to km size in superconducting wires).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14570655",
"title": "Macroscopic quantum state",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Macroscopic quantum phenomena can emerge from coherent states of superfluids and superconductors. Quantum states of motion have been directly observed in a macroscopic mechanical resonator (see quantum machine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2v2hhh
|
Does the sun get uniformly dense as we get closer to the core?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main effect is that it has to achieve balance between outward pressure and inward pointing gravity. If you go through the math, you get that it will be most dense at the center. If you want an image, NASA has a nice one [here](_URL_0_). Note that this model involves more than what I just said above, but that's sort of the first step in the whole calculation.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Structure and fusion.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of nuclear reactions called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939202",
"title": "Earth's inner core",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Density and mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The density of the inner core is believed to vary smoothly from about 13.0 kg/L (= g/cm = t/m) at the center to about 12.8 kg/L at the surface. As it happens with other material properties, the density drops suddenly at that surface: the liquid just above the inner core is believed to be significantly less dense, at about 12.1 kg/L. For comparison, the average density in the upper 100 km of the Earth is about 3.4 kg/L.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4640562",
"title": "Solar core",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius contains 34% of the Sun's mass, but only 3.4% of the Sun's volume. Inside the 0.24 solar radius is the core which generates 99% of the fusion power of the Sun. There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus: the proton-proton chain reaction – which is responsible for most of the Sun's released energy – and the CNO cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Structure and fusion.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outwards through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19030568",
"title": "29 Arietis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The core of the system is formed by a close spectroscopic binary with an angular separation of 3.892 mas, a semimajor axis of , an orbital period of 19.4 days, and an eccentricity of 0.4. The larger member of this pair has 114% of the mass of the Sun, while its companion has 88% of the Sun's mass. Orbiting the pair at an angular separation of 1.422 arcseconds over a period of 164 years, the tertiary component has 52% of the Sun's mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61174342",
"title": "12 Lacertae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The primary is a massive star, having 9.5 times the mass of the Sun and an age of only 22 million years old. It has about 8.4 times the girth of the Sun. The averaged quadratic field strength of the surface magnetic field is . It is radiating 8,877 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 23,809 K. The estimated rotational velocity of the primary at the equator is ; about 10% of its break-up velocity. However, seismic models suggest the core region is rotating much more rapidly with a rotational velocity of up to , and thus the star is undergoing differential rotation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4640562",
"title": "Solar core",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "solar radius. It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It has a density of 150 g/cm (150 times the density of liquid water) at the center, and a temperature of 15 million kelvins (15 million degrees Celsius, 27 million degrees Fahrenheit). The core is made of hot, dense plasma (ions and electrons), at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar (3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals (PPa)) at the center. Due to fusion, the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68–70% hydrogen by mass at the outer core, to 33% hydrogen at the core/Sun center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
56g3ta
|
Does a massless particle traveling through a medium experience the passage of time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Photons don't exist outside of time! They don't have a reference frame, which is more an artifact of the way we define reference frames against c. It's sort of a vacuous statement anyway-- one moment is like any other for a photon, a fluctuation of the electric and magnetic fields that continues from when emitted to when it strikes something and is absorbed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is \"it\"? You can find a reference frame where the photon going through the medium is at rest. You can assign a passage of proper time to that frame. But is that really \"time for the photon\"? To have such a photon in a medium, you have to replace the elementary particle by a quasiparticle, which is (confusingly) still called photon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7506128",
"title": "Retrocausality",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Aspects of modern physics, such as the hypothetical tachyon particle and certain time-independent aspects of quantum mechanics, may allow particles or information to travel backward in time. Logical objections to macroscopic time travel may not necessarily prevent retrocausality at other scales of interaction. Even if such effects are possible, however, they may not be capable of producing effects different from those that would have resulted from normal causal relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19595664",
"title": "Time in physics",
"section": "Section::::Conceptions of time.:Einstein's physics: spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, a freely moving particle traces a history in spacetime that maximises its proper time. This phenomenon is also referred to as the principle of maximal aging, and was described by Taylor and Wheeler as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192316",
"title": "Virtual particle",
"section": "Section::::Pair production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "This may occur in one of two ways. In an accelerating frame of reference, the virtual particles may appear to be actual to the accelerating observer; this is known as the Unruh effect. In short, the vacuum of a stationary frame appears, to the accelerated observer, to be a warm gas of actual particles in thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Apparent horizon of an accelerated particle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in a non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields, any event that occurs in that Universe will eventually be observable by the particle, because the forward light cones from these events intersect the particle's world line. On the other hand, if the particle is accelerating, in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle's world line. Under these conditions, an apparent horizon is present in the particle's (accelerating) reference frame, representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "408026",
"title": "Relativistic Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::Derivation.:Transverse Doppler effect.:One object in circular motion around the other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The only seeming complication is that the orbiting objects are in accelerated motion. An accelerated particle does not have an inertial frame in which it is always at rest. However, an inertial frame can always be found which is momentarily comoving with the particle. This frame, the \"momentarily comoving reference frame\" (MCRF), enables application of special relativity to the analysis of accelerated particles. If an inertial observer looks at an accelerating clock, only the clock's instantaneous speed is important when computing time dilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7562718",
"title": "Mean sojourn time",
"section": "Section::::Calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "depicts the thought motion history of a single such particle, which thus moves in and out of the subsystem s three times, each of which results in a transit time, namely the time spent in the subsystem between entrance and exit. The sum of these transit times is the sojourn time of s for that particular particle. If the motions of the particles are looked upon as realizations of one and the same stochastic process it is meaningful to speak of the mean value of this sojourn time. That is, the mean sojourn time of a subsystem is the total time a particle is expected to spend in the subsystem s before leaving the system S for good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Apparent horizon of an accelerated particle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "For example, this occurs with a uniformly accelerated particle. A spacetime diagram of this situation is shown in the figure to the right. As the particle accelerates, it approaches, but never reaches, the speed of light with respect to its original reference frame. On the spacetime diagram, its path is a hyperbola, which asymptotically approaches a 45-degree line (the path of a light ray). An event whose light cone's edge is this asymptote or is farther away than this asymptote can never be observed by the accelerating particle. In the particle's reference frame, there appears to be a boundary behind it from which no signals can escape (an apparent horizon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zkze8
|
Are there other historical instances of the "model minority" phenomenon?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oddly enough, Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were considered the model Christian minority prior to the emergence of the Armenian Question in the late 19th century. They even earned the epithet of *millet-i sadıka*, \"the loyal millet\", millet here is an ottoman term used to denote an ethnic and religious community. The reason for this, as the title implies, was the perceived loyalty of Armenians compared to the other Christian minorities.\n\nIn the European part of the ottoman empire, rising wave of nationalism was felt relatively shortly after the French Revolution, with the first Serbian uprising happening in 1804, and Greeks were the first amongst Empire's Christian subjects to have their own independent state in 1832. Although the Greek kingdom was restricted to Peloponnese for most of the 19th century, it opened a Pandora's box which the ottomans never managed to shut down. \n\nFor Armenians however, things progressed far more slowly. \"The Eastern Question\" didn't become a widely spoken issue until it was mentioned in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Even this was the result of external powers' pressure upon the ottoman government to improve the situation of the Christian subjects in the eastern provinces, and not an Armenian rebellion. An Armenian bishop at the time even states that this is the first time in which the Armenians make a political, rather than merely religious, appearance. Reasons for relatively late development of this national identity is complex, but i think it is fair to state that Armenians, living at the eastern provinces, were somewhat isolated from the events happening at the Balkans at the turn of the 19th century.\n\nSource;\nMasayuki Ueno (2013). “FOR THE FATHERLAND AND THE STATE”: ARMENIANS NEGOTIATE THE TANZIMAT REFORMS. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "735854",
"title": "Model minority",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The concept of \"model minority\" is heavily associated with U.S. culture and is not extensively used outside the U.S., though many European countries have concepts of classism that stereotype ethnic groups in a similar manner to model minority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735854",
"title": "Model minority",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Some have described the creation of the model minority theory as partially a response to the emergence of the Civil Rights Movement, when African Americans fought for equal rights and the discontinuation of racial segregation in the United States. In a backlash to the movement, white America presented and used Asian Americans to argue that African Americans could raise up their communities by focusing on education and accepting and conforming to racial segregation and the institutional racism and discrimination of the time period, as Asian Americans have arguably done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735854",
"title": "Model minority",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "A model minority is a demographic group (whether based on ethnicity, race or religion) whose members are perceived to achieve a higher degree of socioeconomic success than the population average. This success is typically measured relatively by income, education, low criminality and high family/marital stability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735854",
"title": "Model minority",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1497,
"text": "Generalized statistics are often cited to back up model minority status such as high educational achievement and a high representation in white-collar professions. A common misconception is that the affected communities usually hold pride in their labeling as the model minority. The model minority stereotype is considered detrimental to relevant minority communities because it is used to justify the exclusion of minorities in the distribution of assistance programs, both public and private, as well as to understate or slight the achievements of individuals within that minority. Furthermore, the idea of the model minority pits minority groups against each other by implying that non-model groups are at fault for falling short of the model minority level of achievement and assimilation. The concept has also been criticized by outlets such as NPR for potentially homogenizing the experiences of Asian Americans on one side and Hispanics & African Americans on the other, despite the different groups experiencing racism in different ways. The model minority stereotype, and the perpetuation of the belief that any minority has the capability to rise economically without assistance, also completely ignores the very different history of Asian Americans and African Americans, and sometimes Hispanics, in the U.S. Beginning with the legalized and widespread slavery of Africans that were kidnapped from Africa, then continuing with Black Codes, Jim Crow, and the prison–industrial complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21087922",
"title": "Chris Iijima",
"section": "Section::::Scholarship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Political Accommodation and the Ideology of the “Model Minority”: Building a Bridge to White Minority Rule in the 21st Century\", 7 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA INTERDISCIPLINARY LAW JOURNAL 1 (1998).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735854",
"title": "Model minority",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "The model minority theory disregards the fact that Asian Americans at the time were also marginalized and racially segregated in America thus they also represented lower economic levels and faced many social issues just as other racial and ethnic minorities. The possible reasons as to why Asian Americans were used by White America as this image of a model minority are that they were viewed as having not been as much of a \"threat\" to White America due to less of a history of political activism in fighting racism (until after the Civil Rights Movement, see Asian American movement), their smaller population, the success of their numerous businesses (nearly all of which were small businesses) in their segregated communities, and the fact that during the time period Chinese, Japanese and Filipino Americans' educational attainment level was meeting the national average equaling Whites in terms of education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "437868",
"title": "Minority group",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Sociological.:Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Some sociologists have criticised the concept of \"minority/majority\", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries. As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the underrepresentation of particular groups in various areas of social life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3604id
|
During the fall of Germany, was there a population flight from places likely to be taken by the Red Army to places likely to be taken by the Anglo-Americans?
|
[
{
"answer": "After the death of Hitler the new Reichspraesident Doentiz, actively moved soldiers from the Eastern Front to the Western Front so that they could surrender to the Western Allies. However, civilians were largely left to fend for themselves. Doentiz kept the war going with holding actions to allow as many soldiers to flee as possible and thus civilians kept dying as the Soviets bombarded cities, towns, etc.\n\nA book on this very topic is \"The End\" by Ian Kershaw which is about the final days of the Third Reich.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61095",
"title": "Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)",
"section": "Section::::Movements in the later stages of the war.:Evacuation and flight to areas within Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The first exodus of German civilians from the eastern territories was composed of both spontaneous flight and organised evacuation, starting in mid-1944 and continuing until early 1945. Conditions turned chaotic during the winter, when kilometres-long queues of refugees pushed their carts through the snow trying to stay ahead of the advancing Red Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13230367",
"title": "Prussian Lithuanians",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II and after.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The evacuation started late; the Red Army approached much faster than expected and cut off the territorial connection with other German-held territories by January 26, 1945. Many refugees perished due to Soviet low-flying strafing attacks on the civilians columns, or the extreme cold. However, many managed to flee by land or sea into those parts of Germany captured by the British and Americans. Among the latter were the pastors A. Keleris, J. Pauperas, M. Preikšaitis, O. Stanaitis, A. Trakis, and J. Urdse, who gathered those from the Lithuanian parishes and reorganised the Lithuanian church in the western zones of Allied-occupied Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9785181",
"title": "History of German settlement in Central and Eastern Europe",
"section": "Section::::German exodus after Nazi Germany's defeat.:Expulsion of Germans after World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "As the Red Army advanced towards Germany at the end of World War II, a considerable exodus of German refugees began from the areas near the front lines. Many Germans fled their areas of residence under vague and haphazardly implemented evacuation orders of the Nazi German government in 1943, 1944, and in early 1945, or based on their own decisions to leave in 1945 to 1948. Others remained and were later forced to leave by local authorities. Census figures in 1950 place the total number of ethnic Germans still living in Central and Eastern Europe at approximately 2.6 million, about 12 percent of the pre-war total.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4751135",
"title": "Soviet war crimes",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Germany.:Murders of civilians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Fleeing before the advancing Red Army, large numbers of the inhabitants of the German provinces of East Prussia, Silesia, and Pomerania died during the evacuations, some from cold and starvation, some during combat operations. A significant percentage of this death toll, however, occurred when evacuation columns encountered units of the Red Army. Civilians were run over by tanks, shot, or otherwise murdered. Women and young girls were raped and left to die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10082478",
"title": "Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II",
"section": "Section::::Flight and evacuation following the Red Army's advance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "The first mass movement of German civilians in the eastern territories was composed of both spontaneous flight and organized evacuation, starting in the summer of 1944 and continuing through the early spring of 1945. Conditions turned chaotic in the winter, when miles-long queues of refugees pushed their carts through the snow trying to stay ahead of the Red Army. From the Baltic coast, thousands were evacuated by ship in Operation Hannibal. Since February 11, refugees were shipped not only to German ports, but also to German occupied Denmark, based on an order issued by Hitler on 4 February. Of 1,180 ships participating in the evacuation, 135 were lost due to bombs, mines, and torpedoes, an estimated 20,000 died. Between 23 January 1945 and the end of the war, 2,204,477 people, 1,335,585 of them civilians, were transported via the Baltic Sea, up to 250,000 of them to occupied Denmark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68743",
"title": "East Prussia",
"section": "Section::::History as a province.:Evacuation of East Prussia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Gauleiter Erich Koch delayed the evacuation of the German civilian population until the Eastern Front approached the East Prussian border in 1944. The population had been systematically misinformed by \"Endsieg\" Nazi propaganda about the real state of military affairs. As a result, many civilians fleeing westward were overtaken by retreating Wehrmacht units and the rapidly advancing Red Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519489",
"title": "Eastern Front (World War II)",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "When the Red Army invaded Germany in 1944, many German civilians suffered from reprisals by Red Army soldiers (see Soviet war crimes). After the war, following the Yalta conference agreements between the Allies, the German populations of East Prussia and Silesia were displaced to the west of the Oder–Neisse line, in what became one of the largest forced migrations of people in world history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
94sbao
|
how does self-disappearing ink work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disappearing ink is usually reacting to carbon dioxide in the air around us, creating carbonic acid through an interaction with an agent in the ink, which causes it to \"disappear\" as sodium carbonate. Sometimes, the ink is photosensitive instead, which will cause it to disappear due to exposure to light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there are some inks that are sensitive to temperature. wave a lighter underneath the paper, ink disappears. toss paper in a freezer, ink comes back",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would you be able to see whats written after the ink has \"disappeared\"? I wonder if you could see the contour of what was written or drawn?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65448",
"title": "Invisible ink",
"section": "Section::::Invisible ink types.:Disappearing inks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Inks that are visible for a period of time without the intention of being made visible again are called disappearing inks. Disappearing inks typically rely on the chemical reaction between thymolphthalein and a basic substance such as sodium hydroxide. Thymolphthalein, which is normally colorless, turns blue in solution with the base. As the base reacts with carbon dioxide (always present in the air), the pH drops below 10.5 and the color disappears. Pens are now also available that can be erased simply by swiping a special pen over the original text. Disappearing inks have been used in gag squirtguns, for limited-time secret messages, for security reasons on non-reusable passes, for fraudulent purposes, and for dress-making and other crafts where measurement marks are required to disappear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17632077",
"title": "Ink eraser",
"section": "Section::::Chemical ink erasers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Chemical ink erasers break down royal blue ink by disrupting the geometry of the dye molecules in ink so that light is no longer filtered. The molecules are disrupted by sulfite or hydroxide ions binding to the central carbon atoms of the dye. The ink is not destroyed by the erasing process, but is made invisible. It can be transformed back into a visible work with aldehydes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4098193",
"title": "Blotting paper",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "When used to remove ink from writings, the writing may appear in reverse on the surface of the blotting paper, a phenomenon which has been used as a plot device in a number of detective stories, such as in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17632077",
"title": "Ink eraser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "An ink eraser is an instrument used to remove ink from a writing surface, more difficult than removing pencil markings. Older types are a metal scraper, which scrapes the ink off the surface, and an eraser similar to a rubber pencil eraser, but with additional abrasives, such as sand, incorporated. Fibreglass erasers also work by abrasion. These erasers physically remove the ink from the paper. There is some unavoidable damage with most types of paper and ink, where the paper absorbs some ink, but not all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4098193",
"title": "Blotting paper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Blotting paper, sometimes called bibulous paper, is a highly absorbent type of paper or other material. It is used to absorb an excess of liquid substances (such as ink or oil) from the surface of writing paper or objects. Blotting paper referred to as bibulous paper is mainly used in microscopy to remove excess liquids from the slide before viewing. Blotting paper has also been sold as a cosmetic to aid in the removal of skin oils and makeup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12973803",
"title": "Ink tag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Ink tags are a form of retail loss prevention most commonly used by clothing retailers. Special equipment is required to remove the tags from the clothing. When the tags are forcibly removed, one or more glass vials containing permanent ink will break, causing it to spill over the clothing, effectively destroying it. Ink tags fall into the loss prevention category called benefit denial. As the name suggests, an ink tag denies the shoplifter any benefit for his or her efforts. Despite this, shoplifters have found ways around them. Ink tags are most effective if used together with another anti-shoplifting system so that the shoplifter can not use the product or remove the ink tag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39783343",
"title": "Klecksography",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Spots of ink are dropped onto a piece of paper and the paper is folded in half, so that the ink will smudge and form a mirror reflection in the two halves. The piece of paper is then unfolded so that the ink can dry, after which someone can guess the resemblance of the print to other objects. The inkblots tend to resemble images because of apophenia, the human tendency to see patterns in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29uto4
|
competitive eating. how can people eat so much in one sitting? what happens to their stomachs and bodies after eating so much? and why does it seem that so many competitive eaters are very skinny?
|
[
{
"answer": "a lot of competitive eaters stay active outside of the eating events",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are able to eat so much because they prepare. They stretch their stomachs, they practice techniques for speed, etc. \n\nAfter a competition, it's not unlike how you feel after Thanksgiving. Full, sluggish, tired, maybe even a little nauseous. Just to a greater degree. Most of these people don't vomit after competition. Other than that, you recover pretty easily within a day. \n\nIt isn't necessarily that most competitive eaters are skinny so much that the successful ones tend to be. This is for several reasons. First, your stomach is (supposedly) better able to expand when you don't have shit tons of fat around it. Second, people who are fit burn more calories, so if you do a lot of competitions it benefits you to stay in shape for your health. Third, competitions are exhausting. It may seem like just aggressive eating, but it's tiring and if you aren't in shape it is hard to keep up aggressive activity for 10-12 minutes non-stop. \n\nSource: Former low level competitive eater. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It helps to be skinny too, so your stomach has more room to stretch. A bigger person doesnt have as much stretching room for their stomachs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This video shows the expansion of the stomach.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nEat This Book was an interesting read about competetive eating. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One Japanese competitive eater named Gal Sone was checked by doctors. They found out the entry of her large intestine is larger than usual and she produces more bile, which dilutes more fat in the food she eats. Once, she ate 100 or more sushis in a tv show, her waist bloated by 3 inches. She's really skinny too, and said she poops 6 times a day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I heard some can also relax their pyloric sphincter, the sphincter at the bottom of the stomach which keeps the food in until it's digested enough to go to the colon. Competitive eaters can allow their stomachs to stretch, and open that sphincter up, and let the food go into the colon before the stomach has extracted the calories. This also opens up more space in the stomach for more food. \n\nKobiyashi used to say being skinny was a benefit because there was no \"belt of fat\" which held the stomach in and stopped expansion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639065",
"title": "Competitive eating",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms and dangers.:Dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The argument that competitive eating can cause weight gain, which may lead to obesity and elevated cholesterol and blood pressure, is common. The potential damage that competitive eating can cause to the human digestive system was the subject of a 2007 study by the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. The study observed professional eater Tim Janus, who ate 36 hot dogs in 10 minutes before doctors intervened. It was concluded that through training, Janus' stomach failed to have normal muscle contractions called peristalsis, a function which transfers food from the stomach down the digestive tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639065",
"title": "Competitive eating",
"section": "Section::::Training and preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Many professional competitive eaters undergo rigorous personal training in order to increase their stomach capacity and eating speed with various foods. Stomach elasticity is usually considered the key to eating success, and competitors commonly train by drinking large amounts of water over a short time to stretch out the stomach. Others combine the consumption of water with large quantities of low calorie foods such as vegetables or salads. Some eaters chew large amounts of gum in order to build jaw strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6346723",
"title": "List of Viz comic strips",
"section": "Section::::P–S.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 209,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 209,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "BULLET::::- Peter the Slow Eater – a man who, as the title suggests, takes his time eating meals much to the frustration of his family, especially his kids whom he will not allow to leave the table \"until everyone has finished eating\". Another scenario has him with two mates in the pub (as a slow drinker) insisting on buying a round when his pint is untouched, and letting everyone else get served before him, much to the frustration of his drinking buddies (who discreetly drink his pint and order two pints for themselves without looking and by the time he gets back to the table they have gone).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639065",
"title": "Competitive eating",
"section": "Section::::Organizations.:Other challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "The Great American Eat Off - a show that pits two average eaters against each other to see who can eat the fastest, while raising awareness for charity and then brings in a professional competitive eater to beat the winning time, raises the stakes for competitive eaters by incorporating various challenges and obstacles that would interfere with their speed. Obstacles may include eating with two spoons, eating with no hands, or Interval Eating where the competitive eat is permitted to eat for a limited time and then must rest for a specific time (i.e., eat 20 seconds, rest 40 seconds, eat 20 seconds, rest 40 seconds etc.) until they have completed the designated food. Interval Eating was created by Gail Kasper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639065",
"title": "Competitive eating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Competitive eating, or speed eating, is an activity in which participants compete against each other to eat large quantities of food, usually in a short time period. Contests are typically eight to ten minutes long, although some competitions can last up to thirty minutes, with the person consuming the most food being declared the winner. Competitive eating is most popular in the United States, Canada and Japan, where organized professional eating contests often offer prizes, including cash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41067638",
"title": "Psychological aspects of childhood obesity",
"section": "Section::::Social factors.:External motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Children who are externally motivated to eat are at a higher risk for obesity. In one study, two groups of children were told to focus on different prompts to eat: either external cues, such as the amount of food on their plate, or internal cues like hunger and satiety. The children who relied on internal cues were more likely to eat when they were hungry and stop when they were full. In contrast, the children who responded to external cues were more likely to ignore or overlook internal cues that indicated that they were full. Children who grow accustomed to relying on external hunger cues and thus eating more than their bodies need because are more likely to gain excess weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47744639",
"title": "Shatapawali",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Aids digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The process of digestion is initiated soon after a person has consumed his meals. The gastric juices and enzymes responsible for digestion are stimulated in the mean time. However, if a person walks after eating his dinner, the process of gastric emptying of the meal is accelerated leading to better digestion. This is turn, prevents various stomach complications such as acidity or indigestion that people usually complain after having their meals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4cbelj
|
abortion as a costitutional right
|
[
{
"answer": "Supreme court opinions walk through the logic of how a principle outlined in the constitution applies to a specific case. Roe v. Wade's opinions are [here](_URL_0_).\n\nThe path they take is as follows:\n\nThe constitution contains no explicit right to privacy, but it does contain enough restrictions to protect citizens privacy that it can be inferred that citizens privacy was important to the authors of the constitution (specifically the first amendment, ninth amendment, and fourteenth amendment). Therefore:\n\n > This right of privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. \n\nIn other words, it's either in the right is one of the not enumerated rights in the ninth amendment\n\n > The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.\n\nor that abortion bans were the state depriving a woman of her liberty without giving the woman proper due process of law. \n\n > nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.\n\nAs far as other things related to the decision, the legal logic was very similar in the court's opinion to strike State restrictions on firearms ownership in Heller v D.C. and MacDonald v Chicago. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Roe v Wade ruled that the Due Process clause of the 5th and 14th amendments applied to abortions. They stated that a woman's right to privacy is one of the protected liberties and can't be deprived without due process of the law.\n\nThey also ruled that this only works up to the point where the state's interests in protecting health and human life begin, which they decided as being the point where the fetus is viable outside the womb.\n\nThere has been much controversy since on the second point and the court's ability to interpret the first point as such.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can read the opinion of Roe v. Wade to get a better idea of the argument, but essentially they guaranteed the constitutional right to privacy by interpreting the 14th ammendment in a rather liberal way. \n\nThe 14th Ammendment guarantees the right to \"due process of law.\" It means that the government cannot deprive you of any liberty or freedom without some legal proceeding. For example, you have a right to travel. If you break the law and go to prison, the \"due process\" of law takes away your right to travel. \n\nIn Roe v. Wade the court decided that there was an implied right for a woman to make her own medical decisions and keep them private. The Texas law that banned abortion removed these rights without due process of law. Therefore the law was in violation of the 14th Ammendment. \n\nBut Roe v. Wade wasn't that simple. The court recognized that the State also had a right to regulate abortions, so part of the decision was to limit abortion to the first trimester of pregnancy. That was later struck down in 1993, and amended to viability of a fetus. Meaning that the right to life of a fetus isn't guaranteed until the fetus can be removed from the mother and live. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "63317",
"title": "Christian right",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Abortion and contraception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "The Christian right opposes abortion, believing that life begins at conception and that abortion is murder. Therefore, those in the movement have worked toward the overturning of \"Roe v. Wade\", and have also supported incremental steps to make abortion less available. Such efforts include bans on late-term abortion (including intact dilation and extraction), prohibitions against Medicaid funding and other public funding for elective abortions, removal of taxpayer funding for Planned Parenthood and other organizations that provide abortion services, legislation requiring parental consent or notification for abortions performed on minors, legal protections for unborn victims of violence, legal protections for infants born alive following failed abortions, and bans on abortifacient medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175730",
"title": "United States abortion-rights movement",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Abortion-rights advocates argue that whether or not a pregnant woman continues with a pregnancy should be her personal choice, as it involves her body, personal health, and future. They also argue that the availability of legal abortions reduces the exposure of women to the risks associated with illegal abortions. More broadly, abortion-rights advocates frame their arguments in terms of individual liberty, reproductive freedom, and reproductive rights. The first of these terms was widely used to describe many of the political movements of the 19th and 20th centuries (such as in the abolition of slavery in Europe and the United States, and in the spread of popular democracy) whereas the latter terms derive from changing perspectives on sexual freedom and bodily integrity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23892117",
"title": "Thou shalt not kill",
"section": "Section::::Roman Catholic doctrine.:Abortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The \"Catechism\" states that abortion is a grave moral evil because the act takes an innocent human life: human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception. From the first moment of his existence, \"a human being must be recognized as having the rights of a person - among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being to life.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37600898",
"title": "Abortion-rights movements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Abortion-rights movements, also referred to as pro-choice movements, advocate for legal access to induced abortion services. The issue of induced abortion remains divisive in public life, with recurring arguments to liberalize or to restrict access to legal abortion services. Abortion-rights supporters themselves are frequently divided as to the types of abortion services that should be available and to the circumstances, for example different periods in the pregnancy such as late term abortions, in which access may be restricted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15614483",
"title": "Judaism and abortion",
"section": "Section::::Conservative Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "The Rabbinical Assembly Committee on Jewish Law and Standards takes the view that an abortion is justifiable if a continuation of pregnancy might cause the woman severe physical or psychological harm, or when the fetus is judged by competent medical opinion as severely defective. The fetus is a life in the process of development, and the decision to abort should never be taken lightly. Thus, the Conservative position is in line with some of the Acharonim who permit an abortion in case of acute potential emotional and psychological harm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15614483",
"title": "Judaism and abortion",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Medieval and pre-Modern Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Jewish law permits abortion in order to save the life of the mother. Various Jewish scholars have expressed additional lenient stances on abortions under specific circumstances. These include contemporary scholar Eliezer Waldenberg, who argued in favor of abortions in cases of serious birth defects or extreme mental or psychological danger to the woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1637863",
"title": "Islamic sexual jurisprudence",
"section": "Section::::Abortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Islamic schools of law have differing opinions on abortion, though it is prohibited or discouraged by most. However, abortion is allowed under certain circumstances, such as if the mother's health is [seriously] threatened. If the abortion is necessary to save the woman's life, Muslims universally agree that her life takes precedence over the life of the fetus. Muslim jurists allow abortion in this context based on the principle that what is considered the greater evilthe woman's deathshould be warded off by accepting the lesser evil of abortion. In these cases, the physician is considered a better judge than the scholar. Abortions of pregnancies that are merely unplanned or unwanted are generally \"haram\" (forbidden). The Qur'an forbids the abortion of a fetus for fear of poverty:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3f94wq
|
if i didn't know something was illegal, how could i get in trouble for it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not knowing the law is not, in itself, a defense. This is a pretty important legal principle, important enough to [have its own Latin phrase](_URL_0_). I'm not quite sure what you're asking, since there's no particular reason you *wouldn't* get in trouble for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most places, it is expected that the citizen of the jurisdiction is aware of any and all laws that pertain to the area. This applies to travelers too as they should familiarize themselves with the laws of the place they are visiting. Usually, law enforcement will be lenient for the more obscure laws however, something obvious (eg. speeding) is an act that is generally recognized as illegal. So to make things short, \nTLDR: not knowing the laws is just your own irresponsibility and you are held accountable for knowing them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ignorance of a law is not an excuse. It is your personal responsibility to be aware of all laws in the areas that you live or travel in. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Violation of a law has nothing to do with knowledge of said law. \n\nIt is your civil responsibility to know the laws of the locale in which you live, and to not do so is only going to hurt you. \n\nAlso, allowing people to get out of crimes by saying \"I didn't know it was illegal\" would make it so that no one would ever be prosecuted unless you were able to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that they not only knew what they were doing, but that they also knew it was illegal, which would be nearly impossible to do.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine that you're at a party and you go to the restroom and when you return, the other party attendees say, \"while you were gone, we ordered a pizza and took $5 of yours. Hope you like pepperoni. You implicitly agreed to it by being here at the party.\" \n\nThat's how government works. It's not consensual. However, in a free society, one could actually sign a document upon reaching the age of consent that explicitly outlines the social norms within their community. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ignorance, in and of itself, is not a defense. It can't be, as a practical matter, or everyone would claim ignorance.\n\nThe legal system does have what is known as the *reasonable person* standard. If you act as a reasonable, law abiding person would, that can a defense for breaking laws your were ignorant of.\n\nFor example, it is 2 in the morning, and you come to a red light that doesn't seem to change. You wait a few minutes, carefully look for oncoming traffic in all directions, and run it.\n\nTurns out the law says you have to wait 5 minutes, and you only waited 2, and you get a ticket. You would have a decent defense if you argued that a reasonable person would have been unlikely to known the exact legal waiting period, and your actions were otherwise reasonable.\n\nIn that sense, you might be able to use ignorance as a defense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30275403",
"title": "Illegality in English law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Illegality in English law is a potential ground in English contract law, tort, trusts or UK company law for a court to refuse to enforce an obligation. The illegality of a transaction, either because of public policy under the common law, or because of legislation, potentially means no action directly concerning the deal will be heard by the courts. The doctrine is reminiscent of the Latin phrase \"Ex turpi causa non oritur actio\", meaning \"no cause of action arises from a wrong\". The primary problem arising when courts refuse to enforce an agreement is the extent to which an innocent party may recover any property already conveyed through the transaction. Hence, illegality raises important questions for English unjust enrichment law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12870157",
"title": "History of competition law",
"section": "Section::::Modern age.:United States antitrust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "\"Section 1. Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1883244",
"title": "Willful blindness",
"section": "Section::::Precedent in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In \"United States v. Jewell\", the court held that proof of willful ignorance satisfied the requirement of knowledge as to criminal possession and importation of drugs. In a number of cases in the United States of America, persons transporting packages containing illegal drugs have asserted that they never asked what the contents of the packages were and so lacked the requisite intent to break the law. Such defenses have not succeeded, as courts have been quick to determine that the defendant \"should\" have known what was in the package and exercised criminal recklessness by failing to find out the package's contents. Notably, this rule has only ever been applied to independent couriers, and has never been used to hold larger services that qualify as common carriers (e.g., FedEx, United Parcel Service, or the U.S. Postal Service) liable for the contents of packages they deliver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19541290",
"title": "Ignorantia juris non excusat",
"section": "Section::::Translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Some modern criminal statutes contain language such as stipulating that the act must be done \"knowingly and wittingly\" or \"with unlawful intent,\" or some similar language. However, this does not refer to ignorance of laws, but having criminal intent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3546978",
"title": "Consent (criminal law)",
"section": "Section::::Defences against criminal liability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Most states have laws which criminalize misrepresentations, deceptions, and fraud. These are situations in which a victim may have given apparent consent to parting with ownership or possession of money and/or goods, or to generally suffering a loss, but this consent is treated as vitiated by the dishonesty of the person making the untrue representations. Thus, while the criminal law is not generally a means of escaping civil obligations, the criminal courts may be able to offer some assistance to the gullible by returning their property or making compensation orders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30722883",
"title": "Illegality in Singapore administrative law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The broad heading of illegality may be divided into two sub-headings. In the first case, the High Court inquires into whether the public authority was empowered to take a particular course of action or make a decision, and, in the other, whether it exercised its discretion wrongly even though it was empowered to act. Where the Court finds that the public authority had exceeded its jurisdiction or had exercised its discretion wrongly, it may invalidate the act or decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11293",
"title": "Felony",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Classification by subject matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances. For example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Possession of a deadly weapon may be generally legal, but carrying the same weapon into a restricted area such as a school may be viewed as a serious offense, regardless of whether there is intent to use the weapon. Additionally, driving while intoxicated in some states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, but a felony on subsequent offenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
521a27
|
how much of the currency in films and tv shows is real?
|
[
{
"answer": "Very little, probably. Maybe a few bucks changes hands in this scene or that, but when you see a briefcase full of money it's prop currency that's been specially created not to run afoul of counterfeiting laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8158494",
"title": "Who's Minding the Mint?",
"section": "Section::::Production notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Over $1,000,000 of real United States currency was used in the movie, but was carefully watched by armed guards. Most of the currency shown being printed was larger by half of actual United States currency and had obvious printing errors, so there was no chance the money could be passed as genuine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376802",
"title": "Billion Dollar Brain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The film's credits show the title as \"$1,000,000,000,000,000,000.00\" and \"BILLION DOLLAR BRAIN\" This is the British definition of one trillion – 1 followed by 18 zeros is actually one quintillion in the short scale or one trillion in the long scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38055",
"title": "Bank for International Settlements",
"section": "Section::::Red Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The most notable currency not included in this table since 2009 is the Chinese yuan where statistics are listed \"not available\". In the year 2009 China was listed as having a banknotes and coins of value $606.59 billion and $456 per capita using an exchange rate of 6.8282 RMB per USD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4213160",
"title": "Dollars (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "$, also known as Dollar$, Dollars or $ (Dollars), and in the UK as The Heist, is a 1971 American caper film starring Warren Beatty and Goldie Hawn, written and directed by Richard Brooks and produced by M.J. Frankovich. The supporting cast includes Gert Fröbe, Robert Webber and Scott Brady. The film was partly shot in Hamburg, Germany, which forms the primary location of the film and was supported by the Hamburg Art Museum and Bendestorf Studios. The film's music is composed and produced by Quincy Jones, and the soundtrack features performances by the Don Elliott Voices, Little Richard, Roberta Flack and Doug Kershaw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35622553",
"title": "List of highest-grossing films in Malaysia",
"section": "Section::::Year to year international films box office in Malaysia.:Year 2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "BULLET::::- Note: The final actual grossing of was RM 37,252,441 (claimed by United International Pictures Malaysia), but the number was adjusted at week 14 release of the film due to difference in currency exchange, leading to official number of RM 34,661,020 stated in Box Office Mojo. Including local film \"KL Gangster\" which grossed about RM 12,978,352, it should be ranking #9 just above \"Thor\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5164582",
"title": "The Million Pound Note",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The Million Pound Note (released as Man with a Million and as Big Money in the U.S.) is a 1954 British comedy, directed by Ronald Neame and starring Gregory Peck. It is based on the Mark Twain short story \"The Million Pound Bank Note\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1710548",
"title": "Singapore Portrait Series currency notes",
"section": "Section::::Banknotes in general circulation.:$10,000 banknote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "It is one of the highest-value banknote in the world in terms of absolute value (approx. US$7,700) that is in public circulation. Even though larger denominations being withdrawn around the world, the MAS has retained the use of the $10,000 denomination. MAS discontinued issuing new $10,000 banknotes from 1 October 2014 as authorities suspect these notes are meant for illegal purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49t2vh
|
What was the extent of Persian influence on the Deccan Sultanates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Persian as in the culture? If so it was huge, not only was it the court language and culture, it was also the language of the arts and sciences, thanks in part to a massive influx of Persian immigrants (brain drain?) that migrated there 1500s.\n\n\n\n\nIf you meant Persian, as in the Safavids, then that was also considerable, or even huge if you were to define some of the acts the Deccan Sultanates (the Shia ones, such as Golconda) as acts of subservience. Salma Ahmed Farooqui (Comprehensive History of Medieval India) writes that the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda, themselves descendants of the Qara Qoyunlu, would read aloud the names of the Safavids Sahs in their call to prayer, which is an act of subservience, one you'd to for the Caliph.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Now others have covered the cultural impact; indeed the Bahmanid Sultanate derived its ancestry from the mythical Persian king Bahman. \n\nHowever, the political impact cannot be understated. When the Bahmani split into the four Shia states of Berar, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda, and after the Mughals rolled in, it was important to maintain ties with Iran simply because the Mughals laid claim to all India. When they diplomatically engaged with anyone (other than the Persians or Ottomans and to a lesser extent the Chinese) the Mughals treated them as feudatories, with tribute and duty in order. \n\nThe four sultanates would play ball, but also maintained the supremacy of Persia as a way to keep their practical independence, a policy that would eventually fail after Aurangzeb invades the South.\n\nSource: Writing the Mughal World, Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Muzaffar Alam",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1291560",
"title": "Indo-Persian culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "Persian was the official language of the Delhi Sultanate, the Bengal Sultanate, the Bahamani Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and their successor states, as well as the cultured language of poetry and literature. Many of the Sultans and nobility in the Sultanate period were Persianised Turks from Central Asia who spoke Turkic languages as their mother tongues. The Mughals were also culturally Persianized Central Asians (of Turco-Mongol origin on their paternal side), but spoke Chagatai Turkic as their first language at the beginning, before eventually adopting Persian. Persian became the preferred language of the Muslim elite of north India. Muzaffar Alam, a noted scholar of Mughal and Indo-Persian history, suggests that Persian became the official \"lingua franca\" of the empire under Akbar for various political and social factors due to its non-sectarian and fluid nature. The influence of these languages led to a vernacular called Hindustani that is the ancestor of today's Urdu and Hindi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46755681",
"title": "Monuments and Forts of the Deccan Sultanate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The Deccan sultanates were five dynasties that ruled late medieval kingdoms, namely, Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar in south-western India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan Plateau. Their architecture was a regional variant of Indo-Islamic architecture, heavily influenced by the styles of the Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal architecture, but sometimes also directly from Persia and Central Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52352403",
"title": "War of the League of the Indies",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "In 1565, the Deccan sultanates joined forces to strike a decisive blow against the Vijayanagara Empire at the Battle of Talikota. The Hindu Vijayanagara Empire had been engaged in an incessant, irregular war against each of the Muslim sultanates of the Deccan Plateau individually, well before the Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean. The rulers of Vijayanagara, (whom the Portuguese referred to as simply the \"Rei Grande\" - \"Great King\") and especially Rama Raya, were powerful partners of the Portuguese, but with the Empire now thrown into chaos and plundered, the Adil Shah of Bijapur once more sought to recover the city of Goa, which had been lost over half a century ago to the Portuguese, and altogether expel them from the western coast of India. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66715",
"title": "Hindustani language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Although the Mughals were of Timurid (\"Gurkānī\") Turco-Mongol descent, they were Persianised, and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after Babur, a continuation since the introduction of Persian by Central Asian Turkic rulers in the Indian Subcontinent, and the patronisation of it by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9183371",
"title": "Madurai Nayak dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Sultan dynasty at Madurai.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "...the Deccan was soon to feel the force of Islam, which was already the master of Northern India. In the reign of the able sultan of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296—1315 AD), a series of brilliant raids, led by the eunuch general Malik Kafur, a converted Hindu, crushed the Deccan kingdoms, and for a time a sultanate was set up even in Madurai, in the extreme south.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4294366",
"title": "Iran–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::History of Anglo–Iranian relations.:Qajar era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Anglo-Persian relations picked up momentum as a weakened Safavid empire, after the short-lived revival by the genius Nader Shah, eventually gave way to the Qajarid dynasty, which was quickly absorbed into domestic turmoil and rivalry, while competing colonial powers rapidly sought a stable foothold in the region. While the Portuguese, British, and Dutch, competed for the south and southeast of Persia in the Persian Gulf, Imperial Russia was largely left unchallenged in the north as it plunged southward to establish dominance in Persia's northern territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1291560",
"title": "Indo-Persian culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Persian influence was first introduced to the Indian subcontinent by Muslim rulers of Turkic and Afghan origin, especially with the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th century, and in the 16th to 19th century by the Mughal Empire. In general, from its earliest days, aspects of the culture and language were brought to the Indian subcontinent by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan rulers, such as Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in the 11th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35tfl6
|
How common would water-borne diseases such as Cholera have been in cities that used aqueducts such as Rome? Would the drinking water have been that much safer compared to other cities?
|
[
{
"answer": "History enthusiast here.\n\nOther cities as in other Roman cities?\n\nTo answer your question, considering that the aqueducts were fed by springs quite far away from Rome itself, the possibility of a waterborne illness is quite unlikely. To entertain the possibility would call for some infected body (human, fish, vegetable) to take a dip in an aqueduct (or the spring itself). However, if the source was a stagnant body of water (unlikely as the master planners knew the relation between stagnant water and waterborne diseases), then bid farewell to a large chunk of Rome's population.\n\nTo your other question, yes, the aqueduct was vastly superior (in terms of safety) compared to drawing water from a well, spring, or river, as those sources could become easily contaminated over a short period of time.\n\nSources: _URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8713214",
"title": "Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "In the 19th century numerous American cities were afflicted with major outbreaks of disease, including cholera in 1832, 1849 and 1866 and typhoid in 1848. The fast-growing cities did not have sewers and relied on contaminated wells within the city confines for drinking water supply. In the mid-19th century many cities built centralized water supply systems. However, initially these systems provided raw river water without any treatment. Only after John Snow established the link between contaminated water and disease in 1854 and after authorities became gradually convinced of that link, water treatment plants were added and public health improved. Sewers were built since the 1850s, initially based on the erroneous belief that bad air (miasma theory) caused cholera and typhoid. It took until the 1890s for the now universally accepted germ theory of disease to prevail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768226",
"title": "California Trail",
"section": "Section::::Routes.:Eastern migrant trails.:Cholera and death on the trail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Cholera killed many thousands in New York City, New York, St. Louis, Missouri, New Orleans, Louisiana, and other towns on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers who inadvertently drank cholera contaminated water. Cholera is thought to have been brought to these river cities, etc. and the California, Oregon and Mormon Trails by infected immigrants from Europe. Cholera killed additional thousands in London England, Liverpool, England, and other cities in Europe and around the world. These widespread infections and thousands of deaths finally gave impetus to building, at great cost, effective citywide water and sewage systems in many European and US cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7591",
"title": "Cholera",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Cholera cases are much less frequent in developed countries where governments have helped to establish water sanitation practices and effective medical treatments. The United States, for example, used to have a severe cholera problem similar to those in some developing countries. There were three large cholera outbreaks in the 1800s, which can be attributed to \"Vibrio cholerae\"'s spread through interior waterways like the Erie Canal and routes along the Eastern Seaboard. The island of Manhattan in New York City touched the Atlantic Ocean, where cholera collected just off the coast. At this time, New York City did not have as effective a sanitation system as it does today, so cholera was able to spread.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5181705",
"title": "Sanitation in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Health impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Although there were many sewers, public latrines, baths and other sanitation infrastructure, disease was still rampant. Most dwellings were not connected to street drains or sewers. Some apartment buildings (insulae) might have had a latrine and a fountain on the ground floor. This didn't stop the residents on the upper floors from dumping their waste onto the street. There was no street cleaning service in Rome. Thus, the neighborhoods were plagued with disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3180710",
"title": "Roman engineering",
"section": "Section::::Aqueducts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 342,
"text": " of water were brought into Rome by 14 different aqueducts each day. Per capita water usage in ancient Rome matched that of modern-day cities like New York City or modern Rome. Most water was for public use, such as baths and sewers. De aquaeductu is the definitive two volume treatise on 1st century aqueducts of Rome, written by Frontinus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5181705",
"title": "Sanitation in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Sewer systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "A system of eleven Roman aqueducts provided the inhabitants of Rome with water of varying quality, the best being reserved for potable supplies. Poorer-quality water was used in public baths and in latrines. Latrine systems have been found in many places, such as Housesteads, a Roman fort on Hadrian's Wall, in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and elsewhere that flushed waste away with a stream of water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7591",
"title": "Cholera",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Cities in developed nations made massive investment in clean water supply and well-separated sewage treatment infrastructures between the mid-1850s and the 1900s. This eliminated the threat of cholera epidemics from the major developed cities in the world. In 1883, Robert Koch identified \"V. cholerae\" with a microscope as the bacillus causing the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qm8ml
|
Many facets of American social culture appear to have gotten less "formal" over the course of the last 100 years (male/female dress, reverence for elders etc). Are there any noticeable examples of American society becoming more formal over this time period?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm curious about whether this is a trend that occurs in other countries or past cultures as well. Could it be a result of the Internet and other increased forms of communication? Maybe accessibility breeds familiarity. \n\nPlease don't delete or ban if I'm breaking rules here. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "It's more like 150 years, but weddings have gotten much more formal and formalized in that timeframe. Of course, plenty of people have informal/courthouse/Vegas weddings, but the idea of a wedding has changed from a small gathering of family and close friends in the home of the bride's or groom's parents to a large, fancy, ceremonial affair. \n\nIn 1840, Queen Victoria of Great Britain married Prince Albert. The bride wore a white satin dress, which immediately set the standard for brides-to-be who could afford white material and had the means to keep it clean. Prior to that (and for many years following for most women), women were typically married in their \"best\" dress, which was often made of a dark material so it could double as a funeral dress for those occasions. The rise of a (White) middle class in the United States meant that more women could aspire to the trappings of wealth, such as a big fancy white dress, catered dinner, a confectioner-made (rather than homemade) cake, engraved invitations, and such. Professions arose or adapted to meet these needs - florists, caterers, etc. Much of the modern wedding industry is based on this desire to imitate the formality and wealth the rich and aristocratic displayed on a daily (or at least frequent) basis -- allowing the bride and groom to be \"rich for a day.\" (As someone who studies the history of media and technology, I have to point out here the influence of the invention of photography and the spread of newspapers, whose \"society pages\" helped circulate images of wealth widely.)\n\nIf you are interested in reading more, Carol Wallace's *All Dressed in White: The Irresistible Rise of the American Wedding* (Penguin, 2004) is a pop history of weddings in the U.S.",
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"answer": "Also, if I could ask a related question, are there examples of American culture becoming more formal at times? For example, I am dimly aware of soldiers during the Civil War espousing an old-school chivalry in letters, and of the \"Victorian\" era in general being formal and dour; but I don't know enough to assess either if these are correct understandings or to compare them with prior time periods. ",
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},
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"answer": "Resumes have become an institution in the last 75 or so years. It used to be you carried a note from a Lord or trade guild and that was about it. These days people agonize over small details because these trivial things seem to mater. You will not find a lot of historical examples of resumes since they were almost unheard of.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
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{
"answer": "There is an interesting set of arguments about this from a sociological standpoint, one of which I am familiar with is by Samus Khan in *Privilege* (/u/yodatsracist can chime in to clarify and correct me). Basically, going back to Bourdieu what we call using the shorthand term \"formal\" is really a set of behavioral norms, or to put it another way, embodied class knowledge. The way you behave is the way you communicate your social position in a largely unconscious process: using the right fork, properly tying a bow tie, using a pocket square all communicate one aspect of social position; being able to fix a car or crush a beer can on your forehead communicates a different one. If these seem stereotypical, well, that is because they are: stereotypes are how we \"read\" the information communicated by behavioral norms. The argument is a lot more complicated than that, but that should be a serviceable overview.\n\nThe stuffy formalism of the nineteenth and early twentieth century is essentially a result of the class position of the social elite. Unlike the earlier hereditary nobility, the capitalist elite was undergirt by a meritocratic ideology, so they justified their position by essentially saying they earned it or at least actively contributed to it, rather than the earlier elite who viewed it as an essential aspect of their very being. John Blackwell, factory owner, needed to constantly reinforce his status position in a way that Guy de la Mantoyet, Baronet of Lancashire did not. So the demands of a young, somewhat mobile elite required a far more regulated set of behavioral norms than a hereditary one. If you compare George Washington's etiquette book with later Victorian ones, for example, it is far more concerned with having correct class knowledge (who is who, how to act to who) than with the sort of obsessive physical purity of the latter. Now this arguments gets a *lot* more complicated, but again, this should be serviceable.\n\nNow the interesting thing that has happened in the last fifty odd years is that the earlier ideology has been replaced by a more radically egalitarian one (even as social mobility has actually decreased--ideology need not be reality!). For a whole variety of reasons, including the decline of wealth based on \"pure\" capitalism in favor of high status wage labor, the sort of obsessive behavior regulation has become untenable unstable. What replaced it is a sort of cultural omnivorousness: if an elite in 1900 was able to deeply appreciate opera and knew how to formally dine like second nature, the elite of 2000 could listen to classical, jazz, *and* hip hop, and could dine formally and use chopsticks at a hole in the wall noodle joint. Instead of communicating status by deep behavioral embodiment of a set of norms, they are able to freely \"code switch\" depending on the situation.\n\nSo in a way, American culture didn't actually become less formal if by formal we mean status embodiment, Just that the needs of high status and thus the norms of embodiment have changed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Followup: Also, how formal was the past in reality, and how much of our perception is simply romanticization in modern media that may not reflect reality? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could this question be extended over Western culture as a whole? In fact, are there any cultures that have not become less formal over the last century?",
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},
{
"answer": "I would say the process of getting a job has become dramatically more formalized. When I was very young it was already becoming rare but you would still once in a while be able to pick up a job on the spot by talking to someone in charge. It has been more than 10 years since anyone I know in person has been able to land any kind of work without having to submit resume's and formally interview for even the most bullshit of little jobs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adoption has become a more formal process. Orphaned children used to ride on trains, getting off at each station where farmers would look them over. If a child looked like they could be helpful in the home or on a farm, it was \"adopted\". Now, because of international adoptions, agencies are needed to guide adoptive parents through the adoption process. Also, a majority of US adoptions are now infants and toddlers. This has led to a more formal and more administrative process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4519053",
"title": "Gender binary",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "According to Thomas Keith in \"Masculinities in Contemporary American Culture\", the longstanding cultural assumption that male–female dualities are \"natural and immutable\" partly explains the persistence of systems of patriarchy and male privilege in modern society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27372518",
"title": "Underwear fetishism",
"section": "Section::::Stockings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The increasing acceptance with which modern societies have viewed this particular subject since the middle of the 1950s decade enabled many men to indulge in this practice to such an extent that it has been branded as a 20th-century social phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21514028",
"title": "Irony",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Irony and awkwardness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The generation of people in the United States who grew up in the 90s, Millennials, are seen as having this same sort of detachment from serious or awkward situations in life, as well. Hipsters are thought to use irony as a shield against those same serious or genuine confrontations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47010708",
"title": "Womanless wedding",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Early modern Europe, and American prior to the 19th century, used womanless weddings as a way to safely express social strains between classes. The actors were lower-class; would ridicule the social position of the upper-class through skits for entertainment purposes. The upper-class citizens benevolently approved of these acts as cultural acknowledgement of their status in society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45802",
"title": "Social capital",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "In the first half of the 19th century, Alexis de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital. He observed that Americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to discuss all possible issues of state, economics, or the world that could be witnessed. The high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people and thus allowed for democracy to work better. The French writer highlighted also that the level of social participation (social capital) in American society was directly linked to the equality of conditions (Ferragina, 2010; 2012; 2013).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "125320",
"title": "Italian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Business and economy.:Women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 1833,
"text": "The American scene in the 1920s featured a widespread expansion of women's roles, starting with the vote in 1920, and including new standards of education, employment and control of their own sexuality. \"Flappers\" raised the hemline and lowered the old restrictions in women's fashion. The Italian-American media disapproved. It demanded the holding of the line regarding traditional gender roles in which men controlled their families. Many traditional patriarchal values prevailed among Southern European male immigrants, although some practices like dowry were left behind in Europe. The community spokesmen were shocked at the notion of a woman marking her secret ballot. They ridiculed flappers and proclaimed that feminism was immoral. They idealized an old male model of Italian womanhood. Mussolini was popular with readers and subsidized some papers, so when he expanded the electorate to include some women voting at the local level, the Italian American editorialists applauded him, arguing that the true Italian woman was, above all, a mother and a wife and, therefore, would be reliable as a voter on local matters but only in Italy. Feminist organizations in Italy were ignored, as the editors purposely associated emancipation with Americanism and transformed the debate over women's rights into a defense of the Italian-American community to set its own boundaries and rules. The ethnic papers featured a woman's page that updated readers on the latest fabrics, color combinations, and accessories including hats, shoes, handbags, and jewelry. Food was a major concern, and recipes were presented which adjusted to the availability of ingredients in the American market. Food supplies were limited in Italy by poverty and strict import controls, but abundant in America, so new recipes were needed to take advantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469034",
"title": "History of women in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Progressive era: 1900–1940.:Feminism in 1920s.:Italian American resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 1327,
"text": "The American scene in the 1920s featured a widespread expansion of women's roles, starting with the vote in 1920, and including new standards of education, employment and control of their own sexuality. \"Flappers\" Raise the hemline and lowered the old restrictions in women's fashion. The Italian-American media disapproved. It demanded the holding of the line regarding traditional gender roles in which men controlled their families. Many traditional patriarchal values prevailed among Southern European male immigrants, although some practices like dowry were left behind in Europe. The community spokesman Were shocked that the image of a woman with a secret ballot. They ridiculed flappers and proclaimed that feminism was immoral. They idealizes an old male model of Italian womanhood. Mussolini was popular, and when he expanded the electorate to include some women voting at the local level, the Italian American editorialists went along, arguing that the true Italian woman was, above all, a mother and a wife and, therefore, would be reliable as a voter on local matters. Feminist organizations in Italy were ignored, as the editors purposely associated emancipation with Americanism and transformed the debate over women's rights into a defense of the Italian-American community to set its own boundaries and rules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hqute
|
why don't we put msg in everything?
|
[
{
"answer": "People are stupid and still think it is bad for you. A lot of store bought soups and stocks will still label their product as msg free, even though there is no need to be msg free.\n\nPersonally I do put it on everything. You can get a huge thing from amazon for like 15 bucks",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "62289",
"title": "Monosodium glutamate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has given MSG its generally recognized as safe (GRAS) designation. A popular misconception is that MSG can cause headaches and other feelings of discomfort, known as \"Chinese restaurant syndrome,\" but blinded studies fail to find evidence of such a reaction. However, some neurologists maintain that MSG may be a migraine trigger. The European Union classifies it as a food additive permitted in certain foods and subject to quantitative limits. MSG has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2357235",
"title": "Machine Sazi Arak",
"section": "Section::::Certificates, Honors and Exports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "MSA's high quality products have so far found their way to the markets of many countries like France, Italy, England, Belgium, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Jordan, Syria, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Sudan and Uzbekistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62289",
"title": "Monosodium glutamate",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A 1995 report from the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) for the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that MSG is safe when \"eaten at customary levels\" and, although a subgroup of otherwise-healthy individuals develop an MSG symptom complex when exposed to 3 g of MSG in the absence of food, MSG as a cause has not been established because the symptom reports are anecdotal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37749401",
"title": "Multispectral optoacoustic tomography",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "MSOT has now been used in a broad range of biological applications, including cardiovascular disease research, neuroimaging and cancer research. The development of real-time hand-held imaging systems has enabled clinical use of MSOT for imaging the breast, vasculature, lymph nodes and skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62289",
"title": "Monosodium glutamate",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "MSG is safe to consume. A popular belief is that MSG can cause headaches and other feelings of discomfort but Blinded tests have found no good evidence to support this. MSG has been used for more than 100 years to season food, with a number of studies conducted on its safety. Consumption and manufacture of high-salt and high-glutamate foods, which contain both sodium and glutamate, stretch back far longer, with evidence of cheese manufacture as early as 5,500 BCE. International and national bodies governing food additives currently consider MSG safe for human consumption as a flavor enhancer. Under normal conditions, humans can metabolize relatively large quantities of glutamate, which is naturally produced in the gut in the course of protein hydrolysis. The median lethal dose (LD) is between 15 and 18 g/kg body weight in rats and mice, respectively, five times the LD of sodium chloride (3 g/kg in rats). The use of MSG as a food additive and the natural level of glutamic acid in foods are not toxicological concerns in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62289",
"title": "Monosodium glutamate",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The perpetuation of the negative image of MSG through the so-called Chinese Restaurant Syndrome has been attributed to xenophobic or racist biases, with people specifically targeting Asian cuisine whereas the widespread usage of MSG in western consumer goods (e.g. in processed food) doesn't generate the same stigma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1983210",
"title": "Microsoft Active Accessibility",
"section": "Section::::Roles, names, values, states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "MSAA communicates information by sending small chunks of information about elements of a program to the assistive technology object (AT). The four critical pieces of information on which the AT relies to help users interact with applications are an element's role, name, value, and state:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
88eqlm
|
The nearest star is a little over 4 light years away. Do we know of any solar systems with neighbors that are very close to each other (relative to our proximity with Proxima Centauri)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Okay, I whipped up a little program using [this data set](_URL_2_) that has the positions of stars in our solar neighbourhood.\n\nAssuming the data is correct, the closest stars in our neighbourhood (excluding any binaries, etc.) are [Procyon](_URL_0_) and [Luyten's Star](_URL_1_), which are a mere 1.019 light years apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally when you get closer to the galactic center, stars tend to be closer together. One estimate I read puts it at 10 million stars per cubic parsec (which means a mean distance between them comparable to the distance between the sun and the Kuiper belt objects), but that seems excessive so I'll have to look for a better source on that number.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The density of stars near the galactic center will be higher. [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) puts it at 2 stars per cubic light year compared to the 0.004 stars per cubic light year near the sun. This corresponds to an average separation of ~0.8 light years between stars near the galactic center vs the ~6.3 light years between stars near the sun. This is assuming a locally uniform distribution of stars; the commonality of binary star systems should probably be taken into account for a better estimate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since the nearest star is a distance of 4 ly away, we can approximate the local stellar density to be of order [0.14 stars per cubic parsec](_URL_0_)%5E-1+to+pc%5E-3). Globular clusters have an average stellar density of 0.4 stars per cubic parsec, and this can increase to 100 or 1000 per cubic parsec in their dense cores. So yes, we know of many systems with close neighbors. In the center of a globular cluster, you would have hundreds of stellar neighbors closer than Proxima Centauri is to our system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Proxima Centauri is an example. It is 0.2 light years away from Alpha Centauri.\n\nDouble stars can be considered extreme cases of what you are looking for - and they can be so close that they \"touch\" each other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Further to this discussion - and possibly more in line with what OP was asking? - in our galactic neighbourhood, is the proximity of our sun to Alpha Centauri unusual? Excluding binaries and such. I'd be curious to know this at least.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How long would a space probe need to get there with current technology?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The nearest star to the Earth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is 39.9 trillion kilometres, or 4.2 light-years. Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle (8 kilometres per second—almost 30,000 kilometres per hour), it would take about 150,000 years to arrive. This is typical of stellar separations in galactic discs. Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters, or much farther apart in galactic halos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205665",
"title": "Lalande 21185",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "At approximately away it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System; only the Alpha Centauri system, Barnard's Star, and Wolf 359 and the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 and WISE 0855−0714 are known to be closer. Because of its proximity it is a frequent subject for astronomical surveys and other research and thus is known by numerous other designations. Research papers most commonly use the designations BD+36 2147, Gliese 411, and HD 95735 to refer to this star. In approximately 19,900 years Lalande 21185 will be at its closest distance of about 4.65 ly (1.43 pc) from the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23984",
"title": "Pyxis",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The closest star to Earth in the constellation is Gliese 318, a white dwarf of spectral class DA5 and magnitude 11.85. Its distance has been calculated to be 26 light-years, or 28.7 ± 0.5 light-years distant from Earth. It has around 45% of the Sun's mass, yet only 0.15% of its luminosity. WISEPC J083641.12-185947.2 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T8p located around 72 light-years from Earth. Discovered by infrared astronomy in 2011, it has a magnitude of 18.79.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from more distant stars (10 ly – ).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "From 40 Eridani, 16 light years away, the Sun would be an average looking star of about apparent magnitude 3.3 in the constellation Serpens Caput. At this distance most of the stars nearest to us would be in different locations to those in our sky, including Alpha Centauri, Sirius, and Procyon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28162",
"title": "List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs",
"section": "Section::::Distant future and past encounters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "One of the first stars known to approach the Sun particularly close is Gliese 710. The star, whose mass is roughly half that of the Sun, is currently 62 light-years from the Solar System. It was first noticed in 1999 using data from the Hipparcos satellite, and was estimated to pass less than from the Sun in 1.4 million years. With the release of Gaia's observations of the star, it has since been refined to a much closer , close enough to significantly disturb objects in the Oort cloud, which extends out to from the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1772351",
"title": "Brocchi's Cluster",
"section": "Section::::The \"Coathanger\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "At 7 Vul and HD 183261's closest possible distance to each other (1100 light-years), they would be further than 6 light-years apart from one another. At the closest possible distance of all three (1180 light-years), HD 182422 and HD 183261 would be separated by almost 20 light-years, and HD 182422 and 7 Vul would be separated by more than 25. For comparison, the Sun and the closest known star, Proxima Centauri, are slightly more than 4 light-years apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20400299",
"title": "Delta Muscae",
"section": "Section::::Distance and visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Even though Delta Muscae is the closest star to Earth in the Musca constellation, nearly 3800 stars are closer in proximity to the Earth as stated by the Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars, which includes stars within twenty-five parsecs of the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bkrihp
|
why do athletes look so much faster on tv compared to live (in-person)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most likely because of the camera movement.\n\n & #x200B;\n\non TV the camera focuses on the player and the rest moves around them. in person, you are already far and you point of view is the whole stadium.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "270664",
"title": "Spectator sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The increasing broadcasting of sports events, along with media reporting can affect the number of people attending sports due to the ability to experience the sport without the need to physically attend and sometimes an increasingly enhanced experience including highlights, replays, commentary, statistics and analysis. Some sports are particularly known as \"armchair sports\" or \"lounge room sports\" due to the quality of the broadcasting experience in comparison to the live experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60704542",
"title": "Gender pay gap in sports",
"section": "Section::::Factors.:Media coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1252,
"text": "Media coverage takes forms such as news reports, television programs, and social media articles. Media coverage does not only enhance the popularity of athletes but also reveals the commercial nature of sports. Male’s sports have higher production values and are going to seem more exciting. Novak Djokovic, the former world No.1 in men's single tennis said that male players deserve to be paid more than female players because \"statistics are showing that we have much more spectators on the men’s tennis matches\", which means male athletes have gained more interests and attention. The economic logic is, the viewership determines the commercial value of a sport, as the media producers hope to attract more audiences to make profits. This factor may effect the media coverage of female athletes. In Australia, female's sports make up 7% of all sports media coverage, the same as the United Kingdom. Similarly, in the United States, nearly 40% of athletes are female, but they own 2%-4% media coverages. Except for the quantity, the quality of media coverage also matters. The media portrayal of female athletes tends to be less professional, and sometimes involve entertaining or sexualised contents instead of portraying their athletic abilities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9262",
"title": "Entertainment",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Sporting competitions have always provided entertainment for crowds. To distinguish the players from the audience, the latter are often known as spectators. Developments in stadium and auditorium design, as well as in recording and broadcast technology, have allowed off-site spectators to watch sport, with the result that the size of the audience has grown ever larger and spectator sport has become increasingly popular. Two of the most popular sports with global appeal are association football and cricket. Their ultimate international competitions, the World Cup and test cricket, are broadcast around the world. Beyond the very large numbers involved in playing these sports, they are notable for being a major source of entertainment for many millions of non-players worldwide. A comparable multi-stage, long-form sport with global appeal is the Tour de France, unusual in that it takes place outside of special stadia, being run instead in the countryside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961949",
"title": "Superstars",
"section": "Section::::British, European and International Superstars.:1983 to 1985: End of the first era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Over the next fifteen years, though the US version continued unabated, Superstars in the UK existed solely as a nostalgic memory for sporting clip shows, usually focussing on Kevin Keegan falling off his bike, Stan Bowles shooting the table instead of a target, or Brian Jacks eating oranges. During the 1990s BBC programmes (such as \"Fantasy Football League\") regularly made use of this footage – and kept the show in the public spotlight – while Sky Sports began to show full-length programmes on its \"Sky Sports Classic\" channel. This, together with a new generation of television executives and sports presenters who grew up as fans of the show created interest in a revival, which finally happened as part of the 2002 Sport Relief charity event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34950838",
"title": "Social media and television",
"section": "Section::::Professional sports and social media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1177,
"text": "People often use social media to interact with and discuss sports. Technology is now so advanced that people no longer have to watch the game live on television. For example, there are apps, like ESPN, that will send users updates on the teams of their choice. People can also follow their favourite sports team on social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. On those websites, professional teams' accounts post live updates of scores and plays during games and interact as much as they can with their fans and followers. Many professional athletes have social media accounts that they are very active on. Through social media, fans get the chance to follow their favorite players and keep up with their day-to-day life. Teams and players are now able to directly connect with the fans with the help of social media. Players also have to be careful when they use social media because if anything they post is taken in the wrong context, they could suffer huge consequences. For instance, former Villanova basketball player, Donte DiVincenzo, was criticized in 2018 for controversial tweets that he had posted seven years prior when he was fourteen years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10120207",
"title": "The Amazing Race (American TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Through the 17th season of the \"Race\", the show used standard-definition television cameras despite the move of most other primetime shows, including reality television shows like \"Survivor\", to high-definition television (HD) cameras prior to 2010. Worldrace Productions cited the cost and fragility of HD equipment as a barrier to its use for the \"Race\". While other scripted or reality shows that film in one location have the ability to replace equipment quickly from a nearby facility, the mobile nature of the \"Race\" made the prospect of using HD difficult. The 18th season of the \"Race\", filmed in late 2010, was the first to be filmed in HD. The production team uses Sony XDCAMs, allowing the filming to be transferred directly to digital format and couriered to the editors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29858442",
"title": "Sports marketing",
"section": "Section::::Types of sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1476,
"text": "There are seven product attributes that differentiate mainstream sports from non-mainstream sports: accessibility, popularity, uniqueness, affordability, star power, player skill, and player similarity. Accessibility, affordability, and similarity are strongly related to niche sports while popularity, player skill as well as accessibility are strongly related to mainstream sports. Meanwhile, fans that are less-identified with a team are drawn to player similarity as they feel they can relate more with players while highly identified fans prefer the star power of players. Affordability also is a distinguishing factor among fans, as less-identified fans place greater importance on price. A practical marketing example of this is the National Lacrosse League mandating players to attend receptions of restaurants who sponsor the team. Other strategies that niche sports utilize to differentiate themselves from mainstream sports are providing easy access to team and player information, especially online, as well as offer affordable ticket prices and valuable promotions such as dollar beer nights and 25-cent hot dog nights. In contrast, popular mainstream sports like Major League Baseball (MLB) and the National Basketball Association (NBA) highlight the star power of players, which is why teams go to great effort to promote their best players. This is also seen in media as nationally televised sporting events often promote specific players leading up to games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vs02p
|
what is the largest known individual object in the universe and how you can understand it's true scale?
|
[
{
"answer": "YV Canis Majoris is the largest known star we have observed.\n\nIt's as wide as our solar system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nHere's a good gif to understand scale. Thank me later",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall, a galactic filament between 6 and 10 billion lightyears long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends what you call object. The largest structure we know of is the ~~[large quasar group](_URL_1_) : a group of 70 quasars~~ [Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall](_URL_0_) that span several *billions* light years. It's so stupidly huge that it raises questions about the universe being as [homogeneous as we thought](_URL_2_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21626",
"title": "Near-Earth object",
"section": "Section::::Number and classification.:Near-Earth asteroids.:Size distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The smallest known near-Earth asteroid is with an absolute magnitude of 33.2, corresponding to a diameter of about . The largest such object is 1036 Ganymed, with an absolute magnitude of 9.45 and a diameter of about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Unsolved problems by subfield.:Cosmology and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "BULLET::::- The largest structures in the universe are larger than expected. Current cosmological models say there should be very little structure on scales larger than a few hundred million light years across, due to the expansion of the universe trumping the effect of gravity. But the Sloan Great Wall is 1.38 billion light-years in length. And the largest structure currently known, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, is up to 10 billion light-years in length. Are these actual structures or random density fluctuations? If they are real structures they contradict the '' hypothesis which asserts that at a scale of 300 million light-years structures seen in smaller surveys are randomized to the extent that the smooth distribution of the universe is visually apparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21174200",
"title": "(225088) 2007 OR10",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface and spectra.:Brightness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The size of an object can be calculated from its absolute magnitude (brightness) and albedo. has an absolute magnitude (H) of 2.34, which makes it the seventh-brightest trans-Neptunian object known. Other sources give an absolute magnitude of 1.8, which would make it the fifth brightest trans-Neptunian object, brighter than Sedna (H=1.83; D=995 km) and (H=2.31; D=917 km).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187750",
"title": "Large numbers",
"section": "Section::::Astronomically large numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Other large numbers, as regards length and time, are found in astronomy and cosmology. For example, the current Big Bang model suggests that the universe is 13.8 billion years (4.355 × 10 seconds) old, and that the observable universe is 93 billion light years across (8.8 × 10 metres), and contains about 5 × 10 stars, organized into around 125 billion (1.25 × 10) galaxies, according to Hubble Space Telescope observations. There are about 10 atoms in the observable universe, by rough estimation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38199788",
"title": "Large quasar group",
"section": "Section::::Prominent LQGs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "On January 11, 2013, the discovery of the Huge-LQG was announced by the University of Central Lancashire, as the largest known structure in the universe by that time. It comprises 74 quasars and has a minimum diameter of 1.4 billion light-years, but over 4 billion light-years at its widest point. According to researcher and author, Roger Clowes, the existence of structures with the size of LQGs was believed theoretically impossible. Cosmological structures had been believed to have a size limit of approximately 1.2 billion light-years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826723",
"title": "Angular diameter",
"section": "Section::::Use in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "In astronomy, the sizes of celestial objects are often given in terms of their angular diameter as seen from Earth, rather than their actual sizes. Since these angular diameters are typically small, it is common to present them in arcseconds (″). An arcsecond is 1/3600th of one degree (1°), and a radian is 180/formula_12 degrees, so one radian equals 3,600*180/formula_12 arcseconds, which is about 206,265 arcseconds. Therefore, the angular diameter of an object with physical diameter \"d\" at a distance \"D\", expressed in arcseconds, is given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8375147",
"title": "Cephalopod size",
"section": "Section::::Maximum size.:Scientifically validated records.:Extinct taxa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1195,
"text": "Certain extinct cephalopods rivalled or even exceeded the size of the largest living species (Carnall, 2017). In particular, the subclass Ammonoidea is known to have included a considerable number of species that may be considered \"giant\" (defined by Stevens, 1988 as those exceeding in shell diameter). The largest confirmed ammonite, a specimen of \"Parapuzosia seppenradensis\" discovered in a German quarry in 1895, measures in diameter (Kennedy & Kaplan, 1995:21), though its living chamber is largely missing. The diameter of the complete shell has been estimated at , assuming the living chamber took up one-fourth of the outer whorl (Landois, 1895:100). Teichert & Kummel (1960:6) suggested an even larger original shell diameter of around for this specimen, assuming the body chamber extended for three-fourths to one full whorl. In 1971 a portion of an ammonite possibly surpassing this specimen was reportedly found in a brickyard in Bottrop, western Germany (Beer, 2015). A specimen found by Jim Rockwood, from the Late Triassic near Williston Lake, British Columbia, was said to measure more than across, but was later determined to be a concretion ([Anonymous],; [Anonymous], 2008).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tzyf5
|
why are motorcycle engines capable of running at such higher rpm than car engines?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are smaller and don't have as much metal to sling around. Since they have less mass in order to create the forces required to move it has to have higher RPM's. When you get up to the larger high speed diesel engines 1300RPM - 1500RPM is usually a max rating. Then the even larger medium speeds will typically max around 600RPM -800RPM. Any higher RPM's from these large engines will literally tear the engine apart. \n\nEdit: A really ELI5 metaphor would be to think about throwing a punch. You can throw a lot of punches pretty fast. If you are holding a weight it would slow the punches down but have more force with each punch. If you attempt to punch too fast while holding a heavy weight you could dislocate your shoulder. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's more to it than that...\n\nThere are car engines that can rev as far as a bike engine, take F1 cars for instance. One part of the ability of engine to rev to a high rpm is what is called rod/stroke ratio. The rod/stroke ratio dictates the amount of torque the engine can create. Torque is what gets you moving, horse power is what keeps you moving. When you have a large rod/stroke ratio the is more side-loading of the piston in the cylinder, this leads to friction which leads to heat which leads to detonation if it becomes excessive. Because a car weighs roughly 10x more than a bike it needs more torque to get it moving so manufacturers have to create engines that will create enough torque to make the car usable in everyday life while also keeping it from blowing up. \n\nBecause a car engine has to be larger than a bike's and the manufacturers want to sell cars, the engines in cars are not made to such exacting standards (withholding ferrari, lambo, etc) and they are made in ways that reduce cost (casting not forging, steal not titanium, etc) but still deliver a product that can go ~150,000+ miles on average. A bike engine cannot do that, it pays the price for being a high revving beast by having a shorter life span. \n\nDiesel engines make a lot of torque for their size, that's why you see then in industrial applications instead of gas engines, and as deadpool said the rpm's are limited because in order to make all that torque they have very large rod/stroke ratios and very high compression which means a lot of shearing force is placed on the internal components. Limiting rpm in these situations makes the product last longer with fewer rebuilds along the way.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In short: Motorcycle engines,like Formula 1 engines have bigger bore than stroke,so there is less to travel. There is more to it but this is in short",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7906844",
"title": "Bike-engined car",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Modern motorcycle engines are often available with higher specific outputs than car engines, which provides a performance advantage in a lightweight car. The motorcycle's sequential gearbox is often fitted with the engine, allowing for fast gearshifts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3200893",
"title": "Suzuki RGV250",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "This motorcycle's engine performance is not very inspiring at engine speeds under 7,000 rpm, due to the two-stroke engine power delivery of a relatively narrow power band. However, once the engine is revved over 8,000 rpm, the power delivery characteristics effectively doubles, as is expected of a two-stroke racing motorcycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25362559",
"title": "Motorcycle testing and measurement",
"section": "Section::::Engine power and torque.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "With power typically being the product of force and speed, a motorcycle's power and torque ratings will be highly indicative of its performance. Reported numbers for power and torque may however vary from one source to another due to inconsistencies in how testing equipment is calibrated, the method of using that equipment, the conditions during the test, and particularly the location that force and speed are being measured at. The power of the engine alone, often called crankshaft power, or power at the crankshaft, will be significantly greater than the power measured at the rear wheel. The amount of power lost due to friction in the transmission (primary drive, gearbox and final drive) depends on the details of the design and construction. Generalizing, a chain drive motorcycle may have some 5-20% less power at the rear wheel than at the crankshaft, while a shaft drive model may lose a little more than that due to greater friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560591",
"title": "Overdrive (mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "At even slightly lower speeds than maximum, the total drag on the vehicle is considerably less, and the engine needs to deliver this greatly reduced amount of power. In this case the RPM of the engine has changed significantly while the RPM of the wheels has changed very little. Clearly this condition calls for a different gear ratio. If one is not supplied, the engine is forced to run at a higher RPM than optimal. As the engine requires more power to overcome internal friction at higher RPM, this means more fuel is used simply to keep the engine running at this speed. Every cycle of the engine leads to wear, so keeping the engine at higher RPM is also unfavorable for engine life. Additionally, the sound of an engine is strongly related to the RPM, so running at lower RPM is generally quieter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3742265",
"title": "Power band",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Internal combustion engines.:Gasoline engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "In more common applications, a modern, well designed and engineered fuel-injected, computer-controlled, multi-valve and optionally variable-valve timing-equipped gasoline engine using good fuel can achieve remarkable flexibility in automobile applications, with sufficient torque even at low engine speeds and a relatively flat power output from 1,500 to 6,500 RPM, allowing easy cruising and forgiving low-speed behaviour. However, achieving maximum power for strong acceleration or high road speed still requires high RPM. Though the literal power band covers most of the operating RPM range, particularly in first gear (as there is no lower gear to shift down to, and no \"flat spot\" in which the engine does not produce any power), the effective band changes in each gear, becoming the range limited at the upper end by either the limiter, or a point roughly located between peak power and the redline where power drops off, and at the lower end the engine's idling speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2238101",
"title": "Two-stroke power valve system",
"section": "Section::::Engineering design improvements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "In a race bike, this is not a problem as the engine will be operating at high RPM almost all the time. However, in a road/commuter bike, the limited power range is a problem. To provide more low RPM power, as well as enable the engine to produce a lot of high RPM power, a power valve system is used. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8044387",
"title": "Electric motorcycles and scooters",
"section": "Section::::Electric vs. gasoline machines.:Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Electric and gasoline powered motorcycles and scooters of the same size and weight are roughly comparable in performance. In August 2013 Road and Track evaluated a high-end electric motorcycle as faster and better handling than any conventionally powered bike. Electric machines have better 0 to 60 acceleration, since they develop full torque immediately, and without a clutch the torque is instantly available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5x2pha
|
how exactly was russia allegedly involved with the presidential election and what did they do?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is supposedly evidence that Russia was involved in hacking the DNC. They released as much damning information from the DNC as they could to try and push Trump into office, as he could potentially be financially compromised by the Russian government. They could then influence Trump through coercion to work with their hyper aggressive plan to expand into new European territory.\n\nEveryone should demand at least an investigation into this so we could move on from it, but there are people stonewalling. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Russian intelligence hacked the email of the Democratic National Committee, a private political organization. They selectively released, via Wikileaks, a trove of embarrassing but almost completely substanceless chatter that made the DNC look bad. The identity of the hackers as Russian is well established, and their connection to the intelligence service is generally accepted by security professionals. [Here](_URL_0_) is an article from last July making the case. The Washington Post reported on it through the fall, but no one seemed to care much as everyone assumed the Trump campaign didn't have a chance. \n\nThis had a couple of effects. First, it likely depressed turnout in the general election for Clinton specifically from the young, mostly white, Left who supported Sanders in the Democratic primary because it showed that the DNC internally preferred Clinton, and this was spun as them \"rigging\" the primary for her (allegations which are false, although there were a couple improprieties which didn't change the outcome).\n\nIt also depressed Clinton turnout more generally because it was conflated in the popular imagination with the *other* Clinton email issue, that she legally but unwisely used a private email server during her time as Secretary of State. Critics charged that this made her communications insecure, although as far as I know there's no evidence of that (while official government servers have been hacked several times). But since most people don't pay much attention to the news, they thought reports of hacked emails were referring to Clinton's State Department emails, and that these were put in public because of Clinton's carelessness. Neither of these things were true.\n\nAs for why, well, Russia and the Trunp campaign had a cozy relationship. Charitably, this is because Trump felt Russo-American relations had deteriorated under Obama. More cynically, there was an (unverified) intelligence dossier circulated (including to President Obama and the Trunp campaign before the election) claiming that trump is personally compromised by Russian intelligence because of his extensive business ties to Russia and an illicitly recorded sextape of Trump having a golden showers party in a Moscow hotel with a bunch of Russian hookers. (Yes really.) The dossier only came out publicly after the election, and again it has not been verified (although my understanding is that some of the claims in it have since been confirmed. Maybe not the piss play.)\n\nThe Obama Administration imposed economic sanctions on Russia in December as a response to the hacking. Trump advisor Gen. Michael Flynn had a phone call the same day with the Russian Ambassador where they discussed sanctions and Flynn implied that Trump would remove them once he were in office. (This is arguably treason -- by passing on secret information to Russia that reassures them the sanctions will come down, he undermines the purpose of the United States in implementing them in the first place.) Flynn then lied to the press about the content of the call. More specifically, the Trump campaign trotted out VP-elect Pence to deny the allegations in public, which means either Pence lied about the call as well or, what might be more likely (and which seems to be the Trump party line) that Flynn lied to Pence about them. \n\nToday's breaking story is that Attorney General Jeff Sessions, who as head of the Department of Justice is charged with investigating Trump's connection to Russian intelligence and improper contacts between the campaign/administration and Russia, also spoke to the Russian ambassador of at least two occasions. This despite testifying under oath at his confirmation hearing that he wasn't aware of any such contacts between Russia and the campaign and that he personally had no such contact. But unlike the Flynn call, which was recorded by the CIA, it's not yet clear if Sessions also improperly discussed sanctions at those meetings. (He says he didn't, if you find that denial credible.) The front page of the Washington Post has the story today if you want to read more about it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The allegations claim that hackers working for two Russian intelligence agencies broke into email systems belonging to the Democratic National Committee as well as email accounts of other Democratic figures, such as Hilary Clinton's campaign chairman John Podesta. The emails they found were then released through Wikileaks, an organization that specializes in sharing secret information. The release of information was carefully managed, both in terms of timing and content, in order to create a series of news stories that presented Hilary Clinton and the Democrats as dishonest and untrustworthy. By calling attention to insecurities in Democratic email systems, they also supported one of the key talking points of the Trump campaign, which was that Hilary Clinton had compromised national security by running her own email server while she was Secretary of State.\n\nI think that's a neutral summary. It is a fact that some emails were stolen and then released to the media in such a way as to hurt the Clinton campaign. It has also been _claimed_ that this was done by agents of the Russian government. So that's what people mean when they say 'Russia was involved'.\n\nBut wait, there's more. There are also allegations that Donald Trump and key figures in his campaign are sympathetic to the Russians, or are being or could be manipulated by Russia (which is to say by Russian president Vladimir Putin). It's also claimed that Trump or members of his campaign were in contact with the alleged Russian agents responsible for stealing and leaking the information.\n\nGoing into all the details would take a long time. What is certain is that some key members of Donald Trump's campaign, such as campaign manager Paul Manafort and foreign policy adviser Carter Page, had strong links to Russia. Manafort worked for the former president of the Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych, an ally of president Putin. Manafort also apparently arranged to change parts of the Republican party's official policy in a way that benefited Russia. Both Manafort and Page resigned from the campaign because of concern over their ties to Russia. More recently, other people close to Trump, such as his appointee for national security adviser, Michael Flynn, and attorney general Jeff Sessions, have been revealed to have had contact with key figures in Russian intelligence. In Flynn's case, he was obliged to step down as a result of this.\n\nThere are also allegations that Trump himself may be compromised by Russia in some way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone do a little ELI5 about whether Sessions not disclosing his meetings with Kislyak counts as perjury? \n\nI'm British but I'm quite interested in American politics and just want to get a handle of how serious it is that a USAG went under oath in front of Congress and kind of told a lie of omission.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Read through the major comments in this thread, you can see clear bias on both sides. Remember most of the information here is based on ALLEGATIONS and CLAIMS, not hard evidence. Look at everything and form your own opinion, be open to new information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223104",
"title": "2008 Russian presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "According to Russia Today, many in the Western media portrayed Russia's presidential election as nothing but a farce. It reported that the claims of rigging the election were not supported by the various international election monitoring organizations in attendance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16286087",
"title": "Fairness of the 2008 Russian presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Opinions of the media and political analysts.:Western Press.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "According to \"Russia Today\", many in the Western media portrayed Russia's presidential election as nothing but a farce. It reported that the claims of rigging the election were not supported by the various international election monitoring organizations in attendance. Russia Today quoted a monitor from Slovakia and leader of the Slovak National Party, Anna Belousovová, saying\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54266373",
"title": "Special Counsel investigation (2017–2019)",
"section": "Section::::Original claims of Russian election involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The first public US government assertion of Russian efforts to influence the 2016 election came in a joint statement on September 22, 2016, by Senator Dianne Feinstein and House member Adam Schiff, the top Democrats on the Senate and House Intelligence Committees, respectively. The US Intelligence Community released a similar statement fifteen days later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60523812",
"title": "Mueller Report",
"section": "Section::::Findings.:Volume I.:Russian interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The Mueller Report found that the Russian government \"interfered in the 2016 presidential election in sweeping and systematic fashion\" and \"violated U.S. criminal law\". The report relayed two methods by which Russia attempted to influence the election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52547512",
"title": "Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence analysis and reports.:Non-US intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The first public US government assertion of Russian efforts to influence the 2016 election came in a joint statement on September 22, 2016, by Senator Dianne Feinstein and Representative Adam Schiff, the top Democrats on the Senate and House Intelligence Committees, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54266373",
"title": "Special Counsel investigation (2017–2019)",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Russian election interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The Mueller Report concluded while there was no evidence that the Trump campaign conspired with Russia to influence the election, the Russian government did attempt to influence the election in Trump's favor by hacking Democratic political organizations and spreading \"disinformation and social media\" discord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54115568",
"title": "Timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections",
"section": "Section::::2016 presidential campaign.:January–March 2016.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 401,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 401,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- U.S. intelligence officials' suspicions of Russian meddling in the presidential election grow after their counterparts in Europe warn that Russian money might be flowing into the election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2de1xn
|
Why can some people flex certain muscles and others can't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Training builds and strengthens neuromuscular connections. If you workout your chest consistently then you should be able to move your pecs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18447032",
"title": "Muscle contracture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Muscle contractures can occur for many reasons, such as paralysis, muscular atrophy, and forms of muscular dystrophy. Fundamentally, the muscle and its tendons shorten, resulting in reduced flexibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39595",
"title": "Human leg",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Flexibility.:Stretching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300182",
"title": "Flexibility (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Stretching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Flexibility is improved by stretching. Stretching should only be started when muscles are warm and the body temperature is raised. To be effective while stretching, force applied to the body must be held just beyond a feeling of pain and needs to be held for at least ten seconds. Increasing the range of motion creates good posture and develops proficient performance in everyday activities increasing the length of life and overall health of the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788074",
"title": "Physical strength",
"section": "Section::::Strength capability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Skeletal muscles produce reactive forces and moments at the joints. To avoid injury or fatigue, when person is performing a task, such as pushing or lifting a load, the external moments created at the joints due to the load at the hand and the weight of the body segments must be ideally less than the muscular moment strengths at the joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300182",
"title": "Flexibility (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Risk of Injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Some people get injuries while doing yoga and aerobics so one needs to be careful while doing it. While most stretching does not cause injury, it is said that quick, ballistic stretching can if it is done incorrectly. If a bone, muscle or any other part is stretched more than its capacity it may lead to dislocation, muscle pulls, etc. or something even more severe too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17605520",
"title": "Ulnar claw",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Massaging the forearm muscles also alleviates the tightness that occurs with muscles exertion. Stretching allows the muscles more flexibility, decreasing interference with the innervations of the ulnar nerve to the fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11090613",
"title": "Clasp-knife response",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Although seemingly a stretch reflex when flexing a joint, force from the muscle during the attempt to flex a joint is actually thought to be caused by the tendon reflex of the antagonistic muscle of that joint, which is an extensor muscle that becomes stretched. In upper motor neuron lesions, muscle tonus may increase and resistance of muscle to stretch increases. However, if sufficient force is applied, limb resistance suddenly decreases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
43ymuf
|
How much autonomy did each State in the Holy Roman Empire have with respect to the military?
|
[
{
"answer": "As for your first question, it depends on the era you're talking about. Prior to the Thirty Years War, most states did not have a standing army, but rather formed/hired an army as needed. However, this was not particularly unique within the HRE, given that standing armies were very expensive, and most states did not have a standing army. As standing professional armies became more common in the post-Westphalian period, many of the states did maintain standing forces. \n\nIn terms of more general autonomy, the various states of the HRE did have a degree of say in how/where troops were deployed. The *Reichstag*--the Imperial Diet--which consisted of the electors, princes, and free cities, could vote to raise troops or money for the defence of the Empire in general, and the Emperor could request such a vote for defence against a particular threat, such as the Ottomans advancing against the Empire's southern frontier, or the French in the west. Of course, there was a difference between the *Reichstag* voting for money/troops to be sent to the Emperor, and that money and troops actually materialising. \n\nThe Empire was subdivided into several 'Circles', which were regional gatherings of princes in certain regions of the Empire. The Circle was essentially an attempt to localise defence amongst the princes. Each Circle had its own Diet for deliberation amongst the princes that were apart of the Circle, and were meant to allow them to co-ordinate their responses to threats and collection of taxes voted for by the *Reichstag*. In times of *Reichskrieg*, the Circles were responsible for raising and supporting a set number of forces in order to form a combined Army of the Empire, independent and seperate from the army of the Emperor. \n\nAs for your second question, it's important to note that from ~1500 on, the Empire was under the rule of the Perpetual Public Peace, which obligated the princes of the Empire to settle their disputes through the Imperial legal system, rather than through force of arms. While the Thirty Years War serves as an obvious counter-example, the Public Peace was generally respected, and escalation to force of arms within the Empire relatively rare until the complete breakdown of the Thirty Years War. It does depend on how you define 'regularly', of course, as the post-Thirty Years War period through the whole of the 18th century had many wars, but whether or not this counts as 'regularly' fighting battles is up for debate. It is worth noting that in many of the major wars throughout the period, there was fighting in and amongst the princes of the Empire (See War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession), but in the Nine Years War and Great Turkish War, the Empire presented a relatively united front. The princes of the Empire did indeed fight against each other and foreign powers, but whether you can characterise that as 'regular' infighting or fighting against external powers is going to depend on what you want to focus on. \n\nHopefully this answers your question, and feel free to ask any followups! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41200936",
"title": "Imperial Military Constitution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Imperial Military Constitution (, also called the \"Reichskriegsverfassung\") of the Holy Roman Empire, like the rest of the imperial constitution, grew out of various laws and governed the establishment of military forces within the Empire. It was the basis for the establishment of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire (\"Reichsarmee\"), which was under the supreme command of the Emperor but was distinct from his Imperial Troops, as it could only be deployed by the Imperial Diet. The last Imperial Defence Order (\"Reichsdefensionalordnung\"), entitled \"Reichsgutachten in puncto securitatis\", of 13/23 May 1681, completed the military constitution of the Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182007",
"title": "List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a highly decentralized state for most of its history, composed of hundreds of smaller states, most of which operated with some degree of independent sovereignty. Although in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, under the Salian and Hohenstaufen emperors, it was relatively centralized, as time went on the Emperor lost more and more power to the Princes. The membership of the Imperial Diet in 1792, late in the Empire's history but before the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, gives some insight as to the composition of the Holy Roman Empire at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1699228",
"title": "Peace of Prague (1635)",
"section": "Section::::Terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "BULLET::::- The armies of the various states were to be unified under the command of the Princes as generals of the Emperor, to establish an Army of the Holy Roman Empire as a whole, which would fight against invading troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Institutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers, collectively known as princes. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256842",
"title": "List of states in the Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a complex political entity that existed in central Europe for most of the medieval and early modern periods and was generally ruled by a German-speaking Emperor. It should be mentioned that the states that composed the Empire, while enjoying a unique form of territorial authority (called \"Landeshoheit\") that granted them many attributes of sovereignty, were never fully sovereign states as the term is understood today. In the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 such territories, the majority being tiny estates owned by the families of Imperial Knights. This page does not directly contain the list, but it discusses the format of the various lists, and offers some background to understand the complex organisation of the Holy Roman Empire. The lists themselves can be accessed via the alphabetical navigation box at the top of this page; each letter will lead the reader to a page where states of the Empire which began with that letter are listed. For a more complete history of the empire, see Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3943310",
"title": "Kleinstaaterei",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Apart from these two states, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of hundreds of small, German-speaking principalities, most of which derived from successive dynastic splits (feudal fragmentation), sometimes reflected in compound names such as Saxe-Coburg; some of these were united through royal marriages, although the resulting entity was often not a contiguous territory. During the early modern period, these small states modernised their military, judicial, and economic administrations. These hardly existed at the imperial level, and the emperor was little more than a feudalistic confederal figurehead, without political or military clout. After the Reformation, the Empire's small states were divided along religious lines. Those headed by Roman Catholic dynasties faced those ruled by Protestant dynasties in the Thirty Years' War and other conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38580553",
"title": "Mozart's nationality",
"section": "Section::::The Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "However, although the Holy Roman Empire was largely German, it was hardly a nation state, but only a very loose confederation, the feeble residue of an empire that had been robust centuries earlier. According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", the princes whose states comprised the empire \"legislated at will, levied taxes, concluded alliances, and waged wars against each other ... The imperial Diet meeting in Regensburg had degenerated into a debating society without authority or influence. The splendid [imperial] coronation ceremony in Frankfurt am Main could not disguise the fact that the office conferred on its holder little more than prestige.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a2k2zz
|
What exactly happened when you got the letter that you were drafted in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "I answered a question similar to this [here](_URL_0_), but I'll repost it below.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305948",
"title": "David Dellinger",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Why I Refused to Register in the October 1940 Draft and a Little of What It Led To\" (1999), from Gara, Larry and Lenna Mae Gara, eds., \"A Few Small Candles: War Resistors of World War II Tell Their Stories\". Kent, Ohio. Kent State University Press. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193207",
"title": "Western Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "During World War II, families with sons in military service dreaded the Western Union \"boy on his bicycle\" to arrive at their home with a telegram from the War Department or the Navy Department. The message began: The Secretary of War (for soldiers and airmen) or Secretary of Navy (for sailors and marines), regrets to inform you that [name, rank, and serial number of the man in the military service] was killed in action (or missing in action).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6502766",
"title": "Karol Kossok",
"section": "Section::::Background Information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "During World War II, he signed the Volksliste, but his exact whereabouts at that time are not known. Some time in the summer of 1944 he was drafted into the Wehrmacht). Captured by the Red Army at the end of the war, he died in a POW camp in East Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37108221",
"title": "Henry Koerner",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Drafted into the U.S. Army, he was ordered in 1944 to the Graphics Division of the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C. where he made war posters, including \"Save Waste Fats\" and \"Someone Talked\", the latter winning an award from the Museum of Modern Art. Shipped to London, he documented, in pen and ink sketches and photographs, everyday life during wartime. After VE Day (8 May 1945), Koerner was reassigned to Germany, working in Wiesbaden and Berlin, and sketching defendants at the Nuremberg trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43338388",
"title": "Raimund Schelcher",
"section": "Section::::Career.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "He was drafted shortly before World War II on 28 August 1939 by the Gestapo. He was drafted as a soldier and was \"probation battalion assigned\". In battle, he was wounded four times and he fell into Soviet captivity. After his release he resumed his career at the Stadttheater in Bremen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27084311",
"title": "Brookfield Enterprise",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "With the onset of World War II, the military draft had begun to cut into his male workforce and according to Reubendall, \"it became necessary for me to work every evening, and it became quite a burden.\" So, in January 1945 Reubendall sold the paper to Robert Hladik and Lawrence Morrell Gross. Soon after the sale the paper began to falter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36736128",
"title": "Mail sack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "During World War I it was typical of German soldiers to write postcards to their family to keep in touch to let them know where they were and what they were doing. The various ultimate destinations of the postcards were sorted into German \"mail sacks\" of that time period (1914–1918) by behind the scenes \"post-office troops.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pmma4
|
why do some communities trick-or-treat on the day before halloween?
|
[
{
"answer": "For safety mostly. If you get a lot of people to Trick-or-Treat the day before you end splitting the number of people up over two days instead of everyone trying to do it all at once.\n\nAlso, it allows parent's to take really young kids out without having to worry about asshole teenagers because most of them will be out Halloween night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've only seen it happen when Halloween fell on a Sunday. Some Christian churches take 'keeping the Sabbath holy' more literally than others, so in areas where there is a high concentration of a particular religion, (Utah, Bible Belt, etc.) the local communities may choose to have Trick-or-treating on Saturday Oct 30th.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30861",
"title": "Trick-or-treating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Trick-or-treating is a Halloween ritual custom for children and adults in many countries. Children in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the phrase \"Trick or treat\". The \"treat\" is usually some form of candy, although in some cultures money is used instead. The \"trick\" refers to a threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. Trick-or-treating usually occurs on the evening of October 31. Some homeowners signal that they are willing to hand out treats by putting up Halloween decorations outside their doors; others simply leave treats available on their porches for the children to take freely. Houses may also leave their porch light on as a universal indicator that they have candy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14008353",
"title": "Beggars Night",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Beggars Night, or more properly Beggars' Night, is a recent regional term for the early Halloween-related activity that is referred to in some parts of the United States as \"Trick or Treat\". Some municipal counties, concerned with younger children getting hurt on Halloween Day when trick-or-treating; decided for a weekday day before Halloween Day for younger children to go trick-or-treating safely. This day is varying by county and year depending when Halloween Day is, resulting in this day to be in some cases a week before Halloween Day. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855",
"title": "Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Trick-or-treating and guising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, \"Trick or treat?\" The word \"trick\" implies a \"threat\" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling. John Pymm writes that \"many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church.\" These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday. Mumming practiced in Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe, involved masked persons in fancy dress who \"paraded the streets and entered houses to dance or play dice in silence\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59431122",
"title": "English festivals",
"section": "Section::::Halloween.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as sweets or sometimes money, with the question, \"Trick or treat?\" The word \"trick\" implies a \"threat\" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling. John Pymm writes that \"many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church.\" These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30861",
"title": "Trick-or-treating",
"section": "Section::::History.:Increased popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "Although some popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from Mischief Night vandalism, there are very few records supporting this. Des Moines, Iowa is the only area known to have a record of trick-or-treating being used to deter crime. Elsewhere, adults, as reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically saw it as a form of extortion, with reactions ranging from bemused indulgence to anger. Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City carried a parade banner that read \"American Boys Don't Beg.\" The National Confectioners Association reported in 2005 that 80 percent of adults in the United States planned to give out confectionery to trick-or-treaters, and that 93 percent of children, teenagers, and young adults planned to go trick-or-treating or participating in other Halloween activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14008353",
"title": "Beggars Night",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "This term is new to possibly distinguish between Halloween Eve's or Halloween Days' Trick-or-Treating, which in most places is just called \"The day the town decided when Trick-or-Treating was.\" Traditionally, Halloween Day or Halloween Eve, children went trick-or-treating at night when Halloween festivities started. Due to both days being festival days, especially on weekends, many car accidents and intoxicated misbehaviors occurred. To make this holiday safer, in a county all towns in it, will receive a different day for children residing in that town to go trick-or-treating: hours between getting out of school and ending between 6-8pm. Due to the differing days, children are able to go trick-or-treating on multiple weekdays in the neighboring towns. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14008353",
"title": "Beggars Night",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Children are also allowed to trick-or-treat on Halloween Eve and Halloween Day as well. However, adults will usual only buy enough supply of candy for trick-or-treating the day their town decided on which day it was. This has led to much confusion and fewer houses having candy due to adults traditionally celebrating Halloween Eve or Halloween Day if it is on a weekend. However, it has led to better regulation and coordination between varying town law enforcement in decreasing rowdy acts. Mostly, school boards and local newspapers announce to their towns which day their town will be doing trick-or-treating. Halloween is still celebrated with parties but no younger children trick-or-treating Halloween Eve or Day anymore. Specifically, the term is broadly but not exclusively used in Ohio, and in many parts of Iowa, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Wisconsin and western New York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
95xgi1
|
the mechanisms of voting in the us and the controversy about requiring government id in order to vote
|
[
{
"answer": "You have to register to vote a month or 2 before the actual election is to take place. You then get a voter ID card but your name goes on a list. Your local voting station gets a list that contains your name (and others who registered). You then tell the voting station your name, they cross you off a list and go to vote.\n\nSource: I worked at a voting station a few years back.\n\nThe issue is that for starters we don't automatically register people to vote, if you don't register before hand you usually can't vote or you have to go through a huge process to be able to vote. Additionally in terms of having a photo ID, most people use a drivers license but there are large swaths of people that don't have a license. Ok so use a state ID, well that requires a bunch of documentation that poor people are statistically expect to lose. Social Security cards and birth certificates are generally required and if poor people lose them it's super hard to get any sort of ID. Then tac on the fact that you have to go to the department of motor vehicles to get this ID (notorious for being slow) it's really hard for a poor person to take off work to find a bus to ride for an hour each direction and wait 3 hours at the DMV.\n\nEdit: also go search for the DMV in the state of Texas you'll see a handful, but you'll also notice that many people up North and West have to drive a huge distance to get to one.\n\nIt's more of an issue with how we don't register and don't automatically give people access to state issued IDs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the US voter ID supporting contingent is composed of equal parts well meaning but not fully aware people and cynical bigots who would say anything to disenfranchise more people.\n\nOur public transit systems are atrocious and our local-level government is a mixed bag, so a policy that seems sensible and easy to support, like an ID for voting, can easily become a nightmare to comply with for many people in some areas. \n\nSome people, mostly elderly people living in rural areas, don't have a birth certificate, for instance. Not like they don't have a physical copy of one, there was never a BC created. Someone like that can be barred from voting by apparently benevolent voter ID laws despite their status as an American citizen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Throughout the United State's history there's been discrimination in voting. Sometimes it was overt (women can't vote and black people can't vote). So we amended the constitution to change that (15th and 19th amendments). \n\nThe thing is, voting is controlled by the states so states that still didn't want black people (mostly) to vote instead brought up all sorts of rules that said \"okay, you can vote IF you do X\". Things like poll taxes, literacy tests, etc. So you'd show up to vote and it'd be $10 supposedly to pay for the expenses of the day and if you didn't have that money (because you're poor) then that's too bad. \n\nSo then we passed a law called the voting rights act that severely restricted the rights of states to do sneaky things like that. \n\nFast forward to today and you have voter ID laws. Some people allege this is just the latest tactic in the same pattern set up as before. It's just an extraneous requirement meant to keep people from voting rather than really having anything to do with election security. \n\nThat's because in the USA you usually have to register to vote beforehand. So you prove that you live where you live and then you can just go vote whenever there's an election. Sometimes you can use any sort of ID (doesn't even need a picture) but some proposed laws narrow the scope of what's allowed (so student IDs are no longer valid to prove you are who you say you are). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other people are saying it in more detail, but in essence the root of the problem is that actually getting appropriate ID (e.g. a driver's license) in America is *unspeakably* difficult compared to in most other first-world nations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > How does this work in the states where ID is not required? You show up and just vote?\n\nI walk into the polling place, tell them my name and address, sign the register, and they hand me a ballot.\n\n > Why is it a problem to ~~register/~~obtain an ID?\n\nIt takes a significant amount of time (on the order of up to half a workday), and the documents - driver's licenses and passports, at least - aren't free.\n\n(Voter registration generally *is* required, so that you appear on the rolls.)\n\n---\n\nThe logical argument in favor of ID is that, considered wholly independently, it shouldn't be controversial to prove your identity before casting your vote.\n\nThe logical argument against ID is that the sort of voter fraud it would fight simply doesn't happen on any meaningful scale.\n\nRequiring ID, in practice, is a solution without a problem, which would create a *host* of negative side effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, the US does not have any nationwide universal ID. Instead, each state issues its own ID (typically a Drivers License or similar) or there are photo IDs for members of the military.\n\n2nd, a LOT of people don't have a driver's license. If you don't have a car, you don't need one. This primarily impacts the elderly and the poor. Getting state ID means gathering the necessary documents, getting a ride to the driver's license office (which may be FAR away if you live in a rural area) waiting all day, paying a fee, etc. If you don't have a car this is a huge pain. If you're poor and work two jobs you just don't have this kind of time. If you're 90 years old it's unlikely you even have the correct documents any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your country probably has a mandatory national ID system, well-funded by the national government. Due to long-standing worries about being tracked by the government, the US does not. Instead, it uses state driver's licenses as IDs. These licenses require a fee and often involve a bunch of other hidden costs and hassles, so many poor Americans don't have one.\n\nAs a result, there's no way to have a positive ID of all voters without locking some out of the voting process.\n\nThe obvious solution to that problem is to roll out a real national ID system, but some civil rights groups worry it will be used to track and monitor citizens, and some lawmakers are rather happy with the way the current system disenfranchises poor urban voters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The province of Alabama created a voter ID law. Then they closed DMV offices (where you could get an ID) in predominantly Black areas. For some people, getting proper ID would take three hours of driving. In other areas, they reduced the hours that the DMV offices were open -- sometimes only a few hours a day, two days a week.\n\nEvery requirement in the way of voting is a chance for people to peddle racism via bureaucracy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So everything that's not for president is a simple majority. Theres only 2 parties that matter. Republicans and Democrats. Depending on what you're running for and where, each party might only send 1 person to run, so they have inner party voting to establish who they want to run for them. For example, a city mayor might have one of each party, but a township trustee in a hyper conservative township might have 5 people running but they are all the same party.\n\nBut president is different. Again each party puts forth 1 person each and has a whole thing about who they want to represent them. It's not always a normal race for this. But then they go against the other party in the electoral college. Each state gets 2 electoral votes in the electoral college, and then they get additional electoral votes based on population size. Not all electoral votes in each state are worth the same. Most states then have their people vote for who they want the electoral votes to go to and in most cases its winner take all for that state. Theres a few states that split them in different ways. The interesting part of this is that the votes the people cast here dont mean anything. They are just suggestions for people called delegates to use their votes for because each one gets an electoral vote they get to vote for. But almost always they vote for who they people want. Who ever gets the most electoral votes wins. Not technically the half but if you get half you cant lose and since theres really only 2 parties that's all that matters.\n\nThe controversy of voting dates back to post civil war. People were still racist and this goes all the way to like the 60s or 70s. People used ridiculous and arbitrary tests to try and block black people to vote. We made that mostly illegal and are afraid of allowing that to be more loose because of what happened. But because of voter fraud we want to establish better ID systems. We dont have the best ID system now. Using drivers licenses is the main way. But poor people a lot of times dont have really any form of ID a lot of the time. And a lot of black people are poor (dont hate me this is just how it is. Say it's the man keeping them down. Idc, idk.) So people think voter ID is again a way to stop black people from voting.\n\nEdit: I almost forgot to mention in the US we dont have a national ID. It's your passport, your driver's license, or your Social security. The first 2 cost money and are usually unnecessary if you're poor. The 3rd technically IDs you but only has your name on it. They reuse SSC numbers and they aren't all that unique. While your Walmart card, if you change 1 number it won't be someone else's, change 1 number on your SSC card and it is someone else. Probably someone who got theirs in line behind you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20102947",
"title": "2012 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::State changes to voter registration and electoral rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1766,
"text": "In 2011, several state legislatures passed new voting laws, especially pertaining to voter identification, with the stated purpose of combating voter fraud; the laws were attacked, however, by the Democratic Party as attempts to suppress voting among its supporters and to improve the Republican Party's presidential prospects. Florida, Georgia, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia's state legislatures approved measures to shorten early voting periods. Florida and Iowa barred all felons from voting. Kansas, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Wisconsin state legislatures passed laws requiring voters to have government-issued IDs before they could cast their ballots. This meant, typically, that people without driver's licenses or passports had to gain new forms of ID. Obama, the NAACP, and the Democratic Party fought against many of the new state laws. Former President Bill Clinton denounced them, saying, \"There has never been in my lifetime, since we got rid of the poll tax and all the Jim Crow burdens on voting, the determined effort to limit the franchise that we see today\". He was referring to Jim Crow laws passed in southern states near the turn of the twentieth century that disenfranchised most blacks from voting and excluded them from the political process for more than six decades. Clinton said the moves would effectively disenfranchise core voter blocs that trend liberal, including college students, Blacks, and Latinos. \"Rolling Stone\" magazine criticized the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) for lobbying in states to bring about these laws, to \"solve\" a problem that does not exist. The Obama campaign fought against the Ohio law, pushing for a petition and statewide referendum to repeal it in time for the 2012 election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33110953",
"title": "Voter Identification laws",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Iceland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Voting is voluntary for all citizens 18 years or older. All voters must present photo ID before being allowed to vote. To prevent double-voting fraud, every voter is checked against the national voter database before their ballot is placed into the ballot box.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57221291",
"title": "Voter ID laws in Pennsylvania",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Laws have been made governing voter registration and voter identification (voter ID) in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. Currently, only first-time voters are required to produce ID when voting in elections. A law passed in 2012 by the Pennsylvania State Legislature required \"all\" voters to produce ID. This law was overturned in 2014 in the Commonwealth Court on constitutional grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797246",
"title": "National Voter Registration Act of 1993",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "After Congress enacted the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to address rampant voting discrimination against racial minorities, voting rights advocates argued for federal legislation to remove other barriers to voter registration in the United States. The basic requirements to vote are the same in all states. A person has to be a U.S. citizen, of at least 18 years old and a resident of the state in which he or she is voting. However, initial legislative efforts to create national voter registration standards for federal elections failed. In the early 1970s, Congress considered several legislative proposals to require the U.S. Census Bureau to mail voter registration forms to every household, none of which passed. In the mid and late 1970s, legislative proposals to require certain public agency offices to make voter registration forms available and to require states to allow Election Day voter registration failed. Similar bills introduced throughout the 1980s also failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33110953",
"title": "Voter Identification laws",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the conditioning of the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax. However, many states have some form of voter ID requirement, which have been allowed to stand by the Supreme Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19386436",
"title": "Native American civil rights",
"section": "Section::::Voting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In 1965 the Voting Rights Act (VRA) put an end to individual states' claims on whether or not Natives were allowed to vote through a federal law. Section 2 of the VRA states that, \"No voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure, shall be imposed or applied by any State or political subdivision to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color\". Further sections describe the measures taken if violations to this act are discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43517618",
"title": "2018 Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario leadership election",
"section": "Section::::Rules and procedures.:Method and Electronic Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The voting method is solely electronic voting with no other access methods. To cast a ballot, a three-part validation-vote was employed. First each eligible member had to register to vote with a code sent via regular mail. Second, each member who had registered had to validate their identity with one piece of government issued identification by uploading an image. Third, each qualifying member was provided a second access code to use during the voting period via the internet. The system was criticized by all candidates as overly complicated and difficult for elderly members and those with difficulties using or accessing computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vd07i
|
why do we have a more intense "falling feeling" in amusement park rides than we do when we are actually free falling like in skydiving or high dives?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you are freefalling you are not falling freely for long until you pick up enough speed for air resistance to matter and stop the feeling of freefall. In fact you have more freefall time by jumping on a trampoline then if you are skydiving since on the trampoline you are experiencing freefalling both going up and going down. Roller coasters on the other hand is designed to give you as much freefall as possible. In addition to letting you experience freefall on the way up over a crest or a loop as well as down from the top the carts are very heavy compared to their air resistance so the acceleration due to air resistance is much smaller then when you are falling by yourself and you are therefore freefalling for longer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That feeling is the experience of G-force. Simply put, once out of the plane, you will eventually achieve terminal velocity. That's the speed at which you stop accelerating. When you're not accelerating, you're G-force is zero. \n\nRoller coasters are designed, essentially, to basically never achieve terminal velocity. Or, a better way of saying that is, roller coasters will likely never achieve terminal velocity simply because their weight, or mass, is too high and the drops too short to achieve them. Couple that with several twists and turns, and the rider is basically \"always\" experiencing some form of G-force. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The feeling comes from acceleration. When going over the hill on a rollercoaster you are accelerating the whole time (it's designed like that). When sky diving, you reach terminal velocity pretty quickly and are no longer accelerating. For all of your senses except for sight, you are no longer moving, or at least moving quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many coasters pull negative Gs, so you are accelerating toward the ground faster than gravity would pull you - such that you would fly out if not restrained. \n\nEven if the train does follow a ballistic trajectory, the forces experienced in different parts of the train will differ, and those near the back may still experience negative Gs. It depends on the design of the ride.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40387207",
"title": "Goliath (Six Flags Great America)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Marcus Leshock of WGN-TV commended the uniqueness of the zero-g stall element, stating \"it's something I've never really felt on a coaster before\". He describes hanging upside down as a \"really nice, fun, exhilarating feeling\" without feeling disorientated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11578174",
"title": "Air time (rides)",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "As well as rollercoasters, drop towers can provide the feeling of weightlessness. For example, in the case of The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror at Disney's Hollywood Studios, Disney California Adventure, Tokyo DisneySea, and Disneyland Paris, the elevator drops riders faster than gravity normally would, causing them to rise off of their seats by several inches whilst being held down by only a seat belt, creating the sensation of zero-G. Most drop towers, however, have shoulder bars, preventing riders from rising significantly from their seats, even where negative Gs are present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35411342",
"title": "Roller coaster phobia",
"section": "Section::::Contributing factors.:Acrophobia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Most roller coasters combine substantial heights with seemingly insignificant support, as well as free-falls and the illusion of uncontrolled drops. Because acrophobia involves an extreme fear of heights and falling, these conditions could cause someone who is an acrophobic to have an extremely negative reaction to riding roller coasters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48476127",
"title": "Sports et divertissements",
"section": "Section::::Music and texts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "\"Graciously\". To the strains of an innocuous waltz theme a pair of pleasure-seekers prepare to go on a water slide. The more reluctant of the two is persuaded with dubious reassurances (\"You will feel as if you were falling off a scaffolding\"). Following an expectant musical pause the ride itself is evoked with dizzying plunging scales. The squeamish one feels sick afterwards but is told, \"That proves you needed to have some fun.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "672932",
"title": "Roger Caillois",
"section": "Section::::Caillois' key ideas on play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ilinx (Greek for \"whirlpool\"), or vertigo, in the sense of altering perception by experiencing a strong emotion (panic, fear, ecstasy) the stronger the emotion is, the stronger the sense of excitement and fun becomes. E.g. taking hallucinogens, riding roller coasters, children spinning until they fall down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5815501",
"title": "Phoenix (roller coaster)",
"section": "Section::::Ride experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The Phoenix coaster routinely gives a fast ride with many spots where riders experience upwards acceleration, or negative gravity. This floating sensation is known to coaster enthusiasts as \"airtime\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10267562",
"title": "Acrophobia (ride)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Acrophobia is the latest version in a long-running series of attractions designed by Intamin that create the sensation of free fall. The first free-fall towers were, in essence, vertical drop roller coaster rides, although many coaster fans do not classify them as such. One such example was Six Flags Over Georgia's own Free Fall, which was installed in the park in 1983 and removed in December 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g1qho
|
Is the smell of cooking food appetizing to babies too young to eat solids?
|
[
{
"answer": "Babies can determine the difference between breast milk and baby formula by smell. They can actually find their way to a nipple to feed on even when they're at a small distance because of the smell. I know this isn't exactly the answer you are looking for but it's still interesting.\n\n[There are actually plenty of baby smell studies listed at the end of this article](_URL_0_) if you want to take a look.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12465661",
"title": "Acquired taste",
"section": "Section::::Acquiring the taste.:General acquisition of tastes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The process of acquiring a taste can involve developmental maturation, genetics (of both taste sensitivity and personality), family example, and biochemical reward properties of foods. Infants are born preferring sweet foods and rejecting sour and bitter tastes, and they develop a preference for salt at approximately 4 months. Neophobia (fear of novelty) tends to vary with age in predictable, but not linear, ways. Babies just beginning to eat solid foods generally accept a wide variety of foods, toddlers and young children are relatively neophobic towards food, and older children, adults, and the elderly are often adventurous eaters with wide-ranging tastes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9014",
"title": "Developmental psychology",
"section": "Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.:Infant perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "BULLET::::- Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around 3 days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference. There is good evidence for older infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6641326",
"title": "Baby-led weaning",
"section": "Section::::General information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "When infants bring solid foods to their own mouth, they are the ones guiding the sensory experience, starting and stopping when they are comfortable and ready. When food does move too posteriorly in the mouth triggering a gag reflex, the \"entire\" bolus is expelled from the mouth. Also, food moves slowly in comparison to liquid, and is not often sucked into the pharynx, allowing for laryngeal penetration or aspiration of the bolus. The food bolus will trigger a gag response first and be expelled before it hits the laryngeal vestibule. Infants therefore utilize the gag reflex for learning three important concepts: the borders of their mouth, desensitizing their gag reflex, and how to protect their airway when volitionally swallowing solid foods (Rapley & Murkett, 2008).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic.:Phlegmatic: Cold and Wet.:Lifestyle tips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 266,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 266,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Consuming low-volume high calorie food such as salted or roasted almond, pistachio, raisin, and fig is good for them. Taking food stuff such as fig, melon seeds, radish, and thyme that trigger diarrhea or urination which could lessen the wetness in their body and create a feeling of lightness and joy is recommended to this group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57552333",
"title": "BPA controversy",
"section": "Section::::Human exposure sources.:Fetal and early-childhood exposures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them. While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37679356",
"title": "Infant nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Infant nutrition requirements.:Six to twelve months.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Solid foods should be introduced from six months onward. Salt, sugar, processed meat, juices, and canned foods should be avoided. Breast milk or formula continues to be the primary source of nutrition during these months, in addition to solid foods. Solid food can be introduced during this age because the gastrointestinal tract has matured. Solids can be digested more easily, and allergic responses are less likely. The infant has begun teething by now, which will aid in chewing of solid food. Another milestone that the infant has hit by now is properly supporting and turning their head. They may do this to express a dislike in certain foods. The infant has also developed enough to participate in feedings by grasping bottles and pieces of food to feed themselves. When all of these developmental milestones are considered, it is easy to understand why introducing solid foods before six months is not recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877461",
"title": "Baby food",
"section": "Section::::Preparation and feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "Baby foods are either a soft, liquid paste or an easily chewed food since babies lack developed muscles and teeth to effectively chew. Babies typically move to consuming baby food once nursing or formula is not sufficient for the child's appetite. Babies do not need to have teeth to transition to eating solid foods. Teeth, however, normally do begin to show up at this age. Care should be taken with certain foods that pose a choking hazard, such as undercooked vegetables, grapes, or food that may contain bones. Babies begin eating liquid style baby food consisting of pureed vegetables and fruits, sometimes mixed with rice cereal and formula, or breastmilk. Then, as the baby is better able to chew, small, soft pieces or lumps may be included. Care should be taken, as babies with teeth have the ability to break off pieces of food but they do not possess the back molars to grind, so food can be carefully mashed or prechewed, or broken into manageable pieces for their baby. Around 6 months of age, babies may begin to feed themselves (picking up food pieces with hands, using the whole fist, or later the pincer grasp [the thumb and forefinger]) with help from parents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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