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12eqqm
|
Can all of chemistry be explained/modeled by physics?
|
[
{
"answer": "sort of yes, you can solve the [Schrödinger equation](_URL_0_)\n\nbut of more relevance is the XKCD article on [purity](_URL_1_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, that's true. All theoretical chemistry is based off physics, and has been since around the 1920's. Virtually all the models and descriptions and 'rules' you learn in chemistry have rigorous physical justifications, even if chemists themselves don't necessarily know about them. \n\nThe first description of chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics (the first description that can be considered reasonably correct, physically) was Heitler and London's 1927 paper _\"Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und homöopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik\"_, which is quite early considering that the Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics had only been 'invented' in the previous year. By the late 1930's, Pauling, Slater, Mulliken and Hund had finished up the broad strokes of Valence-Bond theory and Molecular-Orbital theory, the two main qualitative models of chemical bonding that chemists use. \n\nBy 1929, Paul Dirac wrote that \"The underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of physics and the whole of chemistry are thus completely known\", which has pretty much been generally-agreed-upon since.\n\nBut since the equations of quantum mechanics are quite difficult to solve (even with a computer), it's been slow progress to actually calculate _quantitatively_ accurate results from quantum mechanics. We're limited in the size of the things we can calculate, and the accuracy. \n\nBut essentially all chemical modeling is based on physics.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33615960",
"title": "Comparison of chemistry and physics",
"section": "Section::::Scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Chemistry focuses on how substances interact with each other and with energy (for example heat and light). The study of change of matter (chemical reactions) and synthesis lies at the heart of chemistry, and gives rise to concepts such as organic functional groups and rate laws for chemical reactions. Chemistry also studies the properties of matter at a larger scale (for example, astrochemistry) and the reactions of matter at a larger scale (for example, technical chemistry), but typically, explanations and predictions are related back to the underlying atomic structure, giving more emphasis on the methods for the identification of molecules and their mechanisms of transformation than any other science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11092324",
"title": "The central science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Thus chemistry is built on an understanding of laws of physics that govern particles such as atoms, protons, neutrons, electrons, thermodynamics, etc. although it has been shown that it has not been “fully 'reduced' to quantum mechanics”. Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the underlying forces that are defined by physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31491",
"title": "Theoretical chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Modern theoretical chemistry may be roughly divided into the study of chemical structure and the study of chemical dynamics. The former includes studies of: electronic structure, potential energy surfaces, and force fields; vibrational-rotational motion; equilibrium properties of condensed-phase systems and macro-molecules. Chemical dynamics includes: bimolecular kinetics and the collision theory of reactions and energy transfer; unimolecular rate theory and metastable states; condensed-phase and macromolecular aspects of dynamics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23635",
"title": "Physical chemistry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which it was founded relate to the bulk rather than the molecular/atomic structure alone (for example, chemical equilibrium and colloids).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33615960",
"title": "Comparison of chemistry and physics",
"section": "Section::::Approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Although both physics and chemistry are concerned with matter and its interaction with energy, the two disciplines differ in approach. In physics, it is typical to abstract from the specific type of matter, and to focus on the common properties of many different materials. In optics, for example, materials are characterized by their index of refraction, and materials with the same index of refraction will have identical properties. Chemistry, on the other hand, focuses on what compounds are present in a sample, and explores how changing the structure of molecules will change their reactivity and their physical properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11983318",
"title": "Branches of science",
"section": "Section::::Natural/Pure Science.:Physical science.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "\"Chemistry\" (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based); biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31491",
"title": "Theoretical chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Theoretical chemistry unites principles and concepts common to all branches of chemistry. Within the framework of theoretical chemistry, there is a systematization of chemical laws, principles and rules, their refinement and detailing, the construction of a hierarchy. The central place in theoretical chemistry is occupied by the doctrine of the interconnection of the structure and properties of molecular systems. It uses mathematical and physical methods to explain the structures and dynamics of chemical systems and to correlate, understand, and predict their thermodynamic and kinetic properties. In the most general sense, it is explanation of chemical phenomena by methods of theoretical physics. In contrast to theoretical physics, in connection with the high complexity of chemical systems, theoretical chemistry, in addition to approximate mathematical methods, often uses semi-empirical and empirical methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
344uqr
|
In Ancient Rome, did Gladiators pick on Scholars and call them a Roman equivalent of 'nerds'?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, for most of the empire the nerds held the political power.\n\nSuccess in Roman politics depended upon education and connections. You had to know the right people, and you met them while attending elite schools that trained you in the rhetorical skills, philosophical knowledge, and deportment necessary to move in elite circles in the Greco-Roman world. This education - *paideia*, in Greek - started with memorization of Homer (or Vergil) and, if completed, was basically a graduate degree in literature and/or philosophy. It required significant expense and years of training to complete. But without it, it was hard to be taken seriously by the ruling elites.\n\nBy the third century, the army was playing a central role in selecting the emperor (in many cases, by deposing the sitting emperor), and it was possible for an uneducated military general to make his way to the top. But these new men struggled to win acceptance from the established senatorial aristocracy, and usually didn't live long before being assassinated and replaced. Education gave you connections and taught you how to get along with the rich and powerful; without it, it was difficult to maintain a powerful position in the heartland of the empire.\n\nOver time, this created something of a cultural divide between educated urban elites and the military families which rose to prominence on the empire's frontiers. Philip von Rummel has argued that many of the fifth-century texts complaining about 'barbarians' are actually talking about these Roman military men who gained power in the army on the frontiers, and whose lack of education earned them harsh criticism from the old, wealthy elites in Rome and other urban centers of power.\n\nIt was only with the division of the western empire into smaller kingdoms ruled by these military generals (in the fifth century) that the 'nerds' finally lost power to the less educated military strongmen.\n\nIf you want to read more, I'd recommend P. Brown, *Power and Persuasion* - a short and well-written book on the importance of education in Roman politics and power.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5139910",
"title": "Homosexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Male–male sex.:Roles.:\"Scultimidonus\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "\"Scultimidonus\" (\"asshole-bestower\") was rare and \"florid\" slang that appears in a fragment from the early Roman satirist Lucilius. It is glossed as \"Those who bestow for free their \"scultima\", that is, their anal orifice, which is called the \"scultima\" as if from the inner parts of whores\" (\"scortorum intima\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19085925",
"title": "List of hybrid creatures in folklore",
"section": "Section::::Partly human.:Upper part human.:Human-Goat Hybrids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "BULLET::::- Faun – An ancient Roman nature spirit with the body of a man, but the legs and horns of a goat. Originally they differed from the Greek satyrs because they were less frequently associated with drunkenness and ribaldry and were instead seen as \"shy, woodland creatures\". Starting in the first century BC, the Romans frequently conflated them with satyrs and, after the second century AD, the two are virtually indistinguishable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "Section::::Role in Roman life.:Religion, ethics and sentiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 1997,
"text": "Roman writing as a whole demonstrates a deep ambivalence towards the \"gladiatoria munera\". Even the most complex and sophisticated \"munera\" of the Imperial era evoked the ancient, ancestral \"dii manes\" of the underworld and were framed by the protective, lawful rites of \"sacrificium\". Their popularity made their co-option by the state inevitable; Cicero acknowledged their sponsorship as a political imperative. Despite the popular adulation of gladiators, they were set apart, despised; and despite Cicero's contempt for the mob, he shared their admiration: \"Even when [gladiators] have been felled, let alone when they are standing and fighting, they never disgrace themselves. And suppose a gladiator has been brought to the ground, when do you ever see one twist his neck away after he has been ordered to extend it for the death blow?\" His own death would later emulate this example. Yet, Cicero could also refer to his popularist opponent Clodius, publicly and scathingly, as a \"bustuarius\" – literally, a \"funeral-man\", implying that Clodius has shown the moral temperament of the lowest sort of gladiator. \"Gladiator\" could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period, and \"Samnite\" doubled the insult, despite the popularity of the Samnite type. Silius Italicus wrote, as the games approached their peak, that the degenerate Campanians had devised the very worst of precedents, which now threatened the moral fabric of Rome: \"It was their custom to enliven their banquets with bloodshed and to combine with their feasting the horrid sight of armed men [(Samnites)] fighting; often the combatants fell dead above the very cups of the revelers, and the tables were stained with streams of blood. Thus demoralised was Capua.\" Death could be rightly meted out as punishment, or met with equanimity in peace or war, as a gift of fate; but when inflicted as entertainment, with no underlying moral or religious purpose, it could only pollute and demean those who witnessed it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305749",
"title": "Bestiarii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Among Ancient Romans, bestiarii (singular bestiarius) were those who went into combat with beasts, or were exposed to them. It is conventional to distinguish two categories of \"bestiarii\": the first were those condemned to death via the beasts (see \"damnatio ad bestias\") and the second were those who faced them voluntarily, for pay or glory (see \"venatio\"). The latter are sometimes erroneously called \"gladiators\"; to their contemporaries, however, the term \"gladiator\" referred specifically to one who fought other men. The contemporary term for those who made a career out of participating in arena \"hunts\" was venatores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105309",
"title": "Satyricon",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Unlike Fellini’s film discussed below, the caricature of the \"Satyricon\" does not deform the everyday life of the Roman people. Petronius uses real names for all his characters, most of them laypeople, who talk about the theatre of ancient Rome, the amphitheatre and the circus with the same enthusiasm of today’s fans of football and other team sports. If there is parody in the \"Satyricon\" it is not about the main characters—Encolpius, Giton and Ascyltos—but of the described social reality, and the literary genres of certain famous poets and writers, Homer, Plato, Virgil and Cicero included. Petronius's realism has a Greek antecedent in Aristophanes, who also abandoned the epical tone to focus on ordinary subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "Section::::Role in Roman life.:Religion, ethics and sentiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "The \"munus\" itself could be interpreted as pious necessity, but its increasing luxury corroded Roman virtue, and created an un-Roman appetite for profligacy and self-indulgence. Caesar's 46 BC \"ludi\" were mere entertainment for political gain, a waste of lives and of money that would have been better doled out to his legionary veterans. Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius – both professed Stoics – the degradation of gladiators in the \"munus\" highlighted their Stoic virtues: their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death. Having \"neither hope nor illusions\", the gladiator could transcend his own debased nature, and disempower death itself by meeting it face to face. Courage, dignity, altruism and loyalty were morally redemptive; Lucian idealised this principle in his story of Sisinnes, who voluntarily fought as a gladiator, earned 10,000 drachmas and used it to buy freedom for his friend, Toxaris. Seneca had a lower opinion of the mob's un-Stoical appetite for \"ludi meridiani\": \"Man [is]...now slaughtered for jest and sport; and those whom it used to be unholy to train for the purpose of inflicting and enduring wounds are thrust forth exposed and defenceless.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382879",
"title": "Gnaeus Naevius",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Like Livius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are \"Aegisthus\", \"Lycurgus\", \"Andromache\" or \"Hector Proficiscens\", \"Equus Troianus\", the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey's theatre (55 BC). The national cast of his genius and temper was shown by his deviating from his Greek originals, and producing at least two specimens of the \"fabula praetexta\" (national drama), one founded on the childhood of Romulus and Remus (\"Lupus\" or \"Alimonium Romuli et Remi\"), the other called \"Clastidium\", which celebrated the victory of Marcus Claudius Marcellus over the Celts (222 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bcnna
|
Do dogs know our faces or do they use our scent to differentiate between us?
|
[
{
"answer": "They know our faces. An easy way to check this is go outside with your windows closed and when your dog goes to the windows, look to see if he notices you.\n\nIf you want a more science-y answer, my *guess*: dogs were able to be domesticated since they were able to succesfully socialize (in their own way) with humans. A big part of socialization is facial recognition (which is why kids with autism--wherein they lack facial recognition--tend to lack social skills because they cannot pick up on many facial cues) and so I'm guessing it was more advantageous that the dogs that could respond better to their human handlers were the ones most likely to thrive.\n\nOr it could be most animals notice faces, I don't know, get a zoologist in here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: My research is at the undergraduate level, and has to do with materials science and crystallography, and I had like, two biology and two biochem classes, so this is very, very, very much not my field at all.\n\n[Discrimination of human and dog faces and inversion responses in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris).](_URL_0_)\n\n\n[Reading Faces: Differential Lateral Gaze Bias in Processing Canine and Human Facial Expressions in Dogs and 4-Year-Old Children](_URL_1_)\n\n\n[Dogs’ attention towards humans depends on their relationship, not only on social familiarity](_URL_2_)\n\n\n\nYou should be able to take a look at the abstracts from those links without institutional affiliation/log in, but in sum; dogs not only recognize human's faces, but they use this information to learn about the emotions and situation responses of humans, and the importance they give to that depends on their relationship to the human in question. \n\nThey know who were are (or can learn that), what our deal is, and know whether they should care or not and how much.\n\n\n\nAgain: not an animal behavioral scientist or biologist with lots of comparative/mammalian evolutionary training, *but*; this doesn't sound unreasonable or unexpected to me. \n\n\n\nDogs are variously thought to have originated as a clearly domesticated species somewhere between 15 to 30 thousand years in our past. \n\nFor comparison, the genes for blue eyed individuals probably came about in the Neolithic revolution - - - *six* to *ten* thousand years ago.\n\n[There's a reasonably large body of evidence](_URL_3_) elucidating how our genomes evolved together as well.\n\nSo, that they would as domesticated social animals evolving along side humans be capable of being part of our society insofar as they can recognize faces and look where we're pointing and know when we're feeling sad or very angry or happy, etc. seems about right! \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two tests, easy to do: \n\n1.) (As /u/Ghost_Ghoul_Guy said) close them into the house. Have a stranger walk up. They'll lose their minds. Then you walk up. They'll wag their tail. They'll be recognizing you by your face. \n\n2.) But what if it's just body posture/gait they recognize? Buy a scary halloween mask. Put it on. (In the case of my dogs, they can even watch me put it on and apparently I simply disappear and am replaced by the alien). Watch your dogs literally pee themselves. In this case they have all the visual clues (body shape/gait/smell) but they'll still lose their recognition of you. I have a video of us doing this... \"experiment\" with our dogs. You've never seen a dog so sure it was going to die so quickly. She just gave up and started screaming. No barking, no growling, just screaming.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The NOVA television episode [Dogs Decoded](_URL_0_) explores this issue partially and shows that dogs read human faces in much the same manner that humans do. (not available to stream on the pbs site but it is on on netflix)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2603075",
"title": "Tracking (dog)",
"section": "Section::::Physiological Mechanisms of Tracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Primarily, dogs use their sense of smell, to find and follow a track. Dogs have a highly sensitive olfactory system superior to humans, and are able to discriminate between different humans' scents. Moreover, dogs are also able to use visual cues to follow a track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7118482",
"title": "Dog behavior",
"section": "Section::::Social behavior.:Scent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Dogs have an olfactory sense 40 times more sensitive than a human's and they commence their lives operating almost exclusively on smell and touch. The special scents that dogs use for communication are called pheromones. Different hormones are secreted when a dog is angry, fearful or confident, and some chemical signatures identify the sex and age of the dog, and if a female is in the estrus cycle, pregnant or recently given birth. Many of the pheromone chemicals can be found dissolved in a dog's urine, and sniffing where another dog has urinated gives the dog a great deal of information about that dog. Male dogs prefer to mark vertical surfaces and having the scent higher allows the air to carry it farther. The height of the marking tells other dogs about the size of the dog, as among canines size is an important factor in dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "Section::::Olfactory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "Dogs have an olfactory sense 40 times more sensitive than a human's and they commence their lives operating almost exclusively on smell and touch. The special scents that dogs use for communication are called pheromones. Different hormones are secreted when a dog is angry, fearful or confident, and some chemical signatures identify the sex and age of the dog, and if a female is in the estrus cycle, pregnant or recently given birth. Many of the pheromone chemicals can be found dissolved in a dog's urine, and sniffing where another dog has urinated gives the dog a great deal of information about that dog. Male dogs prefer to mark vertical surfaces with urine and having the scent higher allows the air to carry it further. The height of the marking tells other dogs about the size of the dog, as among canines size is an important factor in dominance. Dogs (and wolves) not only use urine but also their stools to mark their territories. The anal gland of canines give a particular signature to fecal deposits and identifies the marker as well as the place where the dung is left. A small degree of elevation may be sought, such as a rock or fallen branch, to aid scent dispersal. Scratching the ground after defecating is a visual sign pointing to the scent marking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3342400",
"title": "Search and rescue dog",
"section": "Section::::Training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1162,
"text": "An \"alert\" by an scenting dog can be distinct from an \"indication\" (although for a dog that uses a natural indication, the two may not be distinguishable). Both involve being able to read the dog's behavior. Alerts are instances where an scenting dog detects human scent but has not located the subject or source. Alerts can be recognized by a change in the dog's behavior—pointing, following a scent upwind, circling, or following scent up terrain or obstructions, for example. Recognizing an alert is important for any experienced handler, as the location of alerts along with wind conditions, environmental conditions, and terrain can be used by the handler to alter the search strategy. Regardless of whether the dog is trained to perform an indication on find, or whether the handler uses a natural indication on find, all handlers must be able to recognize an alert in order to effectively deploy their dog. Inexperienced handlers who use trained indications may have difficulty recognizing alerts, while handlers who rely on a natural indication may not be able to differentiate an alert from an indication (since the behaviors are essentially the same).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3342400",
"title": "Search and rescue dog",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1298,
"text": "Air-scenting dogs use general human scents to home in on subjects, whereas trailing dogs rely on scent of the specific subject. Air-scenting dogs typically work off-lead, are usually, though not always, non-scent-discriminating (e.g., locate scent from any human as opposed to a specific person), and cover large areas of terrain. These dogs are trained to follow diffused or wind-borne scent working perpendicular to the wind, then to indicate their find (for example, by sitting with the lost party and barking until the handler arrives, or by returning to the handler and indicating contact with the subject, and then lead the handler back to the subject). Handler technique, terrain, environment (vegetation), and atmospheric conditions (wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, and sky conditions) determine the area covered by air-scenting dogs, although a typical search area may be 40–160 acres and scent sources can be detected from a distance of 1/4 mile or more. Although other breeds can be trained for air-scenting, the prototypical air-scenting dog is a herding (e.g., German or Belgian Shepherd Dogs, Border Collies) or sporting (e.g., Tollers, Golden, Labradors or Springer Spaniels) breed that has a reputation for working closely and in coordination with a human handler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6281707",
"title": "Dog odor",
"section": "Section::::Natural dog odors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "All natural dog odors are most prominent near the ears and from the paw pads. Dogs naturally produce secretions, the function of which is to produce scents allowing for individual animal recognition by dogs and other species in the scent-marking of territory. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9227998",
"title": "Korps landelijke politiediensten",
"section": "Section::::Divisions.:Mounted Police and Police Dogs Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The DLHP's dogs are trained to recognize a single specific scent. They specialize in identifying scents (identifying the scent shared by an object and a person), narcotics, explosives and firearms, detecting human remains, locating drowning people and fire accelerants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
l6787
|
the difference between a url, urn, and uri
|
[
{
"answer": "The simplest explanation starts by categorizing: The first thing you should know is that an URL or a URN are **both** URIs.\n\nAn [**URI** (Uniform Resource Identifier)](_URL_3_), is a way to identify some type of resource on the Internet, they are handled by browsers and other network capable applications.\n\nSo the two types are the [**URL** (Uniform Resource Locator)](_URL_2_) which is the one you come across everywhere on the Internet.\nIt's divided into:\n\n scheme://domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id\n\nYou can see these parts explanation on the wikipedia link above. But you should recognize the format already...\n\nAnd the [**URN** (Uniform Resource Name)](_URL_0_) which is a way to link to a particular item in a category. The examples seen on wikipedia you might recognize are the [ISBN](_URL_4_) (books) and [ISAN](_URL_1_) (audiovisuals).\n\nI actually haven't seen these being used, which is a damn shame because they intended to be location independent. But what we usually see are the same ISBNs or ISANs identifier keys used as parts of the query string in URLs to some online retailer...\n\nHope that's clear enough kid :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simplest explanation starts by categorizing: The first thing you should know is that an URL or a URN are **both** URIs.\n\nAn [**URI** (Uniform Resource Identifier)](_URL_3_), is a way to identify some type of resource on the Internet, they are handled by browsers and other network capable applications.\n\nSo the two types are the [**URL** (Uniform Resource Locator)](_URL_2_) which is the one you come across everywhere on the Internet.\nIt's divided into:\n\n scheme://domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id\n\nYou can see these parts explanation on the wikipedia link above. But you should recognize the format already...\n\nAnd the [**URN** (Uniform Resource Name)](_URL_0_) which is a way to link to a particular item in a category. The examples seen on wikipedia you might recognize are the [ISBN](_URL_4_) (books) and [ISAN](_URL_1_) (audiovisuals).\n\nI actually haven't seen these being used, which is a damn shame because they intended to be location independent. But what we usually see are the same ISBNs or ISANs identifier keys used as parts of the query string in URLs to some online retailer...\n\nHope that's clear enough kid :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38528361",
"title": "Ura language (Vanuatu)",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.:Morphemes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Ura contains extensive use of morphemes in terms of pluralizing nouns and pronouns, producing prefixes which derive nouns from verbs, setting locations for nouns, portraying positive or negative connotations, and compounding nouns with other nouns, adjective, or verbs. For example, attaching the suffix ‘’-ye’’ to a noun pluralizes it, as seen in ‘’gimi’’ meaning ‘you’ as compared to ‘’gimi-ye’’ meaning ‘all of you’ (Crowley, 1999). The prefix ‘’-u’’ is added to nouns to set locations for other nouns starting with n- and d-. For example, by adding ‘’–u’’ to ‘’dena’’ meaning ‘ground,’ the word ‘’udena’’ means ‘down, below’ (Crowley, 1999). According to Crowley’s other research of Erromangan languages, when comparing this morpheme to Sye, Ura’s sister language, it would be expected to find the use of ‘’un-‘’ in the same way ‘’–u’’ is used to set location (Crowley, 1998).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1241442",
"title": "Urn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "An urn is a vase, often with a cover, that normally has a somewhat narrowed neck above a rounded body and a footed pedestal. Describing a vessel as an \"urn\", as opposed to a vase or other terms, generally reflects its use rather than any particular shape or origin. The term is especially often used for funerary urns, vessels used in burials, either to hold the cremated ashes or as grave goods, but is used in many other contexts; in catering large vessels for serving tea or coffee are often called \"tea-urns\", even when they are metal cylinders of purely functional design. Large sculpted vases are often called urns, whether placed outdoors, in gardens or as architectural ornaments on buildings, or kept inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333697",
"title": "Uniform Resource Name",
"section": "Section::::URIs, URNs, and URLs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "A URI is a string of characters used to identify a name or resource. URIs are used in many Internet protocols to refer to and access information resources. URI schemes include the familiar codice_1, as well as hundreds of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46759650",
"title": "Ur (cuneiform)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Cuneiform \"ur\" is a syllabic for \"ur\", and an alphabetic for \"u\", or \"r\". In the Amarna letters, usage is sumerogrammic for English language \"dog\", spelled either \"UR.KI\", or \"UR.KU\", but the 'dog' reference can be found in many Amarna letters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33558347",
"title": "Urft (river)",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The name of the Urft is derived from \"Urd-apa\". The origin of the word \"Urd\" is unknown, but \"apa\" is Celtic and means \"stream\". In 1075, the Urft was called the \"Urdefa\", in 1419 the \"Orfft\" and, in 1503, the \"Oyrfft\". The village of Urft takes its name from the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32146",
"title": "Uniform Resource Identifier",
"section": "Section::::Generic syntax.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Each URI begins with a scheme name that refers to a specification for assigning identifiers within that scheme. As such, the URI syntax is a federated and extensible naming system wherein each scheme's specification may further restrict the syntax and semantics of identifiers using that scheme. The URI generic syntax is a superset of the syntax of all URI schemes. It was first defined in Request for Comments (RFC) 2396, published in August 1998, and finalized in RFC 3986, published in January 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2494",
"title": "Aurochs",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.:Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The word \"urus\" (; plural \"uri\") is a Latin word, but was borrowed into Latin from Germanic (cf. Old English/Old High German \"ūr\", Old Norse \"úr\"). In German, OHG \"ūr\" was compounded with \"ohso\" \"ox\", giving \"ūrohso\", which became early modern \"Aurochs\". The modern form is \"Auerochse\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ocn90
|
What DID "Game of Thrones" get right?
|
[
{
"answer": "Game of Thrones is a work of fiction and should be treated as such. If you have a question about the historical accuracy of *historical fiction* (e.g. 'How accurate is the Sharpe series of books?' 'How accurate is Stanley Kubrick's portrayal of 18th century Ireland in 'Barry Lyndon'?') you are more than welcome to ask. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31120069",
"title": "List of Game of Thrones episodes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "\"Game of Thrones\" is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. The series is based on George R. R. Martin's series of fantasy novels, \"A Song of Ice and Fire\". The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard \"Ned\" Stark (Sean Bean), is drawn into schemes surrounding King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36048519",
"title": "List of awards and nominations received by Game of Thrones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "\"Game of Thrones\" is an American fantasy drama television series created for HBO by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of \"A Song of Ice and Fire\", George R. R. Martin's series of fantasy novels. The story takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, it has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast. The first story arc follows a dynastic conflict among competing claimants for succession to the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms, with other noble families fighting for independence from the throne. The second covers attempts to reclaim the throne by the exiled last scion of the realm's deposed ruling dynasty; the third chronicles the threat of the impending winter and the legendary creatures and fierce peoples of the North.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1459356",
"title": "A Game of Thrones (board game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "A Game of Thrones is a strategy board game created by Christian T. Petersen and released by Fantasy Flight Games in 2003. The game is based on the \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" fantasy series by George R. R. Martin. It was followed in 2004 by the expansion \"A Clash of Kings\", and in 2006 by the expansion \"A Storm of Swords\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33270034",
"title": "A Game of Thrones (comics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A Game of Thrones is the comic book adaptation of George R. R. Martin's fantasy novel \"A Game of Thrones\", the first in the \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" series. A sequel, \"A Clash of Kings\", was announced in March 2017, based on the book of the same name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50628650",
"title": "Night King",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The Night King is a fictional character appearing in the HBO high fantasy television series \"Game of Thrones\", based on George R. R. Martin's novel series \"A Song of Ice and Fire\". He is depicted as the leader and the first of the White Walkers, having existed since the age of the First Men, and is the most dangerous and powerful of his race. The Night King is an original creation of the television adaptation, thus far having no counterpart in the novels upon which the show is based. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43181262",
"title": "Game of Thrones (2014 video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Game of Thrones is an episodic graphic adventure video game based on the TV series of the same name, which in turn, is based on George R. R. Martin's \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" fantasy series, released in December 2014 for Android, iOS, Microsoft Windows, OS X, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32149175",
"title": "Game of Thrones (2012 video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Game of Thrones is an action role-playing video game based on \"A Game of Thrones\", the first of the \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" novels by George R. R. Martin, and in part also on the novels' TV adaptation by HBO, \"Game of Thrones\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mpmh1
|
credit default swaps
|
[
{
"answer": "So ShittyBank offers loans to people buying homes (mortgages.) The bank writes you a mortgage, buys your home for you and lets you live there as long as you make monthly payments to pay off the loan. ShittyBank does this hundreds of thousands of times all over the country.\n\nNow ShittyBank turns around and says \"hey, we've got all these mortgages providing a stream of income. Anyone wanna buy a piece of them? If you buy a piece of them, you'll get a portion of all the payments made on them for the next 30-45 years.\" The bank is selling \"collateralized debt obligations\" or CDOs--huge bundles of active mortgages, organized into tiers according to the creditworthiness of the person paying off the mortgage. You buy a CDO, and you get a piece of the payments for every mortgage contained in that CDO.\n\nThe problem is, ShittyBank now has to pay anyone who purchased its CDOs, even if the people holding the original mortgages fail to pay. The bank doesn't want to be left holding the bag if a bunch of people decide to stop paying their mortgages.\n\nSo the bank decides to get some insurance. It goes to an insurance company--let's say, AIG. AIG says \"pay us a little fee, and if your mortgage borrowers default on their loans, we'll step in and keep paying out to those who bought CDOs with those loans in them.\" This is a *credit default swap.* \n\nMake sense?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This American Life has a couple of fantastic programs on this very topic. I highly suggest you seek them out if you're interested in learning more about the financial meltdown.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So ShittyBank offers loans to people buying homes (mortgages.) The bank writes you a mortgage, buys your home for you and lets you live there as long as you make monthly payments to pay off the loan. ShittyBank does this hundreds of thousands of times all over the country.\n\nNow ShittyBank turns around and says \"hey, we've got all these mortgages providing a stream of income. Anyone wanna buy a piece of them? If you buy a piece of them, you'll get a portion of all the payments made on them for the next 30-45 years.\" The bank is selling \"collateralized debt obligations\" or CDOs--huge bundles of active mortgages, organized into tiers according to the creditworthiness of the person paying off the mortgage. You buy a CDO, and you get a piece of the payments for every mortgage contained in that CDO.\n\nThe problem is, ShittyBank now has to pay anyone who purchased its CDOs, even if the people holding the original mortgages fail to pay. The bank doesn't want to be left holding the bag if a bunch of people decide to stop paying their mortgages.\n\nSo the bank decides to get some insurance. It goes to an insurance company--let's say, AIG. AIG says \"pay us a little fee, and if your mortgage borrowers default on their loans, we'll step in and keep paying out to those who bought CDOs with those loans in them.\" This is a *credit default swap.* \n\nMake sense?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This American Life has a couple of fantastic programs on this very topic. I highly suggest you seek them out if you're interested in learning more about the financial meltdown.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19371244",
"title": "Subprime crisis background information",
"section": "Section::::Credit default swaps and the subprime mortgage crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Credit defaults swaps (CDS) are insurance contracts, typically used to protect bondholders from the risk of default, called credit risk. As the financial health of banks and other institutions deteriorated due to losses related to mortgages, the likelihood that those providing the insurance would have to pay their counterparties increased. This created uncertainty across the system, as investors wondered which companies would be forced to pay to cover defaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316732",
"title": "Credit default swap",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Hedging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Credit default swaps are often used to manage the risk of default that arises from holding debt. A bank, for example, may hedge its risk that a borrower may default on a loan by entering into a CDS contract as the buyer of protection. If the loan goes into default, the proceeds from the CDS contract cancel out the losses on the underlying debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10062100",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Financial markets.:Credit default swaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Credit default swaps (CDS) are financial instruments used as a hedge and protection for debtholders, in particular MBS investors, from the risk of default, or by speculators to profit from default. As the net worth of banks and other financial institutions deteriorated because of losses related to subprime mortgages, the likelihood increased that those providing the protection would have to pay their counterparties. This created uncertainty across the system, as investors wondered which companies would be required to pay to cover mortgage defaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316732",
"title": "Credit default swap",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Speculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Credit default swaps allow investors to speculate on changes in CDS spreads of single names or of market indices such as the North American CDX index or the European iTraxx index. An investor might believe that an entity's CDS spreads are too high or too low, relative to the entity's bond yields, and attempt to profit from that view by entering into a trade, known as a basis trade, that combines a CDS with a cash bond and an interest rate swap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316732",
"title": "Credit default swap",
"section": "Section::::History.:Conception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Forms of credit default swaps had been in existence from at least the early 1990s, with early trades carried out by Bankers Trust in 1991. J.P. Morgan & Co. is widely credited with creating the modern credit default swap in 1994. In that instance, J.P. Morgan had extended a $4.8 billion credit line to Exxon, which faced the threat of $5 billion in punitive damages for the Exxon Valdez oil spill. A team of J.P. Morgan bankers led by Blythe Masters then sold the credit risk from the credit line to the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development in order to cut the reserves that J.P. Morgan was required to hold against Exxon's default, thus improving its own balance sheet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5670058",
"title": "Credit default swap index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "A credit default swap index is a credit derivative used to hedge credit risk or to take a position on a basket of credit entities. Unlike a credit default swap, which is an over the counter credit derivative, a credit default swap index is a completely standardized credit security and may therefore be more liquid and trade at a smaller bid-offer spread. This means that it can be cheaper to hedge a portfolio of credit default swaps or bonds with a CDS index than it would be to buy many single name CDS to achieve a similar effect. Credit-default swap indexes are benchmarks for protecting investors owning bonds against default, and traders use them to speculate on changes in credit quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9135",
"title": "Derivative (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Credit default swap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A credit default swap (CDS) is a financial swap agreement that the seller of the CDS will compensate the buyer (the creditor of the reference loan) in the event of a loan default (by the debtor) or other credit event. The buyer of the CDS makes a series of payments (the CDS \"fee\" or \"spread\") to the seller and, in exchange, receives a payoff if the loan defaults. It was invented by Blythe Masters from JP Morgan in 1994.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r0prc
|
Were there major tensions between the different Jewish groups that came to Israel?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, from what I gather after talking to my Hebrew teacher and my Grandfather there was a lot of tension (and there still is) between European Jews how see Israel as a European State in the Mid-east and the Jews from the Levant, North Africa and Persia who see Israel as a modern Middle Eastern state. It comes out in little petty ways like the European Jew would use Arabic curse words because it was a \"dirty\" language and because Hebrew has Curse words (for the record it does) and for the longest time the Israeli currency was named after the old Italian currency. In addition there were groups in Israel who were not happy about the Ethiopian Jews moving to Israel and some groups did not see them as real Jews. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, and there still are such tensions today, very much so.\n\nThe European Ashkenazi Jews are generally the dominant group, somewhat sharing this with European Sephardi Jews. Indeed the sound of modern spoken Hebrew is mostly based on the Yiddish of the Ashkenazi of Eastern and Central Europe.\n\nThe Jews who came from the former Soviet Union since the 90's have formed their own community. I've heard a \"western\" Israeli tell that they are perceived not to be Jews at all, only saying they were to get citizenship. No doubt many Middle Eastern Jews are accused of the same thing.\n\nEducation is a prime battleground of this culture war. Many top schools are Ashkenazi, and in some cases flat out refuse to admit Middle-Eastern students. Rabbi Yosef, the leader of the main Sephardi party, Shas, said some years ago that Sephardi should not go to Ashkenazi schools, which would only turn them Ashkenazi!\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13927537",
"title": "Israeli Jews",
"section": "Section::::Population.:Paternal country of diaspora origin.:Israeli Jews who immigrated from European and American countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "During the first decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict was going on between Mizrahi, Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which still exists to a much smaller extent in present-day Israeli society, stems from the many cultural differences between the various Jewish communities; this happened despite of the government's encouragement of the \"melting pot\". That is to say, all Jewish immigrants in Israel were strongly encouraged to \"melt down\" their own particular exile identities within the general social \"pot\" in order to become Israeli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37516479",
"title": "Jewish Migration from Lebanon Post-1948",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Emigration from Middle Eastern countries other than Lebanon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "From 1948-1975, Israel experienced an immigration of 1,570,000 Jews. Of these, 751,000 came from Islamic countries, nearly 48% of all emigrating Jews. By 1954, of the 725,000 Jewish emigrants, 326,000 came from Muslim countries including Iraq, Yemen, Iran, and Aden. It seems that Arab-Jewish tension over the creation of Israel created inhospitable conditions for Middle Eastern Jews, including Anti-Semitic (anti-Semitic meaning aimed against the Jews, since the Arabs are also Semitic) riots, bombings, and criminal charges. These conditions grew out of years of growing dissatisfaction with European colonization, and Zionism on the part of the Muslims within Arab countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24785525",
"title": "Circassians in Israel",
"section": "Section::::History.:British Mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Israeli Circassians maintained good relations with the Yishuv and later the Jewish community in Israel, in part due to the language shared with many of the First Aliyah immigrants from Russia who settled in the Galilee. The Circassian community in Israel helped with the migration of Jews into the British Mandate of Palestine, which was illegal under British rule, in part due to relative cultural similarities such as having a sedentary culture. Circassians and Jews also sympathized with each other's histories of exile. When conflict between Jews and Arabs began during the British Mandate, the Circassians most often took either neutral or pro-Jewish stances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143149",
"title": "Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries",
"section": "Section::::North Africa region.:Libya.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Immigration to Israel began in 1949, following the establishment of a Jewish Agency for Israel office in Tripoli. According to Harvey E. Goldberg, \"a number of Libyan Jews\" believe that the Jewish Agency was behind the riots, given that the riots helped them achieve their goal. Between the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and Libyan independence in December 1951 over 30,000 Libyan Jews emigrated to Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34689695",
"title": "1933 Palestine riots",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Tensions between Jews and Arabs were driven by competing ideologies over the right to the land of Palestine. Jewish immigration and land ownership had been increasing from the Ottoman era, leading to fears amongst both Palestinian Christians and Muslims. Paramilitary organisations such as the Haganah were formed, with some bands forming as early as the Second Aliyah. The Zionist leadership in Palestine believed British authorities were not interested in defending them against Arab nationalist forces, organised into loose bands known as \"fasa'il\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20081805",
"title": "Israel–Serbia relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Relations with SFR Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "SFR Yugoslavia and Israel established diplomatic relations in 1948. Until 1952, a total of 7,578 Jews emigrated from Yugoslavia to Israel. During the period, Yugoslavia was mostly neutral in the Arab–Israeli conflict, but maintained ties with Israel, helped by its sizable Jewish emigration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1262063",
"title": "Jewish culture",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "There has not been a political unity of Jewish society since the united monarchy. Since then Israelite populations were always geographically dispersed (see Jewish diaspora), so that by the 19th century the Ashkenazi Jews were mainly in Eastern and Central Europe; the Sephardi Jews were largely spread among various communities in the Mediterranean region; Mizrahi Jews were primarily spread throughout Western Asia; and other populations of Jews were in Central Asia, Ethiopia, the Caucasus, and India. (See Jewish ethnic divisions.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5j2iot
|
what factors contribute to cultures advancing at different rates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cultures advance for two reasons, because they have to and because they can.\n\nCultures have to advance when they are facing a threat. Common threats include another nation attacking you, a new disease, or localized climate change.\n\nCultures can advance when they can spend time doing thing other than just surviving. This is usually caused by access to food that allows for less farmers to feed more people.\n\nSome cultures advance faster than others because they have the right combination of outside threats, and the ability to not be destroyed by those outside threats.\n\nIf you are interested in digging a little deeper, check out [CGP Gray's Americapox](_URL_0_). If you want to go even deeper than that, check out [Jared Diamond's *Guns, Germs, and Steel](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If we are talking about culture in the sense of human civilizations, I highly recommend that you check out *Guns, Germs and Steel* by Jared Diamond. \n\nBy and large the most important factor contributing to differing rates of advancement is geography. For example, although agrarian societies arose in both Eurasia and the Americas, Eurasian civilizations have an early advantage because crops native to Eurasia (barley, wheat, etc) are easier to cultivate and provide more nutrition than their American counterparts (bananas, maize, etc). Consequently, Eurasian societies required less manpower to feed a given population, which allowed for increased specialization (where people took up professions other than farming due to surplus food).\n\nAnother example of geography affecting the development of civilizations is the Western hegemony on the world stage during the last 500 years. The Asian societies (particularly China) enjoyed geographical features that are conducive to the formation of large, stable empires more or less immune to external influence. On the other hand, Europe's natural barriers led to the formation of competing nation states. This forced European countries to innovate while causing technological stagnation among among Asian states. \n\nObviously this is a very big topic so not everything can be answered at once. But give the book a read, it's worth it!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3039067",
"title": "High-context and low-context cultures",
"section": "Section::::Examples of higher and lower context cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Cultural context can also shift and evolve. For instance, a study has argued that both Japan and Finland (high-context cultures) are becoming lower-context with the increased influence of Western European and United States culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38776986",
"title": "Economic globalization",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Cultural effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Yu Xintian noted two contrary trends in culture due to economic globalization. Yu argued that culture and industry not only flow from the developed world to the rest, but trigger an effort to protect local cultures. He notes that economic globalization began after World War II, whereas internationalization began over a century ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8957966",
"title": "Entertainment management",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Growth in these courses has been linked with growth in both the creative and cultural industries. This growth is linked to increased consumer expenditure on recreation and entertainment activities. The result is a population assigning greater importance to the free time they have and a consequential willingness to spend more of their income on the 'experience' economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12593785",
"title": "Culture change",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In general, cultural stereotypes present great resistance to change and to their own redefinition. Culture, often appears fixed to the observer at any one point in time because cultural mutations occur incrementally. Cultural change is a long-term process. Policymakers need to make a great effort to improve some basics aspects of a society’s cultural traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19159508",
"title": "Culture",
"section": "Section::::Change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change. (See structuration.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3039067",
"title": "High-context and low-context cultures",
"section": "Section::::Miscommunication within culture contexts.:How higher context relates to other cultural metrics.:Stability and durability of tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Therefore, higher-context cultures tend to correlate with cultures that also have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time. For example, Native Americans in the United States have higher-context cultures with a strong sense of tradition and history, compared to general American culture. Focusing on tradition creates opportunities for higher context messages between individuals of each new generation, and the high-context culture feeds back to the stability hence allows the tradition to be maintained. This is in contrast to lower-context cultures in which the shared experiences upon which communication is built can change drastically from one generation to the next, creating communication gaps between parents and children, as in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35231573",
"title": "Work motivation",
"section": "Section::::Other factors affecting motivation.:Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "A strategically appropriate culture motivates due to the direct support for performance in the market and industry: \"The better the fit, the better the performance; the poorer the fit, the poorer the performance,\" state Kotter & Heskett. There is an appeal to the idea that cultures are designed around the operations conditions a firm encounters although an outstanding issue is the question of adapting culture to changes in the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i0rt4
|
How come the Iberia in the caucuses and the Iberian peninsula share the same name in spite of being thousands of miles apart at opposite ends of the Roman empire?
|
[
{
"answer": "I submitted [this question](_URL_1_) awhile ago and only got one reply. You can check it out while you are waiting for a better reply, as I would like one as well. \n\nAs a summary it was said it is unclear if there is a link between them, but the [etymology site](_URL_0_) linked in the reply gives some origins of the word.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question: I often see other names refer to different areas, such as Albania (modern Albania, and Caucasian Albania) and Galicia (Easter Europe and Iberian), Is there a reason to name those areas with similar names?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Iberian peninsula was named by the Greeks for the Ebro river (Iberos): confusingly they also named the other Iberia, but that is thought to derive from its name in local Georgian-related languages. (And what about the two Georgias?) \n\nAlbania in the Balkans is named in the west for the Albanoi people who inhabited the region in Roman times: locals today call it Shqiperia, so they can't be blamed. The other Albania appears a total mystery, presumably another Greek rendition of a local name, now no longer known. \n\nGalicia in Spain is named for the ancient Gallaeci, cousins to the Gauls (who I'd thought were the source of the name); Galicia in Ukraine/Poland is named after the city of Halich, which may be named after Gauls. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "847203",
"title": "Lusitanic",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "After the conquest of the peninsula (25–20 BCE), Augustus divided it into the southwestern Hispania Baetica and the western Hispania Lusitania, the latter including the territories of the Celtic tribes known as the Astures (in Asturia) and the Gallaeci (in Gallaecia). In 27 BCE, the Emperor Augustus made a smaller division of the province: Asturia and Gallaecia were ceded to the jurisdiction of the new Provincia Tarraconensis, the former remained as Provincia Lusitania et Vettones. The Roman province of Lusitania comprised what is now central and south Portugal and parts of north-central Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461948",
"title": "Dobunni",
"section": "Section::::Roman period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Even though the Dobunni were incorporated into the Roman Empire in AD 43, their territory was probably not formed into Roman political units until AD 96-98. The tribal territory was divided into a \"civitas\" centred on Cirencester, and the \"Colonia\" at Gloucester. The \"Colonia\" was established during the reign of the emperor Nerva (AD 96-98).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5982075",
"title": "Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula",
"section": "Section::::Last stage of the conquest: the Cantabrian Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Augustus annexed the whole of the peninsula to the Roman Empire. The Roman province of Hispania Citerior was significantly expanded and came to include the eastern part of central Hispania and northern Hispania. It was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. Hispania Ulterior was divided into the provinces of Baetica (most of modern Andalusia) and Lusitania, which covered present day Portugal up to the River Durius (Douro), the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a small part of the province of Salamanca in today's Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23433786",
"title": "Olcades",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Related to both the Celtiberians and Carpetani, the Olcades appear to have been a mix of indigenous Iberians under the rule of an aristocracy of Gallic origin. It is believed that the latter sprang from the Volcae Tectosages of southern Gaul, who arrived in Iberia in the wake of the Celtic migrations of the 4th Century BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446263",
"title": "Viriathus",
"section": "Section::::Conquest of Lusitania by Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In 197 BC, Rome divided the southeastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, and two elected \"praetors\" were assigned to command the legions. As with many other tribes of Iberia, the inhabitants of the Lusitanian castros, or \"citanias\", would have been granted peregrina stipendiaria\" but remaining an autonomous (Greek: αὐτονόμων) country through treaties (\"foedus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24713021",
"title": "Provinces of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The first provinces, instituted during the Roman occupation of the Iberian peninsula, divided the peninsula into three areas: Tarraconensis, Lusitania and Baetica, established by Roman Emperor Augustus between 27-13 B.C. Emperor Diocletian reordered these territories in the third century, dividing Tarraconesis into three separate territories: Tarraconensis, Carthaginensis and Gallaecia. At that time Tarraconesis included northern Portugal, Gallaecia and Asturias.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244404",
"title": "Plebs",
"section": "Section::::In ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The origin of the separation into orders is unclear, and it is disputed when the Romans were divided under the early kings into patricians and plebeians, or whether the \"clientes\" (or dependents) of the patricians formed a third group. Certain \"gentes\" (\"clans\") were patrician, as identified by the \"nomen\" (family name), but a \"gens\" might have both patrician and plebeian branches that shared a \"nomen\" but were distinguished by a \"cognomen\", as was the case with the \"gens Claudia\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dm23vn
|
why do scientists think hubble constant (a characteristic of the universe expansion rate) is actually a constant?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you look farther away you also look back in time, so when you detect light that has been travelling for 10 billion years from a distant quasar you're also detecting the results of whatever happened to it during that time.\n\nThe amount of redshift (energy loss due to the expansion of space while it was in flight) we see in these ancient photons suggests that the rate of local expansion was the same at all times and at all places while the light was traveling.\n\nIf the expansion *wasn't* constant over time or location, you would see light unexpectedly under/over shifted compared to its age and point of origin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simple answer to this is that scientists do not think the Hubble constant is actually a constant. Even Hubble himself did not think it was a constant value but for the sake of his argumentation he simplified it to a constant factor for his calculations to make them fit at a moment in time. The previous theory was that the universe was constant and did not expand or contract. However Hubble were able to chart the movement of distant galaxies on a chart which gave him a constant rate of expansion. This is the constant he observed at this point in time and in this part of the universe. However we now know that the Hubble parameter changes but for most cases it is close to the Hubble constant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measurement of expansion and change of rate of expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "The Hubble parameter is not thought to be constant through time. There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the universe which affect the expansion rate. It was earlier expected that the Hubble parameter would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the universe, and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the universe called the deceleration parameter which cosmologists expected to be directly related to the matter density of the universe. Surprisingly, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be less than zero (actually, consistent with −1) which implied that today the Hubble parameter is converging to a constant value as time goes on. Some cosmologists have whimsically called the effect associated with the \"accelerating universe\" the \"cosmic jerk\". The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the discovery of this phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1147994",
"title": "Friedmann equations",
"section": "Section::::Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The Hubble parameter can change over time if other parts of the equation are time dependent (in particular the mass density, the vacuum energy, or the spatial curvature). Evaluating the Hubble parameter at the present time yields Hubble's constant which is the proportionality constant of Hubble's law. Applied to a fluid with a given equation of state, the Friedmann equations yield the time evolution and geometry of the universe as a function of the fluid density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30721431",
"title": "Hubble bubble (astronomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The Hubble constant, named for astronomer Edwin Hubble, whose work made clear the expansion of the universe, measures the rate at which expansion occurs. In accordance with the Copernican principle that the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position, one would expect that measuring this constant at any point in the universe would yield the same value. If, on the other hand, Earth were at or near the center of a very low-density region of interstellar space (a relative void), denser material in a shell around it would strongly attract material away from the centerpoint. Thus, stars inside such a \"Hubble bubble\" would accelerate away from Earth much faster than the general expansion of the universe. This situation would provide an alternative to dark energy in explaining the apparent accelerating universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Since the Hubble \"constant\" is a constant only in space, not in time, the radius of the Hubble sphere may increase or decrease over various time intervals. The subscript '0' indicates the value of the Hubble constant today. Current evidence suggests that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (\"see\" Accelerating universe), meaning that, for any given galaxy, the recession velocity dD/dt is increasing over time as the galaxy moves to greater and greater distances; however, the Hubble parameter is actually thought to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some \"fixed\" distance D and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7960760",
"title": "Hubble volume",
"section": "Section::::Hubble limit as an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "However, the Hubble parameter is not constant in various cosmological models so that the Hubble limit does not, in general, coincide with a cosmological event horizon. For example, in a decelerating Friedmann universe the Hubble sphere expands with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by more distant galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects \"outside\" the Hubble sphere still may eventually arrive inside the sphere and be seen by us. Conversely, in an accelerating universe, the Hubble sphere shrinks with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by nearer galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects \"inside\" the Hubble sphere will eventually recede outside the sphere and will never be seen by us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Measured values of the Hubble constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "There are multiple methods to determine the Hubble constant, their results differ significantly. , the cause of the discrepancy is not understood. In April 2019, astronomers reported further substantial discrepancies, depending on the measurement method used, in determining the Hubble constant, suggesting a realm of physics currently not well understood in explaining the workings of the universe. This discrepancy is often called the Hubble tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26262",
"title": "Redshift",
"section": "Section::::Observations in astronomy.:Extragalactic observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The Hubble law's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant. However, when the Universe was much younger, the expansion rate, and thus the Hubble \"constant\", was larger than it is today. For more distant galaxies, then, whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times, the approximation of constant expansion rate fails, and the Hubble law becomes a non-linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question. Observations of the redshift-distance relationship can be used, then, to determine the expansion history of the Universe and thus the matter and energy content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3skm9d
|
how was nyc able to build and afford their entire subway system over the past 100+ years, but the 2nd ave line keeps running into budget issues and delays?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would say the construction costs have soared. Wages are high for construction workers compared to the past. An immigrant was willing to work for low wages. Now there are unions, OSHA, overtime rules, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55208663",
"title": "Technology of the New York City Subway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Since the late 20th century, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority has started several projects to maintain and improve the New York City Subway. Some of these projects, such as subway line automation, proposed platform screen doors, the FASTRACK maintenance program, and infrastructural improvements proposed in 2015–2019 Capital Program, contribute toward improving the system's efficiency. Others, such as train-arrival \"countdown clocks\", \"Help Point\" station intercoms, \"On the Go! Travel Station\" passenger kiosks, wireless and cellular network connections in stations, MetroCard fare payment alternatives, and digital ads, are meant to benefit individual passengers. Yet others, including the various methods of subway construction, do not directly impact the passenger interface, but are used to make subway operations efficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1489099",
"title": "History of the New York City Subway",
"section": "Section::::Unification.:Post-unification expansion and reorganization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Because the consolidation dragged in the first years after unification, some improvements in operational processes were rather slow, and soon the question of organization was raised. The outsourcing of subway operations to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was favored at one point. On June 15, 1953, the NYCTA was founded with the aim of ensuring a cost-covering and efficient operation in the subways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459354",
"title": "Proposed expansion of the New York City Subway",
"section": "Section::::21st-century expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 297,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 297,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Since the 2000s, the New York City Subway has undergone its biggest expansion program since the late 1960s, with five stations opened since 2009. There are up to 15 more subway stations definitively planned. Still, the 21st-century expansion plan pales in comparison to some of the subway system's other previous plans, as well as to the ambitious expansion of the subway in the early 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459354",
"title": "Proposed expansion of the New York City Subway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Since the opening of the original New York City Subway line in 1904, and throughout the subway's history, various official and planning agencies have proposed numerous extensions to the subway system. The first major expansion of the subway system was the Dual Contracts, a set of agreements between the City of New York and the IRT and the BRT. The system was expanded into the outer reaches of the Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens, and it provided for the construction of important lines in Manhattan. This one expansion of the system provided for a majority of today's system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23077297",
"title": "List of closed New York City Subway stations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "The largest number of closed New York City Subway stations consist of stations on abandoned and demolished elevated lines once operated by the IRT and the BMT, both of which were privately held companies. After their takeover by the City of New York (the IND was already owned and operated by New York City), the three former systems were no longer in competition with each other. Thus, elevated lines that duplicated underground lines were the first to close. Other elevated lines that did not create a redundancy in the system, such as the Bronx portion of the IRT Third Avenue Line and a major portion of the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line were later demolished. Two stations in which sections of track still operate have been demolished. The Dean Street station was demolished as part of the rebuilding of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line, and the Cortlandt Street station of the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line was demolished and subsequently rebuilt after it sustained heavy damage caused by the September 11 attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47999561",
"title": "Program for Action",
"section": "Section::::Progress.:1990–present: Spinoff projects.:Second Avenue Subway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The city's economic and budgetary recovery also led to a revival of efforts to complete construction of the Second Avenue Subway. In 1991, then-New York Governor Mario Cuomo allocated $22 million to renew planning and design efforts for the Second Avenue line, but two years later, the MTA, facing budget cuts, removed these funds from its capital budget. Due in part to strong public support, the MTA Board committed in April 2000 to building a full-length subway line along the East Side, from East Harlem to Lower Manhattan. In May 2000, the MTA Capital Program Review Board approved the MTA's 2000–2004 Capital Program, which allocated $1.05 billion for the construction of the Second Avenue Subway. The MTA's final environmental impact statement (FEIS) was approved in April 2004; this latest proposal is for a two-track line from 125th Street and Lexington Avenue in Harlem, down Second Avenue to Hanover Square in the Financial District.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47999561",
"title": "Program for Action",
"section": "Section::::Progress.:1975–1989: Fiscal crisis, delays, and plan reduction.:Second Avenue Subway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "However, the 1975–1976 fiscal crisis, combined with the massive outflow of city residents to the suburbs, led to the MTA and the city having no funds to complete the Second Avenue Line. Construction of the subway was halted on September 29, 1975, with only three sections of tunnel having been completed, excluding the Chrystie Street Connection and the connection to the BMT 63rd Street Line. By 1978, when the New York City Subway was at its lowest point in its existence, State Comptroller Arthur Levitt stated that there were no plans to finish the line. Of this failure to complete construction, Gene Russianoff, an advocate for subway riders since 1981, stated: \"It's the most famous thing that's never been built in New York City, so everyone is skeptical and rightly so. It's much-promised and never delivered.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nae14
|
Fiction makes such a big deal of British, US and Soviet spies. In the end, how important were they really in ending (or surviving) the Cold War?
|
[
{
"answer": "No replies yet so I'll try to offer something.\n\nThere is a lot of uncertainty when exploring what-if scenarios. You can't be sure what may have happened without the efforts of the spies involved. The best example I can give of spies potentially contributing to the peaceful resolution of the Cold War might be the Soviet spies in the Manhattan Project. This may seem counter intuitive, but I'll try to make the case.\n\nCombined, Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass provided Soviet intelligence with a wealth of valuable information from the Manhattan Project, which likely sped up the Soviet development of nuclear weapons significantly (although by how long is hard to say).\n\nThe foundations of the cold war were in place even before WWII had ended, but it was the period from 1946-1949 that really cemented the standoff and lead American policy makers to give up on cooperative engagement. Also during this time the US had a monopoly on nuclear weapons. Despite this, the US did not yet have a large enough nuclear arsenal to be confident that it would be decisive in a war with the Soviet Union. It would not be long though before the US had amassed a huge arsenal. However, when the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb in 1949, the US nuclear monopoly ended, as did any real risk of the US using its nuclear weapons to push the Soviets back.\n\nAlthough the two great powers came very close to the brink of Armageddon a few times, mutually assured destruction effectively made nukes useless in practice, and the stability of mutually assured destruction lasted throughout the remainder of the Cold War. The success of the Soviet spy efforts around the Manhattan Project brought that stability about faster, and there is no telling what could have happened in an alternative history where the US nuclear monopoly lasted another year or two.\n\nOf course, while the Soviet Union's shiny new nukes kept both powers at arm's length, by restraining the US nuclear threat, it also opened the door for conventional warfare. It wasn't long after that North Korea, with the blessing of Stalin, invaded the South.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646",
"title": "Spy fiction",
"section": "Section::::Spy television and cinema.:Cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Much spy fiction was adapted as spy films in the 1960s, ranging from the fantastical James Bond series to the realistic \"The Spy Who Came in from the Cold\" (1965), and the hybrid \"The Quiller Memorandum\" (1966). While Hamilton's Matt Helm novels were adult and well written, their cinematic interpretations were adolescent parody. This phenomenon spread widely in Europe in the 1960s and is known as the Eurospy genre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646",
"title": "Spy fiction",
"section": "Section::::History.:Inter-war period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "After the Russian Revolution (1917), the quality of spy fiction declined, perhaps because the Bolshevik enemy won the Russian Civil War (1917–23). Thus, the inter-war spy story usually concerns combating the Red Menace, which was perceived as another \"clash of civilizations\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646",
"title": "Spy fiction",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post–Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The end of the Cold War in 1991 mooted the USSR, Russia and other Iron Curtain countries as credible enemies of democracy, and the US Congress even considered disestablishing the CIA. Espionage novelists found themselves at a temporary loss for obvious nemeses. \"The New York Times\" ceased publishing a spy novel review column. Nevertheless, counting on the aficionado, publishers continued to issue spy novels by writers popular during the Cold War era, among them \"Harlot's Ghost\" (1991) by Norman Mailer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237274",
"title": "Thriller (genre)",
"section": "Section::::History in literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "\"The Spy Who Came in from the Cold\" (1963) by John le Carré is set in the world of Cold War espionage and helped to usher in an era of more realistic thriller fiction, based around professional spies and the battle of wits between rival spymasters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646",
"title": "Spy fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Spy fiction, a genre of literature involving espionage as an important context or plot device, emerged in the early twentieth century, inspired by rivalries and intrigues between the major powers, and the establishment of modern intelligence agencies. It was given new impetus by the development of fascism and communism in the lead-up to World War II, continued to develop during the Cold War, and received a fresh impetus from the emergence of rogue states, international criminal organizations, global terrorist networks, maritime piracy and technological sabotage and espionage as potent threats to Western societies. As a genre, spy fiction is thematically related to the novel of adventure (\"The Prisoner of Zenda\", 1894, \"The Scarlet Pimpernel\", 1905), the thriller (such as the works of Edgar Wallace) and the politico-military thriller (\"The Schirmer Inheritance\", 1953, \"The Quiet American\", 1955).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15508",
"title": "Industrial espionage",
"section": "Section::::History.:The legacy of Cold War espionage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Following the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, commentators, including the US Congressional Intelligence Committee, noted a redirection amongst the espionage community from military to industrial targets, with Western and former communist countries making use of \"underemployed\" spies and expanding programs directed at stealing such information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "479484",
"title": "I Spy (1965 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Comedy and drama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "\"I Spy\" was a fixture in the popular secret agent genre of the 1960s—a trend that began with the James Bond films. By 1965, virtually every studio was producing secret agent TV shows, films, and spin-off merchandise. What set \"I Spy\" apart from contemporary programs such as \"The Man from U.N.C.L.E.\", \"The Avengers\", and \"The Wild Wild West\" was its emphasis on realism. There were no fanciful 007-style gadgets, outlandish villains or campy, tongue-in-cheek humor. Although Culp and Cosby frequently exchanged breezy, lighthearted dialog, the stories invariably focused on the gritty, ugly side of the espionage business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22vlna
|
how do marketers get so much data on me?
|
[
{
"answer": "They check the listings in the county tax assessors office, which lists dates of sales, as well as amounts and names. It's also more than possible that the realtor sold your data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a result of \"big data\" analytics and marketers' increasing ability to gather and process information about you based on a variety of inputs, public info about real estate transactions being only one of them. Other inputs include your web browsing history, your shopping patterns, etc. Here's a decent overview of how marketers use big data and the debates surrounding it: _URL_0_\n\n(Sorry for not just embedding link - am posting this from my phone and not sure how to do that in Alien Blue yet.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240147",
"title": "Marketing plan",
"section": "Section::::Marketing planning aims and objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Market data and miscellany — From market research, who would in most cases act as a source for this information. His sources of data, however, assume the resources of a very large organization. In most organizations they would be obtained from a much smaller set of people (and not a few of them would be generated by the marketing manager alone).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23607237",
"title": "Single-source data",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The value of single-source data lies in the fact that it is highly disaggregate across individuals and within time. Single-source data reveals differences among households’ exposure to a brand’s ads and their purchases of those brands within advertising fluctuations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1330313",
"title": "Information broker",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "A United States Senate Committee in 2013 published \"A Review of the Data Broker Industry: Collection, Use, and Sale of Consumer Data for Marketing Purposes\". It states that \"Today, a wide range of companies known as \"data brokers\" collect and maintain data on hundreds of millions of consumers, which they analyze, package, and sell generally without consumer permission or input.\" Their main findings were that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3925423",
"title": "First Data",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "First Data has six million merchants, the largest in the payments industry. The company handles 45% of all US credit and debit transactions, including handling prepaid gift card processing for many US brands such as Starbucks. It processes around 2,800 transactions per second and $2.2 trillion in card transactions annually, with an 80% market share in gas and groceries in 2014. First Data's SpendTrend Report is a key shopping metric for national news networks such as \"WSJ, USA Today\", \"ESPN\", \"The New York Times\", Vox Media, and \"Bloomberg\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2520328",
"title": "Marketing intelligence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "(6) Information bought from external suppliers: Certain agencies sell data that can be useful to other companies. For example, television channels will require information on the number of viewership, ratings of TV programs, etc. An agency that calculates this information and generates this data will provide it to companies that need it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6895400",
"title": "Raw data",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "For example, a point-of-sale terminal (POS terminal, a computerized cash register) in a busy supermarket collects huge volumes of raw data each day about customers' purchases. However, this list of grocery items and their prices and the time and date of purchase does not yield much information until it is processed. Once processed and analyzed by a software program or even by a researcher using a pen and paper and a calculator, this raw data may indicate the particular items that each customer buys, when they buy them, and at what price; as well, an analyst or manager could calculate the average total sales per customer or the average expenditure per day of the week by hour. This processed and analyzed data provides information for the manager, that the manager could then use to help her determine, for example, how many cashiers to hire and at what times. Such \"information\" could then become \"data\" for further processing, for example as part of a predictive marketing campaign. As a result of processing, raw data sometimes ends up being put in a database, which enables the raw data to become accessible for further processing and analysis in any number of different ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2777554",
"title": "Market data",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In finance, market data is price and trade-related data for a financial instrument reported by a trading venue such as a stock exchange. Market data allows traders and investors to know the latest price and see historical trends for instruments such as equities, fixed-income products, derivatives, and currencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q5r5v
|
how do mom porcupines and hedgehogs give birth without the babies' spines causing any harm to the mother's insides?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not a porcupine expert, but my guess, is they the baby's quills are still soft/not fully hardened, and the babies are probably pushed out head-first, so that the quills lay down. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A porcupine's quills are hair, not stiff rods. When they give birth, the quills are soft and wet. That is also why the quills can be replaced constantly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real question is how do they have sex? I'm guessing missionary ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2669905",
"title": "Four-toed hedgehog",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Gestation lasts thirty to forty days, and the mother gives birth in a well-lined nest cavity, such as an abandoned rodent burrow. The young are covered in a thin membrane to protect the mother from their already present spines, though it takes them some time to gain control over the muscles that move them. At birth, the young weigh about , and are blind and helpless, with only soft spines and no other fur. The spines stiffen within a few hours, and further spines emerge over the first few days of life as the skin, initially swollen and edematous, begins to dry and contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22121709",
"title": "Monotreme",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.:Reproductive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Monotreme eggs are retained for some time within the mother and receive nutrients directly from her, and they generally hatch within 10 days after laying, much shorter than the incubation period of sauropsid eggs. Newborn monotremes are larval and fetus-like, much like newborn marsupials (and perhaps all non-placental mammals), and like them have relatively well-developed forelimbs that enable them to crawl around. In fact, given that monotremes lack nipples, their puggles crawl about more frequently than marsupial joeys in search of milk; this difference raises questions about the supposed developmental restrictions on marsupial forelimbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "330733",
"title": "Arowana",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Several species of osteoglossids exhibit parental care. They build nests and protect their young after they hatch. All species are mouthbrooders, the parents holding sometimes hundreds of eggs in their mouths. The young may make several tentative trips outside the parent's mouth to investigate the surroundings before leaving permanently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1837721",
"title": "Short-beaked echidna",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Hatchlings are about long and weigh between . After hatching, young echidnas are known as \"puggles\". Although newborns are still semitranslucent and still surrounded by the remains of the egg yolk, and the eyes are still barely developed, they already have well-defined front limbs and digits that allow them to climb on their mothers' bodies. Hatchlings attach themselves to their mothers' milk areolae, specialised patches on the skin that secrete milk—monotremes lack nipples—through about 100–150 pores. The puggles were thought to have imbibed the milk by licking the mother's skin, but they are now thought to feed by sucking the areolae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1702297",
"title": "Toxocaridae",
"section": "Section::::Infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Eggs are introduced into the body through ingestion. This can occur when eggs are deposited on the hands or face, after handling infected dogs or cats. In children without exposure to animals, eggs can be introduced by directly ingesting egg-contaminated soil while playing in a yard or on a playground. Usually, the scenario involves a young child with a new puppy. Unfortunately, many young children who have been infected with these larvae, causing ocular larva migrans in the eye, have been misdiagnosed to have retinoblastoma and have had their eyes erroneously removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12175021",
"title": "Southern African vlei rat",
"section": "Section::::Life History and Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Their young are precocial at birth and are relatively large compared to other similar sized rodents. They are covered with fur and their incisors erupted, which allows them to cling to their mother's nipples as she travels for their first two weeks after birth. By day 2, their eyes are open, they can hear acutely, and can eat solid food. They will eat both their own and others feces to obtain enough nutrients. By day 5, they have coordinated body movement. Approximately by day 13, weaning is complete. They grow rapidly, reaching 71% of adult mass by the time they are 10 weeks old. Females are sexually mature at 9–10 weeks old, but males mature later. They have a lifespan of up to 2 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59183795",
"title": "Astatotilapia calliptera",
"section": "Section::::Habitat and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "They are mouthbrooders in which the female lays her eggs on a hard substrate and then they are inseminated by the male before the female takes them into her mouth where they stay for 12-14 days before hatching. The young are then guarded by their mother for a further 5-6 days, using her mouth as a refuge when they perceive danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
alqf14
|
How excentric is the solar system's orbit around the gravitational center of the milky way?
|
[
{
"answer": "The words you are looking for are apogalacticon and perigalaticon.\n\n \n\n\nThe eccentricity of the sun's orbit about Sagittarius A\\\\\\*, (the center of the Milky Way galaxy) is 1.07, which leads to a difference of about 15% between apo- and peri- galacticon. This leads to the two points being about 27,0000 and 31,0000 light years away from the center point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7577556",
"title": "Oort constants",
"section": "Section::::Measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "However, there are a number of complications. The simple derivation above assumed that both the Sun and the object in question are traveling on circular orbits about the Galactic center. This is not true for the Sun (the Sun's velocity relative to the local standard of rest is approximately 13.4 km/s), and not necessarily true for other objects in the Milky Way either. The derivation also implicitly assumes that the gravitational potential of the Milky Way is axisymmetric and always directed towards the center. This ignores the effects of spiral arms and the Galaxy's bar. Finally, both transverse velocity and distance are notoriously difficult to measure for objects which are not relatively nearby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39427236",
"title": "Stellar aberration (derivation from Lorentz transformation)",
"section": "Section::::Application: Aberration in astronomy.:Stellar aberration due the orbit of our solar system around the center of the Milky Way.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "The rest frame of the center of mass of our solar system isn't a perfect inertial frame of reference since our solar system orbits around the center of the Milky Way. An estimation for the time of period of circulation is 230 million years (estimations vary between 225 and 250 million years). As the estimation for the distance between our solar system and the center of the Milky Way is about 28000 Ly, the assumed orbital speed of our solar system is formula_80. This would cause an aberration ellipse with a major semiaxis of 2,6' (arcminutes). Therefore, in one year the aberration angle could change (at max.) formula_81 = 4,3 µas (microarcseconds). This very small value isn't detectable now, perhaps it's possible with the planned mission of the Gaia spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:The right location in the right kind of galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The orbit of the Sun around the center of the Milky Way is indeed almost perfectly circular, with a period of 226 Ma (million years), closely matching the rotational period of the galaxy. However, the majority of stars in barred spiral galaxies populate the spiral arms rather than the halo and tend to move in gravitationally aligned orbits, so there is little that is unusual about the Sun's orbit. While the Rare Earth hypothesis predicts that the Sun should rarely, if ever, have passed through a spiral arm since its formation, astronomer Karen Masters has calculated that the orbit of the Sun takes it through a major spiral arm approximately every 100 million years. Some researchers have suggested that several mass extinctions do correspond with previous crossings of the spiral arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Proper motions of stars orbiting Sagittarius A*.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1243,
"text": "The proper motions of stars near the center of our own Milky Way provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole. Since 1995, astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A*. By fitting their motions to Keplerian orbits, the astronomers were able to infer, in 1998, that a 2.6 million object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02 light-years to cause the motions of those stars. Since then, one of the stars—called S2—has completed a full orbit. From the orbital data, astronomers were able to refine the calculations of the mass to 4.3 million and a radius of less than 0.002 light years for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars. The upper limit on the object's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius; nevertheless, these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume. Additionally, there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon, a feature unique to black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10385519",
"title": "Galactocentrism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Observations by William Herschel in 1785 suggested that the Milky Way was a disk-shaped galaxy with the sun in a central position. Although heliocentric, Herschel's observations were the first attempt at an observational cosmology. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42398299",
"title": "Barycentric celestial reference system",
"section": "Section::::Purpose and implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The geocentric system is simpler, being smaller and involving few massive objects: that coordinate system defines its center as the center of mass of the Earth itself. The barycentric system can be loosely thought of as being centered on the Sun, but the Solar System is more complicated. Even the much smaller planets exert gravitational force upon the Sun, causing it to shift position slightly as they orbit. Those shifts are very large in comparison to the measurement precisions that are required for astrometry. Thus, the BCRS defines its center of coordinates as the center of mass of the entire Solar System, its barycenter. This stable point for gravity helps to minimize relativistic effects from any observational frames of reference within the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39374",
"title": "Large Magellanic Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The Large Magellanic Cloud has a prominent central bar and a spiral arm. The central bar seems to be warped so that the east and west ends are nearer the Milky Way than the middle. In 2014, measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope made it possible to determine that the LMC has a rotation period of 250 million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
z0l8l
|
the oil business
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say you have a lemonade stand. You charge a thousand dollars per lemonade, and since it's really hot, you make a million dollars a day.\n\nWell, obviously, that can't last. Someone else will open up a lemonade stand and try to take your business away by only charging $750. Pretty soon there are so many lemonade stands that lemonade is selling for $1 and nobody makes crazy money anymore.\n\nBut that's because anyone can make lemonade.\n\nIf lemonade were only found in certain spots in the ground, and you owned a lemonade well and nobody else did, you could keep selling lemonade at $1000 per cup and nobody could undercut you because they wouldn't have access to the well.\n\nThat's how oil works; once you've found it, it's no work at all to pump and sell it (as BP showed us in the gulf, the stuff pumps itself). And you can sell it for a high price because, while other people might be happy to sell oil much cheaper, they can't because they don't own the wells. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oil costs very little to find, produce, and refine per barrel. The profit from a single barrel of oil is about 8%. The catch is that people consume very many billions of barrels per year. \n\nLI5: You buy lemonade for $.10 per cup and sell it at $.11 per cup. It's nice that you now make $.01 per cup right? Now imagine that you sell to 6 billion people and you can make 100 billion cups every year. You're filthy rich! You now make $10,000 per year. Oil is the same. When you find it, you find millions of barrels all at once and you can sell each one for $10 more than it cost to get it out of the ground. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those magnates you speak of are, in the main, royalty. \n\nThey are paid vast sums of money by companies who drill for oil on their land. Those countries sell oil taken from underneath their land to the very big companies (the companies must be big because there is only so much oil and the cost of getting to it and making it right for cars and shipping it to where we **need** to buy it etc. are so big that it only makes sense for a few companies to be in the business and they can make money from it by being very big) who can only buy oil from a few places. \n\nNot only that but these magnates have formed a 'cartel' called The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries or 'OPEC' that contains the world's biggest oil producing countries that they are the kings (often 'sheikhs' in Arabic) or leaders of. That means that they have grouped together and decided to tell the rest of the world how much they want to charge them to buy their oil. That way, the group makes a healthy amount of profit and doesn't have to fight within itself to sell oil cheaply and win business- they win big bucks this way if they work together.\n\nAnother thing is that we need oil. Our cars run on it, we use plastic a lot and that's made from oil, our food is driven to us from factories and farms using oil-consuming vehicles and so on and so forth. \nThat means that pretty much no matter how much we are charged for oil, we must pay because we use it so much and there aren't that many alternatives that are so widely available and used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm liking the lemonade stand analogy, but there's another step that has led to the explosion and price movement of oil:\n\nYou've got a lemonade powder company, let's name it \"Saudi Arabia\". You call up all of your friends who also have lemonade powder companies, and form a club. In this club, you all determine how much you're going to sell. You can choose the number based on the temperature outside, how many people are in line for lemonade right now, or a number that you think will allow you to charge a lot of money for your powder. There are a bunch of other lemonade powder companies who aren't part of your club, but your club is large enough that you can have a major effect on the amount of lemonade people can buy. Still, you have almost no control over price, which is set by a bunch of people in New York. They buy and sell cups of lemonade based on what they think lemonade will cost in the future, frequently leading to large swings in the price of lemonade. They may blame the swings on a neighborhood bully's threat to close all the lemonade stands on his block, but in the end they are mainly changing the price in the hope that they can buy your lemonade powder for a low price and sell it for a high one. You may not always like their prices, but there isn't much you can do because your lemonade powder needs to be sent to someone else to be turned into actual lemonade to be sold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3816688",
"title": "Oil India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "OIL is engaged in the business of exploration, development and production of crude oil and natural gas, transportation of crude oil and production of liquid petroleum gas. The company's history spans the discovery of crude oil in the far east of India at Digboi, Assam in 1889 to its present status as a fully integrated upstream petroleum company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994887",
"title": "Petroleum industry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The petroleum industry, also known as the oil industry or the oil patch, includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum (oil) is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The extreme monetary value of oil and its products has led to it being known as \"black gold\". The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream, and downstream. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19086358",
"title": "Petroleum in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Industry structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The United States oil industry is made up of thousands of companies, engaged in exploration and production, transportation, refining, distribution, and marketing of oil. The industry is often informally divided into \"upstream\" (exploration and production), \"midstream\" (transportation and refining), and \"downstream\" (distribution and marketing). The industry sector involved in oil exploration and production is for all practical purposes identical with the sector exploring and producing natural gas, but oil and natural gas have different midstream and downstream sectors (\"see\": Natural gas in the United States).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5137675",
"title": "Price of oil",
"section": "Section::::Oil-storage trade (contango).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The oil-storage trade, also referred to as contango, a market strategy in which large, often vertically-integrated oil companies purchase oil for immediate delivery and storage—when the price of oil is low— and hold it in storage until the price of oil increases. Investors bet on the future of oil prices through a financial instrument, oil futures in which they agree on a contract basis, to buy or sell oil at a set date in the future. Crude oil is stored in salt mines, tanks and oil tankers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13605234",
"title": "Oil-storage trade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The oil-storage trade, also referred to as contango, a market strategy in which large, often vertically-integrated oil companies purchase oil for immediate delivery and storage—when the price of oil is low— and hold it in storage until the price of oil increases. Investors bet on the future of oil prices through a financial instrument, oil futures in which they agree on a contract basis, to buy or sell oil at a set date in the future. Crude oil is stored in salt mines, tanks and oil tankers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "715706",
"title": "YPF",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The company, specializing in the exploration, production, refining and commercialization of petroleum, had its origin in 1907, when oil was discovered near the city of Comodoro Rivadavia in Chubut. Following World War I, oil had become an important resource, leading to struggles between rival powers to gain control of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468593",
"title": "Shell Oil Company",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Shell is the market leader through approximately 25,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the U.S. which also serve as Shell's most visible public presence. At its gas stations Shell provides diesel fuel, gasoline and LPG. Shell Oil Company was a 50/50 partner with the Saudi Arabian government-owned oil company Saudi Aramco in Motiva Enterprises, a refining and marketing joint venture which owns and operates three oil refineries on the Gulf Coast of the United States. However, Shell is currently divesting its interest in Motiva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a5tamj
|
why is it that bands/singers can have wildly successful careers sometimes spanning decades, dozens of albums, and countless recorded tracks, yet only have those 3 or 4 songs that really get any airplay/recognition?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer, program managers are lazy. It's easy to stick with the 'classics'. It's safe. \n\nAlso if a band is around long enough they may not fit the style of the station with their new/old stuff. Classic rock stations are going to play the hell out of 60/70 era Rolling Stones, but wont touch anything they have released in the last 2 decades as it diesnt fit their format. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12505304",
"title": "Ghost band",
"section": "Section::::Related musical terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- There are several well-known bands that have endured for decades – bands that are promoted and perceived to be continuations of the original. These types of bands are analogous to franchises, except, instead of multiple bands touring under the same name, only one band performs, but with a turnover of musicians. Examples includeTower of Power (currently, in its year)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8917997",
"title": "Kinderen voor Kinderen",
"section": "Section::::Notable songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Most of the songs named as examples above are from the ensemble's early years. There are many who say they like the songs from the early years better than the songs from the more recent past. However, as the group's website declares:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4673",
"title": "Boy band",
"section": "Section::::Key factors of the concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Individuals can also go on to achieve greater success as a solo artist coming out of a boy band having used the groups popularity to build on. Usually this signals the end of the group until potential future reunions. Examples of this include Michael Jackson from The Jackson 5, Donny Osmond from The Osmonds, Ricky Martin from Menudo, Justin Timberlake from *NSYNC, and Ronan Keating from Boyzone. Sometimes the most successful solo star from a band is not the most popular member such as Robbie Williams as opposed to lead singer Gary Barlow from Take That. Some boy band members have gone on to successful careers elsewhere in the media. Michael Dolenz of The Monkees went on to become a successful television producer, working for ITV franchises such as LWT and Television South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37228187",
"title": "Bandage (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Back in the 1990s, way before the manufactured pop acts we now see on TV, there was a flood of indie rock bands that were televised during talent contests that guaranteed instant fame. Amongst that band boom, a group of young musicians managed to dominate the music scene, a band that shone brightest for a brief moment in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53818185",
"title": "List of artists who left right before their bands became famous",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "While many notable bands go through several lineup changes throughout their careers, this list of artists who left right before their bands became famous only lists members who quit or were fired from a band shortly before the band achieved mainstream commercial success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1233393",
"title": "Peruvian rock",
"section": "Section::::1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Due to financial difficulties and lack of support from promoters, most bands had to play the same few venues, where they build loyal and knowledgeable fanbases. Although the concerts were very small at the beginning (typically 50 people), as the decade progressed, more young people started to notice these bands and fill bigger venues with 500, 1000, or 2000 people. Towards the end of the decade, major concerts like \"Acustirock\", \"El Niño Malo\", \"Antimiseria\" and \"Inrockuptibles\" each brought in at least 10,000 fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1442120",
"title": "Gaither Vocal Band",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The lineup of the band changes often, with artists leaving to work on solo careers, and new and old ones coming to replace them. Besides Bill Gaither, singers with the longest tenure in the band include Guy Penrod (1995–2008), Mark Lowry (1988–2002, 2009–13), Michael English (1985–94, 2009–13), David Phelps (1997–2005, 2009–17) and Wes Hampton (2005–present).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4b8yzm
|
how does bracing yourself for an impact actually make the impact worse?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because your muscles tense up and become rigid and have no \"give\" at that point. If you don't know it's coming, you will be loose and more flexible which would help with NOT further jarring the flexed muscle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all about pressure. My favorite example for this is explosions. Explosions send out a shockwave in several different levels: air being forced outward, sound being forced outward, and of course the thermal release itself. If a being is rigid like, say, a dry board of wood, the force of the blast will usually shatter the board. But compare that to a live tree which has give and bend from the liquids flowing through it will sway through the hit and take it better. \n\n\nSimilarly a human eardrum is a tense piece of flesh; it has to be to work as intended. But hit it with enough force...pop. They don't show the bleeding eardrums in the action movies. \n\nAnyway, muscles are designed to tense up when struck to protect your internal organs. It hurts less to be punched when they are tensed as opposed to slack. However something like a car hits with so much kinetic energy your tense muscles work against you, putting all the strain on your skeleton, which is hard but is rather brittle. Your organs will fare better, but the bones guarding them will be damaged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you jump off of a high place ans brace yourself- aka tense certain muscles (leg muscles in this instance)- when you land the impact will be taken harder by that certain part of your body (legs). The part that was 'braced' will take the most damage and will likely shatter as a result of the impact.\n\nThe correct thing to do, jumping from a high place, is land on your feet and immediately relax those muscles, to the point of falling. You'll still get hurt, but you're less likely to break anything or cause serious damage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all about time of impact and force. If you allow for more time of impact, it reduces the force because of physics. Jump off a table. If you bend your knees a lot, it reduces the force a lot and it won't hurt a bit. Now jump off the same table but keep your knees locked. It will hurt you quite a bit, depending on the height of the table.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "840040",
"title": "Brace position",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "To assume a brace or crash position is an instruction that can be given to prepare for a crash, such as on an aircraft; the instruction to 'brace for impact!' or 'brace! brace!' is often given if the aircraft must make an emergency landing on land or water. There are many different ways to adopt the brace position, with many countries adopting their own version based on research performed by their own aviation authority or that of other countries. The most common in passenger airliners being the forward-facing seat version, in which the person bracing places their head against or as close as possible to the surface it is likely to strike in the process bending over some degree, placing their feet firmly on the floor, and their hands either on their head or the seat in front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21130709",
"title": "Glossary of motorsport terms",
"section": "Section::::G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ground effect: A method of creating downforce by the shape of the car's body, notably by shaping the underside of the car in combination with the car's lateral edges in order to trap and dramatically slow the airflow running underneath the car, effectively turning the entire car into a wing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390757",
"title": "Sprain",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Functional rehabilitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Although prolonged immobilization can have a negative effect on recovery, recent studies suggest that the use of a brace can improve healing by alleviating pain and stabilizing the injury, which helps prevent further damage to the ligament. When using a brace, it is very important to apply the correct amount of pressure, as too much can cause complications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277641",
"title": "Strength of materials",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Strength terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Impact strength\" is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1618688",
"title": "Target fixation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Target fixation is an attentional phenomenon observed in humans in which an individual becomes so focused on an observed object (be it a target or hazard) that they inadvertently increase their risk of colliding with the object. It is associated with scenarios in which the observer is in control of a high-speed vehicle or other mode of transportation, such as fighter pilots, race-car drivers and motorcyclists. In such cases, the observer may fixate so intently on the target that they steer in the direction of their gaze, which is often the ultimate cause of a collision. The term target fixation was used in World War II fighter-bomber pilot training to describe pilots flying into targets during a strafing or bombing run.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3479910",
"title": "Izod impact strength test",
"section": "Section::::Impact energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Impact is a very important phenomenon in governing the life of a structure. For example, in the case of an aircraft, impact can take place by a bird hitting a plane while it is cruising, or during take off and landing the aircraft may be struck by debris that is present on the runway, and as well as other causes. It must also be calculated for roads if speed breakers are present, in bridge construction where vehicles punch an impact load, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2827774",
"title": "Charpy impact test",
"section": "Section::::Quantitative results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The result of the impact tests the energy needed to fracture a material and can be used to measure the toughness of the material. There is a connection to the yield strength but it cannot be expressed by a standard formula. Also, the strain rate may be studied and analyzed for its effect on fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kg52l
|
Is there a speed a cell phone can go to not receive wifi or cell signal anymore?
|
[
{
"answer": "The frequency bands for both Wi-Fi and LTE are both reasonably narrow, so you will hit a point where the waves for the node you are trying to connect to are red or blue shifted to the point where your device will not be able to communicate on them\n\nA long time before you get to that point, you will not be in range of the access point long enough for your device to negotiate a network connection",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't speak for other technologies, but LTE was designed to support mobility at speeds up to 500 km/h, depending on the frequency band. It was also designed to accommodate cells as large as 100 km radius, meaning at 500 km/h you'd hop to a new site at least every 24 minutes (200 km). This is, of course, assuming perfect conditions (flat terrain, minimal trees, very tall sites, etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cellphone signals are time multiplexed as well, you share the frequency with hundreds and as you move and shift time delay, the reciever has to move you in the 'rota', not sure on the limits of that, older phones used to have a half bit rate switch deep in the menus that allowed the phone to double its maxdistance from the tower because too long adelay dropped you off the cycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be a bit too anecdotal for this sub but I heard a lecture by one of the inventors of Bluetooth regarding this issue. He said that the gsm network handled something like 250 km/h. Just after it rolled out Swedish (his home country) high speed trains were cleared for 260 km/h leading to constant dropped calls until 3G was adopted that apparently handled high speed better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really an answear but handling moving phones is one of the most important parts in gsm, 3g and lte. Its actual more about the level of change of the multipath fading (that is the amount of change of all the echos you get from your transmission from and to the basestation). I believe that wifi probably sucks at this, because its not designed for fast moving (relative to the wifi-router) clients.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: All information in this comment is in regard to older technologies and may not apply to how it is handled *today*.\n\nAbout radio communication in general: Definitely.\n\nPlanes used AM for communication rather FM because the flight speed causes the frequencies to shift due to the Doppler effect. For AM it doesn't matter much, but for FM it would completely distort the signal and make it unusable.\n\nAs for cellular communications, you also have the idea of cell handovers, i.e moving from one cell to another. In the cities, you can have cells every couple hundred meters compared to up to 40km in rural areas. Each one of these handovers requires a non-trivial procedure of cell selection and transfer. If you move very quickly, the network will need to transfer you several times which might eventually cause a disconnection. Luckily, there are algorithms for reduction of transfers in these areas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer the physics part of the question: you can never \"out-run\" the signal, because light always travels at the speed of light regardless of reference frame (and radio waves are still light). However, if you're traveling fast enough, you will red shift or blue shift the signal to a different frequency, which your cell phone antenna will no longer be able to pick up, and so you will lose signal.\n\nHowever, more practical engineering constraints (such as being able to lock to a given tower) will likely kick in long before you attain sufficient (relativistic) speeds for this more physics-based relativistic doppler shift effect would drop your call.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's an interesting related story involving the Cassini space mission which almost caused the Huygens probe (the one that landed on Titan) to lose its radio connection and all its data.\n\n[Here's the fully story](_URL_0_), but to summarize engineers forgot to install code to handle the fact the Huygens probe and Cassini mothership would be moving very fast relative to each other, which would change the radio frequency enough to prevent communication.\n\nThey almost didn't catch this mistake, except an engineer insisted on running a full Doppler test, which revealed the flaw.\n\nThey weren't able to fix the probes to handle Doppler shift, so instead they had to change Cassini's orbit so when the probe Huygens probe reached Titan it would be traveling sideways (relatively), which would change the Doppler shift to something the probes could still manage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to add to this, say if I have a local LTE access point or even WiFi access point on my space ship and my spaceship is travelling at the speed of light my cell phone still won't work ? Am i correct in this ? And that i'd had a infinite ping time too ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59546",
"title": "Dial-up Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Dial-up connections usually have latency as high as 150 ms or even more; this is longer than for many forms of broadband, such as cable or DSL, but typically less than satellite connections. Longer latency can make video conferencing and online gaming difficult, if not impossible. An increasing amount of Internet content such as streaming media will not work at dial-up speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20563054",
"title": "T-Mobile US",
"section": "Section::::Products and services.:Capping unlimited data users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "On August 31, 2015, T-Mobile announced it will ask users who abuse its unlimited on-smartphone data plan by violating T-Mobile's Terms & Conditions regarding tethering (which like unlimited on-smartphone data, remains unlimited, but offers a 14 GB high speed allotment before throttling takes effect), by permanently removing user access to unlimited plans and migrating users to a tiered data plan. By doing so, all plans after a select amount of inclusive high-speed data, result in automatic throttled speeds, preventing unlimited high-speed tethering use and abuse of the network. T-Mobile stated that there are a small handful of users who abuse the tethering plan by altering device software and/or the use of an Android app that masks T-Mobile's ability monitoring whether data is on-smartphone, or through smartphone mobile hotspot (tethering) by mimicking all data as on-smartphone use, with some customers abusing the service by using as much as 2 TB per month, causing speed issues for all other customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21256549",
"title": "Iris 3000 Videophone",
"section": "Section::::Requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The phone requires a broadband internet connection (xDSL, Cable or Fiber) with at least 256 Kbs upload speed in order to function properly with a video call. It will not work on any speed of dialup. It could be configured to work with 3G or wifi connections, but such options are not officially supported by ACN yet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293951",
"title": "Grandfather clause",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.:Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most cellular phone carriers including AT&T and Verizon had an unlimited data plan in the past, but these plans were removed. Customers who already had unlimited data plans could continue to have them for as long as they kept the same service. For new subscribers, the unlimited plan was no longer available and they had to select from a limited plan (usually 2–4 GB) with extra charges and fees for going over the limit. Recently Verizon introduced a new unlimited plan with provisions to slow down data speed if the subscriber used more than 22GB of data and the network was congested enough to warrant traffic shaping, a practice very common throughout the industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5383824",
"title": "HTC Universal",
"section": "Section::::Unofficial extensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wireless G (802.11g) connectivity. This only allows the device to communicate using the 802.11g protocol instead of 802.11b, it does not give a speed increase beyond 11Mbit. However, numerous online sources now say this no longer works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25982270",
"title": "Smallband",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "According to the Acceptable use policy of most providers where this limitation is in place, the speed is comparable to that of an old dial-up connection. However, there were numerous complaints by customers that the actual speed was lower. In response to these complaints, Telenet (cable internet provider) in October 2007 increased the speed from 32 kbps downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream to 192 kbit/s downstream and 64 kbit/s upstream, for http data traffic only. All other traffic shaping remained at 32 kbit/s downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201952",
"title": "CdmaOne",
"section": "Section::::Protocol details.:Physical layer.:Forward traffic channels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Under IS-95B P_REV=5, it was possible for a user to use up to seven supplemental \"code\" (traffic) channels simultaneously to increase the throughput of a data call. Very few mobiles or networks ever provided this feature, which could in theory offer 115200 bit/s to a user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jotbw
|
Is there any point during Operation Barbarossa that Axis victory over the USSR was obtainable?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not really, no. The only way the Germans could have scored a victory was to have Russia negotiate for peace after taking Moscow, which the Soviet regime had little intention of doing as it was a fight for the very survival of the Russian nation and Stalin did not want to appear so weak abroad. There was still a massive heavily populated country after Moscow, and the Germans would have had to move further and further East and taken cities like Omsk, Yekaterinburg, Ulfa, Kazan, Novosibirsk, and so on. Given that their supply lines were already at the breaking point before they reached Moscow, this was not an achievable objective, especially with American involvement in the war right around the corner. The entire thing was a fools errand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't really about any one point but rather the German/Nazi attitude regarding the Soviet Union. Specifically, Hitler along with many senior officials and officers believed that the USSR was fundamentally weak, both militarily and politically. They they believed the USSR could be defeated in a short campaign, after which all resistance would crumble (not unlike what happened in France). The second part of that was the Nazi reluctance to ask the German people for necessary sacrifices. Women weren't really pressed into the labor force to the same extent that they were in the USSR and other countries. Factories often remained idle for a large chunk of the day. In short, Germany didn't mobilize the full resources of the state because they didn't believe that a \"total war\" was necessary. It was almost as if they started a war with one hand behind their back. \n\nThe Soviets, on the other hand, had the complete opposite approach. They mobilized every resource they had, both manpower and industry, and made a \"total war\" pretty much their goal. Thus, as the casualties of war took their toll, German units were often starved of reinforcements, equipment, fuel and so on. The Soviets, on the other hand, formed hundreds of new divisions to replace those they lost. Eventually the German attitude changed, but by then it was already too late. \n\nTL:DR, I think the biggest mistake that the Germans made wasn't a military one but one of their attitude - their underestimation of the USSR, its potential, and its determination to win. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2731583",
"title": "Adolf Hitler",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Path to defeat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "On 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, over 3 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops had advanced and won the Battle of Smolensk. Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. His generals disagreed with this change, having advanced within of Moscow, and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December. During this crisis, Hitler appointed himself as head of the \"Oberkommando des Heeres\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1926268",
"title": "John Lukacs",
"section": "Section::::Views.:\"The Hitler of History\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1529,
"text": "In Lukacs’s view, Operation Barbarossa was not inspired by anti-Communism or any long-term plan to conquer the Soviet Union as suggested by historians such as Andreas Hillgruber, who claims that Hitler had a \"stufenplan\" (stage-by-stage plan), but it was rather an \"ad hoc\" reaction forced on Hitler in 1940–1941 by Britain’s refusal to surrender. Lukacs argues that the reason Hitler gave for the invasion of Russia was the real one. He claimed that Britain would not surrender because Winston Churchill held out the hope that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the Allied side and so Germany had to eliminate that hope. However, other historians have argued that the reason was just a pretext. For Lukacs, Operation Barbarossa was as much anti-British as it was anti-Soviet. He argues that Hitler's statement in August 1939 to the League of Nations High Commissioner for Danzig, the Swiss diplomat Carl Jacob Burckhardt (\"Everything I undertake is directed against Russia\"), which Hillgruber cited as evidence of Hitler's anti-Soviet intentions, was part of an effort to intimidate Britain and France into abandoning Poland. Lukacs takes issue with Hillgruber's claim that the war against Britain was of \"secondary\" importance to Hitler compared to the war against the Soviet Union. Lukacs has also been one of the leading critics of Viktor Suvorov, who has argued that Barbarossa was a \"preventative war\" forced upon Germany by Stalin, who according to Suvorov was planning to attack Germany later in the summer of 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573888",
"title": "Battle of Moscow",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Operation \"Barbarossa\", the German invasion plan, called for the capture of Moscow within four months. On 22 June 1941, Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union, destroyed most of the Soviet Air Force on the ground, and advanced deep into Soviet territory using \"blitzkrieg\" tactics to destroy entire Soviet armies. The German Army Group North moved towards Leningrad, Army Group South took control of Ukraine, and Army Group Centre advanced towards Moscow. By July 1941, Army Group Centre crossed the Dnieper River, on the path to Moscow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22618",
"title": "Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "The failure of Operation Barbarossa proved a turning point in the fortunes of the Third Reich. Operationally, German forces achieved major victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union (mainly in Ukraine) and inflicted, as well as sustained, heavy casualties. Despite these Axis successes, the German offensive stalled in the Battle of Moscow at the end of 1941, and the subsequent Soviet winter counteroffensive pushed German troops back. The Red Army absorbed the Wehrmacht's strongest blows and forced the Germans into a war of attrition for which they were unprepared. The Wehrmacht never again mounted a simultaneous offensive along the entire Eastern front. The failure of the operation drove Hitler to demand further operations of increasingly limited scope inside the Soviet Union, such as Case Blue in 1942 and Operation Citadel in 1943—all of which eventually failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2601678",
"title": "Military deception",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Before Operation Barbarossa, the German High Command masked the creation of the massive force arrayed to invade the USSR and heightened their diplomatic efforts to convince Joseph Stalin that they were about to launch a major attack on Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990697",
"title": "Axis and Soviet air operations during Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Adolf Hitler predicted this problem and on 18 December 1940 had issued Directive 21. It ordered the beginning of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR. On the other hand the war with the British was far from concluded and the United States of America were supporting them, while showing an increasingly hostile attitude towards the Axis. A protracted war in the east could be disastrous, so a quick victory was essential. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298358",
"title": "Battle of Smolensk (1941)",
"section": "Section::::Background and planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "On 22 June 1941, the Axis nations invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. At first, the campaign met with spectacular success, as the surprised Soviet troops were not able to offer coordinated resistance. After three weeks of fighting, the Germans had reached the Dvina and Dnieper rivers and planned for a resumption of the offensive. The main attack aimed at Moscow, was carried out by Army Group Centre (Fedor von Bock). Its next target on the way to the Soviet capital was the town of Smolensk. The German plan called for the 2nd Panzer Group (later 2nd Panzer Army) to cross the Dnieper, closing on Smolensk from the south, while the 3rd Panzer Group (later 3rd Panzer Army) was to encircle the town from the north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3az64q
|
Do animals actually understand each other's calls like humans understand speech?
|
[
{
"answer": "Like humans? Yes, maybe. We think dolphins actually have a complex language with syntax. There is evidence that they even each have individual names that they get from their mother's name. But we haven't made much headway in learning their language if it's there. \n \nOther animals certainly recognize conspecific calls. Song birds find mates using their songs, so wouldn't be very successful at reproducing if they didn't recognize each other. Other animals have other forms of complex communication. Vervet monkeys have predator calls that identify the type of predator they see. There is a call for 'eagle' that will tell all of the other monkeys to look up and maybe duck, a call for 'leopard' will let the group know that they should run into a tree, and the call for 'snake' tells everyone to look down. Other monkeys have similarly different calls for different predators. Most animal mothers will also recognize their own offspring calls and distinguish them from the other young in the group. \n \nWhales will recognize each other's calls from far off. Because whale songs travel in water they can be heard up to 3,000 kms. from the source. One whale, called the 52 Hz whale, has for decades been singing in a vocal range that's too high-pitched and is undetectable by other whales, so this lonesome whale cannot elicit a response from other whales. \n \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39524132",
"title": "William Henry Furness III",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "If these animals have a language it is restricted to a very few sounds of a general emotional signification. Articulate speech they have none and communication with one another is accomplished by vocal sounds to no greater extent than it is by dogs, with a growl, a whine, or a bark. They are, however, capable to a surprising degree of acquiring an understanding of human speech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2407884",
"title": "Human–animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Human–animal communication may be observed in everyday life. The interactions between pets and their owners, for example, reflect a form of spoken, while not necessarily verbal dialogue. A dog being scolded is able to grasp the message by interpreting cues such as the owner's stance, tone of voice, and body language. This communication is two-way, as owners can learn to discern the subtle differences between barks and meows, and there is a clear difference between the bark of an angry dog defending its home and the happy bark of the same animal while playing. Communication (often nonverbal) is also significant in equestrian activities such as dressage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23952704",
"title": "Panbanisha",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "These interactions with Panbanisha made Julie Cohen realize that just because an animal may not have the same innate language abilities as humans, does not mean that they cannot think, understand, or have feelings. Panbanisha made it clear to her and other humans we should not judge an animal on their language capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464447",
"title": "Animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Modes.:Auditory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Many animals communicate through vocalization. Vocal communication serves many purposes, including mating rituals, warning calls, conveying location of food sources, and social learning. In a number of species, males perform calls during mating rituals as a form of competition against other males and to signal females. Examples include frogs, hammer-headed bats, red deer, humpback whales, elephant seals, and songbirds. Other instances of vocal communication include the alarm calls of the Campbell monkey, the territorial calls of gibbons, and the use of frequency in greater spear-nosed bats to distinguish between groups. The vervet monkey gives a distinct alarm call for each of its four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary appropriately according to the call. For example, if an alarm call signals a python, the monkeys climb into the trees, whereas the \"eagle\" alarm causes monkeys to seek a hiding place on the ground. Prairie dogs also use complex calls that signal predator differences. According to Con Slobodchikoff and others, prairie dog calls communicate the type, size, and speed of an approaching predator. Whale vocalizations have been found to have different dialects based on region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009041",
"title": "Talking animal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "A talking animal or speaking animal is any non-human animal that can produce sounds or gestures resembling those of a human language. Several species or groups of animals have developed forms of communication which superficially resemble verbal language, however, these are not defined as language because they lack one or more of the defining characteristics, i.e. grammar, syntax, recursion and displacement. Researchers have been successful in teaching some animals to make gestures similar to sign language. However, these animals fail to reach one or more of the criteria accepted as defining language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2136757",
"title": "Alarm signal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Different calls may be used for predators on the ground or from the air. Often, the animals can tell which member of the group is making the call, so that they can disregard those of little reliability. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20240240",
"title": "Primate cognition",
"section": "Section::::Studies in primate cognition.:Language.:Communication in the wild.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1606,
"text": "Communication of animals in the wild has been studied extensively. Calls with specific intent, such as alarm calls or mating calls has been observed in many orders of animals, including primates. A study done on East African Vervet monkeys showed that in the wild this species was able to produce at least 5 acoustically different alarm calls in response to danger, and that other monkeys responded differently according to which alarm had been sounded. This indicated a clear communication that there is a predator nearby and what kind of predator it is, eliciting a specific response. A different species of monkeys, the wild Campbell's monkeys have also been known to produce a sequence of vocalization that require a specific order to elicit a specific behaviour in other monkeys. Changing the order of the sounds changes the resulting behaviour, or meaning, of the call. Diana monkeys were studied in a habituation-dishabituation experiment that demonstrated the ability to attend to the semantic content of calls rather than simply to acoustic nature. Primates have also been observed responding to alarm calls of other species. Crested Guinea fowl, a ground-dwelling fowl, produce a single type of alarm call for all predators it detects. Diana monkeys have been observed to respond to the most likely reason for the call, typically a human or leopard, based on the situation and respond according to that. If they deem a leopard is the more likely predator in the vicinity they will produce their own leopard-specific alarm call but if they think it is a human, they will remain silent and hidden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tcviz
|
Is there any credence to the marketing claim that a better
bed provides a "better night's sleep"?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you partly answered your own question with the \"springs\" comment. Better just means that you are able to experience enough deep sleep at night. Things that are uncomfortable, painful, noisy, etc rouse you from this deep sleep. Since there are distinct stages of sleep, you spend more time getting back into deep sleep and less actually experiencing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35369684",
"title": "Media consumption",
"section": "Section::::Negative effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Numerous studies have also shown that media consumption has a significant association with poor sleep quality. Television and computer game exposure affect children's sleep and deteriorate verbal cognitive performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40630077",
"title": "Relyon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Relyon are a bed and mattress company claiming to have 'the best beds in the world'. Originally named by the founding Price family as Price Brothers and Co. they began trading as wool merchants and the business evolved rapidly into manufacturing beds. In 1935 the name was changed to Relyon as the goal was to design beds that you could truly “rely on” for a good night’s sleep. Their philosophy is \"your comfort is our paramount priority\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51267644",
"title": "Meal",
"section": "Section::::Breakfast.:Variations of breakfast.:Champagne breakfast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "It may be part of any day or outing considered particularly luxurious or indulgent. The accompanying breakfast is sometimes of a similarly high standard and include rich foods such as salmon, caviar, chocolate or pastries, which would not ordinarily be eaten at breakfast or more courses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17348237",
"title": "Champagne breakfast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "It may be part of any day or outing considered particularly luxurious or indulgent. The accompanying breakfast is sometimes of a similarly high standard and include rich foods such as salmon, caviar, chocolate or pastries, which would not ordinarily be eaten at breakfast or more courses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2887977",
"title": "Sleepsack (BDSM)",
"section": "Section::::Sleepsacks in BDSM culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The immobility that sleepsacks cause to the occupant is a major reason they are popular. Sleepsacks also provide a great way to secure someone for many types of bondage and BDSM play, which may or may not include sexual activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268981",
"title": "Sleep hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "The strength of research support for each recommendation varies; some of the more robustly researched and supported recommendations include the negative effects of noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706020",
"title": "Pillow",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The choice of bed pillow depends to some extent upon sleeping positions: one manufacturer recommends a thinner and softer pillow for sleeping face down, medium support for sleeping on one's back, and a thicker and firmer pillow for sleeping on the side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5m1gf6
|
how does the u.s. government owe money to itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "Governments borrow money by issuing bonds, which are simply agreements to pay back the money, along with a modest amount of interest, by a particular date (the bond's maturity date). Try googling \"How do government issued bonds work?\" or similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Federal Government \"borrows\" money from the people by issuing Federal Bonds and printing more cash, which devalues whatever money you have in your pocket.\n\n\nHypothetical situation. 2017 budget rolls around, we have a $1 trillion deficit. The Fed issues $1 trillion in bonds and prints that much in cash. If there's $100 trillion dollars in circulation, printing that $1T just devalued your dollar by 1%. \n\nThis is a result of the official abolishment of the gold standard in 1971\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US government may have a fund set up to hold money and disburse it later for a specific purpose (for example, the social security fund). \n\nNow, the government could just keep that money in a bank, earning no interest. But that would be stupid because inflation would cause the fund to lose its value (the price of everything else will go up to keep up with inflation but your dollar figure in the bank stays the same, so when you draw on fund years later, you will end up buying less of the goods than you could have years before). \n\nSo the government has a choice on how to invest that money. With the financial world considering US government bonds to be essentially risk-free, and the interest on those bonds can in general keep up with inflation, the people running that specific fund will invest the money in US government bonds. Now the US government owes money (through its bonds) to itself (its own fund).\n\nThe government is likely avoiding other investment strategies (stocks, corporate bonds, etc) because they could be perceived as too risky. For example, imagine if the social security fund was invested in large bank stocks or even real estate in 2008 when the market tumbled. The person who made that investment decision, and his overseers (ultimately Congress/President) would face lots of political scrutiny, to put it mildly, for the losses incurred. Granted the stock market rebounded, but at the time, people would be very angry at the losses mounting in the social security fund. They would see it as the government taxing them and then just losing the money. It's too politically risky.\n\nIn the end, the government doesn't \"raid\" the social security fund. The fund managers are making a choice to buy government bonds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try to make it more simple than the other correct answer. \n\nThe US government is a set of different departments, each with their revenues and expenses. \n\nSome departments, like the Social Security Administration have more revenues than expenses today, but anticipate the trend to reverse itself soon, so they save their surpluses. They often do this by buying US Treasuries through the bond market.\n\nThink of government debt as any other asset, be it a gold coin or a stock in Apple.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973",
"title": "American Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Concluding the Revolution.:National debt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of promissory notes issued during the war to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31646",
"title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Section 8: Powers of Congress.:Enumerated powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding \"Knox v. Lee,\" the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only \"binding on the conscience of the sovereign\", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges on its commitment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2784275",
"title": "Internal debt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Internal public debt owed by a government (money a government borrows from its citizens) is part of the country's national debt. It is a form of fiat creation of money, in which the government obtains finance not by creating it \"de novo\", but by borrowing it. The money created is in the form of treasury securities or securities borrowed from the central bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2189576",
"title": "Bureau of the Public Debt",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1559,
"text": "While the public debt of the United States can be traced to the beginning of the nation itself in 1776, Public Debt, as it's known today, was officially created in 1940. The United States' government creates financial budgets through three methods: by printing money, collecting taxes, and by borrowing. The printing of money is costly and the introduction of money in the nation can create issues of inflation. Taxing the people requires the ability to incur the additional costs of their personal incomes to give to the urgent need of the debt. Borrowing is necessary to be able to finance deficits at times from those who can afford to supplement the debt in the belief that upon a time of surplus the debts would be paid back to those indebted to by the borrowers. Today, the Bureau of Public also make insurances and issues securities through the market. The creation was part of a Treasury reorganization plan where the Public Debt Service was officially designated the Bureau of the Public Debt. Public Debt has had a presence in Parkersburg, WV since 1954, when the city was designated a relocation site for Public Debt in the event of a national emergency. In 1957, Parkersburg became the electronic processing center for savings bonds, and from 1993 to 1996, Public Debt consolidated and transferred the majority of its operations to Parkersburg. Today, over 95% of Public Debt employees work in Parkersburg. In October 2012, the Bureau of the Public Debt consolidated with the Financial Management Service to form the Bureau of the Fiscal Service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31461654",
"title": "United States debt ceiling",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Under of the United States Constitution, only Congress can authorize the borrowing of money on the credit of the United States. From the founding of the United States until 1917, Congress directly authorized each individual debt issued. To provide more flexibility to finance the United States' involvement in World War I, Congress modified the method by which it authorized debt in the Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917. Under this Act, Congress established an aggregate limit, or \"ceiling,\" on the total amount of new bonds that could be issued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717338",
"title": "United States dollar",
"section": "Section::::Banknotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to \"borrow money on the credit of the United States\". Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are \"obligations of the United States\" and \"shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank\". Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as \"legal tender\" for the payment of debts. Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7048889",
"title": "Debt buyer (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "According to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York's May 2017 Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit, Americans owe $12.73 trillion in consumer debt to creditors—credit card companies, student loans, mortgages, and car dealers, among others. These debts are usually paid off to creditors, but by 2017, unpaid debts were \"increasingly likely to end up in the hands of professional debt collectors—companies whose business it is to collect debts that are owed to other companies.\" According to the annual CFPB 2017 report, there were 130,000 people employed by 6,000 collection agencies in the \"$13.7 billion dollar industry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u8abm
|
the sufi sect of islam.
|
[
{
"answer": "I won't be able to go into much detail on account of illiteracy, but just for starters:\n\nSufiism is not as much a 'sect' of Islam as a way of thinking. It is kind of an 'approach' to how to treat the philosophies of your sect (be it sunni or shia or whatever). That said, it is very distinct and 'almost' a sect because it differs in some basic aspects and is very prominent in those differences.\n\nThe main point of Sunniism is the idea that nearness to Allah is not restricted to the traditional activity-reward cycle of other sects. Sunniism attaches a very philosophical and non-physical domension, wherein sufis can be closer to Allah and can be 'at one' with Allah's universe and his creations by relishing the spiritual world and shunning the physical world.\n\nThe primary realization of a sufi is of the Oneness of Allah, which causes him to understand the falseness or temporary-ness of everything else, including himself. Thus, as a result, there is no one and nothing, except the Divine.\n\nThey are not like monks, as in they don't live in secluded groups, but instead it is a lonely journey for whcih they might or might not be physically aloof, but mentally should be.\n\nI'm not aware of any Nomadic rituals or religious requirements of sufis. There was a mass exodus of such people from Turkey, Egypt and Iran in the first half of the 20th century due to these countries banning Sufiism outright (Turkey formally, Iran & Egypt informally). The sufis then, naturally, gravitated towards the Arabian peninsula and Middle East, but were ostracized by the strict 2+2=4 ideas of Wahabism and further moved on. They largely reside now in Africa and the Indian subcontinent.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2360572",
"title": "Islamic schools and branches",
"section": "Section::::Sufi orders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Sufism is Islam's mystical-ascetic dimension and is represented by schools or orders known as \"Tasawwufī-Ṭarīqah.\" It is seen as that aspect of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of \"intuitive and emotional faculties\" that one must be trained to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28246",
"title": "Sufism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Sufism, or Taṣawwuf(), variously defined as \"Islamic mysticism\", \"the inward dimension of Islam\" or \"the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam\", is mysticism in Islam, \"characterized ... [by particular] values, ritual practices, doctrines and institutions\" which began very early in Islamic history and represents \"the main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of\" mystical practice in Islam. Practitioners of Sufism have been referred to as \"Sufis\" (from \"ṣūfiyy\" / \"ṣūfī\"). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26484",
"title": "Religious pluralism",
"section": "Section::::Islam.:Sufism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1806,
"text": "The Sufis were practitioners of the esoteric mystic traditions within an Islam at a certain point. Sufism is defined by the Sufi master or Pir (Sufism) or fakeer or Wali in the language of the people by dancing and singing and incorporating various philosophies, theologies, ideologies and religions together (e.g., Christianity, Judaism, Paganism, Platonism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism and so forth with time). Famous Sufi masters are Rumi, Shadhili, Sheikh Farid, Bulleh Shah, Shah Hussain, Shams Tabrizi, Waris Shah, Ghazali, Mian Mir, Attar of Nishapur, Amir Khusrow, Salim Chishti. See many more famous Sufis at the List of Sufis. The Sufis were considered by many to have divine revelations with messages of peace, tolerance, equality, pluralism, love for all and hate for no one, humanitarians, philosophers, psychologists and much more. Many had the teaching if you want to change the world, change yourself and you will change the whole world. The views of the Sufi poets, philosophers and theologians have inspired multiple forms of modern-day academia as well as philosophers of other religions. See also Blind men and an elephant. But undoubtedly, the most influential Sufi scholar to have embraced the world is Jalaluddin Muhammad Rumi. He was born in 1207 AD in a northern province of Afghanistan, however, he later had to seek refuge in Turkey following the invasion of Afghanistan by Mongols. Rumi, through his poetry and teachings, propagated inter-faith harmony like none other. He served as a uniting figure for people of different faiths and his followers included Muslims, Christians and Jews. Even today, Rumi’s popularity does not cease to exist within the Sufi Muslim community and his message of peace and harmony transcends religious and geographical boundaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6288753",
"title": "Schism",
"section": "Section::::Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam practised by both Shia and Sunni Muslims. Some Sufi followers consider themselves Sunni or Shia, while others consider themselves as just Sufi or Sufi-influenced. Sufism is usually considered to be complementary to orthodox Islam, although Sufism has often been accused by the salafi of being an unjustified \"Bid‘ah\" or religious innovation. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of \"intuitive and emotional faculties\" that one must be trained to use. One starts with sharia (Islamic law), the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam, and then is initiated into the mystical (esoteric) path of a Tariqah (Sufi Order).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28387",
"title": "Spirituality",
"section": "Section::::Traditional spirituality.:Abrahamic faiths.:Islam.:Sufism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Sufism or () is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a \"\" (). Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4694017",
"title": "Islam in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Sects.:Sufism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Sufism, which focuses on the mystical elements of Islam, has many orders as well as followers in West Africa and Sudan, and, like other orders, strives to know God through meditation and emotion. Sufis may be Sunni or Shi’ite, and their ceremonies may involve chanting, music, dancing, and meditation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32759506",
"title": "Sufi Center Berlin",
"section": "Section::::Teachings.:Sufism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Sufism can be found in Judaism, Christianity, Islam and in every heavenly religion. Sufism is the call of the divine love, which created an entire existence out of non-beingness. \"Come“ the divine love calls, \"whoever you are!“ (Jellaludin Rumi). Sufism is a spiritual path, which leads to divine love by practicing loving kindness towards others. Sufism is the essence, the seed of all religions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s0kal
|
Is the common cold or flu transmissible through contact with the infected person's blood?
|
[
{
"answer": "Think this came up in one of my lectures the other week; I believe it would be *possible* but unlikely since the virus only replicates in certain cells (in the case of influenza in the cells of the upper respiratory tract, particularly the nose), and is therefore only present in large quantities at those locations. It is possible that virus particle(s) could end up in the circulatory system, but the chances of enough of them coming into contact with another person's blood, and then that blood reaching their nose without the viruses being mopped up somewhere along the line is pretty low. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37796",
"title": "West Nile fever",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "Direct human-to-human transmission initially was believed to be caused only by occupational exposure, such as in a laboratory setting, or conjunctive exposure to infected blood. The US outbreak identified additional transmission methods through blood transfusion, organ transplant, intrauterine exposure, and breast feeding. Since 2003, blood banks in the United States routinely screen for the virus among their donors. As a precautionary measure, the UK's National Blood Service initially ran a test for this disease in donors who donate within 28 days of a visit to the United States, Canada, or the northeastern provinces of Italy, and the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service asks prospective donors to wait 28 days after returning from North America or the northeastern provinces of Italy before donating. There also have been reports of possible transmission of the virus from mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding or exposure to the virus in a lab, but these are rare cases and not conclusively confirmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71491",
"title": "Hepatitis C",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "HCV is spread primarily by blood-to-blood contact associated with intravenous drug use, poorly sterilized medical equipment, needlestick injuries in healthcare, and transfusions. Using blood screening, the risk from a transfusion is less than one per two million. It may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth. It is not spread by superficial contact. It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. Diagnosis is by blood testing to look for either antibodies to the virus or its RNA. Testing is recommended in all people who are at risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets (aerosols), direct contact with infected nasal secretions, or fomites (contaminated objects). Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined. The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment (over 18 hours for rhinoviruses) and can be picked up by people's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or nose where infection occurs. Transmission is common in daycare and at school due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of the family. There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission. People sitting in close proximity appear to be at greater risk of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17734536",
"title": "Transfusion transmitted infection",
"section": "Section::::Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "High risk activities for transfusion transmitted infections vary, and the amount of caution used for screening donors varies based on how dangerous the disease is. Most of the viral diseases are spread by either sexual contact or by contact with blood, usually either drug use, accidental needle injuries among health care workers, unsterilized tattoo and body piercing equipment, or through a blood transfusion or transplant. Other vectors exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38238",
"title": "Hepatitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Infectious.:Viral hepatitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis D are transmitted when blood or mucous membranes are exposed to infected blood and body fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions. Viral particles have also been found in saliva and breastmilk. However, kissing, sharing utensils, and breastfeeding do not lead to transmission unless these fluids are introduced into open sores or cuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15925628",
"title": "Hepatitis B",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Transmission of virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. It is 50 to 100 times more infectious than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Possible forms of transmission include sexual contact, blood transfusions and transfusion with other human blood products, re-use of contaminated needles and syringes, and vertical transmission from mother to child (MTCT) during childbirth. Without intervention, a mother who is positive for HBsAg has a 20% risk of passing the infection to her offspring at the time of birth. This risk is as high as 90% if the mother is also positive for HBeAg. HBV can be transmitted between family members within households, possibly by contact of nonintact skin or mucous membrane with secretions or saliva containing HBV. However, at least 30% of reported among adults cannot be associated with an identifiable risk factor. Breastfeeding after proper immunoprophylaxis does not appear to contribute to mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT) of HBV. The virus may be detected within 30 to 60 days after infection and can persist and develop into chronic hepatitis B. The incubation period of the hepatitis B virus is 75 days on average but can vary from 30 to 180 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29523448",
"title": "Cytomegalovirus colitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The infection is spread by saliva, urine, respiratory droplets, sexual contact, and blood transfusions. Most people are exposed to the virus in their lifetime, but it usually produces mild or no symptoms in healthy people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6zdvpc
|
how/why does our brain mishear lyrics?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because rappers need to demonstrate better diction!\n\nDammnit, i love hip hop but if i hear another rapper garble nonsense into my headphones im gonna lose it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being a plastic organ, the brain is adaptative and predictive, as proven [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAs such, when information is scarce and/or not complete, the brain will try to complete it using past experience. Regarding music and mishearing, those two factors contribute (1. Brain completes incomplete info + 2. Uses past experience).\n\nThe first time you hear a song, if the lyrics are unclear (which can be the case quite often) your brain will try to replace misunderstood words with a known word of similar pronouciation. From then on, this will be the word you will most often hear. Knowing the correct words corrects that problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "217662",
"title": "Music therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical disorders.:Aphasia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Neurologist Oliver Sacks, author of \"Musicophilia: Tales of music and the Brain\", studied neurological oddities in people, trying to understand how the brain works. He concluded that people with some type of frontal lobe damage often “produced not only severe difficulties with expressive language (aphasia) but a strange access of musicality with incessant whistling, singing and a passionate interest in music. For him, this was an example of normally suppressed brain functions being released by damage to others”. Sacks had a genuine interest in trying to help people affected with neurological disorders and other phenomena associated with music, and how it can provide access to otherwise unreachable emotional states, revivify neurological avenues that have been frozen, evoke memories of earlier, lost events or states of being and attempts to bring those with neurological disorders back to a time when the world was much richer for them. He was a firm believer that music has the power to heal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43243773",
"title": "Little Apple (song)",
"section": "Section::::Chart performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "This song, referred to by one commentator as a \"brainwashing song\", also brings up the psychological factors that contribute to its success—its simple rhythm and lyrics cause the \"earworm effect\", forcing people to listen to it over and over again, and another reason that lied underneath is the \"snowball effect\", which means that people tend to follow others in a trend, suggesting that some people may not actually like the song, but just blindly following others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36560848",
"title": "Temporal dynamics of music and language",
"section": "Section::::Recent research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Many aspects of language and musical melodies are processed by the same brain areas. In 2006, Brown, Martinez and Parsons found that listening to a melody or a sentence resulted in activation of many of the same areas including the primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, the Brocas area, anterior insula, the primary audio cortex, the thalamus, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1731484",
"title": "Amusia",
"section": "Section::::Neuroanatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "Music-specific neural networks exist in the brain for a variety of music-related tasks. It has been shown that Broca's area is involved in the processing of musical syntax. Furthermore, brain damage can disrupt an individual's ability to tell the difference between tonal and atonal music and detect the presence of wrong notes, but can preserve the individual's ability to assess the distance between pitches and the direction of the pitch. The opposite scenario can also occur, in which the individual loses pitch discrimination capabilities, but can sense and appreciate the tonal context of the work. Distinct neural networks also exist for music memories, singing, and music recognition. Neural networks for music recognition are particularly intriguing. A patient can undergo brain damage that renders them unable to recognize familiar melodies that are presented without words. However, the patient maintains the ability to recognize spoken lyrics or words, familiar voices, and environmental sounds. The reverse case is also possible, in which the patient cannot recognize spoken words, but can still recognize familiar melodies. These situations overturn previous claims that speech recognition and music recognition share a single processing system. Instead, it is clear that there are at least two distinct processing modules: one for speech and one for music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48010784",
"title": "Pseudolistening",
"section": "Section::::Features that contribute.:False representations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Auditory processing disorder is when a person \"is perfectly aware of sounds\" yet their brain abnormally deciphers the sounds. This could easily be confused with pseudo-listening because it effects a listeners' reading comprehension. The two differ because auditory processing disorder uncontrollable and unintentional, while pseudolistening is typically done purposely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25049383",
"title": "Neuroscience of music",
"section": "Section::::Neurological bases.:Melody processing in the secondary auditory cortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 2060,
"text": "Studies suggest that individuals are capable of automatically detecting a difference or anomaly in a melody such as an out of tune pitch which does not fit with their previous music experience. This automatic processing occurs in the secondary auditory cortex. Brattico, Tervaniemi, Naatanen, and Peretz (2006) performed one such study to determine if the detection of tones that do not fit an individual's expectations can occur automatically. They recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in nonmusicians as they were presented unfamiliar melodies with either an out of tune pitch or an out of key pitch while participants were either distracted from the sounds or attending to the melody. Both conditions revealed an early frontal negativity independent of where attention was directed. This negativity originated in the auditory cortex, more precisely in the supratemporal lobe (which corresponds with the secondary auditory cortex) with greater activity from the right hemisphere. The negativity response was larger for pitch that was out of tune than that which was out of key. Ratings of musical incongruity were higher for out of tune pitch melodies than for out of key pitch. In the focused attention condition, out of key and out of tune pitches produced late parietal positivity. The findings of Brattico et al. (2006) suggest that there is automatic and rapid processing of melodic properties in the secondary auditory cortex. The findings that pitch incongruities were detected automatically, even in processing unfamiliar melodies, suggests that there is an automatic comparison of incoming information with long term knowledge of musical scale properties, such as culturally influenced rules of musical properties (common chord progressions, scale patterns, etc.) and individual expectations of how the melody should proceed. The auditory area processes the sound of the music. The auditory area is located in the temporal lobe. The temporal lobe deals with the recognition and perception of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech (Kinser, 2012).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994097",
"title": "Auditory cortex",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Human brain scans indicated that a peripheral bit of this brain region is active when trying to identify musical pitch. Individual cells consistently get excited by sounds at specific frequencies, or multiples of that frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a2c6dx
|
what is *first run syndication*, how does it work, and how is it different from standard *broadcast syndication*
|
[
{
"answer": "A first-run syndication show is one that is sold to individual local TV stations instead of to a national network. The show won't be available in all regions and will play at different times in different cities.\n\nA TV station has certain hours of the day when they decide locally what programs to air, and certain hours in which they have to carry the programs of the national network. In the US an NBC affiliate will have to air the Today Show in the morning, a couple of midday soap operas, NBC Nightly News, and then NBC's primetime shows in the evening. (I'm sure I'm overlooking some programs, but you get the idea.) In between those slots, the local station decides for themselves what goes out, and it'll be different from one city to the next.\n\nShows like Judge Judy and Ellen aren't acquired through the national network. The local TV station buys the rights to those shows directly from the producers of the show. I don't think people are making fiction syndicated shows like they used to now that there are a bazillion cable networks and five national broadcast networks to distribute TV shows, but some of the iconic TV shows of the 80's and 90's were first-run syndicated shows, like Baywatch and Star Trek: The Next Generation. No national network carried them. They were spread around the country by hundreds of individual contracts with local stations instead of one big contract with a national network.\n\nWhen I was a kid in the early 80's, my city had five TV stations, but there were only three national networks: NBC, ABC, and CBS. (Oh, and PBS.) Two stations weren't affiliated with a network, and they aired exclusively syndicated programming. Some of it was new, some of it was reruns from a generation ago.\n\nThat brings us to rerun syndication, where a network will sell rights to previous seasons of a show to local stations that may or may not be affiliated with the original network that aired them. I think this may be what you mean by broadcast syndication, and it's why as an adult I was able to watch old episodes of Friends in the early afternoon on our Fox station even though it was an NBC show.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "327785",
"title": "Broadcast syndication",
"section": "Section::::Types.:First-run syndication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In first-run syndication, a program is broadcast for the first time as a syndicated show and is made specifically to sell directly into syndication (not any one particular network), or at least first so offered in a given country (programs originally created and broadcast outside the US, first presented on a network in their country of origin, have often been syndicated in the US and in some other countries);\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10717449",
"title": "Schurz Communications, Inc. v. FCC",
"section": "Section::::Key Terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "First-Run Syndication: Programming that is broadcast for the first time as a syndicated show. Examples of first-run are talk shows, like the \"Oprah Winfrey\" and \"Tyra Banks\" shows, and game shows like \"Wheel of Fortune\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764948",
"title": "Daytime television in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types of daytime programming.:Off-network syndicated programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1218,
"text": "Syndication is the practice of selling rights to the presentation of television programs, especially to more than one customer such as a television station, a cable channel, or a programming service such as a national broadcasting system. The syndication of television programs is a fundamental financial component of television industries. Long a crucial factor in the economics of the U.S. industry, syndication is now a worldwide activity involving the sales of programming produced in many countries. While most of the series currently in syndication are either still in production or have only recently ended their runs, the most popular series can command syndication runs lasting decades beyond the end of their production (the most extreme example being \"I Love Lucy\", which remains in syndication as of 2012 despite having ended its run in 1957; other examples of series still popular in syndication after over a decade out of production include \"Seinfeld\", \"Cheers\", \"The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show\", \"M*A*S*H\", \"Happy Days\", \"Laverne & Shirley\", \"Three's Company\", \"The Wonder Years\", among many others). Off-network syndicated series also normally occupy the mid/late morning and late-afternoon time slots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327785",
"title": "Broadcast syndication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "Broadcasting syndication is the license to broadcast television programs and radio programs by multiple television stations and radio stations, without going through a broadcast network. It is common in the United States where broadcast programming is scheduled by television networks with local independent affiliates. Syndication is less of a practice in the rest of the world, as most countries have centralized networks or television stations without local affiliates; although less common, shows can be syndicated internationally. The three main types of syndication are \"first-run syndication\", which is programming that is broadcast for the first time as a syndicated show and is made specifically to sell directly into syndication; \"off-network syndication\", which is the licensing of a program that was originally run on network TV or in some cases, first-run syndication (colloquially called a \"rerun\"); and \"public broadcasting syndication\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327785",
"title": "Broadcast syndication",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Off-network syndication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "In off-network syndication, a program that originally aired on network television (or, in some cases, first-run syndication) is licensed for broadcast on another network. Reruns are usually found on stations affiliated with smaller networks like Fox or the CW, especially since these networks broadcast one less hour of prime time network programming than the Big Three television networks and far less network-provided daytime television (only one hour for the CW, none at all for Fox). A show usually enters off-network syndication when it has built up about four seasons' worth or between 80 and 100 episodes, though for some genres the number could be as low as 65. Successful shows in syndication can cover production costs and make a profit, even if the first run of the show was not profitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29831",
"title": "Television",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, TV stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327785",
"title": "Broadcast syndication",
"section": "Section::::Off-network syndication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Off-network syndication occurs when a network television series is syndicated in packages containing some or all episodes, and sold to as many television stations and markets as possible to be used in local programming timeslots. In this manner, sitcoms are preferred and more successful because they are less serialized, and can be run non-sequentially, which is more beneficial and less costly for the station. In the United States, local stations now rarely broadcast reruns of primetime dramas (or simply air them primarily on weekends); instead, they usually air on basic cable channels, which may air each episode 30 to 60 times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dpex6
|
how those little baby doll toy bottles work where you hold it upside down and the liquid seems to appear like he drank it, but when you hold it right side up, it refills...?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bottle is actually two containers (one inside the other). There is a thin gap between the two which is filled with liquid.\n\nThis allows a very small amount of liquid to appear to fill the entire bottle. When you tip it, the liquid flows through the gap and down into a resevoir in the top, making it appear empty.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10496653",
"title": "Baby Alive",
"section": "Section::::History.:Present.:Speaking toddler dolls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "BULLET::::- Baby All Gone: a doll who is fed \"bananas\" on a magnetic spoon and makes them \"disappear\", although the food and drinks do not move through to minimise mess caused by doll food moving through. They seem to go into the doll's mouth when they are mechanically retracted back into the spoon. Also, she drinks juice from her bottle, although this doll, unlike other Baby Alive dolls, does not wet. The juice, although seeming to disappear, is also retracted back into the bottle instead of being consumed and moving through. A new version of this doll with drink and wet features was introduced in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10496653",
"title": "Baby Alive",
"section": "Section::::History.:Present.:Speaking toddler dolls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Baby Alive dolls at present are more sophisticated than those of the past, including a stationary bracelet with a button, which when pressed activates the doll to say a phrase, a moving mouth which opens when it senses its special magnetic spoon, bottle or pacifier, or it speaks, and large cartoon-like eyes which can be programmed to open and close, rather than traditional closing eyes when the doll is put down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23289685",
"title": "Moo box",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The Moo box is a toy or a souvenir. When turned upside down, it produces a noise that resembles the mooing of a cow. The toy can be configured to create other animal sounds such as the mewing of a cat, the sound of a bird, or the bleat of a sheep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10496653",
"title": "Baby Alive",
"section": "Section::::History.:1970s-1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The dolls sold in the mid-70s were battery powered. They chewed and drank from the bottle. They were activated by the spoon, the bottle, or a finger. These also peed and pooped. They did not throw up. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20895316",
"title": "Roly-poly toy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "A roly-poly toy, round-bottomed doll, tilting doll, tumbler or wobbly man is a round-bottomed toy, usually egg-shaped, that tends to right itself when pushed at an angle, and does this in seeming contradiction to the force of gravity. The toy is typically hollow with a weight inside the bottom hemisphere. The placement of this weight is such that the toy has a center of mass below the center of the hemisphere, so that any tilting raises the center of mass. When such a toy is pushed over, it wobbles for a few moments while it seeks the upright orientation, which has an equilibrium at the minimum gravitational potential energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507190",
"title": "Steel and tin cans",
"section": "Section::::Opening cans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Some cans, such as those used for sardines, have a specially scored lid so that the user can break out the metal by the leverage of winding it around a slotted church key. Until the mid-20th century, some sardine tins had solder-attached lids, and the winding key worked by forcing the solder joint apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24903576",
"title": "Stink Blasters",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The figures are three inches tall. They feature a hard, small plastic body and a large, hollow rubber head. When you lightly squeeze the head, a small hole, usually located near the mouth, emits a stench. The dolls can be squeezed over 30,000 times before losing their scents, ensuring efficiency. The toys were released to Chicago for test marketing, because it is \"the windy city\" and sold out in almost every major store. The toys were so successful, that it led to a nationwide rollout in February 2004, priced at $4.99 each so kids could buy them themselves. Soon, the toys were available in 34 countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29rwd6
|
why is it considered immoral to outsource labor to workers in countries willing to work for very little money?
|
[
{
"answer": "The problem is many of these companies fired people just to have the work done elsewhere for people. The companies took away the ability for people to provide for their families and sent their jobs elsewhere just so the company could save a little bit of money.\n\nEdit: Also, these outsourced jobs were often very low-paying and borderline illegal in some places. Imagine if you were fired from your job just so a small child could do it for a few cents a day in horrible conditions. That's why it's immoral and unethical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually it's the working conditions that people are protesting. Factories in developing countries with little regulation and workers' rights can be downright abysmal to work in. They're not called \"sweatshops\" for nothing.\n\nIn addition to poor working conditions is also worker safety. A man might lose an arm operating a press or similar machinery because the safety regulations aren't written into law or enforced. So a man without the factory might not have gotten that pay, but they might still have both arms and have been able to farm or some other small-time employment, whereas the man in the factory might have earned a year or two's worth of wages before becoming a cripple.\n\nIt's a value judgement, nothing more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you employ people in North America or Europe, you are subject to a stunning number of regulations. On the whole these regulations ensure that you do not overwork, poison, maim, or kill your workforce, that your building will not collapse on their heads, that they will not be gassed or electrocuted, and that they will not be too grossly underpaid. \n\nNaturally these luxuries cost money, which is why they have to be regulated to bring them about. In an unregulated environment of extreme poverty, where people will do almost anything to scratch an existence, one can produce things more cheaply. If you can then sell at prices which do not relate to the cost of production, this is what capitalism is all about; immense profits for the 1%, perpetual poverty for the workers. If a few hundred are killed in a building collapse, don't fret; there are plenty of others to take their place.\n\nMuch of the difference in working standards between developed and undeveloped nations can be ascribed to the efforts of unions. Unions are now under attack, and offshoring is one way to weaken them. Your support for Nike and their ilk may soon present you or your children with the opportunity to work under the same conditions as the poverty-ridden workers who are currently providing your running shoes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my opinion, it's mostly people who are upset that their jobs have been shipped overseas, but who dress it up as concern for foreign workers so that they won't look like racist assholes. Now, I'm not saying sweatshops in Bangladesh are awesome places to work or that nothing should be done about it, but I do think that many people protesting this are more concerned with lost jobs in their country than exploitation of workers in another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "what i wonder is why outsourcing is considered immoral, but its moral equivalent, wholesale amnesty for unskilled workers in the us along with far more lax immigration standards is considered a noble, just, and compassionate cause\n\n\"we have a bunch of unskilled americans without jobs! we need to get our people back to work! theres only one solution! we must allow more non americans into the job market! do we want immigrants with college degrees! no! our healthcare system sucks and our infrastructure is literally crumbling! but do we want more doctors? no! do we want more engineers? no! give us unskilled labor by the millions! whats more, we need a higher minimum wage! a glut of labor plus price floors are *guaranteed* to spur our economy back into boom! that will right this ship!\" ::uproarious applause::",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "648470",
"title": "Oppression",
"section": "Section::::Social oppression.:Economic oppression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Indirect economic oppression is exemplified when individuals work abroad to support their families. Outsourced employees, working abroad generally little to no bargaining power not only with their employers, but with immigration authorities as well. They could be forced to accept low wages and work in poor living conditions. And by working abroad, an outsourced employee contributes to the economy of a foreign country instead of their own. Veltman and Piper describe the effects of outsourcing on female laborers abroad:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17626",
"title": "Trade union",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a comparative advantage in labour, making it more profitable to purchase disorganized, low-wage labour from these regions. Milton Friedman, economist and advocate of laissez-faire capitalism, sought to show that unionization produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will tend to decline in non-unionized industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9794353",
"title": "Negotiated cartelism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Labor finds this desirable because it can point to the increased wages it offers as signs of its achievement, and labor receives more money. Capitalists may find this desirable because there are \"worse alternatives,\" i.e., strikes, workplace disruptions, etc. Furthermore, it acts as a barrier to entry against upstart firms. If all firms are required to pay higher than normal wages, it is difficult to compete on price, and an employer can take out an undercutting competitor by encouraging strikes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8024730",
"title": "SKIL Bill",
"section": "Section::::\"Con\" Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Opponents claim that industry is primarily motivated by desire for lower wages. They make the point that if there were a shortage of skilled workers, real wages would be up and unemployment would be down, neither of which is the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42953873",
"title": "Minimum wage in Taiwan",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Furthermore, some groups believe that the basic wages between citizens and foreign workers should be decoupled to avoid high domestic wages of foreign workers. This would trigger domestic enterprises to flee abroad, causing the domestic employment market to shrink, and making local workers suffer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786944",
"title": "Working poor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Largely because they are earning such low wages, the working poor face numerous obstacles that make it difficult for many of them to find and keep a job, save up money, and maintain a sense of self-worth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19389176",
"title": "Manual labour",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to offshoring, worker migration, penal labour, and military service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Many of the methods by which socioeconomically advantaged people have maintained a supply of cheap labour over the centuries are now either defunct or greatly curtailed. These include peasantry, serfdom, slavery, indentured servitude, wage slavery, and domestic servitude. But motives to get labour cheaply still remain. Today, although businesses can no longer get away with using \"de jure\" slavery, economic competition ensures that they will typically try to buy labour at the lowest possible cost or to reduce the need for it through mechanisation and automation. Various present-day methods of ensuring low labour costs are detailed below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fhk1uc
|
how does standard bar soap clean your hands if it does not have any antibacterial additives? especially when the soap uses animal fat as a base component.
|
[
{
"answer": "It emulsifies the dirt and oil on your skin letting it be washed away.\n\nTo be fair all the antibacterial this and that really only makes us feel safer as it and people not taking tgeir antibiotics properly is leading to drug resistant bacteria.\n\nThis pandemic however is a virus so antibacterial soap doesn't really do a whole lot",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason regular non-antibacterial soap still works at _removing_ - not killing - bacteria and virus carrying stuff, is because thats what soap does: soap molecules have a water loving (philic) end and a carbon chain (oils etc.) end. When you wash your hands with soap, oil and other gunk is on your hands. The soap molecules surround the gunk molecules in little bubbles with their water loving ends sticking out and thus all of these little water loving pockets of gunk, oil, grease, bacteria etc. are easily washed away. With enough scrubbing and water, you can do the same, but soap just makes it easier. \n\nYour body naturally has a rather robust barrier (your skin, mucous membranes) and it will do most of the work at containing things like the corona virus, hanging out in blobs of saliva, or mucous or whatever that might have come from another person. But when you rub that stuff on your hand in your eyes or put it in your mouth, well, you essentially just opened the door in that barrier to the bad stuff. \n\nYes, if you ARE infected, you stand a really good chance of surviving with nothing more than really strong \"regular flu\" symptoms; the ones who will die from coronavirus are those who would be susceptible to any flu like thing (elderly, those with already compromised immune systems), its just that this one is so much more contagious than regular flu....\n\nSo if you take one thing away here its WASH YOUR HANDS A LOT and don't go licking things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a good thread on twitter from an Icelandic chemistry professor about why soap works so well with viruses:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone answered this question very well, I'll just add this. Stop using soap with antibiotics, we will create a world we can't live in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The animal fats are treated with strongly basic (opposite of acidic) chemicals. These cause the fat to undergo a chemical reaction called \"saponification\" that turns the fat into soap. Yes, that's literally what happens. Fat into soap using caustic lye. (This is something of a plot point in Fight Club but if you're actually 5 years old, you should wait a decade or two before watching that movie.)\n\nSoap works because it's made of molecules that have a water-loving end and a water-hating end. The water-hating end sticks to things like blobs of grease or oil, germs, and such. The water-loving end just sort of flaps in the breeze until you get enough soap particles surrounding an something.\n\nOnce an item is completely surrounded with a blob of these soap molecules, they stick to water better than your hand (because the water-loving end is pointing outwards). The final rinse with water washes the soap and the soap-encased dirt, oil, germs, and other stuff away.\n\nThe catch is that you have to scrub vigorously enough and for long enough time. The dirt and germs are all stuck to your skin (often inside microscopic pits and valleys). The vigorous rubbing or scrubbing action dislodges the dirt and germs. Without the soap, a lot of them would just stick back onto your skin. However, if your hands are all soapy, everything gets surrounded by the soap molecules and can't reattach. The water washes them down the drain. But, if you don't dislodge the germs, they don't get surrounded by soap and stay stuck to your skin.\n\nNow, soap does have some limited ability to kill some bacteria. Those water-hating ends of the soap molecules wiggle into the cell walls of the bacteria and make them fall apart. But, it doesn't work on all bacteria and it's just an added bonus. The primary function of soap is to prevent the germs from re-attaching to your skin and letting the water wash them down the drain.\n\nOf course, for marketing purposes, many soap manufacturers add extra antibacterial agents to their soap. However, those additives haven't been proven to help in normal hand-washing situations. As such, in the USA, the FDA has told soap companies to stop using them unless they can prove that they actually help out. This is actually a difficult thing to do because washing your hands with regular soap is already very effective.\n\nThis is also why soap and water are better than hand sanitizer. Hand sanitizer does kill a lot of germs but not all of them. Hand sanitizer just evaporates away instead of being washed away like soap and water. So, all the germs that aren't killed by the sanitizer will be left on your skin.\n\nAlcohol hand santizers should only be used if there isn't soap and running water near by.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47258007",
"title": "Saltwater soap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Ordinary soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are made by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term \"lye soap\" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the triglyceride fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to form crude soap: a combination of various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (glycerin).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349842",
"title": "Triclosan",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "A comprehensive analysis in 2007 from the University of Michigan School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are just as effective as consumer-grade antibacterial soaps with triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53333538",
"title": "List of cleaning products",
"section": "Section::::Cleaning products.:Soaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 251,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 251,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439173",
"title": "Grease (lubricant)",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Thickeners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Soaps are the most common emulsifying agent used, and the selection of the type of soap is determined by the application. Soaps include calcium stearate, sodium stearate, lithium stearate, as well as mixtures of these components. Fatty acids derivatives other than stearates are also used, especially lithium 12-hydroxystearate. The nature of the soaps influences the temperature resistance (relating to the viscosity), water resistance, and chemical stability of the resulting grease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "A comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327130",
"title": "Fels-Naptha",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The soap comes packaged in paper similar to bar body soap and is most often found in the laundry section of a supermarket or grocery store. It is intended for the pre-treatment of stains by rubbing the dampened product on a soiled area prior to laundering. The manufacturer claims it to be most effective in removing chocolate, baby formula, perspiration, and make-up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338192",
"title": "Common-ion effect",
"section": "Section::::Solubility effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The salting-out process used in the manufacture of soaps benefits from the common-ion effect. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Addition of sodium chloride reduces the solubility of the soap salts. The soaps precipitate due to a combination of common-ion effect and increased ionic strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vfrow
|
why is the vatican and the pope in italy? wouldn't it be more logical for the head of the church to be in the country jesus was active in?
|
[
{
"answer": "Christianity wasnt popular in Israel, never rising above the status of a sect or cult - it was only its adoption by the roman emporer constantine which raised it's status and propelled it to becoming a world religion",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because that's where Simon Peter (\"Saint Peter\") founded the Christian Church. \n\nPeter is seen by Christians as Jesus' primary disciple. When Jesus met Simon, he said [\"Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it.\"](_URL_0_) \"Peter\" comes from \"Petrus\", which is from the Greek word for \"rock\".\n\nSimon Peter later went to Rome, where he founded a church which followed Christ. \n\nBecause the \"rock\" on which Jesus would \"build his church\" was in Rome... the church was in Rome. Simon Peter, later Saint Peter, was acknowledged during his lifetime as the most important disciple of Christianity. After his death in Rome, the Bishopric of Rome was seen as the most important office in the growing Christian sect. His successors as Bishop of Rome eventually became the modern-day Pope.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6243086",
"title": "Non Expedit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In later years, particularly after the establishment of the Vatican City had reassured the papacy of its place within Italy, non-Catholic politicians would complain that the Holy See made too many recommendations to the Italian voters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13226383",
"title": "Holy See–Italy relations",
"section": "Section::::Diplomatic Legations to the Vatican in Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Due to the size of the Vatican City State, embassies accredited to the Holy See are based on Italian territory. Treaties signed between Italy and the Vatican City State permit such embassages. The Embassy of Italy to the Holy See is unique amongst foreign embassages in that it is the only embassy based on its home territory. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7174830",
"title": "Religion in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:The Catholic Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The headquarters of the 1.2-billion strong Catholic Church, the State of Vatican City (see also Holy See), is an enclave within the city of Rome and, thus, the Italian territory. The Church's world leader, the Pope, is the Bishop of Rome, hence the special relationship between Italians and the Church—and the latter's entanglement with Italian politics (see Lateran Treaty and the section below on religion and politics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13393",
"title": "Holy See",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Although the Holy See is sometimes metonymically referred to as the \"Vatican\", the Vatican City State was distinctively established with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, between the Holy See and Italy, to ensure the temporal, diplomatic, and spiritual independence of the papacy. As such, papal nuncios, who are papal diplomats to states and international organizations, are recognized as representing the Holy See not the Vatican City State, as prescribed in the Canon law of the Catholic Church; and therefore the integrity of the Catholic Church along with its 1.3 billion members. The Holy See is thus viewed as the central government of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church, in turn, is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world, while the diplomatic status of the Holy See facilitates the access of its vast international network of charities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40748573",
"title": "The Pope's Jews",
"section": "Section::::The book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Thomas also examines the relationship between the papacy and the diplomatic community situated in Rome and the Vatican, and their relationships with groups such as Rome's Jewish community, the pro-papal Italian aristocracy, local bishops and priests. Other than the Pope himself, Thomas gives accounts of the city's Chief Rabbi, Israel Zolli; the Gestapo Chief Herbert Kappler; the famous Vatican rescuer of Jews and PoWs, Hugh O'Flaherty; the Pope's secretary and housekeeper Sr. Pascalina Lehnert; and the British Ambassador to the Vatican, Sir D'Arcy Osborne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "606848",
"title": "Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.:Holy See, papacy, Roman Curia, and College of Cardinals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City, a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that the pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives. The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals, such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "265452",
"title": "List of religious sites",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.:Christianity.:Catholic Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Mainstream Catholicism as a whole is represented by the Holy See (, \"holy chair\") of the Vatican City state (Italian: ), a walled enclave within Rome, Italy. Inside the Vatican the largest church in history, St. Peter's Basilica (L.: \"Basilica Sancti Petri\"), is the location of the Papal office and the living quarters of the Pope (in the Apostolic Palace), as well as Vatican Hill – atop which are Saint Peter's tomb and place of crucifixion, his throne, and his baldachin. Outside St. Peter's Square are many more churches throughout the Vatican and outlying Rome. One important landmark is the Sistine Chapel (L.: \"Sacellum Sixtinum\"; I.: \"Cappella Sistina\"), in which the Papal conclave takes place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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mj4u0
|
A solid argument against the earth being billions of years old?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think taken one at a time, these arguments could likely all be defeated by logic and science. Why not start here?\n\n51-52 _URL_0_ According to this, trace amounts of carbon 14 could be found in coal and oil due to contamination of bio matter \n\nArticle citation: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'll disprove all of the geology ones here:\n\n > 12: Scarcity of plant fossils in many formations containing abundant animal / herbivore fossils. : \n\nIt is incredibly hard to preserve plant fossils, and it only happens under the most favorable circumstances, which don't happen very often. If you wonder where all of the plant material goes: See oil. \n\n > 13: Thick, tightly bent strata without sign of melting or fracturing. \n\nYou don't have to break or melt rocks in order to have them bend in very tight fractures, you just need to warm them up to a certain temperature, and bend them over a long time. You can play with this at home with brittle plastic. Try to bend it with no heat: it breaks, try to heat it slowly and bend it fast, it breaks, but if you bend it slowly and heat it slowly, you can get it to bend in a very tight fold.\n\n > 14: Polystrate fossils—tree trunks in coal\n\nYes, they are right that you can get these types of things from rapid burial. But they just nit pick on the areas that have it. If there was a world-wide flood, this would be the norm, and it's certainly not.\n\n16-19: No. These have been disproven many many many times over. \n\nYou know what, I read through the rest of them, and they are mostly proven false by common sense and all it's doing is frustrating me. If there is one you have a question about specifically, let me know and I will explain it out for you.\n\n*edit: I just read, in detail, all of the geologic ones, and there are some flat out lies sprinkled in there as well, so be careful. Also, they are picking just the examples that fit their 'theory' and leave out the 95% of the rest of the world. It's a common tactic. ",
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"answer": "Just a few examples of where this goes wrong.\n\n4. \"The data for “mitochondrial Eve” are consistent with a common origin of all humans several thousand years ago.\" Mitochondrial Eve has actually been estimated to have happened around 200,000 years ago.\n\n11. \"The ages of the world’s oldest living organisms, trees, are consistent with an age of the earth of thousands of years.\" It is true that some of the oldest trees are several thousand years old but rocks have been dated millions of years back. You can't take the scientific evidence for the age of trees but disregard scientific evidence for the 'age' of rock formations.\n\n101. \"Origin of agriculture. Secular dating puts it at about 10,000 years and yet that same chronology says that modern man has supposedly been around for at least 200,000 years. Surely someone would have worked out much sooner how to sow seeds of plants to produce food. See: Evidence for a young world.\" That is like saying that Earth must only be a few hundred years old because we have only been using electricity for around 200 years.\n\nSo, in summary, no this is not accurate evidence and many of these points are based on guesswork.",
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"answer": "96, Where are all the people? People used to die from basically anything. It's not surprising the population explosion happened recently, that's the only time in our history where we've had the technology to somewhat sustain large amounts of population. Newly high numbers of people doesn't mean there haven't been people for a long time, just that we haven't been able to feed a lot of people for a long time.\nSome of these arguments, like 101 don't even attempt logic. Not that I am in any way a great scientist, but it seems these were written by someone with only a surface level understanding of natural history, science, and especially the scientific process. ",
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"answer": "I can at least hit two of the points in the intro section:\n\n1. You can't PROVE the Earth is old. They are technically right, in a stupid way. I can also tell you that we can't PROVE that gravity exists, which is why we call it the theory of gravity. But the vast body of evidence and anyone with proper training all agree that gravity is a real thing. Science hates to grab absolute anything, as science (in general) is always open to the idea that something new might come along and change the thinking. This is more of a philosophy of science argument (there is a subreddit for that if you look around) but the point is that absolute proof is hard to come by, but good enough proof is very common.\n\n2. Uniformitarianism (or whatever they call it). I have some experience in radiometric dating, so I interpret that for me as saying \"radioactive decay has happened at the same rate over time.\" And every bit of evidence (except for some very small nit-picky effects a few physicists might mention) says that this is true. But people can always throw out the silly argument of \"Yeah, but what if it changed? And you just don't know it??? Huh?\" Well, then maybe science is off for now. But there is nothing to suggest that, so science doesn't take that concept seriously.",
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"answer": "That site, it hurts. Going over all 101 of those points would take too long, but just to take the first one. The age of the earth isn't determined by Fossil DNA but instead by radiometric dating on rocks [see Jack Hills](_URL_1_)\nIf your brother truly wants to learn you can start him with the Wikipedia page on the age of the earth[here](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "If one God created the world, why are there so many religions? Dead belife systems as practiced by the Roman/Greek/Egyptian/Norse/Aboriginal/Aztecan (and many many more) all have creation myths in them so how can the earth have been created by \"one\" god when there are so many of them?\n\n",
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"answer": "wow - lots of work went into this steaming pile of shit - instead of doing a point by point refutetation, perhaps it would be more practical to identify the types of logical fallacies listed here.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I appreciate all the comments! Excellent posts. I will read through all of them and i'll show them to my brother. ",
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"answer": "Although most of these are nonsense but Ill take some from the astronomy section (as it is my expertise) to talk about.\n > 65 Evidence of recent volcanic activity on Earth’s moon is inconsistent with its supposed vast age because it should have long since cooled if it were billions of years old.\n\nThe latest eruptions were still over 1 billion years ago, with the majority 3-3.5 billion years ago. This is entirely realistic the moon has radioactive elements and tidal forces from the earth to help keep it warm.\n\n > 66 Recession of the moon from the earth. Tidal friction causes the moon to recede from the earth at 4 cm per year. It would have been greater in the past when the moon and earth were closer together.The moon and earth would have been in catastrophic proximity (Roche limit) at less than a quarter of their supposed age. \n\nThe so called Roche limit of the earth is ~7000 km the moon orbits at 400,000km the moon was not 7000km away 1 billion years ago.\n\n > 67 Slowing down of the earth. Tidal dissipation rate of Earth’s angular momentum: increasing length of day, currently by 0.002 seconds/day every century (thus an impossibly short day billions of years ago and a very slow day shortly after accretion and before the postulated giant impact to form the Moon). \n\nJust not true the difference is in seconds and minutes over billions of years.\n\n > 68 Ghost craters on the moon’s maria (singular mare: dark “seas” formed from massive lava flows) are a problem for long ages. \n\nThe only mention of these craters I can find are on creationism websites, even if they did exist then based on their description I see no reason why they would show anything wrong with current theories.\n\n > 69 The presence of a significant magnetic field around Mercury is not consistent with its supposed age of billions of years. A planet so small should have cooled down enough so any liquid core would solidify\n\nKeep in mind mercury's magnetic field is much weaker than earth's (1%~) although with the interiors of other planets its hard to be sure it is believed that, due to mercury's very high eccentricity it is under a fair amount of stress during its orbit, enough to keep the core liquid.\n\n > 70 The outer planets Uranus and Neptune have magnetic fields, but they should be long “dead” if they are as old as claimed according to evolutionary long-age beliefs.\n\nIs just nonsense, complete fabrication, these planets have a different process to generate their magnetic fields than the rocky planets but generate them they do.\n\n\nI would go on one by one but instead I'll choose some more interesting ones to finish.\n > 89 The faint young sun paradox.\n \nThey state the sun was dimmer in the past so the earth should have been frozen. The sun part is correct, luckily C02 levels were much much higher back then and the greenhouse effect kept the earth very toasty.\n\n > 91 The giant gas planets Jupiter and Saturn radiate more energy than they receive from the sun.\n\nA lot of people describe Jupiter as a failed star. The initial heat for igniting fusion in the sun was from gravitational contraction, the gravity pulls the gas in and when you squeeze stuff in like that you heat it up (easily testable with a bicycle pump which gets hot when pumped). Jupiter does this; to generate the extra heat Jupiter shrinks by a few cm each year creating large amounts of internal heat which it radiates away. We can tell the difference between this and reflected heat because it is mainly infra red.\n\nA lot of their points are just plain lies, the stuff about volcanoes, about certain planets moons etc. They just make up stuff.\n\nIn general it is obvious that these are lies if you just pay attention. Their references are just links to stories on their own site where if you compare their stories to the news article they are based on they deliberately misinterpret and misquote real results/science.\n\n\nEdit: happy to discredit any individual one if you ask (from all sections should be easy enough)",
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"answer": "I think taken one at a time, these arguments could likely all be defeated by logic and science. Why not start here?\n\n51-52 _URL_0_ According to this, trace amounts of carbon 14 could be found in coal and oil due to contamination of bio matter \n\nArticle citation: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'll disprove all of the geology ones here:\n\n > 12: Scarcity of plant fossils in many formations containing abundant animal / herbivore fossils. : \n\nIt is incredibly hard to preserve plant fossils, and it only happens under the most favorable circumstances, which don't happen very often. If you wonder where all of the plant material goes: See oil. \n\n > 13: Thick, tightly bent strata without sign of melting or fracturing. \n\nYou don't have to break or melt rocks in order to have them bend in very tight fractures, you just need to warm them up to a certain temperature, and bend them over a long time. You can play with this at home with brittle plastic. Try to bend it with no heat: it breaks, try to heat it slowly and bend it fast, it breaks, but if you bend it slowly and heat it slowly, you can get it to bend in a very tight fold.\n\n > 14: Polystrate fossils—tree trunks in coal\n\nYes, they are right that you can get these types of things from rapid burial. But they just nit pick on the areas that have it. If there was a world-wide flood, this would be the norm, and it's certainly not.\n\n16-19: No. These have been disproven many many many times over. \n\nYou know what, I read through the rest of them, and they are mostly proven false by common sense and all it's doing is frustrating me. If there is one you have a question about specifically, let me know and I will explain it out for you.\n\n*edit: I just read, in detail, all of the geologic ones, and there are some flat out lies sprinkled in there as well, so be careful. Also, they are picking just the examples that fit their 'theory' and leave out the 95% of the rest of the world. It's a common tactic. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Just a few examples of where this goes wrong.\n\n4. \"The data for “mitochondrial Eve” are consistent with a common origin of all humans several thousand years ago.\" Mitochondrial Eve has actually been estimated to have happened around 200,000 years ago.\n\n11. \"The ages of the world’s oldest living organisms, trees, are consistent with an age of the earth of thousands of years.\" It is true that some of the oldest trees are several thousand years old but rocks have been dated millions of years back. You can't take the scientific evidence for the age of trees but disregard scientific evidence for the 'age' of rock formations.\n\n101. \"Origin of agriculture. Secular dating puts it at about 10,000 years and yet that same chronology says that modern man has supposedly been around for at least 200,000 years. Surely someone would have worked out much sooner how to sow seeds of plants to produce food. See: Evidence for a young world.\" That is like saying that Earth must only be a few hundred years old because we have only been using electricity for around 200 years.\n\nSo, in summary, no this is not accurate evidence and many of these points are based on guesswork.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "96, Where are all the people? People used to die from basically anything. It's not surprising the population explosion happened recently, that's the only time in our history where we've had the technology to somewhat sustain large amounts of population. Newly high numbers of people doesn't mean there haven't been people for a long time, just that we haven't been able to feed a lot of people for a long time.\nSome of these arguments, like 101 don't even attempt logic. Not that I am in any way a great scientist, but it seems these were written by someone with only a surface level understanding of natural history, science, and especially the scientific process. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I can at least hit two of the points in the intro section:\n\n1. You can't PROVE the Earth is old. They are technically right, in a stupid way. I can also tell you that we can't PROVE that gravity exists, which is why we call it the theory of gravity. But the vast body of evidence and anyone with proper training all agree that gravity is a real thing. Science hates to grab absolute anything, as science (in general) is always open to the idea that something new might come along and change the thinking. This is more of a philosophy of science argument (there is a subreddit for that if you look around) but the point is that absolute proof is hard to come by, but good enough proof is very common.\n\n2. Uniformitarianism (or whatever they call it). I have some experience in radiometric dating, so I interpret that for me as saying \"radioactive decay has happened at the same rate over time.\" And every bit of evidence (except for some very small nit-picky effects a few physicists might mention) says that this is true. But people can always throw out the silly argument of \"Yeah, but what if it changed? And you just don't know it??? Huh?\" Well, then maybe science is off for now. But there is nothing to suggest that, so science doesn't take that concept seriously.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "That site, it hurts. Going over all 101 of those points would take too long, but just to take the first one. The age of the earth isn't determined by Fossil DNA but instead by radiometric dating on rocks [see Jack Hills](_URL_1_)\nIf your brother truly wants to learn you can start him with the Wikipedia page on the age of the earth[here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If one God created the world, why are there so many religions? Dead belife systems as practiced by the Roman/Greek/Egyptian/Norse/Aboriginal/Aztecan (and many many more) all have creation myths in them so how can the earth have been created by \"one\" god when there are so many of them?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "wow - lots of work went into this steaming pile of shit - instead of doing a point by point refutetation, perhaps it would be more practical to identify the types of logical fallacies listed here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I appreciate all the comments! Excellent posts. I will read through all of them and i'll show them to my brother. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although most of these are nonsense but Ill take some from the astronomy section (as it is my expertise) to talk about.\n > 65 Evidence of recent volcanic activity on Earth’s moon is inconsistent with its supposed vast age because it should have long since cooled if it were billions of years old.\n\nThe latest eruptions were still over 1 billion years ago, with the majority 3-3.5 billion years ago. This is entirely realistic the moon has radioactive elements and tidal forces from the earth to help keep it warm.\n\n > 66 Recession of the moon from the earth. Tidal friction causes the moon to recede from the earth at 4 cm per year. It would have been greater in the past when the moon and earth were closer together.The moon and earth would have been in catastrophic proximity (Roche limit) at less than a quarter of their supposed age. \n\nThe so called Roche limit of the earth is ~7000 km the moon orbits at 400,000km the moon was not 7000km away 1 billion years ago.\n\n > 67 Slowing down of the earth. Tidal dissipation rate of Earth’s angular momentum: increasing length of day, currently by 0.002 seconds/day every century (thus an impossibly short day billions of years ago and a very slow day shortly after accretion and before the postulated giant impact to form the Moon). \n\nJust not true the difference is in seconds and minutes over billions of years.\n\n > 68 Ghost craters on the moon’s maria (singular mare: dark “seas” formed from massive lava flows) are a problem for long ages. \n\nThe only mention of these craters I can find are on creationism websites, even if they did exist then based on their description I see no reason why they would show anything wrong with current theories.\n\n > 69 The presence of a significant magnetic field around Mercury is not consistent with its supposed age of billions of years. A planet so small should have cooled down enough so any liquid core would solidify\n\nKeep in mind mercury's magnetic field is much weaker than earth's (1%~) although with the interiors of other planets its hard to be sure it is believed that, due to mercury's very high eccentricity it is under a fair amount of stress during its orbit, enough to keep the core liquid.\n\n > 70 The outer planets Uranus and Neptune have magnetic fields, but they should be long “dead” if they are as old as claimed according to evolutionary long-age beliefs.\n\nIs just nonsense, complete fabrication, these planets have a different process to generate their magnetic fields than the rocky planets but generate them they do.\n\n\nI would go on one by one but instead I'll choose some more interesting ones to finish.\n > 89 The faint young sun paradox.\n \nThey state the sun was dimmer in the past so the earth should have been frozen. The sun part is correct, luckily C02 levels were much much higher back then and the greenhouse effect kept the earth very toasty.\n\n > 91 The giant gas planets Jupiter and Saturn radiate more energy than they receive from the sun.\n\nA lot of people describe Jupiter as a failed star. The initial heat for igniting fusion in the sun was from gravitational contraction, the gravity pulls the gas in and when you squeeze stuff in like that you heat it up (easily testable with a bicycle pump which gets hot when pumped). Jupiter does this; to generate the extra heat Jupiter shrinks by a few cm each year creating large amounts of internal heat which it radiates away. We can tell the difference between this and reflected heat because it is mainly infra red.\n\nA lot of their points are just plain lies, the stuff about volcanoes, about certain planets moons etc. They just make up stuff.\n\nIn general it is obvious that these are lies if you just pay attention. Their references are just links to stories on their own site where if you compare their stories to the news article they are based on they deliberately misinterpret and misquote real results/science.\n\n\nEdit: happy to discredit any individual one if you ask (from all sections should be easy enough)",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13331293",
"title": "Pat Robertson controversies",
"section": "Section::::Comments on Young Earth creationism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In May 2014, Robertson responded to a caller regarding the age of the earth: \"You have to be deaf, dumb and blind to think that this Earth that we live in only has 6,000 years of existence, it just doesn't, I'm sorry ... To deny the clear record that's there before us makes us looks silly ... There's no way that all this that you have here took place in 6,000 years, it just couldn't have been done, couldn't possibly have been done.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "301899",
"title": "Young Earth creationism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Scientific refutation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "The vast majority of scientists refute young Earth creationism. Around the start of the 19th century mainstream science abandoned the concept that Earth was younger than millions of years. Measurements of archeological, biological, chemical, geological, and cosmological timescales differ from YEC's estimates of Earth's age by up to five orders of magnitude (that is, by factor of a hundred thousand times). Scientific estimates of the age of the earliest pottery discovered at 20,000 BCE, the oldest known trees before 12,000 BCE, ice cores up to 800,000 years old, and layers of silt deposit in Lake Suigetsu at 52,800 years old, are all significantly older than YEC estimate of Earth's age. YEC's theories are further contradicted by scientists' ability to observe galaxies billions of light years away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "301899",
"title": "Young Earth creationism",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and beliefs.:Age of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The young Earth creationist belief that the age of the Earth is 6,000 to 10,000 years old conflicts with the age of 4.54 billion years measured using independently cross-validated geochronological methods including radiometric dating. Creationists dispute these and all other methods which demonstrate the timescale of geologic history in spite of the lack of scientific evidence that there are any inconsistencies or errors in the measurement of the Earth's age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Earliest history of Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Until 2001, the oldest rocks found on Earth were about 3.8 billion years old, leading scientists to estimate that the Earth's surface had been molten until then. Accordingly, they named this part of Earth's history the Hadean. However, analysis of zircons formed 4.4 Ga indicates that Earth's crust solidified about 100 million years after the planet's formation and that the planet quickly acquired oceans and an atmosphere, which may have been capable of supporting life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "63794",
"title": "Impact event",
"section": "Section::::Impacts and the Earth.:Geological significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "These modified views of Earth's history did not emerge until relatively recently, chiefly due to a lack of direct observations and the difficulty in recognizing the signs of an Earth impact because of erosion and weathering. Large-scale terrestrial impacts of the sort that produced the Barringer Crater, locally known as Meteor Crater, northeast of Flagstaff, Arizona, are rare. Instead, it was widely thought that cratering was the result of volcanism: the Barringer Crater, for example, was ascribed to a prehistoric volcanic explosion (not an unreasonable hypothesis, given that the volcanic San Francisco Peaks stand only to the west). Similarly, the craters on the surface of the Moon were ascribed to volcanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12967",
"title": "Geologic time scale",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The geology or \"deep time\" of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "49256",
"title": "Age of the Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites. Because the time this accretion process took is not yet known, and predictions from different accretion models range from a few million up to about 100 million years, the difference between the age of Earth and of the oldest rocks is difficult to determine. It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the oldest rocks on Earth, exposed at the surface, as they are aggregates of minerals of possibly different ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
zb2pn
|
So I was told today by a professor (not a science professor) that the Theory of Gravity is not actually proven and that we don't actually know how it works. Is this true?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing is proven. If he was trying to enlighten you with regard to empiricism, then great. If he was trying to sow seeds of doubt with regard to scientific endeavour, then hey! draw your own conclusions.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Unless you are using a rather weak definition of 'prove', you cannot in principle prove *anything* through science. The best you can do is have a theory that is consistent with the evidence.\n\nScience uses a standard of falsification. This means that we test theories by looking for evidence that might contradict them. This is distinct from the idea of 'verification' in which something is proven. It is philosophically difficult to verify something using only empirical evidence due to the problem of inductions.\n\nScience deals with finding \"best explainations\". The problem with trying to prove a theory is that conflicting evidence could be hiding under the next rock. In a sense, this is a good thing. A theory serves as a constraint on our expectations of reality. A stronger theory provides stricter constraints. The stronger the constraints, the simpler it would be to violate them.\n\nTo give an example, consider evolution. There is a massive body of evidence supporting evolution. However, something as simple as rabbit fossils in Cambrian strata would potentially disprove it, at least in the historical sense.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It is true in the sense that nothing in science is proven, only supported by evidence. However he's wrong in saying that we don't have how it works. We have a very good idea of how it works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See [Tests of General Relativity](_URL_0_) for an overview. Rlee89 is right -- we can only *disprove* theories. See *[The Logic of Scientific Discovery](_URL_1_)* by Karl Popper.\n\nSummary: Newton's theory of gravitation put a man on the moon, and that ain't bad. As you know, Einstein's general theory superseded Newton's. The three classical tests were 1) the correct explanation of the precession of Mercury's orbit by Einstein, 2) observation that the sun deflects starlight, made by Arthur Eddington during an eclipse in 1919 , 3) observation of gravitational redshift by Pound and Rebka in 1959.\n\nIn addition, the Hubble telescope has taken pictures of gravitational lensing effects. The Hafele-Keating experiment tested general and special relativity by putting atomic clocks in circumnavigating aircraft. GPS satellites must account for general relativistic effects in their timing systems. The orbits of binary pulsars cannot be accounted for with Newtonian gravitation, but can be explained with GR. Gravity Probe B detected frame-dragging and the geodesic effect. GR also explains the observed expansion and acceleration of the Universe, although cosmological tests aren't as conclusive as solar-system tests. Currently, scientists are trying to directly measure gravitational waves with large interferometers.\n\nI believe the modern interpretation of gravity is that it is not really a force. This is what happens instead: Mass-energy causes spacetime in its vicinity to curve. Free-falling objects move in straight-lines (geodesics) in the curved spacetime. Because of our limited perspective, we interpret this as an acceleration caused by a \"force\".\n\nI think most would agree that GR will eventually be superseded by a Theory of Everything, which will reduce to GR in the appropriate limit. For now, though, GR has stood up to experiment quite well, especially considering that there was absolutely no experimental basis for it when Einstein and Grossman were working on it. Einstein was driven by his sense of aesthetics. Pretty fucking incredible.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11817317",
"title": "Mechanical explanations of gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Recent theorizing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "These mechanical explanations for gravity never gained widespread acceptance, although such ideas continued to be studied occasionally by physicists until the beginning of the twentieth century, by which time it was generally considered to be conclusively discredited. However, some researchers outside the scientific mainstream still try to work out some consequences of those theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42403016",
"title": "Logology (science)",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Empiricism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "About two centuries later, in 1915, a deeper explanation for Newton's law of gravitation was found in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity: gravity could be explained as a manifestation of the curvature in spacetime resulting from the presence of matter and energy. Successful theories like Newton's, writes Weinberg, may work for reasons that their creators do not understand—reasons that deeper theories will later reveal. Scientific progress is not a matter of building theories on a foundation of reason, but of unifying a greater range of phenomena under simpler and more general principles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849918",
"title": "Eugene Gendlin",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "For example, when a pen falls off a desk, that seems to be proof that gravity exists, because gravity made it fall. But what is \"gravity\"? In 1500, \"gravity\" was the pen's desire to go to the center of the earth; in 1700 \"gravity\" was a force that acted at a distance according to mathematical laws; in the 1900s \"gravity\" was an effect of curved space-time; and today physicists theorize that \"gravity\" may be a force carried by subatomic particles called \"gravitons\". Gendlin views \"gravity\" as a concept and points out that concepts can't make anything fall. Instead of saying that gravity causes things to fall, it would be more accurate to say that things falling cause [the different concepts of] gravity. Interaction with the world is prior to concepts about the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189951",
"title": "Force carrier",
"section": "Section::::Particle and field viewpoints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Gravity is not a part of the Standard Model, but it is thought that there may be particles called gravitons which are the excitations of gravitational waves. The status of this particle is still tentative, because the theory is incomplete and because the interactions of \"single\" gravitons may be too weak to be detected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once past the black hole's event horizon. However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Problematic aspects.:Theoretical concerns with Newton's expression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "BULLET::::- There is no immediate prospect of identifying the mediator of gravity. Attempts by physicists to identify the relationship between the gravitational force and other known fundamental forces are not yet resolved, although considerable headway has been made over the last 50 years (See: Theory of everything and Standard Model). Newton himself felt that the concept of an inexplicable \"action at a distance\" was unsatisfactory (see \"Newton's reservations\" below), but that there was nothing more that he could do at the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307258",
"title": "Le Sage's theory of gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Le Sage.:Reception of Le Sage's theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Roger Joseph Boscovich pointed out, that Le Sage's theory is the first one, which actually can explain gravity by mechanical means. However, he rejected the model because of the enormous and unused quantity of ultramundane matter. John Playfair described Boscovich's arguments by saying:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n5l33
|
Do Brita filters need to be replaced as often as suggested? Or is Brita just capitalizing on replacement filters?
|
[
{
"answer": "The activated carbon does get saturated at some point, but don't buy a whole new filter: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The activated carbon does get saturated at some point, but don't buy a whole new filter: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2567214",
"title": "Neutral-density filter",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "An inexpensive, homemade alternative to professional ND filters can be made from a piece of welder's glass. Depending on the rating of the welder's glass, this can have the effect of a 10-stop filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "984508",
"title": "Internet censorship in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Anti-censorship campaigns.:Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 186,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 186,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Ross Fitzgerald of \"The Australian\" believes that the filter was not introduced in 2010 to defuse it as an election issue, and that if it is re-introduced into the next parliament it could be even more censorious than the current proposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2885946",
"title": "Median filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The Median Filter is a non-linear digital filtering technique, often used to remove noise from an image or signal. Such noise reduction is a typical pre-processing step to improve the results of later processing (for example, edge detection on an image). Median filtering is very widely used in digital image processing because, under certain conditions, it preserves edges while removing noise (but see discussion below), also having applications in signal processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2567334",
"title": "Graduated neutral-density filter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Although its importance may have lessened with the advent of the modern digital darkroom, graduated ND filters are still an important tool for professionals because a digital sensor that is clipping (\"blown out\" or \"washed out\") captures no usable data in the clipped area, an effect which cannot be corrected with later processing because data has been lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12086046",
"title": "The Filter",
"section": "Section::::Clients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Since 2009, The Filter has secured contracts tailoring its relevance platform for a number of digital content providers such as Nokia, Dailymotion, BT TV, NBC.com, Warner Brothers, Vudu, we7 and Sony Music. In 2014 The Filter began offering its personalisation services to online retailers, securing its first contracts with Maplin Electronics and Liberty of London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1517769",
"title": "Dichroic filter",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Dichroic filters have a much longer life than conventional filters; the color is intrinsic in the construction of the hard microscopic layers and cannot \"bleach out\" over the lifetime of the filter (unlike for example, gel filters). They can be fabricated to pass any passband frequency and block a selected amount of the stopband frequencies. Because light in the stopband is reflected rather than absorbed, there is much less heating of the dichroic filter than with conventional filters. Dichroics are capable of achieving extremely high laser damage thresholds, and are used for all the mirrors on the world's most powerful laser, the National Ignition Facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2623006",
"title": "Service plan",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Replacement options may present an advantage over an RMA if the customer is disrupted enough by a product's absence (such as computer upgrades), but the low failure rate of the products and the ability to buy temporary substitutes usually offsets the price. Some items such as low-end headphones may consistently fail before the end of the coverage period, which can be advantageous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8wf7sj
|
why do raised areas of the body (collarbone/cheekbone etc) get more severely affected by sunburn than the surrounding area?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because natural shadows occurs when these raised areas “intercept” sun rays thereby blocking the lower lying areas from absorbing light. Inversely there is nothing shadowing your most protruding body bits hence why they are likelier to burn. But rest assured if you lay perfectly still at a perpendicular angle to the suns rays you will burn quite evenly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure of the skin to UV, along with higher risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be severely damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earth's atmosphere. More energetic, shorter-wavelength \"extreme\" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9040547",
"title": "Human skin",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Aging.:Photoaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Photoaging has two main concerns: an increased risk for skin cancer and the appearance of damaged skin. In younger skin, sun damage will heal faster since the cells in the epidermis have a faster turnover rate, while in the older population the skin becomes thinner and the epidermis turnover rate for cell repair is lower which may result in the dermis layer being damaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:UV intensity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm wavelength, which is in the lower UVC band that is almost never encountered except from artificial sources like welding arcs. Most sunburn is caused by longer wavelengths, simply because those are more prevalent in sunlight at ground level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the skin triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the skin cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the skin is replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111249",
"title": "Hyperpigmentation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Hyperpigmentation can be caused by sun damage, inflammation, or other skin injuries, including those related to acne vulgaris. People with darker skin tones are more prone to hyperpigmentation, especially with excess sun exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "716631",
"title": "Melanoma",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:UV radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Having multiple severe sunburns increases the likelihood that future sunburns develop into melanoma due to cumulative damage. The sun and tanning beds are the main sources of UV radiation that increase the risk for melanoma and living close to the equator increases exposure to UV radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wy97g
|
Why did bread never become a big part of the Chinese diet?
|
[
{
"answer": "It did! It's just more traditionally confined to the North.\n\nThere's not just one Chinese cuisine. Rice cultivation wasn't actually a part of the early Chinese diet at all. There's no word in Sinotibetan languages for rice that isn't a loan. In Tibetoburman they borrowed the vocabulary from Tai languages much later (e.g. \\**na*^1 for wet rice field), and in Chinese the common word for rice 米 is actually originally meaning \"millet\", not \"rice\", and was only later shifted in meaning to \"rice\". This was made easier by the fact that millets had largely been replaced in major parts of the Sinotibetan language family by wheats due to their heartiness in cold climates.^2,3\n\nHave a look at [this map](_URL_0_) showing where wheat is grown most. The areas of East Asia that are dark green are places where you're going to find breads. The Shandong Peninsula, all of Jiangsu province north of the Yangtze and a good chunk of Hebei. There's a folk etymology for 饅頭^4 * màntóu*, a popular steamed bread, that it's actually *Man[chu] tóu*, with *tóu* meaning \"head\", because it entered Chinese cuisine through non-Chinese Northern groups. Actually more people will tell you it was invented by Zhūgě Liàng.\n\nThis and other similar breads such as *bāozi* 包子, the stuffed version of *màntóu*, are popular throughout the region including Korea.\n\nThere's also *ròu jiā mó* 肉夾饃, which is another incredibly popular food in China and pretty much the best thing ever. These are roud breads which are not steamed but instead grilled on a hot plate, and then stuffed with spicy meat and cilantro. They're a notable food from Shǎnxī (Shaanxi) and have become quite popular throughout the Northwest as well as being readily available throughout the country.\n\nThere's also [spicy and non-spicy onion pancakes](_URL_1_) which are again cooked on a hot plate and regularly consumed as a snack. There are other similar pancake-like treats as well but some, such as the Shandong wrap (山東雜糧餅) are getting further away from what we might call bread.\n\nFinally in Taiwan there's a sort of steamed bread sandwich called *koah pau* 刈包. They're awesome but almost certainly a more recent thing in Taiwanese cuisine.\n\nAll of these are made with wheat flour, but grilling in a large oven wasn't always a possibility, and steaming/frying was always more common in Chinese cuisine anyway, so the breads that we have in the region tend to be more reliant on these ways of cooking.\n\nIn the end, the relative scarcity of wheat in the south and the ease of growing multiple rice varieties has lead to rice being seen as a more typical Chinese food, but in reality it was imported from cuisines of other, non-Chinese, groups.\n\n- - - \n\n1. Matisoff, James A (2003) *Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction. Univ of California Press.*\n\n2. Guedesa, Jade A d’Alpoim; Lub, Hongliang; Heinc, Anke M; Schmidt, Amanda H (2015) *Early Evidence for the Use of Wheat and Barley As Staple Crops on the Margins of the Tibetan Plateau.*\n\n3. Sagart, Laurent (2011) How Many Independent Rice Vocabularies in Asia. Rice, vol. 4, pp. 121–133.\n\n4. Note that food vocabulary varies considerably throughout Mandarin dialect areas. Mantou isn't always called mantou, and the word mantou doesn't always mean what I'm talking about here.\n\n(edited to expand a little bit more)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a lot of the commenters have pointed out, there's plenty of bread in the Chinese diet. \n\nPiggybacking on the subject of bread, modern loaves of bread require a lot of things. You need an oven which is pretty labor intensive to make. You also need fuel, a lot of it to achieve baking temperatures. For an average person across most of history, baking bread was a pretty laborious task. \n\nPorridge has always been a popular alternative across most cultures and time periods, as have dumplings and noodles because boiling requires a lot less energy (wood, coal, ect). In Mesoamerica, tamales were an easy way to bake bread wrapped up and placed over coals. Most cultures had some variant of a flatbread cooked over a griddle or a tandoor-style cooking device. \n\nOne commonly used solution to the baking problem was to centralize baking in a specific location, giving rise to the professional baker. The Roman dole initially came in the form of measured grain, but eventually a network of state-run bakeries began to churn out bread (stamped with a brand no less). \n\nSpeaking to China specifically, one major issue in Chinese cooking has always been access to cooking fuel. This can be seen in the tendency to cook things at a very high heat for a very short time in order to conserve fuel. Because of that, heating up an oven which requires lots of wood to burn, isn't a common feature in the Chinese cook's repertoire. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "So, up until about the 1930's there wasnt just one \"Chinese\" culture. (There still isn't, I know, you don't need to lecture me.) China is a huge and diverse area. Parts are tropical, parts are arctic, some wet, some arid, etc. Etc. The majority of the Chinese population has always lived in the south or east, in the wet areas and/or coast. \n\nRice grows very well in wet areas that get a lot of rain, and as a result, rice became a staple in Chinese and much of southern Asian culture. Wheat on the other hand, does not grow well in wet places. So it did not grow well in the more densely populated areas. However if you went north and/or west, avoiding the mountains and desert, there are great grasslands. Reasonable temperatures, but little rain. Ideal conditions for wheat. \n\nThese areas were less densly populated, but wheat was used in place of rice in these areas. However with the nationalist movement, and the idea of \"one china\" taking hold almost a century ago, what was \"Chinese\" was practically set in stone, which is why we think of rice as the Chinese staple, partially because it is, partially because of a unification effort.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43233374",
"title": "Mexican breads",
"section": "Section::::History of baking in Mexico.:Colonial period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "At first there was only a small market for bread, both because the initial products were poor, and the indigenous would not eat bread at first. However, as quality improved and the Spanish and mestizo population grew, so did the market for bread. Although the consumption of wheat never surpassed that of corn, bread did become an important staple, and the limitation of its production to bakeries made these businesses important institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19406843",
"title": "Horsebread",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "White breads were generally eaten by only the wealthy, because of the labor involved in refining flour and because of the lower nutritional content. This is in contrast with modern whole-grain breads, which are typically seen as premium-priced health foods or gourmet foods. This is in part because modern flour has a higher gluten content than flour produced in medieval Europe, and thus bread made from less-refined flour is more palatable than it would have been during the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22459546",
"title": "History of bread",
"section": "Section::::Industrialization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while Chorleywood bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51793268",
"title": "Bread in culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The political significance of bread is considerable. In 19th century Britain, the inflated price of bread due to the Corn Laws caused major political and social divisions, and was central to debates over free trade versus protectionism. The Assize of Bread and Ale in the 13th century demonstrated the importance of bread in medieval times by setting heavy punishments for short-changing bakers, and bread appeared in the \"Magna Carta\" a half-century earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36969",
"title": "Bread",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures because of its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of the elements (alongside wine) of the Eucharist, and in other religions including Paganism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5791492",
"title": "Vegetable",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "In Ancient China, rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north, the latter made into dumplings, noodles, and pancakes. Vegetables used to accompany these included yams, soybeans, broad beans, turnips, spring onions, and garlic. The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based on bread, often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth. Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful. These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows, broad beans, lentils, onions, leeks, garlic, radishes, and lettuces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11002",
"title": "French cuisine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late 18th century – early 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "The French Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it abolished the guild system. This meant anyone could now produce and sell any culinary item he wished. Bread was a significant food source among peasants and the working class in the late 18th century, with many of the nation’s people being dependent on it. In French provinces, bread was often consumed three times a day by the people of France. According to Brace, bread was referred to as the basic dietary item for the masses, and it was also used as a foundation for soup. In fact, bread was so important that harvest, interruption of commerce by wars, heavy flour exploration, and prices and supply were all watched and controlled by the French Government. Among the underprivileged, constant fear of famine was always prevalent. From 1725 to 1789, there was fourteen years of bad yields to blame for low grain supply. In Bordeaux, during 1708-1789, thirty-three bad harvests occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4afhe3
|
What is the importance of irrational numbers?
|
[
{
"answer": "even the square roots of certain numbers (like 2) are irrational. pi and e are in a sense even more.. let's say you need to put in more work to describe them. \nthe roots are zeros of polynomials with rational coefficients. pi and e aren't. \n\nwhen you start out with rational numbers (ie fractions of integers ) and consider sequences of fractions, and then consider the limits of those sequences, you get more than just the rational number / fractions. you also get irrational numbers. they **cannot be represented as fractions** but they can be represented as limits of a sequence of fractions. (ie you can approximate them to arbitrary precision by fractions. the fractions are dense in the real numbers, therefore you will always find a fraction at least as close as you wish to a given irrational number) \n\nthe part in bold is probably the most important thing about them, ie why you even bother giving them a name ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647689",
"title": "Irrational number",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Transcendental/algebraic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Because the algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers, many irrational real numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example, 3 + 2, + and \"e\" are irrational (and even transcendental).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23601",
"title": "Pi",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Irrationality and normality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 765,
"text": " is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers (fractions such as are commonly used to approximate , but no common fraction (ratio of whole numbers) can be its exact value). Because is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation, and it does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several proofs that is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the \"reductio ad absurdum\" technique. The degree to which can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of or but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148594",
"title": "Euler–Mascheroni constant",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The number has not been proved algebraic or transcendental. In fact, it is not even known whether is irrational. Continued fraction analysis reveals that if is rational, its denominator must be greater than 10 . The ubiquity of revealed by the large number of equations below makes the irrationality of a major open question in mathematics. Also see .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209103",
"title": "List of numbers",
"section": "Section::::Irrational numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The irrational numbers are a set of numbers that includes all real numbers that are not rational numbers. The irrational numbers are categorised as algebraic numbers (which are the root of a polynomial with rational coefficients) or transcendental numbers, which are not. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19727024",
"title": "Rational number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "A real number that is not rational is called irrational. Irrational numbers include , , , and . The decimal expansion of an irrational number continues without repeating. Since the set of rational numbers is countable, and the set of real numbers is uncountable, almost all real numbers are irrational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23601",
"title": "Pi",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Continued fractions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Like all irrational numbers, cannot be represented as a common fraction (also known as a simple or vulgar fraction), by the very definition of \"irrational number\" (that is, \"not a rational number\"). But every irrational number, including , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647689",
"title": "Irrational number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Among irrational numbers are the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, Euler's number \"e\", the golden ratio \"φ\", and the square root of two; in fact all square roots of natural numbers, other than of perfect squares, are irrational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
spu4w
|
how do forex brokers work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Brokers in general provide access to markets, and clearing and settlement facilities. So when you buy some euros, they handle all the details of actually getting those euros into your account (including routing your order to the proper market and getting it executed). \n\nI am not sure what you mean by \"their\" money. They charge a fee per trade for these services, and you can get leverage from them by borrowing money from the brokerage. They get this money from other people's accounts. Similar to a bank giving out mortgages, they take money from accounts, and lend it out at an interest rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33407234",
"title": "Foreign exchange regulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "However some countries do regulate forex brokers through governmental and independent supervisory bodies, for example the National Futures Association and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission in the US, the Australian Securities and Investments Commission in Australia and the Financial Conduct Authority in the UK. These bodies act as watchdogs for their respective markets and provide financial licenses to organizations that comply with local regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14486286",
"title": "Foreign Exchange Dealers Coalition",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The FXDC defined a forex dealer as providing online trading services to allow individuals to speculate on rapidly changing foreign exchange rates. Forex Dealer Members (FDMs) are regulated in the United States by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and National Futures Association (NFA), as well as by national and local regulatory bodies where they conduct business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569599",
"title": "Prime brokerage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Prime brokerage is the generic name for a bundled package of services offered by investment banks, wealth management firms, and securities dealers to hedge funds which need the ability to borrow securities and cash in order to be able to invest on a netted basis and achieve an absolute return. The prime broker provides a centralized securities clearing facility for the hedge fund so the hedge fund's collateral requirements are netted across all deals handled by the prime broker. These two features are advantageous to their clients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648277",
"title": "Foreign exchange market",
"section": "Section::::Financial instruments.:Non-deliverable forward (NDF).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Forex banks, ECNs, and prime brokers offer NDF contracts, which are derivatives that have no real deliver-ability. NDFs are popular for currencies with restrictions such as the Argentinian peso. In fact, a forex hedger can only hedge such risks with NDFs, as currencies such as the Argentinian peso cannot be traded on open markets like major currencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14412",
"title": "Hedge fund",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Prime broker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Prime brokers clear trades, and provide leverage and short-term financing. They are usually divisions of large investment banks. The prime broker acts as a counterparty to derivative contracts, and lends securities for particular investment strategies, such as long/short equities and convertible bond arbitrage. It can provide custodial services for the fund's assets, and execution and clearing services for the hedge fund manager.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17010632",
"title": "Interbank foreign exchange market",
"section": "Section::::Market makers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Other factors contribute to currency exchange rates and these include forex transactions made by smaller banks, hedge funds, companies, forex brokers and traders. Companies are involved in forex transaction due to their need to pay for products and services supplied from other countries which use a different currency. Forex traders on the other hand use forex transaction, of a much smaller volume with comparison to banks, to benefit from anticipated currency movements by buying cheap and selling at a higher price or vice versa. This is done through forex brokers who act as a mediator between a pool of traders and also between themselves and banks. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648277",
"title": "Foreign exchange market",
"section": "Section::::Financial instruments.:Spot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "A spot transaction is a two-day delivery transaction (except in the case of trades between the US dollar, Canadian dollar, Turkish lira, euro and Russian ruble, which settle the next business day), as opposed to the futures contracts, which are usually three months. This trade represents a “direct exchange” between two currencies, has the shortest time frame, involves cash rather than a contract, and interest is not included in the agreed-upon transaction. Spot trading is one of the most common types of forex trading. Often, a forex broker will charge a small fee to the client to roll-over the expiring transaction into a new identical transaction for a continuation of the trade. This roll-over fee is known as the \"swap\" fee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pnsgj
|
Was Shay's Rebellion Really a Result of a Weak Central Government?
|
[
{
"answer": "A Shays' Rebellion question! My favorite!\n\nThe primary weakness of the existing governmental structure that the rebellion exposed was the inability for the Massachusetts Governor to quickly raise the troops necessary to fight off the rebels.\n\nYou mention that the rebels were fairly easily dispersed once a formidable fighting force was created to opposed them. However, what you're missing is how long it took and the difficulty in creating that force. \n\nGovernor Bowdoin attempted to raise the state's militia after the rebels had begun shutting down courthouses across the state in August/September of 1786, but because the militia was made up of the same kinds of people rebelling, the local units refused to act. I did a fair amount of work on a transcript of a trial in Worcester that took place after the rebellion. There were many leaders of the local militias who were tried for aiding the rebels or participating in the rebellion themselves.\n\nIt is also important to conceive of the rebels as less akin to a dumb \"mob\" and rather think of the event as the rise of an entire oppressed socio-economic class. The latest work on the rebellion tells the story of a deeply shattered economic structure for the Western Massachusetts farmers that was inflamed by a strong power base in Boston. We have a merchant class in charge, and they were simply unwilling to govern for their whole state. This is the framework we should be using the understand the local militias and their reluctance to take up arms against their neighbors.\n\nAfter his own militia failed to act, Governor Bowdoin asked his neighboring states to help by using their militias, but he received no such help. So, lacking a federal army to ask for assistance (remember, we're still in the Articles of Confederation here), Bowdoin has to use the Bostonian merchant's deep pockets to cull together a last-minute force of mercenaries. This group is by General Benjamin Lincoln and eventually marches out in late January 1787. The rebellion is dispersed in early February.\n\nRebels are shutting down courts in August, and it's only until the following year that the state government is able to pull together a force to fight them.\n\nThe reason this reverberated across the nation was a result of this inability for Massachusetts to quickly put an end to the problem themselves (although they eventually did). The concern was that this kind of action could happen in any of the states, and the powerlessness of the states in the face of such an uprising was a troubling thought. The rebels got very close to raiding the federal arsenal in Springfield and had a control over much of the state's courthouses, effectively preventing the state government from functioning in the western 2/3 of the state.\n\nFederalists saw a strong, centralized national government as a way to prevent these kinds of flare ups in the future.\n\nIf you're interested in the macro-level economics of the time period and a even-keeled take on the rebellion, then David Szatmary's [\"Shays' Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection\"](_URL_0_) is the seminal work on the real underlying issues of the day. If you are looking for more narratives and individually-based description, then Leo Richards's [\"Shays's Rebellion: The American Revolution's Final Battle\"](_URL_1_) is for you.\n\nThis topic is definitely one of my specialities, so I'm happy to answer any other questions you might have or clarify anything I've written above.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "123433",
"title": "Shays' Rebellion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In 1787, Shays' rebels marched on the United States' Springfield Armory in an unsuccessful attempt to seize its weaponry and overthrow the government. The federal government found itself unable to finance troops to put down the rebellion, and it was consequently put down by the Massachusetts State militia and a privately funded local militia. The widely held view was that the Articles of Confederation needed to be reformed as the country's governing document, and the events of the rebellion served as a catalyst for the Constitutional Convention and the creation of the new government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24371129",
"title": "History of Uxbridge, Massachusetts",
"section": "Section::::Revolutionary war era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of farmers related to currency disarray, had its opening salvos in Uxbridge on Feb. 3, 1783. Gov. John Hancock suppressed local riots, after a request by Colonel Nathan Tyler of Uxbridge. Lieutenant Simeon Wheelock, whose family became local textile pioneers, died at Springfield near the Armory when he was killed by a horse. Shays' Rebellion so alarmed George Washington that he emerged from retirement in 1786 and 1787 to advocate a stronger national government. Dr. Samuel Willard, (who reportedly held slaves prior to 1783), fought in Shays' Rebellion and represented Uxbridge in Massachusetts's ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Massachusetts was the first state to outlaw slavery in 1783, (with Seth Reed representing the town, and Governor John Hancock signing the legislation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591430",
"title": "Timeline of United States military operations",
"section": "Section::::Extraterritorial and major domestic deployments.:1775–1799.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "1786–1787: Shays' Rebellion: a Western Massachusetts debtor's revolt over a credit squeeze that had financially devastated many farmers. The federal government was fiscally unable to raise an army to assist the state militia in combating the uprising; the weakness of the national government bolstered the arguments in favor of replacing the Articles of Confederation with an updated governmental framework.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35572178",
"title": "History of Springfield, Massachusetts",
"section": "Section::::18th century.:Shays' Rebellion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Shays's Rebellion – the most crucial battle of which was fought at the Springfield Armory in 1787 – was the United States' first populist revolt. It prompted George Washington to come out of retirement, and catalyzed the U.S. Founding Fathers to craft the U.S. Constitution. On May 25, 1787, General Henry Knox, the Secretary of War, addressed the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia: “The commotion of Massachusetts have wrought prodigious changes in the minds of men in the State respecting the Powers of Government... They must be strengthened, there is no security of liberty or property.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4158168",
"title": "Militia (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Confederation period (1783–1787).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In Shays' Rebellion, a Massachusetts militia that had been raised as a private army defeated the main Shays site force on February 3, 1787. There was a lack of an institutional response to the uprising, which energized calls to reevaluate the Articles of Confederation and gave strong impetus to the Constitutional Convention which began in May 1787.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199742",
"title": "Bakumatsu",
"section": "Section::::Military interventions against Sonnō Jōi (1863–1865).:Repression of the Mito rebellion (May 1864).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "On 2 May 1864, another rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate, the Mito rebellion. This rebellion also was in the name of the \"sonnō jōi\", the expulsion of the Western \"barbarians\" and the return to Imperial rule. The shogunate managed to send an army to quell the revolt, which was ended in blood with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123433",
"title": "Shays' Rebellion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Shays Rebellion was an armed uprising in Massachusetts in opposition to the state government’s increased efforts to collect taxes both on individuals and their trades; the fight took place mostly in and around Springfield during 1786 and 1787. American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led four thousand rebels (called Shaysites) in a protest against economic and civil rights injustices. Shays was a farmhand from Massachusetts at the beginning of the Revolutionary War; he joined the Continental Army, saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, and Battles of Saratoga, and was eventually wounded in action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bpm77q
|
how do car horns project so well?
|
[
{
"answer": "So usually cars have two horns in the front of the car, a high pitch and a low pitch. So a standard electric car horn does have a diaphragm just like a speaker. Inside there’s basically a plunger connected to the center of the diaphragm and on the other side of the plunger is an electromagnet. When you hit the horn button. The electromagnet forces the plunger to bounce off of it so fast the diaphragm produces a frequency, a loud one. The combination of the high and low frequency together makes the sound travel farther and through more surfaces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4335254",
"title": "Loudspeaker enclosure",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Horn enclosures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1475,
"text": "A horn loudspeaker is a speaker system using a horn to match the driver cone to the air. The horn structure itself does not amplify, but rather improves the coupling between the speaker driver and the air. Properly designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or 2 feet), and for low frequencies (under 300 Hz) very large, a few metres (dozens of feet). In the 1950s, a few high fidelity enthusiasts actually built full sized horns whose structures were built into a house wall or basement. With the coming of stereo (two speakers) and surround sound (four or more), plain horns became even more impractical. Various speaker manufacturers have produced folded low-frequency horns which are much smaller (e.g., Altec Lansing, JBL, Klipsch, Lowther, Tannoy) and actually fit in practical rooms. These are necessarily compromises, and because they are physically complex, they are expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25409626",
"title": "Vehicle horn",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Motor vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Truck (lorry) horns may be electrically operated and similar to car horns, but are often air horns driven by air from an air compressor, which many trucks have in order to operate the air brakes. The compressor forces air past a diaphragm in the horn's throat, causing it to vibrate. Such air horns are often used as trim items, with chromed straight horns mounted on top of the cab. This design may also be installed on customised automobiles, using a small electrical compressor. Usually two or more are used, some drivers go so far as to install train horns. The frequencies vary to produce a variety of different chords, but in general are lower than those of automobile horns—125–180 Hz (approximately C₃–G₃). Sound levels are approximately 117–118 decibels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9330997",
"title": "Train horn",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Train horns are operated by compressed air, typically 125-140 psi (8.6-9.6 bar), and fed from a locomotive main air reservoir. When the engineer opens the horn valve, air flows through a supply line into the power chamber at the base of the horn \"(diagram, right)\". It passes through a narrow opening between a nozzle and a circular diaphragm in the power chamber, then out through the flaring horn bell. The flow of air past the diaphragm causes it to vibrate or oscillate against the nozzle, producing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4267366",
"title": "Arcing horns",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Arcing horns form a spark gap across the insulator with a lower breakdown voltage than the air path along the insulator surface, so an overvoltage will cause the air to break down and the arc to form between the arcing horns, diverting it away from the surface of the insulator. An arc between the horns is more tolerable for the equipment, providing more time for the fault to be detected and the arc to be safely cleared by remote circuit breakers. The geometry of some designs encourages the arc to migrate away from the insulator, driven by rising currents as it heats the surrounding air. As it does so, the path length increases, cooling the arc, reducing the electric field and causing the arc to extinguish itself when it can no longer span the gap. Other designs can utilise the magnetic field produced by the high current to drive the arc away from the insulator. This type of arrangement can be known as a magnetic blowout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60036887",
"title": "HornBlasters",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "HornBlasters is an American manufacturing company that produces and sells aftermarket automobile accessories, including air-powered horns that replicate the sound of locomotive train horns. The company is based in Zephyrhills, Florida and is best known for its horns’ volume and for its extensive social media presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25409626",
"title": "Vehicle horn",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Motor vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "Oliver Lucas of Birmingham, England, developed a standard electric car horn in 1910. Car horns are usually electric, driven by a flat circular steel diaphragm that has an electromagnet acting on it in one direction and a spring pulling in the opposite direction. The diaphragm is attached to contact points that repeatedly interrupt the current to that electromagnet causing the diaphragm to spring back the other way, which complete the circuit again. This arrangement opens and closes the circuit hundreds of times per second which creates a loud noise like a buzzer or electric bell, which sound enters a horn to be amplified. There is usually a screw to adjust the distance/tension of the electrical contacts for best operation. A spiral exponential horn shape (sometimes called the \"snail\") is cast into the body of the horn, to better match the acoustical impedance of the diaphragm with open air, and thus more effectively transfer the sound energy. Sound levels of typical car horns are approximately 107–109 decibels, and they typically draw 5–6 amperes of current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3972024",
"title": "Cerastes (genus)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "When present, each horn consists of a single long, spine-like scale that can be folded back into an indentation in the postocular scale. They fold back in response to direct stimulation, thus streamlining the head and easing passage through burrows. Horns occur more often in individuals from sandy deserts as opposed to stony deserts. Specimens without horns have a prominent brow ridge instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mpkbe
|
How did Fascists deal with healthcare?
|
[
{
"answer": "Both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were concerned with healthcare and promoting health in general, for a couple reasons. Firstly, for reasons of natalism. Militarist-expansionist states need a growing population to make up for deaths in war and settle conquered territory, so both the Nazis and the Fascists were keen to promote population growth. \n\n > In 1925 the Italin Fascist regime created the Opera Nazionale Maternita ed Infanzia (ONMI), one of the many fascist organizations that survived into the post-war era. The ONMI combined social welfare with the realization of the regime's demographic aims. It sought to block abortion, to provide medical care and, if possible, involve the fathers of illegitimate children.\n\n > ... the fascists understood that the high infant death rate was a major and preventable depressant on population growth. The rate of infant mortality did decline, this being in part attributable to the policies of the regime but also the long-term rise in the standard of living and health care that had been initiated before fascism.\n\n-Alexander J. DeGrande, [*Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: The Fascist Style of Rule*](_URL_0_), p. 79\n\nApart from natalism, the fascist powers also had an ideological interest in health, especially Nazi Germany. This was part of a larger fascist idealization of youth, athleticism, and action. In \"Germany Speaks\", a collection of essays attempting to improve Germany's image and explain fascist thought to the foreign public, the head of the National Socialist Welfare Organization says of health:\n\n > We have faith in the ancient saying that a sound mind and a healthy body are mutually inter-dependent. Our work, therefore, not only teaches our nation the importance of health, both morally and physically, but also enables every individual to obtain a proper idea of his responsibilities towards the nation and towards his family. \n\n > By developing all our intrinsic abilities we make up for our country's lack of valuable raw materials and for our inferior degree of economic and political power as compared with other countries. The more we contribute towards the establishment of fundamentally healthy conditions at home, the stronger and healthier will be the influence exercised by all our national manifestations, be it in the realms of economy or science, in our domestic and our foreign policy.\n\nThis hints at the way some Nazis considered health to be an almost metaphysical concept which could pervade every aspect of life. This was manifested in a variety of government policies and campaigns, from promoting physical education and athletics to anti-smoking campaigns and maternal/infant care campaigns.\n\nOf course, this glorification of health had its dark side in the demonization of disease and disability, which contributed greatly to the eugenics and euthanasia intiatives carried out in the name of public health. And we must not forget the racial dichotomies in Nazi thought which associated the Aryan with health and the Jew with disease, a common theme in antisemitic propaganda. \n\nEDIT: Removed some unnecessary verbiage from the second quote",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27372540",
"title": "Racism in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Fascist Italy.:Anti-Semitism before 1938.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "It is still debated whether Italian Fascism was originally anti-Semitic. Mussolini originally distinguished his position Hitler's fanatical racism while affirming he himself was a Zionist. More broadly, he even proposed building a mosque in Rome as a sign that Italy was the Protector of Islam, a move blocked by a horrified Pope. German propagandists often derided what they called Italy's \"Kosher Fascism\". There were however some Fascists, Roberto Farinacci and Giovanni Preziosi being prime examples, who held fringe extremist racist views before the alliance with Nazi Germany. Preziosi was the first to publish an Italian edition of the \"Protocols of the Elders of Zion\", in 1921, which was published almost simultaneously with a version issued by Umberto Benigni in supplements to \"Fede e Ragione.\". The book however had little impact until the mid-1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3086381",
"title": "Fascism and ideology",
"section": "Section::::Ideological origins.:Early influences (495 BC–1880 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1934,
"text": "Italian Fascists identified their ideology as being connected to the legacy of ancient Rome and particularly the Roman Empire: Julius Caesar and Augustus were idolized by Italian Fascists. Italian Fascism views the modern state of Italy as the heir of the Roman Empire and emphasized the need for renovation of Italian culture to \"return to Roman values\". Italian Fascists identify the Roman Empire as being an ideal organic and stable society in contrast to contemporary individualist liberal society that they identify as being chaotic in comparison. Julius Caesar has been identified as a role model by fascists because he led a revolution that overthrew an old order to establish a new order based on a dictatorship in which Julius Caesar wielded absolute power. Mussolini emphasized the need for dictatorship, activist leadership style and the leader cult like that of Julius Caesar that involved \"the will to fix a unifying and balanced centre and a common will to action\". Italian Fascists also idolized Augustus as the champion who built the Roman Empire. The fasces – a symbol of Roman authority – was the symbol of the Italian Fascists and was additionally adopted by many other national fascist movements formed in emulation of Italian fascism. While a number of Nazis rejected Roman civilization because they saw it as incompatible with Aryan Germanic culture and they also believed that Aryan Germanic culture was outside Roman culture, Adolf Hitler personally admired ancient Rome. Hitler focused on ancient Rome during its rise to dominance and at the height of its power as a model to follow and Hitler deeply admired the Roman Empire for its ability to forge a strong and unified civilization and in private conversations he blamed the fall of the Roman Empire on the Roman adoption of Christianity because he claimed that Christianity authorized the racial intermixing that weakened Rome and led to its destruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22573839",
"title": "Italian racial laws",
"section": "Section::::Unpopularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1166,
"text": "Leading Fascists such as Dino Grandi and Italo Balbo reportedly opposed the racial laws, and they were unpopular with most ordinary Italians; the Jews were a small minority in the country and had integrated deeply into Italian society and culture. Most Jews in Italy were either ancient Italian Jews that practiced the Italian rite and had been living in Italy since Ancient Roman times; Sephardic Jews who had migrated to Italy from the Iberian countries after expulsion by Alhambra Decree in the 1490s; and a smaller Ashkenazi population that had arrived in the Middle Ages and largely assimilated into the Italian rite Jewish and the Sephardic communities. In any case, Jews in Italy, in general, had assimilated into Italian society and had contributed to Italian culture over the course of two millennia. Most Italians were not widely acquainted with Jews, and Italian society was unaccustomed to the kind of anti-Semitism that had been relatively common and thrived for centuries in German-speaking countries and other parts of northern, northwestern, and eastern Europe, where Jews had a greater presence and lived in large numbers for a long period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23390653",
"title": "History of health care reform in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal health care proposals.:1900s–1920s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "Early industrial sickness insurance purchased through employers was one influential economic origin of the current American health care system. These late-19th-century and early-20th-century sickness insurance schemes were generally inexpensive for workers: their small scale and local administration kept overhead low, and because the people who purchased insurance were all employees of the same company, that prevented people who were already ill from buying in. The presence of employer-based sickness funds may have contributed to why the idea of government-based insurance did not take hold in the United States at the same time that the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe was moving toward socialized schemes like the UK National Insurance Act of 1911. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, Americans were used to associating insurance with employers, which paved the way for the beginning of third-party health insurance in the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2177020",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "The Fascist period was marked by the Concordat between the state and the Catholic Church, known as the Lateran treaty of 1929. Other Christian denominations and other religions, however, faced renewed repression. In 1935 the Pentecostals were declared prejudicial to the integrity of the race. Salvationists and Jehova's Witnesses, as well as the Pentecostals were liable to imprisonment or exile while other minority Christian groups faced notable restrictions. Although antisemitism was not embedded in Italian Fascism from the start, in order to please his ally Adolf Hitler, in the late 1930s Benito Mussolini approved the Italian Racial Laws. In the latter stages of World War II, in particular during the period of the Italian Social Republic and of German occupation of much of the peninsula, many Jews, as well as non-jew political dissidents and even Catholic priests, were deported to the Nazi death camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34446991",
"title": "Health care systems by country",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In 1978 Italy adopted a tax-funded universal health care system called \"National Health Service\" (in Italian: \"Servizio Sanitario Nazionale\"), which was closely modeled on the British system. The SSN covers general practice (distinct between adult and pediatric practice), outpatient and inpatient treatments, and the cost of most (but not all) drugs and sanitary ware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56046773",
"title": "Fascist Italy (1922–1943)",
"section": "Section::::Culture and society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "With the concept of totalitarianism, Mussolini and the Fascist regime set an agenda of improving Italian culture and society based on ancient Rome, personal dictatorship and some futurist aspects of Italian intellectuals and artists. Under Fascism, the definition of the Italian nationality rested on a militarist foundation and the Fascist's \"new man\" ideal in which loyal Italians would rid themselves of individualism and autonomy and see themselves as a component of the Italian state and be prepared to sacrifice their lives for it. Under such a totalitarian society, only Fascists would be considered \"true Italians\" and membership and endorsement of the Fascist Party was necessary for people to gain \"Complete Citizenship\", as those who did not swear allegiance to Fascism were banished from public life and could not gain employment. The Fascist government also reached out to Italians living overseas to endorse the Fascist cause and identify with Italy rather than their places of residence. Despite efforts to mould a new culture for fascism, Fascist Italy's efforts were not as drastic or successful in comparison to other one-party states like Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in creating a new culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y79ad
|
What types of plants played the role grasses before grass evolved?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is [pretty weird](_URL_0_) with a lot of [seriously alien-looking wtf plants](_URL_1_).\n\nMost plants you see today are vascular plants; they have xylem and phloem (picture little pipes running from roots to leaves) to carry water up to the leaves and sugar down to the roots respectively. They also contain lignin, the polymer that gives wood most of its hardness.\n\nAncestral green algae did not need all that because they lived in the oceans, where sunlight and water are abundant and you don't need to be particularly strong. Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) are basically land-based algae that evolved ~450 million years ago. Like today, you never find them far from water and most of Earth's surface simply didn't have plants on it.\n\nThen came the early vascular plants equipped with the necessary plumbing to conquer dry land. The horsetails in the first image once grew like grass and are still with us today, as are the ferns and a couple of others. [Lycopods](_URL_2_) developed, and eventually flourished into forests of giant 30-meter vaguely phallic [trees](_URL_3_) in the Carboniferous. If you were transported to this time you would wonder why all the plantlife was designed by Dr. Seuss, although late in the Carboniferous you start to get vaguely familiar-looking conifers (pine trees).\n\nOne disappointing feature of this world would be the total lack of flowers. All of these primitive vascular plants reproduced by spores like modern ferns do. If you want flowers or true grass you need to go forward a couple hundred million years to at least the Cretaceous.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "181908",
"title": "List of Poaceae genera",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Grasses probably originated in the understory of tropical rainforests in the Late Cretaceous, but have since come to occupy a wide range of different habitats. Notably, they are the dominant species in grasslands, open habitats that cover around one fifth of the earth's terrestrial surface. The C photosynthetic pathway has evolved at least 22 times independently in the grasses; C species are more competitive than C plants in open habitats with high light intensity and warm temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11008314",
"title": "Evolutionary history of plants",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Evidence of the emergence of embryophyte land plants first occurs in the mid-Ordovician (~), and by the middle of the Devonian (~), many of the features recognised in land plants today were present, including roots and leaves. By Late Devonian (~) some free-sporing plants such as \"Archaeopteris\" had secondary vascular tissue that produced wood and had formed forests of tall trees. Also by late Devonian, \"Elkinsia\", an early seed fern, had evolved seeds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11008314",
"title": "Evolutionary history of plants",
"section": "Section::::Colonization of land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "Land plants evolved from a group of green algae, perhaps as early as 850 mya, but algae-like plants might have evolved as early as 1 billion years ago. The closest living relatives of land plants are the charophytes, specifically Charales; assuming that the habit of the Charales has changed little since the divergence of lineages, this means that the land plants evolved from a branched, filamentous alga dwelling in shallow fresh water, perhaps at the edge of seasonally desiccating pools. However, some recent evidence suggests that land plants might have originated from unicellular terrestrial charophytes similar to extant Klebsormidiophyceae. The alga would have had a haplontic life cycle. It would only very briefly have had paired chromosomes (the diploid condition) when the egg and sperm first fused to form a zygote that would have immediately divided by meiosis to produce cells with half the number of unpaired chromosomes (the haploid condition). Co-operative interactions with fungi may have helped early plants adapt to the stresses of the terrestrial realm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5615",
"title": "Cretaceous",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Flora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Flowering plants (angiosperms) spread during this period, although they did not become predominant until the Campanian Age near the end of the period. Their evolution was aided by the appearance of bees; in fact angiosperms and insects are a good example of coevolution. The first representatives of many leafy trees, including figs, planes and magnolias, appeared in the Cretaceous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56217",
"title": "Poaceae",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing phytoliths of a variety that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo. Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are currently the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife and organics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312249",
"title": "Bryophyte",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Between 510 - 630 million years ago, land plants evolved from aquatic plants, specifically green algae. Molecular phylogenetic studies conclude that bryophytes are the earliest diverging lineages of the extant land plants. They provide insights into the migration of plants from aquatic environments to land. A number of physical features link bryophytes to both land plants and aquatic plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Phanerozoic Eon.:Diversification of mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The evolution of grass brought a remarkable change to the Earth's landscape, and the new open spaces created pushed mammals to get bigger and bigger. Grass started to expand in the Miocene, and the Miocene is where many modern- day mammals first appeared. Giant ungulates like \"Paraceratherium\" and \"Deinotherium\" evolved to rule the grasslands. The evolution of grass also brought primates down from the trees, and started human evolution. The first big cats evolved during this time as well. The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e40ib
|
how the gunslingers in western films shoot so perfectly from the hip?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it's fiction. \n\nIn real life, no one actually fought like that. Gun slinger fights in the wild west were messy, and usually involved many combatants, not 2 doing a stand off. It was no different than modern gang shoot outs, except their guns were far less accurate, and shooters would typically ambush opponents from rooftops and stuff. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "551678",
"title": "Gunfighter",
"section": "Section::::Fact and fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Quick draw and hip shooting was a rare skill in the West, and only a handful of historically known gunslingers were known to be fast, such as Luke Short, John Wesley Hardin, and Wild Bill Hickok. Shooting a pistol with one hand is normally associated with gunslingers, and is also a standard for them of the era to carry two guns and fire ambidextrously. Capt. Jonathan R. Davis carried two revolvers in his iconic gunfight, while Jesse James himself carried over half a dozen revolvers in many of his gunfights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "551678",
"title": "Gunfighter",
"section": "Section::::Depiction in culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In films, the gunslinger often possesses a nearly superhuman speed and skill with the revolver. Twirling pistols, lightning draws, and trick shots are standard fare for the gunmen of the big screen. In the real world, however, gunmen who relied on flashy tricks and theatrics died quickly, and most gunslingers took a much more practical approach to their weapons. Real gunslingers did not shoot to disarm or to impress, but to kill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60740218",
"title": "Swing the Western Way",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Swing the Western Way is a 1947 American Western film directed by Derwin Abrahams and written by Barry Shipman. The film stars Jack Leonard, Mary Dugan, Thurston Hall, Regina Wallace, Tris Coffin and Sam Flint. The film was released on June 26, 1947, by Columbia Pictures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6596466",
"title": "Long Branch Saloon",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The saloon was built as the result of a wager between cowboys and soldiers playing ball. Bets were placed and if the cowboys beat the soldiers, the soldiers agreed to provide building materials to construct a saloon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46892690",
"title": "Old Style Saloon No. 10",
"section": "Section::::Notable patrons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The Saloon was frequented by many American Old West characters including: Wild Bill Hickok, Calamity Jane, Colorado Charlie Utter, Texas Jack, California Joe, Buffalo Bill Cody, Doc Holiday, Poker Alice, Wyatt Earp & Potato Creek Johnny.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "551678",
"title": "Gunfighter",
"section": "Section::::Famous gunfights.:Real-life Wild West duels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "The image of two gunslingers with violent reputation squaring off in a street is nothing more than a Hollywood invention. However, face to face fast draw shootouts did occur in the real West. These duels were first recorded in the South, brought by emigrants to the American Frontier as a crude form of the \"code duello,\" a highly formalized means of solving disputes between gentlemen with swords or guns that had its origins in European chivalry. By the second half of the 19th century, few Americans still fought duels to solve their problems, and became a thing of the past in the United States by the start of the 20th century. Writer Wyatt-Brown in his book \"\"Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South\"\" described dueling in the American frontier as a \"custom\", and was primarily used for teenage disputes, rise in ranking, status and scapegoating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12038885",
"title": "Gunspinning",
"section": "Section::::Notable examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Some modern day Western performers and actors such as Dony Robert and Joey Rocketshoes Dillon can spin guns in each hand, and even incorporate juggling and tosses over the shoulders and around the body. Dillon is a multiple world champion at this craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ckttjw
|
what exactly makes the popping sounds when popping/cracking your muscles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Air pockets between your joints. When your joints are moving, it can occasionally cause a gas bubble of CO2 between the joints. When you \"crack\" said joints, the sound is the air bubble collapsing. This is my most knuckle cracking only happen once after using your fingers for a while and you can't make the cracking sound on demand.... when you can make the sound repeatedly, that might be two bones making contact with each other, but that is exceedingly rare.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could be wrong here, but I've heard that gas bubbles form throughout your body. When you pop a joint, the bubble that formed in there collapses and is re-absorbed into the blood?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7143217",
"title": "Facet joint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In the thoracic spine the facet joints function to restrain the amount of flexion and anterior translation of the corresponding vertebral segment and function to facilitate rotation. Cavitation of the synovial fluid within the facet joints is responsible for the popping sound (crepitus) associated with manual spinal manipulation, commonly referred to as \"cracking the back.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3125571",
"title": "Knuckle",
"section": "Section::::Cracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The physical mechanism behind the popping or cracking sound heard when cracking joints such as knuckles has recently been elucidated by cine MRI to be caused by tribonucleation as a gas bubble forms in the synovial fluid that bathes the joint. Despite this evidence, many still believe it to be caused by synovial fluid filling the vacuum left by the joint's displacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333459",
"title": "Popping",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Popping is centered around the technique of \"popping\", which means to quickly contract and relax muscles to create a jerking effect (a \"pop\" or \"hit\") in the body. Popping can be concentrated to specific body parts, creating variants such as arm pops, leg pops, chest pops and neck pops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7790174",
"title": "Joint manipulation",
"section": "Section::::Cracking joints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "Joint manipulation is characteristically associated with the production of an audible 'clicking' or 'popping' sound. This sound is believed to be the result of a phenomenon known as cavitation occurring within the synovial fluid of the joint. When a manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint. This deforms the joint capsule and intra-articular tissues, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave solution creating a bubble or cavity, which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a 'clicking' sound. The contents of this gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time termed the 'refractory period', which can range from a few minutes to more than an hour, while it is slowly reabsorbed back into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity around the target joint is associated with an increased probability of cavitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30707",
"title": "Temporomandibular joint dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Joint noises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1595,
"text": "Noises from the TMJs are a symptom of dysfunction of these joints. The sounds commonly produced by TMD are usually described as a \"click\" or a \"pop\" when a single sound is heard and as \"crepitation\" or \"crepitus\" when there are multiple, grating, rough sounds. Most joint sounds are due to internal derangement of the joint, which is a term used to describe instability or abnormal position of the articular disc. Clicking often accompanies either jaw opening or closing, and usually occurs towards the end of the movement. The noise indicates that the articular disc has suddenly moved to and from a temporarily displaced position (disk displacement with reduction) to allow completion of a phase of movement of the mandible. If the disc displaces and does not reduce (move back into position) this may be associated with locking. Clicking alone is not diagnostic of TMD since it is present in high proportion of the general population, mostly in people who have no pain. Crepitus often indicates arthritic changes in the joint, and may occur at any time during mandibular movement, especially lateral movements. Perforation of the disc may also cause crepitus. Due to the proximity of the TMJ to the ear canal, joint noises are perceived to be much louder to the individual than to others. Often people with TMD are surprised that what sounds to them like very loud noises cannot be heard at all by others next to them. However, it is occasionally possible for loud joint noises to be easily heard by others in some cases and this can be a source of embarrassment e.g. when eating in company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7042",
"title": "Cracking joints",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "There were several theories to explain the cracking of joints. Synovial fluid cavitation has some evidence to support it. When a spinal manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low-pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution, making a bubble, or cavity, which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a \"clicking\" sound. The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the \"refractory period,\" during which the joint cannot be \"re-cracked,\" which lasts about twenty minutes, while the gases are slowly reabsorbed into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2186011",
"title": "Tensor tympani muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The tensor tympani acts to dampen the noise produced by chewing. When tensed, the muscle pulls the malleus medially, tensing the tympanic membrane and damping vibration in the ear ossicles and thereby reducing the perceived amplitude of sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dosl6
|
does the earth travel the exact same orbit every year or does it change slightly?
|
[
{
"answer": "The orbit definitely changes, but by how much? With Newton's law of universal gravitation (F=GmM/d^2 ), the force of gravity is dependent on the square of the distance between two objects. The force between two objects can literally never be 0, but it will get really small. That means every object in the universe pulls on the earth in some way, but it won't significantly affect the orbit unless it is either really really big, or really really close (usually both). The only things big enough to do that are other planets and stars. There aren't really any stars close enough, but we can look at planets.\n\nLooking at the second biggest relatively nearby body, Jupiter, we can see roughly how much it affects the earth. The minimum distance between earth and jupiter, according to NASA, is 588.5 \\*10^6 km, or 5.885 \\* 10^11 m.\n\nThe mass of Jupiter is 1.89813\\*10^27 kg, and earth 5.97219\\*10^24 kg. Thus making the force of gravity between the two be 2.186\\*10^18 newtons. That's a lot of force, but how much does it affect the earth? \n\nF=ma, so 2.186\\10^18 / 5.97219\\*10^24 = acceleration by the force of gravity, = 3.66\\*10^-7 m/s^2\n\nThat's really small. Actually, its one one-hundred-millionths of the acceleration of gravity on earth.\n\nSo the answer is definitely no, the orbit is not the same from year to year. It varies, but by how much? Not a lot, at least because of gravity. There is probably something I overlooked in all of this that is much more significant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It does change slightly because of the influence of the other planets' gravity. This is what has caused the natural climate changes in the past. Over periods of hundreds of thousands of years the Earth's orbit changes pretty noticeably. These are part of the Milankovitch cycles.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If by orbit you mean circling along a ring in the same positions in space as the year prior, then the Earth never travels to the same point. This is because the entire solar system is orbiting around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, which itself is moving towards the Andromeda Galaxy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same orbit with respect to what? /u/norelevantcomments has addressed how jupiter affects the earth's orbit, but the earth is orbiting the sun, which is orbiting the galactic core. The path the earth orbits is not the same every year with respect to the core because the sun is moving about 230 km/s relative to the core.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20580",
"title": "Motion",
"section": "Section::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis. This is evidenced by day and night, at the equator the earth has an eastward velocity of . The Earth is also orbiting around the Sun in an orbital revolution. A complete orbit around the sun takes one year, or about 365 days; it averages a speed of about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826161",
"title": "Lunar month",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Synodic month.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Since Earth's orbit around the Sun is elliptical and not circular, the speed of Earth's progression around the Sun varies during the year. Thus, the angular rate is faster nearer periapsis and slower near apoapsis. The same is so for the Moon's orbit around the Earth. Because of these variations in angular rate, the actual time between lunations may vary from about 29.18 to about 29.93 days. The long-term average duration is days (29 d 12 h 44 min 2.8016 s). The synodic month is used to calculate eclipse cycles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and rotation.:Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of Earth averages about , which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about , in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, , in about 3.5 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438948",
"title": "Equation of time",
"section": "Section::::Major components of the equation.:Eccentricity of the Earth's orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at perihelion (currently around 3 January) and slower at aphelion a half year later. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878461",
"title": "Earth's orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "As seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° eastward per solar day (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours). Earth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (109044 km/h; 67756 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4396171",
"title": "Earth's rotation",
"section": "Section::::Periods.:Angular speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1113,
"text": "The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is ± . Multiplying by (180°/π radians) × (86,400 seconds/day) yields , indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun. Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of . Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or . This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by . However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, , which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438948",
"title": "Equation of time",
"section": "Section::::Major components of the equation.:Eccentricity of the Earth's orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean. As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a periodic variation which is (in the first-order approximation) a sine wave with an amplitude of 7.66 min and a period of one year to the equation of time. The zero points are reached at perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July); the extreme values are in early April (negative) and early October (positive).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60pdvr
|
how many days of fasting does it take for your metabolism to slow down?
|
[
{
"answer": "This isn't as simple as how many days. A person's metabolism is based on multiple factors, such as age, gender, genetics, etc. As far as fasting if you mean eating smaller meals then it won't have much of an effect. If you mean more a person that doesn't eat for a day and is barely eating then they are dealing with bigger issues with their body than their metabolism.\n\nIf you are curious here are a few fasting myths debunked. Seems like your question might be answered with the first myth._URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7617805",
"title": "Starvation response",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Magnitude and composition.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "After 2 or 3 days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for 3 days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After 4 days, this goes up to 75%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20104879",
"title": "Intermittent fasting",
"section": "Section::::Types and variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Whole-day fasting (WDF) involves regular one or two fasting days per week. As an example, requires five non-fasting days and 2 fasting days in a week. During the fasting days, it allows approximately 500 to 600 calories or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "After 2 or 3 days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for 3 days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After 4 days, this may go upwards to 70% or more. Thus, the production of ketone bodies cuts the brain's glucose requirement from 80 g per day to 30 g per day, about 35% of normal, with 65% derived from ketone bodies. But of the brain's remaining 30 g requirement, 20 g per day can be produced by the liver from glycerol (itself a product of fat breakdown). But this still leaves a deficit of about 10 g of glucose per day that must be supplied from some other source. This other source will be the body's own proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20104879",
"title": "Intermittent fasting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Intermittent fasting (intermittent energy restriction or intermittent calorie restriction) is an umbrella term for various eating diet plans that cycle between a period of fasting and non-fasting over a defined period. Intermittent fasting is under preliminary research to assess if it can produce weight loss comparable to long-term calorie restriction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7108438",
"title": "Fasting in Jainism",
"section": "Section::::Types of fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- Varshitap is Upwas, fasting for 36 hours, on alternate days for 13 lunar months and 13 days continuously. In Varshitap a person eats on alternate days between sunrise and sunset only. A person can not eat on any two consecutive days for the period of fast but can fast on two consecutive days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187886",
"title": "Fasting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight, or to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting. Some diagnostic tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting once 8–12 hours have elapsed since the last meal. Metabolic changes of the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after eating).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18369071",
"title": "Twelver",
"section": "Section::::Shari'ah (Furu al-Din).:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "Nasr describes that Fasting is abstaining oneself from food, drink and sexual intercourse from the dawn to the sunset during the month of Ramadan. The Fast also requires the abstaining one's mind and tongue away from evil thoughts and words. It is obligatory from the age of adolescence until the time one possesses the physical strength to undertake it. The fast is not obligatory for the sick, those travelling and breast-feeding mothers, but they must make up the lost days when possible. According to Tabataba'ei, (Fasting) means to abstain oneself from something, which later in the development of the religion was applied to abstaining from some particular things, from break of dawn up to sunset, with intention (niyyah,النّيّة). Fasting results in piety i.e., to abstain oneself from gratifying worldly matters, results in the perfection of the spirit. He adds, one should care about matters which take him away from his Lord: this is called piety. This abstinence from common lawful things causes him to abstain from unlawful things and to come nearer to God. The end of Ramadan comes with the prayer of the Eid after which a sum of money equal to the cost of all the meals not eaten by oneself and one's family during this month is usually given to the poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4iillq
|
why does rubbing a coin on a metal surface make a vending machine accept it?
|
[
{
"answer": "I wasent aware this was a thing, Have you tried it? Because this sounds ridiculous considering how vending machines work",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vending machines indentify coins by several criteria, commonly size, weight and electric conductivity, as well as a magnet trap for magnetic counterfeits. In order to have an effect, the rubbing needs to change one or more of these criteria to within the accepted parameters of the machine.\n\nWARNING, SPECULATION FROM HERE ON:\n\n**Why it could work:**\n\nGrime or oxide covering the coin can affect the electrical conductivity of the coin. Rubbing it would remove oxides and grime, and so restore the conductivity to a level the machine will accept. If you're using visibly dirty coins the dirt could be enough to affect size and weight as well.\n\n**Why it probably doesn't:**\n\nThis sounds a bit far fetched for me, I don't think vending machines are sensitive enough to detect a thin layer of oxide, and so should accept \"un-rubbed\" coins. Also, the conductivity is indirectly identified through use of the Hall-effect, so a surface layers should have very little effect on the measurement. I speculate that it has to do with superstition and confirmation bias. That is, if you use real coins, a well-functioning vending machine should eventually accept your coins, but it's not guaranteed to do so on the first try. So you put in some coins, some are not accepted, you rub them and try again and now, \"magically\", the rubbing fixed the problem and made the machine accept the coin. Except, the machine would have accepted the coins the second time anyways, but you chose to rub them in between, and thus falsely identified the rubbing as the important part, rather than the persistent re-trying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm pretty sure we just think it's us rubbing the coin that makes it work when in reality if we just kept trying it would work anyway.\n\nBut I might be wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are finite ways how a vending machine checks the coin, and none of them can be affected by rubbing it beforehand.\n\nSo why does it work then? It doesn't. It seems to work because confirmation bias.\n\nSee: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757560",
"title": "Currency detector",
"section": "Section::::Coin acceptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Normal circulation coins eventually collect microscopic particles of dirt, dust, oil and grease from people's fingers. When a coin acceptor is used for a long time, thousands of coins rolling along a track will leave enough dirt, dust, oil and grease to be visible. As a consequence of this, the coin acceptor must be cleaned properly on a regular basis to prevent malfunction or damage. Coin acceptors are modular, so a dirty acceptor can be replaced with a clean unit, preventing downtime. The old unit is then cleaned and refurbished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185325",
"title": "Coining (metalworking)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Coining is a form of precision stamping in which a workpiece is subjected to a sufficiently high stress to induce plastic flow on the surface of the material. A beneficial feature is that in some metals, the plastic flow reduces surface grain size, and work hardens the surface, while the material deeper in the part retains its toughness and ductility. The term comes from the initial use of the process: manufacturing of coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7339924",
"title": "Copper pour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In electronics, the term copper pour refers to an area on a printed circuit board filled with copper (the metal used to make connections in printed circuit boards). Copper pour is commonly used to create a ground plane. Another reason for using copper pour is to reduce the amount of etching fluid used during manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344165",
"title": "Die-deterioration doubling",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Overuse of Dies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "When a coin is struck, the planchet is not heated. Although the planchet would be softer and more malleable, the extra time and expense would prove too great for the Mint. The planchet is therefore struck at room temperature, and the only thing which makes the coin form is the tremendous pressure used to strike it. With a metal such as nickel, which is harder than a normal coin metal like silver, gold or copper, the pressure must be greater. When a nickel coin, or any coin, is struck, the metal must \"flow\" into the contours of the front and back dies. It is through the atoms of the metal flowing into the dies that \"flow lines\" are created. However, when metal flows over a sharp corner in the die, like the edges of a mintmark or words, it tends to roll the detail out. It wears on the die, and a little detail is lost with every strike. Die Deterioration Doubling is most prevalent on the date and mintmark because these fine details are alone in the middle of the field, and the metal must flow into these without the help of other valleys nearby. When the metal rolls into the mintmark or date, it wears away the corner of the die, and after long enough will appear on the coin as Die Deterioration Doubling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185325",
"title": "Coining (metalworking)",
"section": "Section::::Coining in electronic industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In soldering of electronic components, bumps are formed on bonding pads to enhance adhesion, which are further flattened by the coining process. Unlike typical coining applications, in this case the goal of coining is to create a flat, rather than patterned, surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53601",
"title": "Casting (metalworking)",
"section": "Section::::Non-expendable mold casting.:Centrifugal casting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757560",
"title": "Currency detector",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In normal operation, if any item such as a coin, banknote, card or ticket is accepted, it is retained within the machine and it falls into a storage container to allow a member of staff to collect it later when emptying the machine. If the item is rejected, the machine returns the item to the customer. If a coin or token is rejected, it usually falls into a tray or rolls out of a slot at the bottom where the customer can remove the coin. If a banknote, card or ticket is rejected, it is pushed back out through the machine so that the customer can remove it from the slot into which it was inserted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z32y4
|
just watched "the big short" someone please explain exactly how the main characters made money.
|
[
{
"answer": "To address your questions;\n\nBonds (groups of mortgages, with bad mortgages mixed in) were bought and sold. They had variable rates and terms that made it very easy to obtain a mortgage regardless if someone was qualified or not. \n\nTheir \"bets\" did not really effect the economy. They had caught onto a snowball sequence of events that would happen regardless of if they bet on it or not and choose to use it as an opportunity to profit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15739091",
"title": "A Financial Fable",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Eventually, all the new millionaires go to Scrooge's farm to buy food and perhaps get a job. Due to Scrooge and the nephews being the only producers of food, the prices having drastically increased — an egg now costs one million dollars, as does a ham, a cabbage costs two million, and a peck of corn costs four million — Scrooge soon gets all of his money back, and everything is back to normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26160635",
"title": "Lucifer Chu",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "An ex-millionaire, he claimed in several speeches that he spent almost all the royalties earned from \"The Hobbit\" and \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy on open education, localizing open knowledge and encouraging young people's innovation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8573584",
"title": "Money No Enough",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Money No Enough () is a 1998 Singaporean comedy film about three friends with financial problems who start a car polishing business together. Original story by J P Tan and written by Jack Neo, directed by Tay Teck Lock and produced by JSP Films, the movie stars Neo, Mark Lee and Henry Thia. Released in cinemas on 7 May 1998 and Money No Enough received mixed reviews from critics, but earned over S$5.8 million and was the all-time highest-grossing Singaporean film until 2012. Its success helped revive the Singaporean film industry and pave the way for the emergence of other Singaporean cultural phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3073785",
"title": "The Millionaire (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The Millionaire is an American anthology series that aired on CBS from 1955 to 1960. It was originally sponsored by Colgate-Palmolive. The series, produced by Don Fedderson and Fred Henry, explored the ways that sudden and unexpected wealth changed life, for better or for worse, and became a five-season hit during the Golden Age of Television, finishing in the Nielsen ratings at #9 for the 1955–1956 season, #13 in 1956–1957, #17 in 1957–1958 and #30 in 1958–1959. It told the stories of people who were given one million dollars ($ in dollars) from a benefactor who insisted they never knew him, with one exception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311946",
"title": "Old money",
"section": "Section::::Influences on popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Perhaps the greatest literary critique of the tension between Old Money and New Money can be found in F. Scott Fitzgerald's \"The Great Gatsby\". The characters in possession of old money represented by the \"Tom Buchanan\" family (Tom and Daisy), get away with (literally) murder; while those with new money, represented by Gatsby himself, are alternately embraced and scorned by other characters in the book. Fitzgerald vastly critiques people in possession of old money through his narrator Nick Carraway: \"“They were careless people, Tom and Daisy- they smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made.”\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12816440",
"title": "The Palace of Laughter",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Great Cortado – The evil ringmaster of the Circus Oscuro. He began as a leader who wanted nothing more than to make more money than any other circus in the land, but after nearly being mauled by the tiger Varippuli, he had an epiphany which led him to believe that having money is nothing compared to being powerful. Using this idea he studied the power of laughter and ways to control it, thus creating the Palace of Laughter and developing his master plan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797668",
"title": "Tony Millionaire",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Millionaire grew up in and around the seaside town of Gloucester, Massachusetts. He came from a family of artists – his father was a commercial illustrator, his mother and grandparents were painters – and was encouraged to draw from an early age. His grandfather, who was a friend of the cartoonist Roy Crane, had a large collection of old Sunday comics which were an early source of inspiration to Millionaire. He drew his first comic strip, \"about an egg-shaped superhero who flew around talking about how great he was and then crashing into a cliff,\" when he was nine years old. During high school Millionaire continued to draw comic strips for his own amusement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x2gcr
|
how does electrical grounding work for ships? why is it so complicated?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not about electrical safety directly. If you use a metal hull as ground, especially in salt water, electrolysis can cause corrosion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about civilian ships, but in the Navy we used an ungrounded 3 phase system for reliability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "510798",
"title": "Sailing ship accidents",
"section": "Section::::Grounding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Ship grounding is a type of marine accident that involves the impact of a ship on the seabed, resulting in damage of the submerged part of her hull and in particularly the bottom structure, potentially leading to water ingress and compromise of the ship's structural integrity and stability. Grounding induces extreme loads onto marine structures and is a marine accident of profound importance due to its impact:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13757374",
"title": "Cold ironing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Shore power saves consumption of fuel that would otherwise be used to power vessels while in port, and eliminates the air pollution associated with consumption of that fuel. Use of shore power facilitates maintenance of the ship's engines and generators, and reduces noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2488867",
"title": "Shorepower",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Similar to shore power for ships, a ground power unit (GPU) may be used to supply electric power for an aircraft on the ground, to sustain interior lighting, ventilation and other requirements before starting of the main engines or the aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU). It is also used by aircraft with APUs if the airport authority does not permit the usage of APUs at its docks or if the carrier wishes to save on the use of jet fuel (which APUs use). This may be a self-contained engine-generator set, or it may convert commercial power to the voltage and frequency needed for the aircraft (for example 115v 400Hz).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2488867",
"title": "Shorepower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Shore power or shore supply is the provision of shoreside electrical power to a ship at berth while its main and auxiliary engines are shut down. While the term denotes shore as opposed to off-shore, it is sometimes applied to aircraft or land-based vehicles (such as campers, heavy trucks with sleeping compartments and tour buses), which may plug into grid power when parked for idle reduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2488867",
"title": "Shorepower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Shore power saves consumption of fuel that would otherwise be used to power vessels while in port, and eliminates the air pollution associated with consumption of that fuel. A port city may have anti-idling laws that require ships to use shore power. Use of shore power may facilitate maintenance of the ship's engines and generators, and reduces noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065627",
"title": "Ground and neutral",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Ground or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low-impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment (high voltage spikes). The terms and are used synonymously in this section; is more common in North American English, and is more common in British English. Under normal conditions, a grounding conductor does not carry current. Grounding is an integral path for home wiring also because it causes circuit breakers to trip more quickly (ie, GFI), which is safer. Adding new grounds requires a qualified electrician with information particular to a power company distribution region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1324884",
"title": "Cable layer",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "The most common laying engine in use is the Linear Cable Engine (LCE). The LCE is used to feed the cable down to the ocean floor, but this device can also be reversed and used to bring back up cable needing repair. These engines can feed 800 feet of cable a minute. However, ships are limited to a speed of 8 knots while laying cable to ensure the cable lies on the sea floor properly and to compensate for any small adjustments in course that might affect the cables' position, which must be carefully mapped so that they can be found again if they need to be repaired. Linear Cable Engines are also equipped with a brake system that allows the flow of cable to be controlled or stopped if a problem arises. A common system used is a fleeting drum, a mechanical drum fitted with eoduldes (raised surfaces on the drum face) that help slow and guide the cable into the LCE. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8g8106
|
why after months of making no noise does my fan catch something in it to start making a rattling noise.
|
[
{
"answer": "Spinning and vibrations can loosen screws. Loose screws cause pieces to knock against eachother. It should be an easy fix unless something is actually broken.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fans are balanced to eliminate as much vibration while the blades are rotating. If something heavy enough puts the balance out, all the components will being to vibrate and wobble. This could also lead to screws loosening and wear of the drive shaft, bearings and motor components.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "851755",
"title": "Computer fan control",
"section": "Section::::Need for fan control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Fans installed in a PC case can produce noise levels of up to 70 dB. Since fan noise increases with the fifth power of the fan rotation speed, reducing rotations per minute (RPM) by a small amount potentially means a large reduction in fan noise. This must be done cautiously, as excessive reduction in speed may cause components to overheat and be damaged. If done properly fan noise can be drastically reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39358688",
"title": "Axial fan design",
"section": "Section::::Causes of unstable flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Stalling and surging affects the fan performance, blades, as well as output and are thus undesirable. They occur because of the improper design, fan physical properties and are generally accompanied by noise generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Workplace.:Sporting events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Studies are still being done on fan exposure, but some preliminary findings show that there are often noises that can be at or exceed 120 dB which, unprotected, can cause damage to the ears in seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39358688",
"title": "Axial fan design",
"section": "Section::::Causes of unstable flow.:Paralleling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "This effect is seen only in case of multiple fans. The air flow capacities of the fans are compared and connected in same outlet or same inlet conditions. This causes noise, specifically referred to as Beating in case of fans in parallel. To avoid beating use is made of differing inlet conditions, differences in rotational speeds of the fans, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68316",
"title": "Heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Another feature of air source heat pumps (ASHPs) external heat exchangers is their need to stop the fan from time to time for a period of several minutes in order to get rid of frost that accumulates in the outdoor unit in the heating mode. After that, the heat pump starts to work again. This part of the work cycle results in two sudden changes of the noise made by the fan. The acoustic effect of such disruption on neighbors is especially powerful in quiet environments where background nighttime noise may be as low as 0 to 10dBA. This is included in legislation in France. According to the French concept of noise nuisance, \"noise emergence\" is the difference between ambient noise including the disturbing noise, and ambient noise without the disturbing noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12877572",
"title": "Fan (machine)",
"section": "Section::::Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Fans generate noise from the rapid flow of air around blades and obstacles causing vortexes, and from the motor. Fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20851848",
"title": "Internal fan-cooled electric motor",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "All fans generate noise, something that may not be desired in a motor, and drag on their power source. Also, like any device with a fan, increased airflow through the motor can cause increased dust build up, which could potentially hinder the motor's operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hktc0
|
how nyc is able to implement "stop and frisk".
|
[
{
"answer": "Bloomberg prefers asking forgiveness rather than permission. The city will be sued at some point, but by that time Bloomberg hopes to have something to show for this very questionable policy. He did it with the park smoking ban, too. Make bold laws, let someone else work to get rid of it.\n\nThat being said, I've seen it happen multiple times. Enrages me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few major reason is that the people they are stopping are largely ignorant of their rights, less orgnized, have less political power, fewer rights (ex fellons), and broke.\n\nThat's not a group of people set up and educated enought to fight NY.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18586579",
"title": "Notify NYC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Notify NYC is the City of New York’s official source for information about emergency events and important City services. It is a free service launched by the NYC Emergency Management and New York City Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications (DoITT)] in 2007, allowing users to receive alerts through various communications devices, such as cell phones, landlines, email, Twitter, and RSS. Users can specify which alerts they would like to receive, and determine their specific location of interest with zip codes. Registration is free and simple. Notify NYC services residents and visitors to all five boroughs of the City of New York: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, and the Bronx. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39052199",
"title": "Floyd v. City of New York",
"section": "Section::::Legal background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "In 2003, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York first addressed the NYPD's application of \"stop and frisk\" on minority groups in \"Daniels, et al. v. the City of New York\". \"Daniels\" was resolved through a settlement agreement requiring the City to adopt several remedial measures intended to reduce racial disparities in stops and frisks. Under the terms of that settlement, the NYPD enacted a Racial Profiling Policy; revised the UF250 form, otherwise known as a \"Stop, Question and Frisk Report Worksheet,\" so that stops would be more accurately documented; and instituted regular audits of the UF250 forms, among other measures. The policy \"prohibits the use of race, color, ethnicity or national origin as a determinative factor in taking law enforcement action,\" though those markers may be used to identify a suspect in the same way that pedigree information (height, weight, and age, etc.) is used. The Racial Profiling Policy further requires that commanding officers establish self-inspections within their command to monitor compliance with the policy; that the NYPD Quality Assurance Division (\"QAD\") audit compliance with the self-inspection directive; and that CompStat review include consideration of \"performance in this area.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35257558",
"title": "Stop-and-frisk in New York City",
"section": "Section::::Controversy regarding mass-use and claims of racial profiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "On June 17, 2012, several thousand people marched silently down Manhattan's Fifth Avenue from lower Harlem to Bloomberg's Upper East Side townhouse in protest of the stop-question-and-frisk policy. The mayor refused to end the program, contending that the program reduces crime and saves lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27568823",
"title": "Representing NYC",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "While its primary goal is to provide a service to underrepresented artists, Representing NYC also creates a meaningful way for artists moving into the rapidly changing neighborhoods of New York City to engage with the youth and the communities that surround them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35257558",
"title": "Stop-and-frisk in New York City",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The stop-question-and-frisk program, or stop-and-frisk, in New York City, is a New York City Police Department practice of temporarily detaining, questioning, and at times searching civilians on the street for weapons and other contraband. This is what is known in other places in the United States as the \"Terry\" stop. The rules for stop, question, and frisk are found in the state's criminal procedure law section 140.50, and are based on the decision of the US Supreme Court in the case of \"Terry v. Ohio\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39052199",
"title": "Floyd v. City of New York",
"section": "Section::::Legal background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "The New York City stop-and-frisk program is a practice of the New York City Police Department by which a police officer who reasonably suspects a person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a felony or a penal law misdemeanor, stops and questions that person, and, if the officer reasonably suspects he or she is in danger of physical injury, frisks the person stopped for weapons. The rules for stop and frisk are found in New York State Criminal Procedure Law section 140.50, and are based on the decision of the United States Supreme Court in the case of Terry v. Ohio About 684,000 people were stopped in 2011. The vast majority of these people were African-American or Latino. New York City residents have questioned whether these stops are based on reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. According to NYPD statistics from 2002 through 2012, an average of one in eight people stopped were accused of a crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844695",
"title": "YIMBY",
"section": "Section::::United States.:New York - New York City.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Open New York, which began in 2017, is an activist group that writes op-eds and testifies in zoning-related hearings. Curbed states that: \"Its core philosophy mirrors that of other YIMBY—or yes in my backyard—groups in cities like San Francisco or Los Angeles, which advocate for doing away with exclusionary zoning, and combating the exclusionary sentiment of wealthy enclaves they believe prevents cities from becoming more equitable.\" According to Ben Carlos Thypin, an organizer with Open New York, “In high-opportunity areas where people actually really want to live, the well-heeled, mostly white residents are able to use their perceived political power to stop the construction of basically anything,” he says, adding that low-income communities don’t share that ability to keep development at bay. “Philosophically, we think that the disproportionate share of the burden of growth has been borne by low income, minority or industrial neighborhoods for far too long,” he says.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ahfm0
|
What are some causes of the tank in WWI?
|
[
{
"answer": "You pretty much hit it on the head already. The tank was developed to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare, nothing morehere and t was certainly no desire to replace cavalry. In fact, on the Western Front, offensives were planned with cavalry to be used in conjunction with tanks. And they had to be, the tanks of the First World War were for the most part, slow and cumbersome and couldn't be relied upon to exploit a breakthrough should one occur. At Cambrai in 1917, cavalry was supposed to exploit the breakthrough made by the British tanks. The tanks successfully overcame the German defenses but poor planning meant the breakthrough was never realised and the Germans retook the ground. A better example is Amiens in 1918. Tanks, in conjunction with infantry successfully drove a hole through the German lines and achieved a breakthrough. With the mud and tortured landscape left behind and open country ahead, cavalry could actually play a the role it was always meant to play.\n\nMy point is that the tank was developed for no other reason than to overcome the hell of trench warfare. For evidence of this, look at the Eastern Front. Warfare was much more fluid and the front line moved often, with the absence of a stalemate, the development of weapons to overcome the types of problems seen in the west was also absent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Designs for tanks actually predate WW1. There were various designs floating around before the war. An Australian (Mole?) had submitted a design for a tank (obviously not called a tank) before WW1 to the British War Department. They told him there was no use for it. Some of these designers were paid royalties after WW1.\n\nHowever, as said, it took the stalemate of WW1 trench warfare for people to start looking around for something that would break it. \n\nOther things were tried first. Not official things, but things done by soldiers. Some took wheelbarrows and stuck, not sure how, steel plates on them and then would try and advance with it. Didn't work out so much. Some took steel plates and tried it with other already existing vehicles. None of these turned out to be very practical. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle.:History.:Armoured fighting vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "During World War I, the stalemate of trench warfare during on the Western Front spurred the development of the tank. It was envisioned as an armoured machine that could advance under fire from enemy rifles and machine guns, and respond with its own heavy guns. It utilized caterpillar tracks to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2994067",
"title": "Tanks in World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The development of tanks in World War I was a response to the stalemate that had developed on the Western Front. Although vehicles that incorporated the basic principles of the tank (armour, firepower, and all-terrain mobility) had been projected in the decade or so before the War, it was the alarmingly heavy casualties of the start of its trench warfare that stimulated development. Research took place in both Great Britain and France, with Germany only belatedly following the Allies' lead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29970",
"title": "Tank",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I.:Other nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Although tank tactics developed rapidly during the war, piecemeal deployments, mechanical problems, and poor mobility limited the military significance of the tank in World War I, and the tank did not fulfil its promise of rendering trench warfare obsolete. Nonetheless, it was clear to military thinkers on both sides that tanks in some way could have a significant role in future conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212341",
"title": "History of the tank",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The history of the tank began in World War I, when armoured all-terrain fighting vehicles were first deployed as a response to the problems of trench warfare, ushering in a new era of mechanized warfare. Though initially crude and unreliable, tanks eventually became a mainstay of ground armies. By World War II, tank design had advanced significantly, and tanks were used in quantity in all land theatres of the war. The Cold War saw the rise of modern tank doctrine and the rise of the general-purpose main battle tank. The tank still provides the backbone to land combat operations in the 21st century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "The role of the tank in World War I strategy is often poorly understood. Its supporters saw it as the weapon of victory, and many observers since have accused the high commands (especially the British) of shortsightedness in this matter, particularly in view of what tanks have achieved since. Nevertheless, the World War I tank's limitations, imposed by the limits of contemporary engineering technology, have to be borne in mind. They were slow (men could run, and frequently walk, faster); vulnerable (to artillery) due to their size, clumsiness and inability to carry armour against anything but rifle and machine gun ammunition; extremely uncomfortable (conditions inside them often incapacitating crews with engine fumes and heat, and driving some mad with noise); and often despicably unreliable (frequently failing to make it to their targets due to engine or track failures). This was the factor behind the seemingly mindless retention of large bodies of cavalry, which even in 1918, with armies incompletely mechanised, were still the only armed force capable of moving significantly faster than an infantryman on foot. It was not until the relevant technology (in engineering and communications) matured between the wars that the tank and the airplane could be forged into the co-ordinated force needed to truly restore manoeuvre to warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326213",
"title": "Technology during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Mobility.:Tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Although the concept of the tank had been suggested as early as the 1890s, authorities showed little more than a passing interest in them until the trench stalemate of World War I caused reconsideration. In early 1915, the British Royal Navy and French industrialists both started dedicated development of tanks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182259",
"title": "Trench warfare",
"section": "Section::::World War I – breaking the stalemate.:Tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "By 1918, tank capabilities and tactics improved, their numbers increased and, combined with French tanks, finally helped break the stalemate. During the last 100 days of the war, Allied forces harried the Germans back using infantry supported by tanks and by close air support. By the war's end, tanks become a significant element of warfare; the proposed British Plan 1919 would have employed tanks as a primary factor in military strategy. However, the impact of tanks in World War I was less than it could have been, due to their late introduction and the inherent issues that plague implementing revolutionary technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34f9q8
|
statutory rape?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea behind statutory rape laws is that young people are much easier to manipulate, are frequently placed in situations where adults have considerable power over them, and haven't developed enough judgement to make potentially large decisions. \n\nThose factors combine to make any potential actual consent very hard to determine, so there's a cut off that says, nothing is sufficient to show consent in cases where the younger person was under a certain age. \n\nNote that we also don't generally let those under age participate in commercial contracts for the similar reasons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Age of consent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "In some common law jurisdictions, statutory rape is sexual activity in which one person is below the age required to legally consent to the behavior. Although it usually refers to adults engaging in sex with minors under the age of consent, it is a generic term, and very few jurisdictions use the actual term \"statutory rape\" in the language of statutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19666880",
"title": "Statutory rape",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "In common law jurisdictions, statutory rape is nonforcible sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the age of consent (the age required to legally consent to the behavior). Although it usually refers to adults engaging in sexual contact with minors under the age of consent, it is a generic term, and very few jurisdictions use the actual term \"statutory rape\" in the language of statutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22332885",
"title": "Anti-rape movement",
"section": "Section::::Legislation.:Changes in law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The new federal definition of rape is defined as, \"non-consensual sexual intercourse ‘by force, threat, or intimidation.'\" Federal law has divided rape into two categories: the common law rape of an adult and statutory rape which is assaulting a minor. According to federal law, the marital exemption does not exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672680",
"title": "Laws regarding rape",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Rape is a type of sexual assault initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, or where the person is under threat or manipulation, or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. It is the name of a statutory crime in jurisdictions such as England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland, California, and New York, and is a legal term of art used in the definition of the offence of sexual violation in New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39449909",
"title": "Marital rape in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Marital rape in United States law, also known as spousal rape, is non-consensual sex in which the perpetrator is the victim's spouse. It is a form of partner rape, of domestic violence, and of sexual abuse. Today, marital rape is illegal in all 50 US states, though the details of the offence vary by state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31546658",
"title": "Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 1976",
"section": "Section::::Section 7 - Citation, interpretation, commencement and extent.:Section 7(2).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "As originally enacted, this subsection defined \"a rape offence\" to mean any of the following: rape, attempted rape, aiding, abetting, counselling and procuring rape or attempted rape, and incitement to rape. The definition was amended by sections 158(1) and (6) of, and paragraph 16 of Schedule 8 to, the Criminal Justice Act 1988, which added conspiracy to rape and burglary with intent to rape. This subsection was substituted by section 139 of, and paragraphs 20(1) and (3)(a) of Schedule 6 to the Sexual Offences Act 2003. This provided a new definition of \"a rape offence\" as meaning any of the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23575035",
"title": "Sexual violence in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The offense of rape is defined by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007. This act has repealed the common law offence of rape, replacing it with a broader statutory offense which is defined in section 3 of the act as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
objra
|
Seriously: What came first, the egg or the chicken?
|
[
{
"answer": "In terms of timeline, the dinosaurs were laying eggs before birds had even become a separate biological class, so the very first animal that could even possibly have been designated as a type of fowl would have come *long* after the first egg.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30878",
"title": "Chicken or the egg",
"section": "Section::::Scientific resolutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "If the question refers to \"chicken\" eggs specifically, the answer is still the egg, but the explanation is more complicated. The process by which the chicken arose through the interbreeding and domestication of multiple species of wild jungle fowl is poorly understood, and the point at which this evolving organism became a chicken is a somewhat arbitrary distinction. Whatever criteria one chooses, an animal nearly identical to the modern chicken (i.e., a proto-chicken) laid a fertilized egg that had DNA identical to the modern chicken (due to mutations in the mother's ovum, the father's sperm, or the fertilised zygote). Put more simply by Neil deGrasse Tyson: \"Which came first: the chicken or the egg? The egg—laid by a bird that was not a chicken.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3495657",
"title": "John Brookfield",
"section": "Section::::Popular Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In 2006, John Brookfield was invited to comment on the Chicken or the egg controversy, along with a number of others. All parties came down on the egg first side of the debate. John gives his reasoning as \"The first chicken must have differed from its parents by some genetic change, perhaps a very subtle one, but one which caused this bird to be the first ever to fulfil our criteria for truly being a chicken. Thus the living organism inside the eggshell would have had the same DNA as the chicken that it would develop into, and thus would itself be a member of the species of chicken.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36280948",
"title": "Chicken as biological research model",
"section": "Section::::History.:Chicken embryos as a research model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Human fascination with the chicken and its egg are so deeply rooted in history that it is hard to say exactly when avian exploration began. As early as 1400 BCE, ancient Egyptians artificially incubated chicken eggs to propagate their food supply. The developing chicken in the egg first appears in written history after catching the attention of the famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle, around 350 BCE. As Aristotle opened chicken eggs at various time points of incubation, he noted how the organism changed over time. Through his writing of \"Historia Animalium\", he introduced some of the earliest studies of embryology based on his observations of the chicken in the egg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194084",
"title": "Chicken Little (2005 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Chicken Little is a 2005 American 3D computer-animated science fiction comedy film, produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and loosely based on the original fable of the same name. The 46th Disney animated feature film, it was directed by Mark Dindal from a screenplay by Steve Bencich, Ron J. Friedman, and Ron Anderson, based on a story by Mark Kennedy and Dindal. The film is dedicated to Disney artist and writer Joe Grant, who died before the film's release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48500322",
"title": "Chicken (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Chicken is a 1982 computer game for the Atari 8-bit family written by Mike Potter and published by Synapse Software. The game is modified version of the Atari arcade game \"Avalanche\", replacing the buckets and boulders with a hen trying to catch her eggs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59531288",
"title": "The Egg (1956 short story)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "\"The Egg\" is a science fiction short story by L. Sprague de Camp. It was first published in the magazine \"Satellite Science Fiction\" for October, 1956. It first appeared in book form in the collection \"A Gun for Dinosaur and Other Imaginative Tales\" (Doubleday, 1963). The story has been translated into German. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167189",
"title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods.:Poultry and eggs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Until the domestication of the chicken, eggs were available in limited quantities and were considered a delicacy, as in ancient Egypt. The most common birds – turtledoves and pigeons – were reared for their meat and not for their very small eggs. Biblical references to eggs are only in reference to gathering them from the wild (for example, and ). Eggs seem to have increased in use for food only with the introduction of chickens as food, and were commonly used as food by Roman times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hw3s7
|
why is push-back from power utilities against solar power such a big deal?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are some laws in place which require utilities to purchase excess generation. These laws didn't really have as much of an impact on the utilities back when there weren't many cases of this, but as it's become more common they are more concerned about it.\n\nFor utilities it'd be in their interest to not be required to buy back extra power, but that's part of the draw of purchasing solar in the first place, to save money for when you have to pay for electricity when the solar doesn't provide enough so naturally there is a conflict there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, it's a benefit to the consumer to sell back to the utility. They DO use solar when they can, and buy from the utility when they cannot. But they also get a credit if they generate too much solar at any given point. The buy-back rules were put in place to incentivize people to add more solar panels. \n\nHonestly, it's not a big deal. As solar becomes cheaper, more efficient, and more prolific, the rules about buy-back will be cut back or removed, because they won't serve a purpose. Regulatory bodies won't allow utilities to die, because they do need the infrastructure in place. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly, current power prices have a low fixed rate plus the variable rate based on usage. If you generate more power than you use, it credits back.\n\nThat fixed rate is *supposed* to account for grid maintenance and such, but the pricing used by most American utility systems doesn't charge enough in the fixed rate to cover those costs, and the balance is made up through usage.\n\nCustomers which use very little grid power thanks to on-site generation are therefore gaining the benefits of grid connection (more or less steady power at all times) without, necessarily, paying into the maintenance of said grid.\n\nIt's similar in some respects to the ways that electrical adoption in other fields is causing the breakdown of existing price structures. There's talk of switching the gas tax to a per-mile road tax, for example; the gas tax is a primary funding source for road maintenance, but high-efficiency vehicles pay a fraction of it and all-electric vehicles are effectively driving on roads that they're not helping to pay into.\n\nIt just means that the cost structure and pricing models associated need to adjust, and haven't done so yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Selling back is commented on well here. So I won't say more about it.\n\nOther tactics used are that the energy companies are making implementation so impossibly expensive that no one is willing to invest. Around my area, solar panels are taxed, which *GOES TO THE ENERGY COMPANY*, and they require expensive permits, on the same order of magnitude as an independent sub-station, and the company charges fees because you have solar. Any service work comes with an additional fee. And we're taxed annually. They're trying to make solar illegal as some sort of safety hazard because if you cut the power to the house, the house electric is still energized. That's their excuse. And our energy company has a legal monopoly. Our ability to choose is to get the town as a whole to choose the energy provider, and no matter who we choose, they get the legal monopoly and can basically game the system to charge whatever the fuck they want.\n\nI've read here that in parts of Arizona, where there's so much sun people disconnect from their electric utilities, the utilities are trying to make service compulsory, or they're taxing people for not having a service.\n\nEnergy companies hate privately owned solar because energy is their business, and if we're consuming less of it, or they don't control the means of production, then why do we need them? And how do they continue making money?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't in the interest of the utility companies for you to be selling excess power to the grid because you are effectively competing with them.\n\nThis is complicated by the fact that grid maintenance costs must be paid by someone. The costs of maintenance are traditionally paid to the generator by the consumer. This causes issues if the consumer and the generator can be the same entity while remaining uninvolved in the maintenance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real problem I see has nothing to do with buy back of power. Yes, that's a huge issue, but I own land where power has not been brought to yet. I've heard notions of making self-installation illegal, and anything remotely like this gets my blood boiling. The reason I bought remote property was to get away from these scumbag monopolists. In that part of the country, power can be $2-300 per month in the winter. I want nothing to do with that. These utility companies are just abusing humanity, and it's disgusting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With the best will in the world, solar power is a big and expensive technical problem for utility companies.\n\nAn electricity grid needs to be carefully balanced between inputs and outputs. An imbalance in either direction can lead to failures that result in blackouts.\n\nUtility companies need to carefully manage generation to match demand; The most extreme example of this is in the UK, where electric kettles [cause huge spikes in demand](_URL_0_) during commercial breaks in popular TV programmes. The British electricity grid needs specialist hydroelectric storage facilities to cope with these spikes, and often imports electricity from France.\n\nSolar panels obviously only generate energy during the day; Their output is unreliable due to changing weather. Storing that energy is expensive and difficult and solar panels would be uneconomical if they were only used as needed, so the usual solution is to [sell the electricity](_URL_2_) back to the utility company. Large numbers of extra solar panels mean that utility companies need to make a huge investment in energy storage facilities and the associated generation control equipment to manage this unpredictable source of energy.\n\nOne possible solution to this problem is [smart metering](_URL_1_), which would allow the cost of electricity to vary on a minute-by-minute basis depending on supply and demand. Energy-intensive industries could plan their consumption to take advantage of cheap electricity, and intelligent appliances could automatically optimise their energy use. This would be particularly useful if electric cars become popular, as their batteries could be used as an energy reservoir. Variable pricing is a controversial issue amongst consumers, and would impose substantial costs upon utility companies if the cost of upgrading meters was not subsidised by government. Only a few states have even started to install smart meters, and a national rollout will take many years and cost billions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1710713",
"title": "Florida Power & Light",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Along with other state utilities, FPL has been criticized for using its influence with state politicians and political organizations to reject laws which would make it easier for home and business owners to adopt rooftop solar. According to the Florida Center for Investigative Reporting, several of the top utility companies in Florida, including FPL, have contributed over $12 million towards the election campaigns of state lawmakers since 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54269557",
"title": "Solar energy conversion",
"section": "Section::::Economic development.:Grid defection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "A potential socioeconomic drawback associated with solar energy conversion is a disruption to the electric utility business model. In America, the economic viability of regional “monopoly” utilities is based on the large aggregation of local customers who balance out each other's variable load. Therefore, the widespread installation of rooftop solar systems that are not connected to the grid poses a threat to the stability of the utility market. This phenomenon is known as Grid Defection. The pressure on electric utilities is exacerbated by an aging grid infrastructure that has yet to adapt to the new challenges posed by renewable energy (mainly regarding inertia, reverse power flow and relay protection schemes). However, some analysts make the case that with the steady increase in natural disasters (which destroy vital grid infrastructure), solar microgrid installation may be necessary to ensure emergency energy access. This emphasis on contingency preparation has expanded the off-grid energy market dramatically in recent years, especially in areas prone to natural disasters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34779206",
"title": "Photovoltaic power station",
"section": "Section::::Economics and finance.:Incentive mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Because the point of grid parity has not yet been reached in many parts of the world, solar generating stations need some form of financial incentive to compete for the supply of electricity. Many legislatures around the world have introduced such incentives to support the deployment of solar power stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41568",
"title": "Power factor",
"section": "Section::::Non-linear loads.:Switched-mode power supplies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "This presents a particular problem for the power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load. Many jurisdictions are beginning to legally require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17684007",
"title": "Igbuzo",
"section": "Section::::Electricity In Ibusa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The power outage was blamed on the fact that the town could not meet the revenue target of the power company (then NEPA) which led to them concentrating the power supply on the state capital and other major cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7901877",
"title": "Fault current limiter",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "This poses a particular problem when distributed generation, such as wind farms and rooftop solar power, is added to an existing electric grid. It is desirable to be able to add additional power sources without large system-wide upgrades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12638406",
"title": "Feed-in tariff",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.:California.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "As of 1 January 2010 state laws allowed homeowners to sell excess power to the utility. Previously the homeowner would get no credit for over-production over the course of the year. In order to get the California Solar Initiative (CSI) rebate the customer was not allowed to install a system that deliberately over-produces thereby, encouraging efficiency measures to be installed after solar installation. This over-production credit was not available to certain municipal utility customers namely Los Angeles Water and Power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r8gcg
|
why in the usa do black people typically vote for the democratic party when the gop is the party of emancipation and used to have the so-called "black" vote? when did it change?
|
[
{
"answer": "The New Deal (1930s) started the change in voting patterns, and Truman's desegregation of the military (1948) also shifted the partisan identification of blacks in the US towards Democrats, but the overwhelming margins today stem from the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act of 1964 and 1965, which were two landmark race-related bills spearheaded by Democrats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Republican and Democratic positions more or less switched in the time period between the Civil War and World War II. It happened gradually, but was basically the sum of the two Roosevelt Presidencies and their policies, as well as the Great Depression and Reconstruction. After WWII, the modern Republican party was more or less solidified into their current role by Reagan's presidency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you for the answers very helpful. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4595887",
"title": "South Carolina Republican Party",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "On September 16, 1964, Senator Strom Thurmond announced to a statewide television audience that he had switched parties from the Democrats to the Republicans, saying the Democratic \"party of our fathers is dead.\" He said it had \"forsaken the people to become the party of minority groups, power-hungry union leaders, political bosses, and businessmen looking for government contracts and favors\". The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed the following year, restoring the ability of minorities to vote through federal oversight of registration and electoral processes. Most African Americans affiliated with the national Democratic Party, which had supported their struggle. White conservatives in South Carolina and other southern states gradually shifted from the Democratic to the Republican Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6398451",
"title": "1876 South Carolina gubernatorial election",
"section": "Section::::General election.:Democratic black vote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Democrats recognized the black majority in the state and realized that the only way for them to win the election was through violent suppression of black voters or intimidating black voters to vote Democratic. This was a tricky problem for the party because they were known for upholding slavery and introducing the black codes. Furthermore, it angered many blacks that a former slave trader, Joe Crews, was elected as a Republican to the General Assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32070",
"title": "Republican Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Demographics.:Ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "Republicans have been winning under 15% of the black vote in recent national elections (1980 to 2016). While historically the party had been supporters of rights for African Americans starting in the 1860s, it lost its leadership position in the 1960s. The party abolished slavery under Abraham Lincoln, defeated the Slave Power and gave blacks the legal right to vote during Reconstruction in the late 1860s. Until the New Deal of the 1930s, blacks supported the Republican Party by large margins. Black voters shifted to the Democratic Party beginning in the 1930s, when major Democratic figures such as Eleanor Roosevelt began to support civil rights and the New Deal offered them employment opportunities. They became one of the core components of the New Deal coalition. In the South, after the Voting Rights Act to prohibit racial discrimination in elections was passed by a bipartisan coalition in 1965, blacks were able to vote again and ever since have formed a significant portion (20–50%) of the Democratic vote in that region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9704515",
"title": "Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era",
"section": "Section::::Methods of disenfranchisement.:White primaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "About the turn of the 20th century, white members of the Democratic Party in some Southern states devised rules that excluded blacks and other minorities from participating in party primaries. These became common for all elections. As the Democratic Party was dominant and the only competitive voting was in the primaries, barring minority voters from the primaries was another means of excluding them from politics. Court challenges overturned the white primary system, but many states then passed laws that authorized political parties to set up the rules for their own systems, such as the white primary. Texas, for instance, passed such a state law in 1923. It was used to bar Mexican Americans as well as black Americans from voting; it survived challenges to the US Supreme Court until the 1940s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40566",
"title": "1964 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The election also furthered the shift of the black voting electorate away from the Republican Party, a phenomenon which had begun with the New Deal. Since the 1964 election, Democratic presidential candidates have almost consistently won at least 80–90% of the black vote in each presidential election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17616295",
"title": "Moore's Ford lynchings",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "In April 1946, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that white primaries were unconstitutional, making way for at least some African Americans to vote in Democratic Party primaries. In Georgia, some black people prepared to vote in the summer's primary, against the resistance of most whites. In the 21st century, some commentators have related this to the lynchings as a voting rights issue. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9427370",
"title": "Louisiana Democratic Party",
"section": "Section::::Party history.:Civil rights era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "The national Democratic Party supported civil rights, as exemplified by President Lyndon B. Johnson gaining passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Many southern white conservative voters began to leave the Democratic Party for the Republican Party. Following passage of the Voting Rights Act, gradually African Americans in Louisiana and other states regained the ability to register and vote. Most affiliated with the national Democratic Party and supported its candidates. Voter turnout rose dramatically as African Americans rejoined the political process; people began to be politically active at all levels. They began to field their own candidates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nh7uf
|
why do we like listening to sad music and watching scary movies when sadness and fear are negative emotions?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not the feelings of being sad and scared that are so enjoyable, its the psychological notion that you are in control of those experiences and that you are actually safe and sound. There is also the release of adrenaline with the fear response.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Effects of emotional states.:Fear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "People shown extracts from films known to induce fear often overestimated the elapsed time of a subsequently presented visual stimulus, whereas people shown emotionally neutral clips (weather forecasts and stock market updates) or those known to evoke feelings of sadness showed no difference. It is argued that fear prompts a state of arousal in the amygdala, which increases the rate of a hypothesized \"internal clock\". This could be the result of an evolved defensive mechanism triggered by a threatening situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33107185",
"title": "Music and emotion",
"section": "Section::::Eliciting emotion through music.:Responses to elicited emotion.:\"Basic emotions\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "In light of this finding, there has been particular controversy about music eliciting negative emotions. Cognitivists argue that choosing to listen to music that elicits negative emotions like sadness would be paradoxical, as listeners would not willingly strive to induce sadness. However, emotivists purport that music does elicit negative emotions, and listeners knowingly choose to listen in order to feel sadness in an impersonal way, similar to a viewer's desire to watch a tragic film. The reasons why people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad has been explored by means of interviewing people about their motivations for doing so. As a result of this research it has indeed been found that people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad to intensify feelings of sadness. Other reasons for listening to sad music when feeling sad were; in order to retrieve memories, to feel closer to other people, for cognitive reappraisal, to feel befriended by the music, to distract oneself, and for mood enhancement. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1031430",
"title": "Tachypsychia",
"section": "Section::::Time dilation.:Fear and intense events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "People shown extracts from films known to induce fear often overestimated the elapsed time of a subsequently presented visual stimulus, whereas people shown clips known to evoke feelings of sadness or emotionally-neutral clips from weather forecasts and stock market updates showed no difference. It is argued that fear prompts a state of arousal in the amygdala, which increases the rate of a hypothesised \"internal clock.\" This could be the result of an evolved defensive mechanism triggered by a threatening situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31592149",
"title": "Empathy in media research",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Joanne Cantor (2004) suggested that “humans are naturally inclined to empathize with the emotions of protagonists….” This may help explain potential long-term reactions that may accompany exposure to frightening content. Feeling close to the protagonist may enhance the depth of fear and helplessness a viewer might experience. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34453605",
"title": "Mean Creek (band)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Formation and name (2006).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "\"We felt that the tone, and the mood of the movie fit the kind of music we wanted to write.\" Keene has said. \"I saw the movie as being about how complicated people are, and how that can make us all feel alienated, alone, and confused a lot of the time. It can make us do crazy things, especially when you’re young and trying to figure out who you are and your place in the world.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34658270",
"title": "Reconstructive memory",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Eyewitness testimony.:Anxiety and stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Anxiety is a state of distress or uneasiness of mind caused by fear and it is a consistently associated with witnessing crimes. In a study by Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent film. However, in a study done by Yuille and Cutshall (1986), they discovered that witness of real life violent crimes were able to remember the event quite vividly even five months after it originally occurred. Therefore, depending on the situation, stress can either cause a lapse in memory or it may cause a memory to become more apparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27853508",
"title": "Dreamkiller (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "“The theme of the film is fear. It limits us and stops us from doing things and fear kills our dreams. In the film, a group of patients with regular fears are being treated and their deaths begin to mirror what they fear. In life, if we don’t take control of our fears, it takes control of ourselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dntl3
|
facebook bought whatsapp for $22 billion a while back. they just updated their app and claim that nobody, not even themselves can read the messages and calls now. whatsapp has close to zero revenue. what's in it for facebook?
|
[
{
"answer": "The user base. Facebook cares about time spent on Facebook. Whatsapp has 1 billion users. Suppose whatsapp adds a feature that causes people to spend more time on whatsapp, eg a newsfeed. Now 1 billion people have less time to spend on Facebook. Facebook makes less money.\n\nSource: know whatsapp employees",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, and this may sound weird, but 22 billion isn't a lot for Facebook. They actually got a pretty good deal on it imo. I suspect that the Facebook call feature was using whatsapp technology, so they aren't completely shelving it. I think they benefited mainly in two ways:\n\n1.) Eliminated competition\n\n2.) Future technology to help them expand. I think are trying to branch out into a more broad communication business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the things that particularly american audiences don't understand is that for chat services like Whatsapp, chat is just one of many things that the service could offer. \n\nDownload WeChat or Line or Cacao. These are chat services that operate in China, South Korea and Japan. \n\nThese places act as MARKETPLACES! People can buy and sell services and goods, pay people over these services, upload photos to a \"Profile\" similar to instagram, find random people in your area or around the world to talk to (think Tinder) etc..\n\nThe chat feature is a basis for all these add on services. This is why Facebook bought Whatsapp. To get these type of services to users before one of these Asian companies make moves into areas where Whatsapp is bigger than facebook (Africa, South America, other parts of Asia) etc. \n\nIts about the potential of the service, while keeping competitors away. If you can't beat them, join them basically",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32058867",
"title": "WhatsApp",
"section": "Section::::History.:Recent (2016–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "On May 18, 2017, it was reported that the European Commission would fine Facebook €110 million for \"misleading\" it during the 2014 takeover of WhatsApp. The Commission alleged that in 2014, when Facebook acquired the messaging app, it \"falsely claimed it was technically impossible to automatically combine user information from Facebook and WhatsApp.\" However, in the summer of 2016, WhatsApp had begun sharing user information with its parent company, allowing information such as phone numbers to be used for targeted Facebook advertisements. Facebook acknowledged the breach, but said the errors in their 2014 filings were \"not intentional.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24254647",
"title": "Snaptu",
"section": "Section::::Facebook for Every Phone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "On September 12, 2014, the Facebook app page of Facebook for Every Phone indicated over half a billion likes. Despite this high number, the company hasn't released any additional information about the app.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27951979",
"title": "History of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Financials.:Acquisitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "On February 19, 2014, Facebook announced its acquisition of WhatsApp Inc., a smartphone instant messaging application for $19 billion in a mix of stock and cash. The acquisition is the most ever paid for a venture-capital backed startup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39452399",
"title": "Investment in social media",
"section": "Section::::Facebook's Acquisition of WhatsApp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Facebook's $19billion acquisition of WhatsApp, the popular mobile messaging app, has extreme significance in terms of social media investments. Although attracting much criticism for Facebook investing the highest sum of money for any IT company ever into an already five-year-old start-up; much profit is to be made with Facebook already raking-in 53% of their existing revenue from mobile-ad sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32058867",
"title": "WhatsApp",
"section": "Section::::History.:Facebook subsidiary (2014–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "In August 2014, WhatsApp was the most globally popular messaging app, with more than 600 million users. By early January 2015, WhatsApp had 700 million monthly users and over 30 billion messages every day. In April 2015, \"Forbes\" predicted that between 2012 and 2018, the telecommunications industry would lose $386 billion because of OTT services like WhatsApp and Skype. That month, WhatsApp had over 800 million users. By September 2015, it had grown to 900 million; and by February 2016, one billion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32058867",
"title": "WhatsApp",
"section": "Section::::History.:Facebook subsidiary (2014–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "On February 19, 2014, months after a venture capital financing round at a $1.5 billion valuation, Facebook announced it was acquiring WhatsApp for US$19 billion, its largest acquisition to date. At the time, it was the largest acquisition of a venture-backed company in history. Sequoia Capital received an approximate 5000% return on its initial investment. Facebook, which was advised by Allen & Co, paid $4 billion in cash, $12 billion in Facebook shares, and (advised by Morgan Stanley) an additional $3 billion in restricted stock units granted to WhatsApp's founders Koum and Acton. Employee stock was scheduled to vest over four years subsequent to closing. Days after the announcement, WhatsApp users experienced a loss of service, leading to anger across social media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41996669",
"title": "Brian Acton",
"section": "Section::::Career.:WhatsApp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "In 2014, Koum and Acton agreed to sell WhatsApp to Facebook for approximately $19 billion USD in cash and stock. Forbes estimates that Acton held over 20% stake in the company, making his net worth around $3.8 billion. According to Acton's personal Twitter feed, he was turned down for employment by both Twitter and Facebook in 2009. In September 2017, Acton left WhatsApp. Acton told Forbes that he left over a dispute with Facebook regarding monetization of WhatsApp, and voluntarily left $850 million in unvested options on the table by leaving a few months before vesting was completed. He also noted that he was coached by Facebook executives to mislead European regulators regarding Facebook's intention to merge Facebook and WhatsApp user data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aa0spm
|
why does toothpaste with the colours of red white and blue never mix up
|
[
{
"answer": "The gel compartments are near the nozzle of the toothpaste tube. Most of the tube has white toothpaste. As the toothpaste is squeezed through the nozzle, it passes the gel compartments and gains the characteristic stripes. They are not mixed until the very end of the tube.\n\nEdit: [Here is a youtube video showing it](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit Edit: Well, I just cut open a tube of crest and the toothpaste was striped all the way through in a single compartment, different than the video above. And if you mix it all together, you get amorphous blended mush.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145905",
"title": "Tooth whitening",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:At Home.:Whitening Toothpastes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Whitening toothpastes are different to regular toothpastes in that they contain higher amounts of abrasives and detergents to be more effective at removing tougher stains. Some whitening toothpastes contain low concentrations of carbamide peroxide or hydrogen peroxide which help lighten tooth colour however they do not contain bleach (sodium hypochlorite). With continuity of use over time, tooth colour can lighten by one or 2 shades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3813656",
"title": "Armenian bole",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "In the nineteenth century, it was incorporated into non-soluble tooth powder. These types of powders would get stuck between the gums and the teeth and leave an unsightly discoloration. As a result, they were coloured red using Armenian bole to disguise the buildup around the teeth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11861066",
"title": "Eetch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "It is somewhat similar to tabbouleh but much thicker and grainier (with far less parsley), and not as tangy. Its typical red colour is derived from crushed or pureed tomatoes. Common additional ingredients include onion, parsley, olive oil, lemon, paprika, and bell peppers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370734",
"title": "Rhodochrosite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Rhodochrosite forms a complete solid solution series with iron carbonate (siderite). Calcium, (as well as magnesium and zinc, to a limited extent) frequently substitutes for manganese in the structure, leading to lighter shades of red and pink, depending on the degree of substitution. It is for this reason that the most common color encountered is pink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118008",
"title": "Anthotype",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "An alcoholic tincture of either red carnations, violets or corn poppy turned white behind blue glass in a few days, while it remained unchanged behind red glass after about the same time. Cotton and paper colored with these tinctures exhibited the same differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4072271",
"title": "Chloroplatinic acid",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The resulting orange/red solution can be evaporated to produce brownish red crystals. Some authors suggest that hexachloroplatinic acid produced using this method is contaminated with nitrosonium hexachloroplatinate. Newer literature indicates that this is not the case, and that once the nitric acid has been driven off, samples prepared via this method contain no detectable nitrogen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28181980",
"title": "Blue raspberry flavor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Food products labeled as blue raspberry flavor often contain a bright blue food coloring, the most common being Brilliant Blue FCF, although this coloring is not an accurate rendition of the actual color of the fruit, which has an almost black hue when ripe. The blue color also helps distinguish raspberry-flavored foods from cherry, watermelon and strawberry-flavored foods (the former usually being colored red, and the latter two also sometimes colored red but often colored pink if the same product is also available in a cherry flavor).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
761i4b
|
if i'm driving at a constant speed of 60mph and get rear-ended by a vehicle which is moving at a constant 80mph, would the force of impact be the same as if i were sitting at 0mph and got rear ended by someone driving 20mph?
|
[
{
"answer": "yes, the impact would have the same amount of force. \n\nThe big difference would be the whole spinning out of control at 60 mph would be much more dangerous than at 0 mph.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, you would experience the same force, but this doesn't mean the same thing would happen in the two cases. \n\nThe first thing we're concerned with is the momentum of the cars: momentum is a measure of the mass and velocity of an object. A higher momentum basically means that an object will resist slowing down.\n\nNext, the velocity of the impact. In both cases, the velocity of the faster car is basically 20mph. Basically, as long as you're moving at a constant speed, you can say that you aren't moving at all, and everything around you is instead moving based on your actual speed; this is the underlying premise of relativity. So in both cases, the rear car will have the same relative momentum at the moment of impact, leading to the same force being applied. This is where the differences start.\n\nIf you're travelling at 60mph, the bits of your car that need to move are already moving, so you absorb more of the momentum and could potentially lose control of your vehicle. If you're stopped, then what will happen depends on conditions inside your vehicle: is your car in gear with the engine off, in neutral with the brakes on, or in neutral with the brakes off?\n\nIf your car is in gear, then in order for it to move, the force needs to be strong enough to cause your wheels to move the engine block - the opposite of what normally happens. This isn't a great scenario, as the force your car receives won't be transferred to forward motion as easily, and could feel quite nasty.\n\nIf your car is in neutral with the brakes off, you will find yourself rolling forwards, which is probably the best situation unless this pushes you into another vehicle. Have you ever seen a Newton's Cradle? This situation is kind of like one of those - your car will absorb some of the motion and start rolling. You'll still get a nasty jolt, but it won't be as bad as the other two cases; this is the closest to the situation where you're travelling at 60mph.\n\nFinally, if you're in neutral with the brakes on, you'll have quite a nasty experience. Your car will do everything it can to resist moving, so more of the momentum will be absorbed. This is because in order for your wheels to turn, they need to overcome the friction from the brakes and also move your engine block; alternatively, your car will slide forwards because the wheels won't turn.\n\nI hope this answer was helpful for you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1082841",
"title": "Fictitious force",
"section": "Section::::Examples of fictitious forces.:Acceleration in a straight line.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Figure 1 (center panel). To an observer at rest on an inertial reference frame (like the ground), the car will seem to accelerate. In order for the passenger to stay inside the car, a force must be exerted on the passenger. This force is exerted by the seat, which has started to move forward with the car and is compressed against the passenger until it transmits the full force to keep the passenger moving with the car. Thus, the forces exerted by the seat are unbalanced,so the passenger is accelerating in this frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78809",
"title": "Speed limit",
"section": "Section::::Justification.:Road traffic safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "It is desirable to attempt to reduce the speed of road vehicles in some circumstances because the kinetic energy involved in a motor vehicle collision is proportional to the square of the speed at impact. The probability of a fatality is, for typical collision speeds, empirically correlated to the fourth power of the speed \"difference\" (depending on the type of collision, not necessarily the same as \"travel\" speed) at impact, rising much faster than kinetic energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27232354",
"title": "Nagel–Schreckenberg model",
"section": "Section::::Outline of the model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Slowing down: All cars are checked to see if the distance between it and the car in front (in units of cells) is smaller than its current velocity (which has units of cells per time step). If the distance is smaller than the velocity, the velocity is reduced to the number of empty cells in front of the car – to avoid a collision. For example, if the velocity of a car is now 5, but there are only 3 free cells in front of it, with the fourth cell occupied by another car, the car velocity is reduced to 3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25672504",
"title": "MythBusters (2010 season)",
"section": "Section::::Episode 143 – \"Mythssion Control\".:Crash Force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Jamie and Adam revisited the \"Compact Compact\" myth after fans complained about a claim Jamie made in the earlier episode. During the investigation he had said that two cars hitting each other at is \"equivalent to a single impact going into a solid wall at 100 miles an hour\". This was disputed by fans claiming that according to Newton's third law, two cars hitting each other at 50 mph is the same as one car crashing into a wall at 50 mph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40172612",
"title": "Assured clear distance ahead",
"section": "Section::::ACDA rule-specific case generalized to the Basic Speed Law.:Critical speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "In the fifth case, critical speed \"V\" applies when road curvature is the factor limiting safe speed. A vehicle which exceeds this speed will slide out of its lane. Critical speed is a function of curve radius \"r\", superelevation or banking \"e\", and friction coefficient \"μ\"; the constant \"g\" again is the acceleration of gravity. However, most motorists will not tolerate a lateral acceleration exceeding 0.3g (\"μ\" = 0.3) above which many will panic. Hence, critical speed may not resemble loss of control speed. Attenuated \"side\" friction coefficients are often used for computing critical speed. The formula is frequently approximated without the denominator for low angle banking which may be suitable for nearly all situations except the tightest radius of highway onramps. The principle of critical speed is often applied to the problem of traffic calming, where curvature is both used to govern maximum road speed, and used in traffic circles as a device to force drivers to obey their duty to slow down when approaching an intersection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190274",
"title": "Traffic calming",
"section": "Section::::Measures.:Engineering measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Vertical deflection: Raising a portion of a road surface can create discomfort for drivers travelling at high speeds. Both the height of the deflection and the steepness affect the severity of vehicle displacement. Vertical deflection measures include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560591",
"title": "Overdrive (mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The power needed to propel a car at any given set of conditions and speed is straightforward to calculate, based primarily on the total weight and the vehicle's speed. These produce two primary forces slowing the car: rolling resistance and air drag. The former varies roughly with the speed of the vehicle, while the latter varies with the square of the speed. Calculating these from first principles is generally difficult due to a variety of real-world factors, so this is often measured directly in wind tunnels and similar systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d9hnt7
|
In Medievel Europe, Were Jewish People More Literate than Average?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is pretty much impossible to know for sure, because, like you said, they didn't have comprehensive population surveys, and we have no records about most people's lives. In particular, we have almost no records of people who couldn't write, because they didn't write anything. So even if we have loads of records of people who *did* write, it's very hard to tell how many *other* people there were who we don't know about it. It's a sampling bias problem that's very hard to deal with. \n\nBut we do have some indications from both Jews and Christians that it was at least popularly perceived that Jews were much more likely to be literate. For example, one twelfth-century Christian writer said: \n\n\"When Christians send their sons to school, they do not send them for the love of God but for lucrative reasons [...] But a Jew, even if he is poor, even if he has 10 sons, will send them all to school, not in order to obtain any benefit, as Christians do, but for the study of the law of God, and not only the sons but also his daughters.\"\n\nIt's hard to tell how literally to take this text. Did he really know that many poor Jews with educated daughters? Maybe. Did he know that Jews care about education and then try to use that to motivate his Christian readers to care more about education? Also maybe. \n\nWe also have a number of Jewish legal texts saying that everybody ought to learn to read so they can read the Torah and rabbinic texts, and that all Jewish communities should appoint someone to teach the young children how to read. But we don't know how much anyone listened to those legal texts. We have a large number of financial documents written by Jews in Hebrew, many of them in non-professional handwriting, which suggest that at least merchants and their clients could read and write and didn't need to hire scribes for everything like many Christians did. But it is very hard to tell how far down that really went in socio-economic classes, and it is very likely that very poor Jews were less likely to be able to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Short answer:**\n\nThere are all kinds of techniques for assessing the literacy of a historical population. There is, however, no \"average medieval person\" to compare Jews -- or anyone else-- to. The Middle Ages covers a great expanse of space and time, and literacy varies from place to place and from time to time in the nearly thousand years from the end of Antiquity to the Renaissance.\n\n**Discussion:**\n\n > Obviously there weren't any kinds of census on reading ability,\n\nNever underestimate the ingenuity of scholars in finding quantitative proxies. While there were no \"censuses of reading ability\" -- we have an enormous body of legal documents and financial, which often demonstrate whether a particular individual could sign his own name, a marker for the most basic literacy. This gives us a very nice time series for historical literacy, and can be further be broken down by gender and class (since early legal documents often mention individuals' occupations. So David Cressy (writing of early modern England, but the techniques can be applied wherever you have documents) is able to tell us, for example, that:\n\n > The social structure of illiteracy in the diocese of Norwich is clearly established by the study of depositions. Table I shows the percentage in various social categories who could not sign their names, and Table 2 shows the illiteracy of men in some of the most frequently encountered trades and crafts. Only the more common ranks and occupations have been included. Where samples are particularly small, of course, the figures should be treated with due caution. We may be 95 per cent confident that the true illiteracy of yeomen in East Anglia lay in the range 35 +/- 3 per cent but the illiteracy of, say, shoemakers should be more properly estimated as 58 +/- 11 per cent and bricklayers 88 +/- 13 per cent.\n\nThere's also an entire series of scholarly works, the *Utrecht Studies in Medieval Literacy* which attack the problem of evaluating medieval literacy in all sort of ingenious ways. And have to mention the important study by Buringh and Van Zanden \\[2009\\] -- they run the numbers on book and manuscript production from the 6th through the 18th centuries.\n\nSome of the easily assessed proxies include the numbers of books published, and topics. Books often give you an idea of who it was intended for, no reason to produce a book for someone who couldn't read it. Its often noted that the transition from a medieval manuscript culture, where book production was small and expensive, to a printed book economy where they're plentiful and cheap implies a great deal more literacy. Care has to be taken in estimating earlier literacy- when paper and other materials were expensive, inexpensive and often overlooked media, like wax tablets, were often used. Just because we don’t have paper doesn’t mean people weren’t reading and writing - and some of these other media don’t survive well.\n\nIn terms of religious associations with literacy, Jewish males were commonly literate for religious purposes, but the more useful comparison is with Protestantism. Catholicism didn't require religious literacy for the people (it did for the clergy), and so the rise of literacy in Europe is often associated with both the printing press and Protestantism. But that's too simple as a story-- the role of the Church in education changes during the middle ages, and in later years there's very much an expectation that they'll be fostering education-- looking at England, literacy is increasing significantly even before the Reformation\n\n > As was stipulated in the canons of the fourth Lateran Council, cathedral schools were expected to extend their facilities to any youths who desired instruction in Latin. Although the cathedral clerks alone justified the maintaining of a grammar school, training in Latin was not to be restricted to them. This is frequently expressed in the appointments of the masters: when Bishop Welton appoints Master John of Burdon in 1362 to conduct a grammar school in Carlisle, he lays down no conditions for admission: instruction in Latin is open to 'boys, adults and any others' wishing to learn\n\nSo when you ask \"were X more literate than average\" -- well just where do you get your \"average\"? A slave in Wales in 900 CE? Then yes. Or a Florentine merchant in Paris in 1400? Probably not. \"The average middle ages person\" -- ain't a thing.\n\n**Sources:**\n\nMiner, John Nelson. “Schools and Literacy in Later Medieval England.” *British Journal of Educational Studies*, vol. 11, no. 1, 1962, pp. 16–27.\n\nKaeuper, Richard W. “Two Early Lists of Literates in England: 1334, 1373.” *The English Historical Review*, vol. 99, no. 391, 1984, pp. 363–369.\n\nCressy, David. “Levels of Illiteracy in England, 1530-1730.” *The Historical Journal*, vol. 20, no. 1, 1977, pp. 1–23\n\nBROWN, MICHELLE P. “THE ROLE OF THE WAX TABLET IN MEDIEVAL LITERACY: A RECONSIDERATION IN LIGHT OF A RECENT FIND FROM YORK.” *The British Library Journal*, vol. 20, no. 1, 1994, pp. 1–16.\n\nBuringh, Eltjo, and Jan Luiten Van Zanden. “Charting the ‘Rise of the West’: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, a Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries.” *The Journal of Economic History*, vol. 69, no. 2, 2009, pp. 409–445.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7773244",
"title": "History of the Jews in Iran",
"section": "Section::::The Second Temple period.:Pahlavi dynasty (1925 to 1979).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "From the beginning of the 20th century, the literacy rate among the Jewish minority was significantly higher than the Muslim masses. In 1945 about 80 percent of the Jewish population were literate, whereas most Muslims could not read and write. In 1968 only 30 percent of Muslims were literate, whereas this figure was more than 80 percent for the Jews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323758",
"title": "Italian city-states",
"section": "Section::::Literacy and numeracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "By the 13th century, northern and central Italy had become the most literate society in the world. More than one-third of the male population could read in the vernacular (an unprecedented rate since the decline of the Western Roman Empire), as could a small but significant proportion of women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26204",
"title": "Women in Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1138,
"text": "Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping kosher. Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor. Higher learning was uncommon for women. (See Female Education in the Medieval Period). There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim-controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The Cairo Geniza is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26204",
"title": "Women in Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Since Jews were seen as second-class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book, \"Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe\", that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: \"the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family.\" Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061136",
"title": "History of education",
"section": "Section::::Education in ancient civilization.:Greece and Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent in the western provinces. The literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51590138",
"title": "Jewish women in early modern period",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Jewish women in the early modern period were a crucial part to all Jewish societies, as they made up half of the population. Living in places such as Italy, Poland-Lithuania, and the Ottoman Empire had effects on the role Jewish women played in their society. Different customs and regulations were found in various societies around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20836075",
"title": "History of Palestine",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:British Mandate period.:Infrastructure and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Between 1922 and 1947, the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector of the economy was 13.2%, mainly due to immigration and foreign capital, while that of the Arab was 6.5%. Per capita, these figures were 4.8% and 3.6% respectively. By 1936, the Jewish sector had eclipsed the Arab one, and Jewish individuals earned 2.6 times as much as Arabs. In terms of human capital, there was a huge difference. For instance, the literacy rates in 1932 were 86% for the Jews against 22% for the Arabs, but Arab literacy was steadily increasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79378n
|
What were the difference in the military physical qualifications during WW2 between the various powers?
|
[
{
"answer": "As a follow up, were there differences in mental or educational qualifications as well? \n\nI know from [this excellent answer](_URL_0_) by /u/the_howling_cow that the US military often rejected recruits for not meeting literacy qualifications. But I assume that the Soviets, Japanese and even Germans had lower literacy rates among their general population. Did they have looser standards about literacy, and if so, did that affect their performance or what type of tactics they could employ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15450",
"title": "Industrial and organizational psychology",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "World War II brought renewed interest in ability testing (to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced military jobs), the introduction of the assessment center, and concern with morale and fatigue in war industry workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42026732",
"title": "Australian Army during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Training and doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1292,
"text": "Some soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme, while others had served as volunteers in the part-time forces before the war or as members of the British Army, but their numbers were limited. In contrast, the majority of officers initially appointed had previous military experience. This was largely through service in the pre-war militia, though, where there had been little to no formal officer training. In addition, there was a small cadre of junior officers who had been trained for the permanent force at the Royal Military College, Duntroon, but their numbers were very small and at the outbreak of the war the first class had to be graduated early in order for them to join the AIF, being placed mainly in staff positions. Other than small numbers of Duntroon graduates, from January 1915 the only means to be commissioned into the AIF was from the ranks of enlisted personnel. While the AIF's initial senior officers had been members of the pre-war military, few had any substantial experience in managing brigade-sized or larger units in the field as training exercises on this scale had been rarely conducted before the outbreak of hostilities. This inexperience contributed to tactical mistakes and avoidable casualties during the Gallipoli Campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1960159",
"title": "Mission-type tactics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Some would say that today, such a culture is associated only with elite units and not a whole army. Few armies seem to have mastered the approach. The Wehrmacht are perhaps the premier example—a degree of competence achieved only after rigorous training under Hans von Seeckt between 1919 and 1935. Since World War II, only the Israeli Defence Force seem to have come close to matching the Wehrmacht of World War II in the exercise of command in this style-partly due to a conscious decision on the part of Moshe Dayan, who fought under British command in World War II, and who attended a British Army Staff training course which—according to his memoirs—greatly disappointed him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001269",
"title": "History of the United States Army",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Army fought World War II with more flexible divisions, consisting of three infantry regiments of three infantry battalions each. From the point of view of soldiers, most of their time was spent in training in the United States, with large numbers going overseas in 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "629214",
"title": "Comparative officer ranks of World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The following table shows comparative officer ranks of several Allied and Central powers during World War I. Not all combatant countries are shown in the table. For modern ranks refer to List of comparative military ranks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3898940",
"title": "Specialist (rank)",
"section": "Section::::United States.:U.S. Army.:Trades and specialties (1902–1920).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "In 1920, the Army rank and pay system received a major overhaul. All enlisted and non-commissioned ranks were reduced from 128 different insignias and several pay grades to only seven rank insignias and seven pay grades, which were numbered in seniority from seventh grade (lowest) to first grade (highest). The second grade had two rank titles: first sergeant, which was three stripes, two rockers, and a lozenge (diamond) in the middle; and technical sergeant, which was three stripes and two rockers. By World War II, the rank of first sergeant had been elevated to first grade and a third rocker was added, with the lozenge in the center to distinguish it from master sergeant. The wearing of specialist badges inset in rank insignia was abolished, and a generic system of chevrons and arcs replaced them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177165",
"title": "Malayan Emergency",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons with Vietnam.:Differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "BULLET::::- In purely military terms, the British Army recognised that in a low-intensity war, the individual soldier's skill and endurance was of far greater importance than overwhelming firepower (artillery, air support, etc.) Even though many British soldiers were conscripted National Servicemen, the necessary skills and attitudes were taught at a Jungle Warfare School, which also worked out the optimum tactics based on experience gained in the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
88z2be
|
How does being born blind or deaf influence the way you think?
|
[
{
"answer": "DeafBlind people learn tactile sign language. So they think in that language. \n\nIf you're interested in something more deeper, there have been studies that show hearing people are able to memorize 7 short bits of information (like a phone number) in only one direction, while Deaf people are able to memorize 5 more complex things (such as a family of five children, their ages and genders) forward and backward. This is due to the ability to use space to \"place\" things (such as on the fingers of the hand) in ASL.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since there are areas of the brain specifically predisposed to process visual and auditory information, when someone is deaf or blind, they will often recruit these non-utilized regions of the brain for other functions. For example, when a blind person reads brail, the language regions of their brain will light up on an fMRI as expected, but in addition, their visual cortex will light up as well, even though they can't see, suggesting that their brain is utilizing this region to process the information as well. The same thing is observed with deaf people. Their auditory cortex is very active when they are communicating in sign language, even though they can't hear. It may go without saying that this extra activity is not observed in people without a sensory deficit. Interestingly though, people that can see, but are taught brail with a blindfold on, will actually recruit their visual cortex to process info in a similar manner to blind people, according to fMRI studies.\n\nEssentially being born deaf or blind results in a region of the brain, that would normally be reserved for that particular sense, available for processing other information. Because the brain wastes no processing power, unused regions are quickly recruited by other functions, such as language or complicated motor control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15559385",
"title": "Tactile discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Blindness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2305,
"text": "When a person has become blind, in order to “see” the world, their other senses become heightened. An important sense for the blind is their sense of touch, which becomes more frequently used to help them perceive the world. People that are blind have displayed that their visual cortices become more responsive to auditory and tactile stimulation. Braille allows the blind to be able to use their sense of touch to feel the roughness, and distance of various patterns to be used as a form of language. Within the brain, the activation of the occipital cortex is functionally relevant for tactile braille reading, as well as the somatosensory cortex. These various parts of the brain function in their own way, in which they each contribute to the effectiveness of how braille is read by the blind. People that are blind also rely heavily on Tactile Gnosis, Spatial discrimination, Graphesthesia, and Two-point discrimination. Essentially, the occipital cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the distance of braille patterns, which is related to spatial discrimination. Meanwhile, the somatosensory cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the roughness of braille patterns, which is related to two-point discrimination. The various visual areas in the brain are very essential for a blind person to read braille, just as much as it is for a person that has sight. Essentially, whether one is blind or not, the perception of objects that involves tactile discrimination is not impaired if one cannot see. When comparing people that are blind to people that have sight, the amount of activity within the their somatosensory and visual areas of the brain do differ. The activity in the somatosensory and visual areas are not as high in tactile gnosis for people that are not blind, and are more-so active for more visual related stimuli that does not involve touch. Nonetheless, there is a difference in these various areas within the brain when comparing the blind to the sighted, which is that shape discrimination causes a difference in brain activity, as well as tactile gnosis. The visual cortices of blind individuals are active during various vision related tasks including tactile discrimination, and the function of the cortices resemble the activity of adults with sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33106906",
"title": "Eyewitness memory",
"section": "Section::::Earwitness memory.:Auditory memory in blind individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "It has been suggested that blind individuals have an enhanced ability to hear and recall auditory information in order to compensate for a lack of vision. However, whilst blind adults' neural systems demonstrate heightened excitability and activity compared to sighted adults, it is still not exactly clear to what extent this compensatory hypothesis is accurate. Nevertheless, many studies have found that there appears to be a high activation of certain visual brain areas in blind individuals when they perform non-visual tasks. This suggests that in blind individuals' brains, a reorganization of what are normally visual areas has occurred in order for them to process non-visual input. This supports a compensatory hypothesis in the blind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39151518",
"title": "Neuronal recycling hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Future research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "New studies have adapted this hypothesis to explain cross modal plasticity which seems to occur in blind people. This is the fact that other senses in blind people seem to be heightened as a result of the loss of vision. Since blind patients are not exposed to the novel function of visual reading, the cortical area normally devoted to this function will be used for a different function. For example, scientists have found that the neural networks devoted to detecting moving sounds in blind people seem to be recruited by the area of the visual cortex responsible for visual movement in the sighted. This supports the theory that novel functions must find a neuronal niche, with existing cortical areas capable of supporting the function. This idea might also be applied to explain cross modality in deaf patients, and other cross modal phenomena such as synethesia and the McGurk effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3060346",
"title": "Child of deaf adult",
"section": "Section::::Potential challenges facing hearing codas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Discordant hearing status can also pose practical problems. Deaf and hearing people differ in visual attention patterns, with deaf people being more easily distracted by movement in peripheral vision. Deaf parents often instinctively use such movement to attract their child's attention, which can lead to difficulties engaging in joint attention with hearing toddlers. Parental sensitivity to child cues modulates this effect, with highly sensitive parents being more able to adjust to a child's differences from them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563664",
"title": "Hearing (person)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "This being the case, a single person could be described as hearing by one person and Deaf by another because the first person was thinking simply about the subject's sensitivity to sound whereas the other person was thinking, partially about the persons ability to rely on residual hearing, but also about their personal views, their identity, or perhaps their ignorance of cultural norms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22718893",
"title": "EAST syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.:Sensorineural deafness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "When a person shows signs of sensorineural deafness there is usually muffling of speech, difficulty understanding words, especially against background noise or in a crowd of people. A person might also frequently ask others to speak more slowly, clearly and loudly. They might also withdraw from conversations or avoid some social settings because everything sounds muffled, even when there are loud noises. Sensorineural Deafness indicates that the patient has difficulty hearing not due to environmental factors, but through genetic mutation in the KCNJ10 gene. This gene affects the potassium channel count and their productivity in several parts of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5524000",
"title": "Bilingual–bicultural education",
"section": "Section::::Socio-emotional impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "A study on deaf children and theory of mind (ToM), which is essentially the ability to put oneself in someone else's shoes, showed no differences in performance in theory of mind tasks between deaf children of deaf parents and their hearing peers. This means that deaf children with deaf parents were advantaged in having acquired language from birth. Deaf children with hearing parents, whether they were educated using spoken English or ASL, showed delays in two ToM tasks, false beliefs and knowledge states. It is worth mentioning that not all deaf children born with hearing parents are linguistically disadvantaged because hearing parents can acquire sign language to communicate with their deaf children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bmhvg3
|
Did WW1 really have a reason?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can point to some widespread elements that contributed to the war. Social Darwinism, nationalism, militarism may have, to debatable degrees, made the leadership and population of Europe more accepting of the idea of a general conflict. There was likely also an lack of appreciation for the risk of a drawn out exhaustive conflict by some leaders and the general public. While there is some evidence (from quotes from Moltke and other military figures) for instance that the possibility for a long war wasn't totally disregarded, the more popular opinion was that a long war was impossible because no nation could afford it economically. This idea was put forward, perhaps most famously, in *The Great Illusion* by Norman Angell, and in the end I think that we'd have to agree he was largely right if only the actors in the drama had had the foresight to see.\n\nAt a lower level, though, each major player had their OWN specific reasons for accepting the war... things they wanted to get out of it.\n\nAustria-Hungary wanted to punish Serbia for a track record of supporting separatist agitation and terrorism. Austria also strongly (and correctly) suspected, and had some but not enough proof, that elements of the Serb government were actively involved with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Austria also saw an opportunity to strengthen their influence in the Balkan region which might have enabled them (in their own excessively optimistic minds) to build an extended economic zone.\n\nSerbian leaders knew that if they allowed a proper investigation, the Austrians would be able to justify overthrowing the Serb government and installing a puppet (because they knew they were busted). The only hope the Serb government had of retaining it's position was to fight it out and hope the Russians decided to help them and could beat the Austrians. \n\nRussia (who had no treaty with Serbia, so don't \"web of alliances\" this situation) had a desperate need to defend their last remaining proxy in the Balkans and to restore their credibility in the region. After having been seen as letting down the Serbs in 1908 by not contesting the formal annexation of Bosnia by Austria, seen (by previously preferred proxy Bulgaria) as betraying Bulgaria in 1912/1913 in favor of the Serbs during the Balkan Wars, and seen by the Serbs as not supporting them in 1913 when they tried to annex Albania, there was certainly a track record of diplomatic \"failure\" and \"weakness\" growing. The Russians also had long term goals to acquire Constantinople and the Turkish Straits, which were so important to their economy, and a general war could offer at least a restoration of their Balkan influence and possibly the possession of the straits (if the Ottomans joined the Central Powers and if Russia won, of course).\n\nGermany had this encirclement syndrome thing going on. They saw France building up for war with the new 3 year law, in theory leading to a 50% increase in peacetime army size and over time a similar increase in reserve manpower. They saw similar build ups in the Russian force, as well as vast improvements in Russia mobilization speeds that could nearly rival the Germans ability to deploy to the Polish front. Germany also knew that France had been unwilling to fight over Balkan issues in the past (1908, 1913) and that Russia had always backed down in the past. In the opinion of German leadership, if Russia didn't back down this time too then that meant France wanted a war. Germany probably overestimated the future military strength of France (there was a pretty good chance that the 3 year conscription law, which was very contentious when it was passed, wouldn't have lasted long) and definitely overestimated Russian military ability in 1914, but hindsight offers us these advantages.\n\nFrance worried that they would be at risk of losing the Russian alliance after not supporting Russia in 1908 and 1913 during those Balkan crises. France did not have to support Russia in 1914, yet they chose to do so for their own reasons. The record of diplomatic communication and activities of the French ambassador Paleologue show that French officials went so far as to encourage Russia to escalate the situation rather than attempt to calm the crisis. There were also many in France that longed to avenge the defeat of 1871 and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, but sometimes that influence gets overplayed. That sort of thinking did exist, however, in the public and in government.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo all the major players had reasons that, in June/July 1914, they thought were of strategic importance either politically, militarily, or both. They all had opportunities the step away from the war, but each decided the potential gains were worth the risks that war entailed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22708141",
"title": "French Army in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Another cause of World War I was growing militarism which led to an arms race between the powers. As a result of the arms race, all European powers were ready for war and had time tables that would send millions of reserves into combat in a matter of days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Wars and politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914–1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia/USSR, the British Empire and the United States. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in Eastern Europe. At the time, it was said by many to be the \"war to end all wars\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140444",
"title": "A. J. P. Taylor",
"section": "Section::::Work.:\"War by Timetable\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "In his 1969 book \"War by Timetable\", Taylor examined the origins of the First World War, concluding that though all of the great powers wished to increase their own power relative to the others, none consciously sought war before 1914. Instead, he argued that all of the great powers believed that if they possessed the ability to mobilise their armed forces faster than any of the others, this would serve as a sufficient deterrent to avoid war and allow them to achieve their foreign policy. Thus, the general staffs of the great powers developed elaborate timetables to mobilise faster than any of their rivals. When the crisis broke in 1914, though none of the statesmen of Europe wanted a world war, the need to mobilise faster than potential rivals created an inexorable movement towards war. Thus Taylor claimed that the leaders of 1914 became prisoners of the logic of the mobilisation timetables and the timetables that were meant to serve as deterrent to war instead relentlessly brought war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1343423",
"title": "Collective security",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early mentions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as \"the war to end all wars\", and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organization whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24283294",
"title": "United States home front during World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The United States homefront during World War I saw a systematic mobilization of the country's entire population and economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, ammunitions and money necessary to win the war. Although the United States entered the war in April 1917, there had been very little planning, or even recognition of the problems that Great Britain and the other Allies had to solve on their own home fronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high in the first 12 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2537533",
"title": "Speeches of Max Weber",
"section": "Section::::Notable public speeches.:Speech for the German National Committee (1 August 1916).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Three lessons could be learned from the war. First is that money was a main reason why the war came into being. Secondly, industry and capitalists were very important for the war efforts. Thirdly, the state is more important than the nation, because the state rules over the life and death of its subjects. But when state and nation are combined, the state has more power. The poor results of Austria-Hungarian war efforts compared to Germany were an example of this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l2tsg
|
why do 2 minute offenses in the nfl seem to be more efficient than the normal offense?
|
[
{
"answer": "the 2-minute offense, also known as the \"hurry up\", seeks to play as many downs as possible in the quickest time. A defense usually puts new guys in during the game (i.e. bigger dudes on 3rd and short to stop the run). The hurry-up prevents this, by not giving the defense enough time to swap personnel before the next play is starting.\n\nAdditionally, the fast pace of the offense usually prevents any unique defensive play-calls, because there isn't enough time to relay the proper call to everyone on the field. So, the defenses usually use a standard man or zone defense, with no tricks or disguise.\n\nThose two things: preventing the defense from swapping personnel to fit each situation, and causing basic defensive formations... that's what gives the offense an easier time as they continue to execute plays. Added on... the 2-minute drill is almost always done to make a comeback from the team that is losing the game. The defense doesn't want to give up any big plays, so they play \"back\", not putting as much pressure on the short and medium passing game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is also a lot more strategy in football than just get to the endzone ASAP and score. Clock management is a huge part of the game. If you're playing against the best offense in the league, you want to keep the ball out of their hands as long as possible so you would most likely try to develop a strong running game with using every second available between plays. \n\nHowever when time starts running out and you have to score in as little time as possible, then you have to hurry. A hurry up offense comes with a lot of risk as well. There are many times a game will end because the team that is behind will get into a rush and make a mistake that will just end any chance of coming back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest reason it looks better is because most defenses drop into whats called \"Prevent\" coverage in a 2 minute drill situation. They don't to give the big play and have the offense score a touchdown in one shot, so they allow the short game over the middle to stay open, and this allows the offense to move down the field. This though causes the offense to use up the time they have, and as they march down the field, the area the defense has to cover gets smaller and smaller, allowing for better coverage by the defense. This is why a lot of 2 minute drives seem to fizzle out about the 45-35 yard line. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "956795",
"title": "Running up the score",
"section": "Section::::In American football.:Professional football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "During the 2011 season, the three teams with the best offenses (New England, Green Bay and New Orleans) also had the worst defenses, which explains why none of those teams were happy to run out the clock, instead always pressuring for points. The current salary cap rules mean that it is nearly impossible for a team to have an excellent offense and defense over any period of time, particularly as cheaper players who play very well one year will likely cost more in the next year. Such tactics are generally referred to as 'Keeping their foot on the gas', and is generally not frowned upon in the NFL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21994662",
"title": "2–3 zone defense",
"section": "Section::::Strengths of the 2–3 zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fewer offensive plays—There are far fewer zone offenses than there are man-to-man offenses to prepare for as a defense. As a result, defenses often have a better idea of what to expect from the offensive team when playing a zone defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "492481",
"title": "Tight end",
"section": "Section::::Roles.:Blocking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Since the successful introduction of the West Coast Offense, most offenses use tight ends more as receivers than blockers. Traditionally tight ends were just blockers eligible to catch passes; however, now tight ends are more like bigger and slower receivers who can also block more effectively than most wide receivers. Most tight ends are generally large in size with an average height of 6'3\" and a weight exceeding 240 lbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873344",
"title": "Run and shoot offense",
"section": "Section::::Formation history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Often times, the receivers used were shorter (often ranging from 5'7\" to 5'10\" in height) but faster to try and win their routes by outrunning defensive backs. One of the initial concepts behind the offense was inserting a faster wide receiver in place of the slower tight end. Running backs often varied in size but were usually bigger in weight, ranging from 210 to 230 pounds, due to the requirement of blocking. The size also allowed for mismatches as defenses (usually a Nickel Defense or Dime Defense) would often include a smaller defensive back in place of a linebacker to cover that 4th wide receiver. Since the running backs were bigger, many of the runs were designed to go inside or behind the offensive guard to let the wide receivers block the defensive backs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2848852",
"title": "Single set back",
"section": "Section::::Use in the NFL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Single-back offenses have gained popularity due to zone blocking and advanced defenses. There are several combinations of single back formations that are used in Division 1 and NFL football. Speed offenses will use single back because the defense still has to respect the run out of these formations since you can line up many tight ends and still have a down field passing game. Single back offenses create match-up problems in the defense. Linebackers will often have to cover receivers in passing routes while defensive safeties are used more to come up and stop the run on the line of scrimmage. Teams that run a single-back offense typically rely on quick receivers that run great routes, balanced tight ends (blocking/receiving), intelligent, shifty running backs, fast and intelligent offensive linemen, and a quarterback that can read defenses and make safe throws under pressure. Single-back offenses are more common in the NFL than in college or high school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5472036",
"title": "Flexbone formation",
"section": "Section::::Requirements to succeed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::- The offensive line is smaller and lighter than offensive lines in traditional offenses. This is because linemen must be quick enough to get to linebackers and safeties. They also need to be strong enough to block the defensive line, although teams usually utilize double and combo blocking schemes to overcome the disadvantage in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1265425",
"title": "Defensive end",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "In the 3–4 defense, defensive ends are used primarily as run stoppers and are much larger. They are usually 285–315 pounds. Often, the position is played by a more agile or slightly undersized defensive tackle. Because of the increased popularity of the 3–4 defense, the value of a defensive tackle prospect that can possibly be used in this manner has increased. They are used to distract the offensive lineman on pass rushing plays to let the outside linebackers get a sack. They are usually 6'3\"–6'8\". They block screen passes and are put outside the offensive tackles to get a sack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gk84n
|
how do these websites that buy gift cards from consumers work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They re-sell your gift card. If you browse around the site you'll usually also find gift cards for sale, those are the cards they bought. They make money by selling them for a few bucks more than they bought them, they aren't using the cards or anything like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's quite simple. The Gift Gard is worth $100. You can go into Best Buy or whatever at any time and get the full $100 value from it. Anyone who buys it for less than $100 can potentially get more value out of it then what they paid for it.\n\nIt's worth it for others to buy it at $88 because the card can potentially be resold for higher or can be used to effectively shave off $10-12 from any $100+ purchase at Best Buy.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40120299",
"title": "GiftCards.com",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "GiftCards.com offers gift cards from around 500,000 different large and small businesses throughout the United States. Major gift card providers include Best Buy, Sephora, Yankee Candle, Amazon.com, Pottery Barn, Starbucks, The Cheesecake Factory, Gap, Macy's, and Bloomingdale's among many others. The company also provides Visa and MasterCard gift cards. For an added fee, customers can personalize their gift cards with photos, text, or other graphics. All gift cards are printed at the GiftCards.com facility in suburban Pittsburgh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48222988",
"title": "Gift Card Granny",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Consumers can also look for gift card companies to sell their gift cards to on Gift Card Granny. Gift cards can be sold for below face value. Gift Card Granny lists gift cards from over 1,000 different stores including Walmart, Olive Garden, Starbucks, Home Depot, Target, Macy's, and numerous others. In total, there are over 100,000 gift cards listed on the website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40120299",
"title": "GiftCards.com",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "GiftCards.com is an online gift card retailer based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company sells gift cards for thousands of different large corporate retailers and small businesses including Best Buy, Barnes & Noble, Sephora, Coach, Amazon.com, and others. The company also offers prepaid Visa and MasterCard gift cards. GiftCards.com is considered the largest online gift card retailer and has appeared on the \"Inc.\" 5000 list multiple times (most recently in 2015). The company is currently owned by Blackhawk Network Holdings after its purchase of the retailer in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "743068",
"title": "Gift card",
"section": "Section::::Function and types.:Mobile and virtual gift cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Other companies have introduced virtual gift cards that users redeem on their smartphones. As the merchant is not involved in the loop, it is considered a cash transfer rather than a traditional gift card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30941772",
"title": "CardHub.com",
"section": "Section::::Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The company operated a database of credit cards and prepaid cards. The site's gift card exchange allowed users to buy and sell gift cards directly amongst each other or through the website itself, and also provides various product comparison tools and a personal finance education center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12815454",
"title": "Incentive program",
"section": "Section::::Monetary rewards.:Gift cards/certificates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Gift cards/certificates are prepaid retail cards or certificates which are redeemed at a later time at checkout. In general, they are available in two types: (1) cards which carry a major credit card brand, commonly referred to as universal gift cards (UGC), and are redeemable at all merchants accepting the credit card brand; and (2) retailer-specific cards, issued by well-known merchants, redeemable only through the issuing retailer. In the 2005 Incentive Federation Study of Motivation and Incentive Applications, gift cards were ranked as the most frequently used type of corporate reward. Gift cards are also more likely to be used for luxury purchases and can build an emotional bond with the organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "743068",
"title": "Gift card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "A gift card also known as gift certificate in North America, or gift voucher or gift token in the UK is a prepaid stored-value money card, usually issued by a retailer or bank, to be used as an alternative to cash for purchases within a particular store or related businesses. Gift cards are also given out by employers or organizations as rewards or gifts. They may also be distributed by retailers and marketers as part of a promotion strategy, to entice the recipient to come in or return to the store, and at times such cards are called cash cards. Gift cards are generally redeemable only for purchases at the relevant retail premises and cannot be cashed out, and in some situations may be subject to an expiry date or fees. American Express, MasterCard, and Visa offer generic gift cards which need not be redeemed at particular stores, and which are widely used for cashback marketing strategies. A feature of these cards is that they are generally anonymous and are disposed of when the stored value on a card is exhausted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
469v91
|
Did the Confederate troops that accidentally shot Stonewall Jackson suffer any repercussions for their actions?
|
[
{
"answer": "The commander of the 18th NC, Major then Col John Barry retained hi s command till the end of the war and was both wounded and served as acting Brigadier General in the Overland Campaign. He died soon after the war and supposedly continuously expressed remorse.\n\nThe Brigade commander General James Lane was actually one of the young stars of Lee's Army. The youngest flag officer he on multiple occasions served as acting division commander and received multiple wounds. \n\nAfter the war he was recruited as the first Commandant of the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, today known as Virginia Tech, and he also served a time as a professor at Auburn after being forced to leave VAMC.\n\nEDIT: Because I trusted a school to know the history of its own founders Lane was not the youngest in the entirety of the Army of Northern Virginia, but one of a handful to have been promoted before age 30, and was simply the youngest one left with Lee by the end, Ramseur having been killed and Hoke having joined Joe Johnston in the Carolinas. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "91246",
"title": "Spotsylvania County, Virginia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "General Stonewall Jackson was shot and mortally wounded by friendly fire in Spotsylvania County during the Battle of Chancellorsville. A group of Confederate soldiers from North Carolina were in the woods and heard General Jackson's party returning from reconnoitering the Union lines. They mistook them for a Federal patrol and fired on them, wounding Jackson in both arms. His left arm was amputated. General Jackson died a few days later from pneumonia at nearby Guinea Station. He and other Confederate wounded were being gathered there for evacuation to hospitals to the south and further away from enemy lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14105073",
"title": "Pennock Huey",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Later on the evening of the charge, \"Stonewall\" Jackson, while out scouting the area for the presence of Union troops, was inadvertently shot by South Carolina troops having mistaken him and his party for Union soldiers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41418278",
"title": "List of friendly fire incidents",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "BULLET::::- Confederate Lieutenant General Thomas \"Stonewall\" Jackson was wounded as a result of friendly fire in the Battle of Chancellorsville on 2 May 1863, and died eight days later. He and some of his men had been returning, under the cover of night, from an intelligence-gathering mission when Confederate troops of the 18th North Carolina Infantry misidentified them as a Union cavalry scout team; as a result, the North Carolina troops opened fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31485",
"title": "Stonewall Jackson",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.:First Battle of Bull Run.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Regardless of the controversy and the delay in relieving Bee, Jackson's brigade, which would thenceforth be known as the Stonewall Brigade, stopped the Union assault and suffered more casualties than any other Southern brigade that day; Jackson has since then been generally known as Stonewall Jackson. During the battle, Jackson displayed a gesture common to him and held his left arm skyward with the palm facing forward – interpreted by his soldiers variously as an eccentricity or an entreaty to God for success in combat. His hand was struck by a bullet or a piece of shrapnel and he suffered a small loss of bone in his middle finger. He refused medical advice to have the finger amputated. After the battle, Jackson was promoted to major general (October 7, 1861) and given command of the Valley District, with headquarters in Winchester.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1431266",
"title": "Turning point of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Stonewall Jackson's death (May 1863).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "After winning the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Army of Northern Virginia lost Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson to pneumonia following a friendly fire accident. His death was a blow to the morale of the Confederate army, as he was one of its most popular and successful commanders. Two months later, Robert E. Lee had no general with Jackson's audacity available at the Battle of Gettysburg. Many historians argue that Jackson might have succeeded in seizing key battlefield positions (such as Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill at the end of day one) that his replacements were unable or unwilling to take. Lee himself shared this belief and is said to have told his subordinate generals on different occasions that they should have acted like Jackson would have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1351334",
"title": "First Battle of Kernstown",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Jackson refused to accept any responsibility for the defeat and subsequently arrested the commander of his old Stonewall Brigade, Brig. Gen. Richard B. Garnett, for retreating from the battlefield before permission was received. The Stonewall Brigade's withdrawal, which came after it received the bulk of the Union fire and suffered the majority of Confederate casualties, uncovered the right of Fulkerson's Brigade, forcing it to also withdraw and starting a panic. He was replaced by Brig. Gen. Charles S. Winder. During the invasion of Maryland in September, Robert E. Lee ordered the charges against him dropped, but Garnett suffered from the humiliation of his court-martial for over a year, until he was killed at Gettysburg during Pickett's Charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48780",
"title": "Battle of Chancellorsville",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:May 2: Jackson's flank attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As he and his staff started to return, they were incorrectly identified as Union cavalry by men of the 18th North Carolina Infantry, who hit Jackson with friendly fire. Jackson's three bullet wounds were not in themselves life-threatening, but his left arm was broken and had to be amputated. While recovering, he contracted pneumonia and died on May 10. His death was a devastating loss for the Confederacy. Some historians and participants—particularly those of the postbellum Lost Cause movement—attribute the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg two months later to Jackson's absence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33s5hn
|
gearing/leverage (finance)
|
[
{
"answer": "Gearing and leverage refer to the level of debt a company or financial venture has taken on. To see why it's called leverage, let's look at a simple example.\n\nLet's say I have a business venture that can always earn a 10% return on capital investment. That means, every time you give me $100 to buy machinery (or whatever) I can use it to make $10 a year.\n\nIf I do happen to have $100 that's great. I make $10 profit a year.\n\nBut if I can borrow money more cheaply than that 10%, I can make extra profit by borrowing money. If I borrow another $100 at 5% to add to my $100, I can make $20 a year before interest. After I pay the $5 interest I can make $15.\n\nLet's add another zero onto it. How about I borrow $1000. Add it to my $100 and now I can make $110 a year, take away my $50 interest payment and now I make $60.\n\nAll I'm doing is increasing the amount of debt I take on and yet I become more profitable. It's called leverage because with the same amount of initial money, I can earn more profit (just like a lever allows you to do more work with the same initial application of force).\n\nNow, the problem with leverage is that I cannot be sure about my profits. The future is inherently unknowable and there's a chance I might not make enough money. With my initial no debt $100 situation, all I stand to lose is my $100. But as I borrow more, the consequences of making the wrong prediction about my profits get worse and worse and I might end up owning far more than I could ever repay.\n\nIn finance specifically, this often refers to the leverage of a financial entity. A firm (like a pension fund) that exists just to buy shares in companies and other financial instruments. It could simply take money from its investors and use it to buy shares and other assets. But it could make more profit by mixing the money from its investors with some borrowed money ie, it can leverage itself. Once again, this is a game of comparing risk with rewards. If the investments pay off, the profit is all that much higher for having used debt to fund it. But if they investments go bad, you end up losing your capital AND paying off more debt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376839",
"title": "Leverage (finance)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "In finance, leverage (sometimes referred to as gearing in the United Kingdom and Australia) is any technique involving the use of debt (borrowed funds) rather than fresh equity in the purchase of an asset, with the expectation that the after-tax profit to equity holders from the transaction will exceed the borrowing cost, frequently by several multiples — hence the provenance of the word from the effect of a lever in physics, a simple machine which amplifies the application of a comparatively small input force into a correspondingly greater output force. Normally, the lender (finance provider) will set a limit on how much risk it is prepared to take and will set a limit on how much leverage it will permit, and would require the acquired asset to be provided as collateral security for the loan. For example, for a residential property the finance provider may lend up to, say, 80% of the property's market value, for a commercial property it may be 70%, while on shares it may lend up to, say, 60% or none at all on certain volatile shares.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561582",
"title": "Negative gearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Negative gearing is a form of financial leverage whereby an investor borrows money to acquire an income-producing investment and the gross income generated by the investment (at least in the short term) is less than the cost of owning and managing the investment, including depreciation and interest charged on the loan (but excluding capital repayments). The investor may enter into a negatively geared investment expecting tax benefits or the capital gain on the investment after it is sold to exceed the accumulated losses of holding the investment. The investor would take into account the tax treatment of negative gearing, which may generate additional benefits to the investor in the form of tax benefits if the loss on a negatively geared investment is tax-deductible against the investor's other taxable income and if the capital gain on the sale is given a favourable tax treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561582",
"title": "Negative gearing",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Positive gearing occurs when one borrows to invest in an income-producing asset and the returns (income) from that asset exceed the cost of borrowing. From then on, the investor must pay tax on the rental income profit until the asset is sold, when point the investor must pay capital gains tax on any profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33643167",
"title": "Homemade leverage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In finance, homemade leverage is the use of personal borrowing of investors to change the amount of financial leverage of the firm. Investors can use homemade leverage to change an unleveraged firm into a leveraged firm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216050",
"title": "Traditional climbing",
"section": "Section::::Trad gear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "The term \"gear\" in climbing generally refers to equipment used during climbs (except harness, shoes, chalk bags, and chalk). Gear or \"protection\" are mechanical devices that provide safety, either by allowing greater stability in making a move (as in the case of aid climbing) or by dampening force and reducing the distance of a fall. The suitability of individual types of gear depends on the surface and formation of the rock face. The phrase \"placing gear\" denotes the act of setting a piece of gear into the rock face and then attaching the rope (via carabiner) before ascending higher. In the event of a fall, the gear acts as a catch-point for the rope, thus preventing the climber from hitting the ground. Gear is placed at frequent intervals to avoid becoming too \"run out\", and provide protection in the case of a fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9955722",
"title": "History of South Africa (1994–present)",
"section": "Section::::Mandela presidency (1994–1999).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "A Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy was adopted in June 1996. The GEAR strategy was influenced by the economic ideas that became known as the Washington Consensus; it aimed to cut state expenditure, rationalise the public sector and reduce the budget deficit to 3% by 1999. Trevor Manuel had just been appointed Minister of Finance. The GEAR strategy was probably adopted under some pressure from international investors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30900385",
"title": "Leverage cycle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Leverage is defined as the ratio of the asset value to the cash needed to purchase it. The leverage cycle can be defined as the procyclical expansion and contraction of leverage over the course of the business cycle. The existence of procyclical leverage amplifies the effect on asset prices over the business cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zuqwb
|
if the fec restricts individual contributions to a federal election to $2500, how can celebrities and the super wealthy hold $40,000 a plate fundraisers?
|
[
{
"answer": "$2500 is the limit for individual candidates, you can also give $30k to the national parties, and $5000 to PACs. So that $40k will get split up in some legal way, but in general the candidates will have direct or indirect access to those funds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7316631",
"title": "Harold Simmons",
"section": "Section::::Political activism.:2008 presidential election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Simmons, a longtime Republican donor, gave the maximum $2,300 contributions to Senator John McCain, as well as to fellow Republican candidates Mitt Romney and Rudy Giuliani. He was listed as a \"bundler\" for the McCain campaign on McCain's website, which meant that he had raised between $50,000 and $100,000 for the Republican candidate. He also contributed to Representative Chet Edwards, a Texas Democrat. Simmons has given more than $500,000 to Texas Governor Rick Perry, and more than $300,000 to Texas Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst and Attorney General Greg Abbott. He was a major donor to the American Issues Project, an independent conservative political group that ran ads critical of Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42015113",
"title": "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Review period in the United States Congress.:Public debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "An intense public debate in the United States took place during the congressional review period. \"Some of the wealthiest and most powerful donors in American politics, those for and against the accord\", became involved in the public debate, although \"mega-donors\" opposing the agreement contributed substantially more money than those supporting it. From 2010 to early August 2015 the foundations of Sheldon Adelson, Paul Singer, and Haim Saban contributed a total of $13 million (at least $7.5 million, at least $2.6 million, and at least $2.9 million, respectively) to advocacy groups opposing an agreement with Iran. On the other side, three groups lobbying in support of the agreement received at least $803,000 from the Ploughshares Fund, at least $425,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and at least $68,500 from George Soros and his foundation. Other philanthropists and donors supporting an agreement include S. Daniel Abraham, Tim Gill, Norman Lear, Margery Tabankin, and Arnold Hiatt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50022412",
"title": "Hillary Victory Fund",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "The Hillary Victory Fund let the Clinton 2016 presidential campaign ask big donors for over $350,000 apiece per calendar year, or $700,000 from married couples. American presidential campaigns have a history of working to reach the legal maximum donations from single donors. In 2008, Barack Obama's presidential campaign sought $30,000 in donations from big donors, which was the legal limit for donations to the campaign and related fundraising committees. In 2014, the Supreme Court case McCutcheon v. FEC built on the Citizens United decision by ruling that limitations to an individual's total political donations were unconstitutional. These unregulated contributions to political party committees is known as \"soft money\", and had led to corruption cases in both parties from malfeasance in the 1980s and 90s before Congress barred its use in 2002. The 2014 Congressional omnibus budget bill also raised political party donation limits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5680382",
"title": "Jerry Lewis – Lowery lobbying firm controversy",
"section": "Section::::Benefits to Lewis.:Campaign contributions from lobbyists and their clients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "In all, between 1997 and 2005, Copeland Lowery's for-profit clients made $48.2 million in political contributions to nearly 1,300 federal candidates and committees. At least $6.2 million went to the campaigns and political action committees of House Appropriations Committee members, including Lewis. Slightly over $1 million of that $6.2 million went to the members' political action committees. Lewis' Future Leaders PAC got about $520,000 of that $1 million. It is legal for lobbyists to direct companies to make contributions, as long as they are not given in exchange for official, specific action by members of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41912494",
"title": "Government by the People Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "As of February 2014, it had over 100 Democratic cosponsors, but it has little to no chance of passing the Republican-controlled House of Representatives. Political contributions of up to $150 would be matched by a factor of six times more than the original donation as long as candidates meet certain requirements. They must not use their own money, not accept donations over $1000, have already received at least $50,000 from 1000 in-state donors, and decline most political action committee money. In order to subsidize donations to political candidates, supporters say it will close \"corporate tax loopholes\", though MinnPost.com said no financing mechanism has been identified. It has been supported in print by Representatives Nancy Pelosi (D-CA), John Sarbanes (D-MD), Annie Kuster (D-NH), and Tulsi Gabbard (D-HI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195777",
"title": "Political action committee",
"section": "Section::::Categorization.:Super PACs.:2012 presidential election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In the 2012 election campaign, most of the money given to super PACs came from wealthy individuals, not corporations. According to data from the Center for Responsive Politics, the top 100 individual super PAC donors in 2011–2012 made up just 3.7% of contributors, but accounted for more than 80% of the total money raised, while less than 0.5% of the money given to \"the most active Super PACs\" was donated by publicly traded corporations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58636523",
"title": "Karla Jurvetson",
"section": "Section::::Philanthropy.:Political activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Controversy arose with her largest donation of $5.4m to Women Vote!, the Super Pac run by EMILY's List. Her donation was in the form of Baidu Inc. shares, a Chinese technology company, and was unusual since it was in the form of stock shares. The controversy arose because only American citizens can donate to U.S. elections. An EMILY's List spokesperson said, \"We cleared the donation through our lawyers.” ” In November 2018, Jurvetson was named by Money Makers as one of five \"surprising million dollar donors\" to the US midterm elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ptj22
|
How long is the delay between the stimulus and response for any sensory organ in the body?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are aware of a delay when someone touches you? Most people are not normally aware of anything coming between ourselves and what we see/hear/touch (we aren't aware of the various pathways the signal travels in our body or our brain interpreting the signals). Also perceptual experience is seemingly instantaneous in that we ordinarily assume that we perceive events as they happen, with absolutely no time-lag or delay. ([source](_URL_0_)).\n\nAlthough we don't experience a delay, we know it exists due to the physiology of our nervous system. The delay is more difficult to measure than might be expected. You can read more about how we measure it & a lot more about the nature of perception [here](_URL_0_), but **it's estimated that stimuli can produce basic sensations in as little as 50–80 msec.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3555532",
"title": "Kappa effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The kappa effect or perceptual time dilation is a temporal perceptual illusion that can arise when observers judge the elapsed time between sensory stimuli applied sequentially at different locations. In perceiving a sequence of consecutive stimuli, subjects tend to overestimate the elapsed time between two successive stimuli when the distance between the stimuli is sufficiently large, and to underestimate the elapsed time when the distance is sufficiently small.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226722",
"title": "Functional magnetic resonance imaging",
"section": "Section::::BOLD hemodynamic response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "The change in the MR signal from neuronal activity is called the hemodynamic response (HDR). It lags the neuronal events triggering it by a couple of seconds, since it takes a while for the vascular system to respond to the brain's need for glucose. From this point it typically rises to a peak at about 5 seconds after the stimulus. If the neurons keep firing, say from a continuous stimulus, the peak spreads to a flat plateau while the neurons stay active. After activity stops, the BOLD signal falls below the original level, the baseline, a phenomenon called the undershoot. Over time the signal recovers to the baseline. There is some evidence that continuous metabolic requirements in a brain region contribute to the undershoot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5637355",
"title": "Neural facilitation",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Experimental evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "To examine facilitation during shorter intervals, Katz and Miledi directly applied brief depolarizing stimuli to nerve endings. When increasing the depolarizing stimulus from 1-2 ms, neurotransmitter release greatly increased due to accumulation of active . Therefore, the degree of facilitation depends on the amount of active , which is determined by the reduction in conductance over time as well as the amount of removed from axon terminals after the first stimulus. Facilitation is greatest when the impulses are closest together because conductance would not return to baseline prior to the second stimulus. Therefore, both conductance and accumulated would be greater for the second impulse when presented shortly after the first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315029",
"title": "Neural adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Fast and slow adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "There is fast adaptation and slow adaptation. Fast adaptation occurs immediately after a stimulus is presented i.e., within hundreds of milliseconds. Slow adaptive processes can take minutes, hours or even days. The two classes of neural adaptation may rely on very different physiological mechanisms. The time scale over which adaptation builds up and recovers depends on the time course of stimulation. Brief stimulation produces adaptation which occurs and recovers while more prolonged stimulation can produce slower and more lasting forms of adaptation. Also, repeated sensory stimulation appears to temporarily decrease the gain of thalamocortical synaptic transmission. Adaptation of cortical responses was stronger and recovered more slowly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569840",
"title": "Mechanoreceptor",
"section": "Section::::Lamellar corpuscle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Once threshold is reached, the magnitude of the stimulus is encoded in the frequency of impulses generated in the neuron. So the more massive or rapid the deformation of a single corpuscle, the higher the frequency of nerve impulses generated in its neuron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21445461",
"title": "Nonsynaptic plasticity",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Intrinsic excitability of a neuron.:Axonal modulation.:Propagation plasticity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Because it is the summation of the action potentials that eventually results in the threshold polarization being crossed, the temporal relationship of different input signals is very important in determining if and when a post-synaptic neuron will fire. Over time, the time it takes an action potential to propagate down the length of a particular axon can change. In one experiment multielectrode arrays were used to measure the time it took for action potentials to travel from one electrode to another, called latency. The neurons were then stimulated and the value of the latency was recorded over time. The latency values changed over time, suggesting that axonal plasticity influenced the propagation of action potentials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859926",
"title": "Sensory neuron",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Rate of adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "BULLET::::- A phasic receptor is a sensory receptor that adapts rapidly to a stimulus. The response of the cell diminishes very quickly and then stops. It does not provide information on the duration of the stimulus; instead some of them convey information on rapid changes in stimulus intensity and rate. An example of a phasic receptor is the Pacinian corpuscle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e87jte
|
What qualities did furs from North America have that made them so desirable to Europeans? Were commonly worn clothes prior to the Fur Trade really much worse, or was it primarily an aesthetic/fashion/status thing?
|
[
{
"answer": " One of the biggest qualities North American furs had was a simple one: they were there to use in the first place. One of the largest sources of supply for European furs before 1492 was in northern Russia, flowing into Western Europe primarily via Novgorodian and later Russian traders through the Baltic. This region had been massively depleted by the 1500’s due to intense cultivation over a prolonged period, with the beaver in particular practically vanishing from Europe. \n\nThis factor was paired with an environmental phenomenon known as the Little Ice Age, which was a period of generally lower temperatures across the globe from around the 15th to the 19th centuries. I’m sure an environmental historian could speak more on this but the decline in temperature was certainly significant and had a broad historical impact: one the one hand, you could enjoy a winter fair on the frozen Thames, but if you were a Chinese peasant, famines caused by the temperature drop would (arguably) lead to the overthrow of your ruling dynasty by Jurchen tribes. Colder temperatures would undoubtedly cause an increase in desire for furs due to its excellent protective properties. In essence It was a classic low supply/high demand scenario that led to a boom in the transatlantic fur trade being as profitable as it was, with a relatively untapped source of supply sitting abundantly in North America.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While agreeing with the above comment. There were several other factors in their favor e.g.\n\n* It a source for a number of Western European countries that had previously drawn on Eastern supplies. Which difficult and expensive including often via several intermediaries and often political complications. While the new American were just (though recognizing it often difficult) a sea voyage away and often from their own colonies. Which they were keen both to encourage and profit from.\n* 'Comparatively' numerous and little valued by the native peoples. Who also much sought European goods. They were notably easily obtained and cheaper than than Eastern furs. Giving them a usually clear undercutting commercial advantage. \n* Fashion, though difficult to grasp, not to be discounted. In this case the rise of the Beaver fur hat - for which Beaver fur made the best felt e.g. 1750 45% of British fur exports, worth £263,000 were of fur hats to Spain (these visible in Spanish paintings of the period).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "452887",
"title": "Fur trade",
"section": "Section::::Russian fur trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The European discovery of North America, with its vast forests and wildlife, particularly the beaver, led to the continent becoming a major supplier in the 17th century of fur pelts for the fur felt hat and fur trimming and garment trades of Europe. Fur was relied on to make warm clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337310",
"title": "Rodent",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.:Exploitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 1390,
"text": "Humanity has long used animal skins for clothing, as the leather is durable and the fur provides extra insulation. The native people of North America made much use of beaver pelts, tanning and sewing them together to make robes. Europeans appreciated the quality of these and the North American fur trade developed and became of prime importance to early settlers. In Europe, the soft underfur known as \"beaver wool\" was found to be ideal for felting and was made into beaver hats and trimming for clothing. Later, the coypu took over as a cheaper source of fur for felting and was farmed extensively in America and Europe; however, fashions changed, new materials became available and this area of the animal fur industry declined. The chinchilla has a soft and silky coat and the demand for its fur was so high that it was nearly wiped out in the wild before farming took over as the main source of pelts. The quills and guardhairs of porcupines are used for traditional decorative clothing. For example, their guardhairs are used in the creation of the Native American \"porky roach\" headdress. The main quills may be dyed, and then applied in combination with thread to embellish leather accessories such as knife sheaths and leather bags. Lakota women would harvest the quills for quillwork by throwing a blanket over a porcupine and retrieving the quills it left stuck in the blanket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "443297",
"title": "Fur farming",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Historically, the fur trade played an important economic role in the United States. Fur trappers explored and opened up large parts of North America, and the fashion for beaver hats led to intense competition for the raw materials. Starting in the latter half of the 20th century, producers and wearers of fur have been criticized by animal rights activists because of the perceived cruelty they believe is involved in animal trapping and because of the availability of substitutes such as synthetic fibers (made from petroleum oil).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575495",
"title": "Hide (skin)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Rare furs have been a notable status symbol throughout history. Ermine fur was particularly associated with European nobility, with the black-tipped tails arranged around the edges of the robes to produce a pattern of black diamonds on a white field. Demand for beaver hats in the 17th and 18th century drove some of the initial exploration of North America, particularly in Canada, and even prompted wars among native tribes competing for the most productive areas. Natural leather continues to be used for many expensive products from limousine upholstery to designer cellular phone cases. There are, however, many forms of artificial leather and fur now available, which are usually cheaper alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "598743",
"title": "Economic history of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Fur trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The fur trade was key to the development of the Canadian interior. In Europe, hats from beaver pelts had become especially fashionable and valuable, and the forests of North America were home to many of the creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45030014",
"title": "Marriage 'à la façon du pays'",
"section": "Section::::The fur trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1651,
"text": "The North American fur trade began in the seventeenth century when European and Aboriginal people began meeting at the Saint Lawrence River to trade goods. The Europeans were mainly interested in buying furs for the luxury fur and felt market in Europe. Beaver pelts for use in millinery were particularly sought after. Aboriginal people knew the best places and methods for trapping, and therefore became valuable procurers for the Europeans. Because European traders had no knowledge of the Canadian landscape and climate, they also needed Aboriginal assistance in surviving. In contrast, Aboriginal people were interested in European goods that they previously had no access to, such as metal pots and utensils. As trade continued, the Ojibwa people would act as middlemen for the traders, bringing goods into the western interior to trade with the Cree and Assiniboine, and bringing furs back to the Europeans. As the trade progressed into the eighteenth century, the Cree and Assiniboine people would start becoming middlemen themselves, increasing their participation in the trade. As more Aboriginal people became involved in the trade it became apparent that personal relationships were becoming important aspects of the trade. Fostering relationships was a valuable way to secure trade access and loyalty between particular native groups and European traders. Some historians even believe that this is what caused the great success of the fur trade. For example, Brenda Macdougall writes that Aboriginal people refused to trade only for economic reasons, illuminating how personal relationships were pivotal for the success of the fur trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2427310",
"title": "Fur clothing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Fur is still worn in most mild and cool climates around the world due to its superior warmth and durability. From the days of early European settlement, up until the development of modern clothing alternatives, fur clothing was popular in Canada during the cold winters. The invention of inexpensive synthetic textiles for insulating clothing led to fur clothing falling out of fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dcb6in
|
Is it possible to have a non-gaseous planet with permanent storms like Jupiter? And what would the conditions have to be for that to happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would have to be covered in some sort of fluid atmosphere in order for the storms to have a media to propogate in. For example a liquid covered planet with oceans over the entire surface several kilometres deep at a minimum would be covered in constant ongoing chaotic weather systems which could be described as 'storms' depending on their severity. \nAssuming a broader interpretation of the question, (non-gas giants) another example might a Venus type planet. Storms on Venus propogate through its dense gaseous atmosphere but it is a 'rocky' earth like planet as opposed to a gas giant like Jupiter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An Earth-Sized plant in the goldilocks zone that is tidally locked would have zones of storms at the light terminators.\n\nIt doesn't have to be in the goldilocks zone.... but it gives you the idea an idea situation could still yield undesirable results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Great Red Spot and other vortices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Storms such as this are common within the turbulent atmospheres of giant planets. Jupiter also has white ovals and brown ovals, which are lesser unnamed storms. White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds within the upper atmosphere. Brown ovals are warmer and located within the \"normal cloud layer\". Such storms can last as little as a few hours or stretch on for centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43150263",
"title": "Gliese 832 c",
"section": "Section::::Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "In the case that Gliese 832 c possess a Venusian-like atmosphere, which it could have due to its eccentric orbit (and the stellar flux reaching 1.45 \"S\", high enough to boil any oceans on its surface), the planet would be inhospitable because of a runaway greenhouse effect on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would have boiled away due to the dense, and as this occurred, the temperature would have risen to around . The water vapor would accumulate in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around as the planet would have been overwhelmed by water vapor (it is a powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of carbon dioxide would have been present, as Gliese 832 c was/is probably an ocean planet. The surface pressure would have also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm.) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. The net result would be that Gliese 832 c being a desert planet, rather than an ocean planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "130312",
"title": "Storm",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial storms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Storms do not only occur on Earth; other planetary bodies with a sufficient atmosphere (gas giants in particular) also undergo stormy weather. The Great Red Spot on Jupiter provides a well-known example. Though technically an anticyclone, with greater than hurricane wind speeds, it is larger than the Earth and has persisted for at least 340 years, having first been observed by astronomer Galileo Galilei. Neptune also had its own lesser-known Great Dark Spot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873277",
"title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Discrete features.:Storms and lightning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth. They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size, which appear from time to time in the belts' cyclonic regions, especially within the strong westward (retrograde) jets. In contrast to vortices, storms are short-lived phenomena; the strongest of them may exist for several months, while the average lifetime is only 3–4 days. They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8294204",
"title": "Wheelers (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Role of Jupiter in the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "A portion of \"Wheelers\"' fiction is based on current theories that the presence of gas giants may actually be a necessary factor in the formation of habitable terrestrial planets, as their mass deflects and breaks up potentially devastating threats. Earth-bound comets from outside the solar system tend to either slingshot past Jupiter and launch into hyperbolic orbits that take them far from the terrestrial planets, or may lose momentum and drift peaceably into the Sun. Without the incredible gravitational presence of Jupiter, it's possible that our planet would experience so many impacts and close calls as to prevent advanced evolution or even the formation of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "Section::::Attributes.:Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying insolation or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), a greater-than-Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to have such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236717",
"title": "Anticyclone",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "On Jupiter, there are two examples of an extraterrestrial anticyclonic storm; the Great Red Spot and the recently formed Oval BA. They are powered by smaller storms merging unlike any typical anticyclonic storm that happens on Earth where water powers them. Another theory is that warmer gases rise in a column of cold air, creating a vortex as is the case of other storms that include Anne's Spot on Saturn, and the Great Dark Spot on Neptune. Anticyclones have been detected near the poles of Venus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ozrvm
|
why do so many asian demonyms end with "ese"? (chinese, vietnamese, japanese, burmese)
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a good question, specifically why we say \"Chinese\" instead of \"Chinan\" (or why we say \"Korean\" instead of \"Korese\")",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From [this source](_URL_0_):\n\n > The -an, -ian, and -ese suffixes all stem from the Latin adjectival naming system:\n\n > -ian or -an, from Latin, –ianus, meaning \"native of\", \"relating to\", or \"belonging to\"\n\n > -ese, from the Latin, -ensis, meaning \"originating in\" \n\nThey all save similar meanings, and the assignments seem to be arbitrary, maybe based on what sounds \"better.\"\n\nFor example, a citizen of Vienna is both Viennese and Austrian.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think this has to do with word endings, more than regions. Place names ending in 'm' or 'n' get the 'ese' suffix. \n\nAnother user posted \"Viennese\" for someone who lives in the city of Vienna. However, that person is Austrian.\n\nKorea ends in a vowel, thus \"Korean\", not \"Koreaese\". Laos is the same. A good example: one is Thai, yet Siamese.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39573",
"title": "Tone (linguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Uses of tone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "In East Asia, tone is typically lexical. This is characteristic of heavily tonal languages such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Hmong. That is, tone is used to distinguish words which would otherwise be homonyms, rather than in the grammar, but some Yue Chinese dialects have minimal grammatical use of tone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095005",
"title": "Teochew dialect",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.:Morphology.:Pronouns.:Personal pronouns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Chinese varieties, do not show case marking, therefore means both \"I\" and \"me\" and means \"they\" and \"them\". The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have a distinction between an inclusive and exclusive we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun would be used, otherwise . No other southern Chinese variety has this distinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9116382",
"title": "Gender neutrality in genderless languages",
"section": "Section::::Other natural languages.:Chinese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Spoken Mandarin Chinese also has only one third-person pronoun, \"tā\" for all referents (though \"-men\" 們 / 们 can be added as a plural suffix). \"Tā\" can mean \"he\", \"she\", or \"it\". However, the different meanings of \"tā\" are written with different characters: \"他\", containing the human radical \"亻\", from \"人\", meaning person, for \"he\" or a person of undetermined gender; \"她\", containing the feminine radical \"女\", for \"she\"; and \"它\" for \"it\"; \"祂\" containing the spirit radical \"礻\", from \"示\", for deities; \"牠\" containing the cow radical \"牜\", from \"牛\", for animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468550",
"title": "Anglicism",
"section": "Section::::By language.:Chinese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The origins of Chinese anglicisms vary, one of the most common being those obtained by phonetic borrowing. For example, a \"bus\" (, in Mainland China or Taiwan) is usually called in Hong Kong and Macao because its Cantonese pronunciation is similar to its English counterpart. Another type of anglicism is syntactic anglicism, when a sentence is rendered following the English word order instead of the standard Chinese word order; for example, the word for \"network\" is or , where can be translated as \"net\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29969",
"title": "Tea",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of \"cha\", but Hokkien and Teochew Chinese varieties along the Southern coast of China pronounce it like \"teh\". These two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5031475",
"title": "Sino-Xenic pronunciations",
"section": "Section::::Sound correspondences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Foreign pronunciations of these words inevitably only approximated the original Chinese, and many distinctions were lost. In particular, Korean and Japanese had far fewer consonants and much simpler syllables than Chinese, and they lacked tones. Even Vietnamese merged some Chinese initial consonants (for example, several different consonants were merged into \"t\" and \"th\" while \"ph\" corresponds to both \"p\" and \"f\" in Mandarin). A further complication is that the various borrowings are based on different local pronunciations at different periods. Nevertheless, it is common to treat the pronunciations as developments from the categories of the Middle Chinese rhyme dictionaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153895",
"title": "Third-person pronoun",
"section": "Section::::Other languages.:Asian languages.:Japanese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Just like Korean, pure personal pronouns used as the anaphor did not exist in traditional Japanese. Most of the time the language drops the pronoun completely or refers to people using their name with a suffix such as the gender-neutral -\"san\" added to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30d740
|
why are saudi arabia and iran are having a war in yemen?
|
[
{
"answer": "Same reason most wars were fought in the 20th century. It's about ensuring a sphere of influence.\n\nIf the Sunni side wins, it's another ally for the Saudis. If the Shia side wins, it's an ally for Iran.\n\nBoth countries have long been locked in a struggle to be the \"top dog\" in the region. Just look at the controversy over the naming of the Persian / Arabian Gulf. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yemen has only been a single country for 25 years and fought a civil war in the 1980's. The central government is weak, the economy weak, an active al-Qaeda branch causes problems, and the various tribes follow different religions. The current unrest is a new civil war supported in part by outside parties. \n\nSaudi Arabia is interested in a stable neighbor and Saudi-allied government. Iran is interested in an unstable neighbor for Saudi Arabia and a new Iranian ally. The most dangerous branch of al-Qaeda is located in Yemen and is the primary reason for US involvement. \n\nProxy wars are preferable to real wars as they are less expensive, involve few of your own people dying, and harder to be blamed for. Proxy wars are strongly preferable to the weaker party who holds little hope of victory in conventional war. Iran has no chance of defeating Saudi Arabia in direct fighting. The Saudi military is superior and supported by the US, UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Pakistan. \n\nSaudi is leading the current intervention and is supported by nine other countries including Morocco, Egypt, Sudan, Pakistan, Kuwait, UAE, Jordan, Bahrain, and Qatar. The US is providing intelligence support but I don't believe any money. Iran is supporting an insurgent group. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9761047",
"title": "Shia–Sunni relations",
"section": "Section::::Modernity.:Post-1980.:Saudi Arabia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The Saudi conflict of Shia and Sunni extends beyond the borders of the kingdom because of international Saudi \"Petro-Islam\" influence. Saudi Arabia backed Iraq in the 1980–1988 war with Iran and sponsored militants in Pakistan and Afghanistan who—though primarily targeting the Soviet Union, which had invaded Afghanistan in 1979—also fought to suppress Shia movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398489",
"title": "Sectarianism",
"section": "Section::::Religious sectarianism.:Middle East.:Yemen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In Yemen, there have been many clashes between Salafis and Shia Houthis. According to \"The Washington Post\", \"In today’s Middle East, activated sectarianism affects the political cost of alliances, making them easier between co-religionists. That helps explain why Sunni-majority states are lining up against Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah over Yemen.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648554",
"title": "Sectarian violence",
"section": "Section::::Among Muslims.:In Yemen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In Yemen, there have been many clashes between Salafis and Shia Houthis. According to \"The Washington Post\", \"In today’s Middle East, activated sectarianism affects the political cost of alliances, making them easier between co-religionists. That helps explain why Sunni-majority states are lining up against Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah over Yemen.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33246898",
"title": "Iran–Yemen relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Iran and Yemen have had cordial, if tepid, relations since the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Ties between the Saudi-backed Yemeni government in Aden, however, have been damaged in recent years by Iran's support for the rival Yemeni government in Sanaa linked to the Houthi movement. The United States and the Saudi-backed government in Yemen have repeatedly accused Iran of providing funding and weapons to the Zaydi Shi’ite Houthi rebels and on one occasion claimed to have discovered Iranian-made arms in rebel weapons caches. The US and Saudi Arabia have also accused Iran's allies in Lebanon and Syria of also supporting the Yemeni government in Sanna. Iran has also deployed submarines and warships off Yemen’s coast, in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, ostensibly to conduct anti-piracy operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48998216",
"title": "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict, sometimes also referred to as the Iran–Saudi Arabia Cold War, Middle East Cold War or Middle East Conflict, is the ongoing struggle for influence in the Middle East and surrounding regions between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The two countries have provided varying degrees of support to opposing sides in nearby conflicts, including the civil wars in Syria, Yemen, and Iraq. The rivalry also extends to disputes in Bahrain, Lebanon, Qatar, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Morocco, as well as broader competition in North and East Africa, parts of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19661342",
"title": "Iran–Saudi Arabia relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:2000s.:Yemen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "This triggered the largest Saudi military operation since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Yemen's government, as well as the Arabs, accused Iran of arming the Houthis. Iran has heavily criticized Saudi Arabia for their intervention in the Shia insurgency in Yemen. Iran's then president Ahmadinejad was quoted as saying: \"Saudi Arabia was expected to mediate in Yemen's internal conflict as an older brother and restore peace to the Muslim state, rather than launching military strike[s] and pounding bombs on Muslim civilians in the north of Yemen,\" whilst Saudi foreign minister Saud Al Faisal counter-accused Iran of meddling in Yemen's internal affairs. Ahmadinejad went even further saying: \"Some Western states invaded the region (Afghanistan and Iraq) in the wake of the September 11 attacks, whilst Al-Qaeda's main hub was located in another country in the region, which enjoys huge oil revenues and good relations with the United States and Western countries. There are some countries in the Middle East region that do not hold even a single election, don't allow women to drive, but the US and European governments are supporting their undemocratic governments,\" in reference to Saudi Arabia. In 2017 Saudi Prince Mohammed bin Salman called the supreme leader of Iran \"new Hitler\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33240321",
"title": "Saudi Arabia–Yemen relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Saudi Arabia and Yemen relations refers to the current and historical relationship between the neighbouring sovereign states of Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The two countries at one time did enjoy good relations and closely cooperated in military, economic and cultural issues. Now because of the ongoing Yemeni Civil War and the realignments of power in the Middle East with the emergence of al-Qaeda and the radicalization of some factions of Islam, Saudi Arabia has led a military intervention into Yemen, alongside a nine-member coalition, backed logistically by the United States, using airstrikes inside of Yemen and commencing a naval and aerial blockade beginning March 26, 2015, in order to support the current government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi in the war against the Houthis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tpzmu
|
the "planet x" conspiracy
|
[
{
"answer": "This might be a bit long winded as there's a bit of background to get through.\n\nOk, before we really could see well to Pluto and beyond, we knew that funny things were influencing Neptune and Pluto's orbits. A lot of explanations were put forth, and one of them was that there was a relatively large, 10th planet, beyond Pluto, which was coined often as 'Planet X'. It actually predated Pluto's discovery, and people thought for a bit that Pluto was the one causing the disruption, but then figured that it couldn't be moving them that hard because it's just too small.\n\nThis was before we had really learned a lot about the Kupier Belt and didn't know a lot about any trans-Neptunian objects, redefined planet and coined the term dwarf planet as a spheroid object that's planet shape but not enough mass that hadn't cleared its own debris field properly, which is why up until recently people thought Planet X was a theoretical 10th planet, and not 9th. The 'X' was originally meant to just mean 'unknown' but kind of came over time to mean '10' to people.\n\nI mean at that point their explanation wasn't completely crazy; that's how people first learned about Neptune because Neptune itself was messing with Uranus's orbit. \n\nThen they figured out later, that a large part of the discrepancy was just that Neptune is just straight up more massive than previously thought. Come around to modern time and now they're finding out a lot of bodies in the Kupier belt are way off and there's possibly another theoretical actual 9th planet maybe.. and there we go again.\n\nBut that's not the conspiracy, just the background.\n\nAfter a while, in 1995 this lady named Nancy Lieder, who runs his webpage called ZetaTalk starts to stay that she's been contacted from aliens from Zeta Riticuli through implants in her brain that was chosen to warn people about a giant object that would rip through the solar system in 2003 though obviously when that didn't happen the date magically just gets postponed, that would cause basically the world to end. It would pass by and cause the earth's magnetic poles to reverse somehow and every thing would just go to crap somehow.\n\nSo pretty much any time any object larger than a muffin is discovered or even passes by like, the galactic neighborhood, she and the people who believe her jump on the wagon of \"No really this time guys it's coming\". She also has extremely detailed descriptions and measurements of objects that don't exist and were later proven to not exist. \n\nAnd conveniently they all had all kinds of things to protect yourself from magnetic rays like.. white cloth. And tried to convince people to kill their pets out of mercy before the world ended. \n\nThen when nothing happened she was like \"Oh, I totally lied about the date, because if I said the TRUE date, then the government would trap people in cities leading to their death\", never mind that even the worst government on earth's goals are pretty much never 'kill all our our tax payers'.\n\nThen all of this got moved and swept up in the \"December 2012 end of the world!\" nonsense.\n\nShe tried to claim legitimacy by trying to link her work with another guy (Zecharia Sitchin) that claims aliens from a place called Nibiru came and helped kick start civilization, rebranding the run away death planet as Nibiru. In Zecharia's works, Nibiru would pass by closer to the solar system and it's people would fly to Earth, change things, then fly back until the next pass. His version of Nibiru never endangered the Earth. For the record, Zecharia pretty much denied her claims as having any relevance to his works up until his death in 2010.\n\nA lot of scientists looked at her work and said \"It's crazy\" and all the crazy people looked at that and said \"NASA is clearly just covering up the truth\". And the world continued to not be killed by a random planet to this writing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5930145",
"title": "Conspiracy X",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Conspiracy X is a role-playing game (RPG) originally released by New Millennium Entertainment in 1996, and since revised and released by several publishers including Steve Jackson Games and Eden Studios, Inc. In all versions, the setting posits that aliens are insiduously taking over the world, reminiscent of \"The X Files\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "889941",
"title": "Godzilla: Monster of Monsters",
"section": "Section::::Storyline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The mysterious Planet X appears when Pluto and Neptune switch positions in the solar system, and its inhabitants begin an attempt to conquer the Earth, using a legion of space monsters (though some of these creatures were in fact from Earth) as their primary attack force. The King of Monsters, Godzilla, joins forces with the guardian monster Mothra and the forces of Earth to repel the invasion forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4396362",
"title": "Planet X (Star Trek)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Planet X () is a 1998 \"Star Trek\" novel by Michael Jan Friedman which is a crossover between the X-Men comic book series and the characters of \"\". A \"New York Times\" bestseller, it was a sequel to an earlier crossover, detailed in the Marvel Comics one-shot \"Star Trek: The Next Generation/X-Men\" #1 (which was itself similar to an earlier \"Star Trek/X-Men\" crossover comic, where a slightly different team of X-Men encountered the characters of ). The novel is noteworthy for hinting at an attraction between Jean-Luc Picard and Ororo Munroe (Storm) and made a forward-looking reference to the (then-uncast) \"X-Men\" feature film by remarking on the uncanny resemblance between Picard and Xavier, as the two converse via the holodeck after a reasonable facsimile of Xavier is programmed into it; (both characters were played by Patrick Stewart in \"\" and the \"X-Men\" film series).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52459",
"title": "Counter-Earth",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:References in culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the 1969 kaiju film \"Gamera vs. Guiron\", a Counter-Earth named Terra exists on the opposite side of the Solar System to Earth, but presumably within the same habitable zone. A UFO takes two boys to the planet, where they are threatened by a pair of the final members of the Terran race, who were decimated by extraterrestrial Space Gyaos, and their \"guard dog\" monster Guiron. Gamera comes to Terra to save the children, and after a long fight, is eventually victorious against Guiron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3448834",
"title": "List of fictional locations in the Godzilla films",
"section": "Section::::Planets.:Planet X.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Planet X was first revealed in the 1965 film \"Invasion of Astro-Monster\" as a mysterious planet located in the umbra of Jupiter, home to the Xiliens. Its surface is barren, inhospitable, and lacking in water, so the Xians have been forced to make their home in a series of caves beneath the surface. It appeared that Planet X was ravaged due to the constant attacks of the space dragon King Ghidorah, but this turned out to be nothing more than part of a ploy by the Xiliens to conquer Earth to steal its water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87916",
"title": "Planets in science fiction",
"section": "Section::::Alphabetical list.:P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 311,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 311,
"end_character": 1654,
"text": "BULLET::::- Planet X: A fictional world beyond Pluto that appears in Invasion of Astro-Monster aka Monster Zero aka Godzilla vs. Monster Zero. The planet is largely barren on the surface, with extensive underground tunnels and advanced technology, which has little water, a fact which causes its people to attempt to invade Earth using first King Ghidorah, and later Godzilla and Rodan as mind-controlled weapons. The planet's populations are depicted as largely despising human emotion – violators of this taboo are summarily executed. The members of the species that had made their way to Earth appears to have been simultaneously destroyed when the leader of the civilization activated some form of self-destruct mechanism. It is suggested at the film's end that the planet still exists and that there is still a remaining population present there. An alternate version of Planet X reappears in the video game \"Godzilla: Monster of Monsters\" for the Nintendo Entertainment System, depicted as fully mechanical, and having brought together a Legion of Space Monsters with which to invade Earth. The planet's inhabitants leave it behind when Godzilla, Mothra, and the forces of Earth successfully defeat their armies and monsters. A third version of the people of Planet X, potentially from yet another version of Planet X appear in the video game \"Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee\", calling themselves the Vortak, and appearing virtually identical to their movie incarnation. They again take control of a force of monsters which the player – in the form of the only monster not successfully placed under mental control of the Vortak – must defeat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7544891",
"title": "Xandar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Xandar () is a fictional planet appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The planet is depicted as being in the Tranta system in the Andromeda Galaxy. It is best known as the home world of the Nova Corps, an intergalactic police task force. Xandar is also the home planet of Firelord and Air-Walker, former Heralds of Galactus as well as the super-villain Supernova.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ewrlw
|
Why do vaccines cause fever and flu-like symptoms in some people?
|
[
{
"answer": "vaccines are made with small amounts of what they are meant to treat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would it make things clearer if I pointed out that fevers are (in many cases) *not* caused by the flu? Your own body is what causes the fever when you have the flu; it's an immune response.\n\nWhen the vaccine is introduced, an immune response is triggered, and it's the immune response *itself* that makes you feel shitty.\n\n(As I understand it anyway. As you can see I'm purple, so it's not in my area of expertise)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**The virus is not the direct cause of your symptoms.**\n\nIt's your body's reaction to the virus that causes your symptoms (a subtle, but important (to your question), distinction). \n\nA weakened (or dead?) virus still looks like a virus to your immune system, and your body recognizes it, and acts to repel it (causing symptoms for some). The virus isn't able to reproduce, so basically your body can take time to \"prepare a response\", and later on if you are infected with live virus, it already has the ability to fight it off.\n\ntl;dr: Your body's reaction to the virus (and not the virus itself), causes symptoms. Since you are being injected with a virus (albeit weakened (or dead?)) you get symptoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19572217",
"title": "Influenza",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Vaccination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Vaccines can cause the immune system to react as if the body were actually being infected, and general infection symptoms (many cold and flu symptoms are just general infection symptoms) can appear, though these symptoms are usually not as severe or long-lasting as influenza. The most dangerous adverse effect is a severe allergic reaction to either the virus material itself or residues from the hen eggs used to grow the influenza; however, these reactions are extremely rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1742315",
"title": "Vaccine hesitancy",
"section": "Section::::Common themes.:Other vaccine myths.:Vaccination during illness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Many parents are concerned about the safety of vaccination when their child is sick. Moderate to severe acute illness with or without a fever is indeed a precaution when considering vaccination. Vaccines remain effective during childhood illness. The reason vaccines may be withheld if a child is moderately to severely ill is because certain expected side effects of vaccination (e.g., fever or rash) may be confused with progression of the illness. It is safe to administer vaccines to well-appearing children who are mildly ill with the common cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104011",
"title": "Influenza prevention",
"section": "Section::::Mode Of Transmission in Influenza.:Novel H1N1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22817589",
"title": "Pandemic H1N1/09 virus",
"section": "Section::::Virus characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1421,
"text": "The virus is a novel strain of influenza, for which existing vaccines against seasonal flu provided no protection. A study at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published in May 2009 found that children had no preexisting immunity to the new strain but that adults, particularly those over 60, had some degree of immunity. Children showed no cross-reactive antibody reaction to the new strain, adults aged 18 to 64 had 6–9%, and older adults 33%. Much reporting of early analysis repeated that the strain contained genes from five different flu viruses: North American swine influenza, North American avian influenza, human influenza, and two swine influenza viruses typically found in Asia and Europe. Further analysis showed that several of the proteins of the virus are most similar to strains that caused mild symptoms in humans, leading virologist Wendy Barclay to suggest that the virus was unlikely to cause severe symptoms for most people. Other leading researchers indicated that all segments of the virus were in fact swine in origin, despite it being a multiple reassortment. The first complete genome sequence of the pandemic strain was deposited in public databases on April 27, 2009, by scientists from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta. Scientists in Winnipeg later completed the full genetic sequencing of viruses from Mexico and Canada on May 6, 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22817589",
"title": "Pandemic H1N1/09 virus",
"section": "Section::::Virus characteristics.:Contagiousness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "The virus is contagious and is believed to spread from human to human in much the same way as seasonal flu. The most common mechanisms by which it spreads are by droplets from coughs and sneezes of infected people, and also potentially touching a surface or the hand of a person contaminated with the virus and then touching one's eyes, nose or mouth. In 2009, the WHO reported that H1N1/09 seemed to be more contagious than seasonal flu. However, a New England Journal of Medicine report stated that the transmissibility of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus in households was lower than that seen in past pandemics. The US CDC recommended that people should wait at least a day after their fever subsides (usually 3–4 days after the onset of symptoms) before resuming normal activities, but it has been found that they can continue to shed virus for several days after that.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26839222",
"title": "Antimicrobial properties of copper",
"section": "Section::::Antimicrobial efficacy of copper alloy touch surfaces.:Influenza A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Influenza, commonly known as flu, is an infectious disease from a viral pathogen different from the one that produces the common cold. Symptoms of influenza, which are much more severe than the common cold, include fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort. Influenza can cause pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19572217",
"title": "Influenza",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), \"Children of any age with neurologic conditions are more likely than other children to become very sick if they get the flu. Flu complications may vary and for some children, can include pneumonia and even death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4m3x74
|
the difference between existentialism, nihilism and absurdism
|
[
{
"answer": "Existentialism - individual people are free and responsible to determine their own purpose and development through their actions.\n\nNihilism - extreme skepticism, belief that life is meaningless.\n\nAbsurdism - attempts of humans to determine meaning of anything is absurd due to the vast amount of information available and the vast amount of information still unknown make certainty impossible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nihilism - nothing has inherent meaning, and it never will. \n\nExistentialism - nothing has inherent meaning, but maybe you can make your own meaning. \n\nAbsurdism - nothing has inherent meaning. Haha, that's pretty weird right? Go do something that makes you happy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nihalism: Nothing really has a point or meaning. It is different from depression but follows a similar thought process which in itself is quite depressing.\n\nExistentialism: You gain meaning and purpose though existing, though this idea falls short at the point that you muct have something to begin with to have a meaning which not everyone does. It is self justifying.\n\nAbsurdism: There is too much information with which to ever conclude anything. Since we will never have all of the information our ability to conclude anything is absurd.\n\nI find it funny that absurdism is in itself rather absurd, you never need all information available to draw conclusions. Even your instinctual reactions are based on reacting without using thought or evidence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3019808",
"title": "Arbitrariness",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Nihilism is the philosophy that believes that there is no purpose in the universe, and that \"every\" choice is arbitrary. According to nihilism, the universe contains no value and is essentially meaningless. Because the universe and all of its constituents contain no higher goal for us to make subgoals from, all aspects of human life and experiences are completely arbitrary. There is no right or wrong decision, thought or practice, and whatever choice a human being makes is just as meaningless and empty as any other choice he or she could have made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9593",
"title": "Existentialism",
"section": "Section::::Confusion with nihilism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1279,
"text": "Although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philosophies, they are often confused with one another as both are rooted in the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from the apparent meaninglessness of a world in which humans are compelled to find or create meaning. A primary cause of confusion is that Friedrich Nietzsche is an important philosopher in both fields. Existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of Angst as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced to a moral or an existential nihilism. A pervasive theme in the works of existentialist philosophy, however, is to persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in Camus' \"The Myth of Sisyphus\" (\"One must imagine Sisyphus happy\"), and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one's self-created meaning: Kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the religious (although he wouldn't himself agree that it was ethical; the religious suspends the ethical), and Sartre's final words in \"Being and Nothingness\" are \"All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or impure) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane. We shall devote to them a future work.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25586605",
"title": "Existential nihilism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Existential nihilism is the philosophical theory that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism suggests that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. According to the theory, each individual is an isolated being born into the universe, barred from knowing ‘why’, yet compelled to invent meaning. The inherent meaninglessness of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism, where one can potentially create their own subjective ’meaning’ or ’purpose’. Of all types of nihilism, existential nihilism has received the most literary and philosophical attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21663",
"title": "Nihilism",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Existential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Existential nihilism is the belief that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism posits that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. The meaninglessness or meaning of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "480672",
"title": "Essence",
"section": "Section::::Existentialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Existentialism was coined by Jean-Paul Sartre's endorsement of Martin Heidegger's statement that for human beings \"existence precedes essence.\" In as much as \"essence\" is a cornerstone of all metaphysical philosophy and of Rationalism, Sartre's statement was a repudiation of the philosophical system that had come before him (and, in particular, that of Husserl, Hegel, and Heidegger). Instead of \"is-ness\" generating \"actuality,\" he argued that existence and actuality come first, and the essence is derived afterward. For Kierkegaard, it is the individual person who is the supreme moral entity, and the personal, subjective aspects of human life that are the most important; also, for Kierkegaard all of this had religious implications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16340",
"title": "Jean-Paul Sartre",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Some philosophers argue that Sartre's thought is contradictory. Specifically, they believe that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claim that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticized \"Being and Nothingness\" for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: \"Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory.\" In \"Letter on Humanism\", Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233013",
"title": "Absurdism",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to existentialism and nihilism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1240,
"text": "Absurdism originated from (as well as alongside) the 20th-century strains of existentialism and nihilism; it shares some prominent starting points with both, though also entails conclusions that are uniquely distinct from these other schools of thought. All three arose from the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from the Absurd: the apparent meaninglessness in a world in which humans, nevertheless, are compelled to find or create meaning. The three schools of thought diverge from there. Existentialists have generally advocated the individual's construction of his or her own meaning in life as well as the free will of the individual. Nihilists, on the contrary, contend that \"it is futile to seek or to affirm meaning where none can be found.\" Absurdists, following Camus's formulation, hesitantly allow the possibility for some meaning or value in life, but are neither as certain as existentialists are about the value of one's own constructed meaning nor as nihilists are about the total inability to create meaning. Absurdists following Camus also devalue or outright reject free will, encouraging merely that the individual live defiantly and authentically \"in spite of\" the psychological tension of the Absurd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
69frsd
|
how do car key-fobs work and why do we not see machines that can mass-spoof unlock signals like computer passwords?
|
[
{
"answer": "What you're thinking of is called brute force algorithm. Where you just try everything. Now it's been done before where people try to get the key fobs signal and replicate them to steal a car, which makes brute force unnecessary because then you might end up signaling the alarm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "modern keyfobs use a rolling code with trillions of possible combinations. \n\neven if you stood in a huge parking garage and rolled through codes at light speed youd take centuries to get even 1 car to respond.\n\nand then what? congratulations, you've unlocked the door, you could have managed that with a rock...\n\nthere are easier ways anyway, sniff out a wireless key transmission and relay it outside to the owners car. with this method you can even start the car and drive it away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fob sends a very large number very slowly. It takes about 25ms to send the number, so that's only 40 per second, max. Most cars require 50ms of no signal to restart their receivers. That's about 13 guesses per second. It takes a long darn time to send a trillion numbers at 13 guesses per second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2109666",
"title": "Remote keyless system",
"section": "Section::::Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Remote keyless entry fobs emit a radio frequency with a designated, distinct digital identity code. Inasmuch as \"programming\" fobs is a proprietary technical process, it is typically performed by the automobile manufacturer. In general, the procedure is to put the car computer in 'programming mode'. This usually entails engaging the power in the car several times while holding a button or lever. It may also include opening doors, or removing fuses. The procedure varies amongst various makes, models, and years. Once in 'programming mode' one or more of the fob buttons is depressed to send the digital identity code to the car's onboard computer. The computer saves the code and the car is then taken out of programming mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2109666",
"title": "Remote keyless system",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Keyless remotes contain a short-range radio transmitter, and must be within a certain range, usually 5–20 meters, of the car to work. When a button is pushed, it sends a coded signal by radio waves to a receiver unit in the car, which locks or unlocks the door. Most RKEs operate at a frequency of 315 MHz for North America-made cars and at 433.92 MHz for European, Japanese and Asian cars. Modern systems since the mid-1990s implement encryption as well as rotating entry codes to prevent car thieves from intercepting and spoofing the signal. Earlier systems used infrared instead of radio signals to unlock the vehicle, such as systems found on Mercedes-Benz, BMW and other manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "884781",
"title": "Keychain",
"section": "Section::::Key fob.:Access control key fobs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Access control key fobs are electronic key fobs that are used for controlling access to buildings or vehicles. They are used for activating such things as remote keyless entry systems on motor vehicles. Early electric key fobs operated using infrared and required a clear line-of-sight to function. These could be copied using a programmable remote control. More recent models use challenge-response authentication over radio frequency, so these are harder to copy and do not need line-of-sight to operate. Programming these remotes sometimes requires the automotive dealership to connect a diagnostic tool, but many of them can be self-programmed by following a sequence of steps in the vehicle and usually requires at least one working key.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2109666",
"title": "Remote keyless system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Widely used in automobiles, an RKS performs the functions of a standard car key without physical contact. When within a few yards of the car, pressing a button on the remote can lock or unlock the doors, and may perform other functions. A remote keyless system can include both a remote keyless entry system (RKE), which unlocks the doors, and a remote keyless ignition system (RKI), which starts the engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368428",
"title": "Radio",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Remote control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "BULLET::::- Keyless entry system – a short-range handheld battery powered key fob transmitter, included with most modern cars, which can lock and unlock the doors of a vehicle from outside, eliminating the need to use a key. When a button is pressed, the transmitter sends a coded radio signal to a receiver in the vehicle, operating the locks. The fob must be close to the vehicle, typically within 5 to 20 meters. North America and Japan use a frequency of 315 MHz, while Europe uses 433.92 and 868 MHz. Some models can also remotely start the engine, to warm up the car. A security concern with all keyless entry systems is a replay attack, in which a thief uses a special receiver (\"code grabber\") to record the radio signal during opening, which can later be replayed to open the door. To prevent this, keyless systems use a rolling code system in which a pseudorandom number generator in the remote control generates a different random key each time it is used. To prevent thieves from simulating the pseudorandom generator to calculate the next key, the radio signal is also encrypted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2109666",
"title": "Remote keyless system",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The functions of a remote keyless entry system are contained on a key fob or built into the ignition key handle itself. Buttons are dedicated to locking or unlocking the doors and opening the trunk or tailgate. On some minivans, the power sliding doors can be opened/closed remotely. Some cars will also close any open windows and roof when remotely locking the car. Some remote keyless fobs also feature a red panic button which activates the car alarm as a standard feature. Further adding to the convenience, some cars' engines with remote keyless ignition systems can be started by the push of a button on the key fob (useful in cold weather), and convertible tops can be raised and lowered from outside the vehicle while it's parked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1584835",
"title": "Smart key",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The smart key allows the driver to keep the key fob pocketed when unlocking, locking and starting the vehicle. The key is identified via one of several antennas in the car's bodywork and a radio pulse generator in the key housing. Depending on the system, the vehicle is automatically unlocked when a button or sensor on the door handle or trunk release is pressed. Vehicles with a smart-key system have a mechanical backup, usually in the form of a spare key blade supplied with the vehicle. Some manufacturers hide the backup lock behind a cover for styling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cpicdw
|
how did all(or most) countries in the world decided to bring in same laws/rules to living, eg; lights on street red+amber+green or sirens on police being red and blue and many others?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unofficial conventions to begin with, international agreements and the UN later.\n\nThis [Wikipedia article](_URL_0_) is a good start, but there is a myriad of different local, regional and national agreements and standards bodies that regulate these things.\n\nI can't speak to emergency vehicles in general worldwide, but fire trucks are regulated in North America by NFPA standards, which are referenced by local, regional and national laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2843559",
"title": "Emergency vehicle lighting",
"section": "Section::::Usage by country.:Spain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 210,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 210,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The law used to allow only the Cuerpo Nacional de Policía, Guardia Civil, Policía Local and autonomous law-enforcement agencies to use blue lights, so in contrast with convention in Europe, civil defense, ambulances (Ambulancia) and fire engines (Bomberos) had to use yellow/amber lights (the only other color authorized, in contrast to convention in which these color lights are used to denote slow vehicles). Some Autonomous Communities allowed other colors, such as blue, red or white (the latter two of which is used by SAMUR in Madrid), however, these are technically illegal to use throughout Spain. In 2018 a new law finally allowed these kind of emergency vehicles to use blue lights, giving them 2 years to make the switch from yellow/amber to blue. Yellow/amber lights are now only used in wide-load trucks and their accompanying vehicles among other special vehicles, such as tractors or tow trucks. A steady burn green light is permitted on taxis available for hire, and was formerly used on buses to indicate a bus was in service and with places free for passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12460",
"title": "Green",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism and associations.:Safety and permission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights. Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century. The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London. It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it. In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah. Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red. Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should. In many video games, green signifies both health and completed objectives, opposite red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2843559",
"title": "Emergency vehicle lighting",
"section": "Section::::Usage by country.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "Red lights are not common in Europe, though they are used in some countries where red has a specific meaning. Police in Finland, Estonia, Germany and Sweden use a forward-facing red light to indicate that a driver must pull over and stop. In the U.K., police cars are outfitted with flashing red lights to the rear which are toggled on/off separately from blue lights to indicate caution. Austria, Germany and Sweden also use red on fire vehicles to designate the command post; in other countries a single green beacon sometimes designates the command post. In Sweden, a green strobe will indicate a medical command vehicle. Greece uses red on fire engines, and red along with blue on police vehicles. In Hungary, red is used only along with blue (on right in lightbars and roof integration) by police (including military police and diplomatic escort) and ambulance. In Poland, red is used on designated vehicles, including police and military vehicles, to indicate the beginning and/or end of a convoy (of those type of vehicles). Until recently the National Police in Slovakia used only blue lights, they have recently started using red and blue lights; Municipal and Military Police used blue lights in Slovakia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2843559",
"title": "Emergency vehicle lighting",
"section": "Section::::Usage by country.:Poland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Only designated vehicles (such as Police, Fire Service, Ambulances, Internal Affairs, etc.) are permitted to use blue light. The sale of a blue emergency light is permitted, however, the possession of such a light in vehicles (whether turned on or off, visible or not) is strictly illegal. Red lights are used by the first and last vehicle of a convoy of designated vehicles and also are strictly regulated. Amber lights are seeing increasing popularity in recent years, however, specific uses are designated according to the Polish ‘\"Kodeks Drogowy\"’. There are no specific rules governing the use of other colors such as purple, green, or clear lights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7561635",
"title": "Rat running",
"section": "Section::::Common strategies.:Red light avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In some countries, red lights can be avoided by turning right on red (or left in drive-on-the-left countries), making a U-turn, and then turning right (or left) again back on to the street on which the motorist was traveling. This may require less time than waiting for the light to turn green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12139185",
"title": "William Potts (inventor)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The old system of police directing traffic had become increasing outmoded; two-color signals, with green and red lights, already existed, but they did not leave drivers sufficient time to stop at high speeds. Some municipalities experimented with leaving the green on for a few seconds after the red was illuminated, to caution the driver that the right of way was soon to change. In 1917, Potts devised a new system by inventing a 'yellow' or 'amber' light which would shine after the green light and before the red light to indicate the impending transition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2302199",
"title": "Ampelmännchen",
"section": "Section::::Concept and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "The first traffic lights at pedestrian crossings were erected in the 1950s, and many countries developed different designs (which were eventually standardised). At that time, traffic lights were the same for cars, bicycles and pedestrians. The East Berlin Ampelmännchen was created in 1961 by traffic psychologist Karl Peglau (1927–2009) as part of a proposal for a new traffic lights layout. Peglau criticised the fact that the standard colours of the traffic lights (red, yellow, green) did not provide for road users who were unable to differentiate between colours (10 percent of the total population); and that the lights themselves were too small and too weak when competing against luminous advertising and sunlight. Peglau proposed retaining the three colours while introducing intuitive shapes for each coloured light. This idea received strong support from many sides, but Peglau's plans were doomed by the high costs involved in replacing existing traffic light infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f8j0ld
|
If fusion power was as widespread as fission today, what would the worst case "meltdown" scenario be and how bad would it be compared to fission meltdowns?
|
[
{
"answer": "Since fusion reactions take place only under very specific conditions (very high temperature and pressure), any disruption in the operation of the reactor would cause the necessary conditions for fusion to disappear, which would halt the reaction.\n\nUnlike nuclear fission, which in many cases can be self-sustaining and needs active intervention to be slowed down (in the form of control rods, for example), a fusion plasma takes a lot of work to be kept in the right state. Except of course when it is so large that its own gravity does the trick, like in stars. But that won't be the case for earthbound fusion.\n\nSo if there is a catastrophic incident in a hypothetical fusion reactor, the reactor and surrounding building could be destroyed and the high energy particles could irradiate some of the debris. But that's about the extent of the damage. Unlike the unmitigated meltdown of a fission reactor, the damage would be very localized.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As has been mentioned, the reaction itself would stop almost immediately once the containment is broken and all it could do would be release the stored energy. This could destroy the plant, but I doubt do any more than that.\n\nSome reactor designs are based around molten lithium coolant, this would create a very spectacular fire. (N.B we use lithium cooled fission reactors today, and that's not the bit you lose sleep over). \n\nThere would probably be a lot of hydrogen storage in site, this could be pretty explosive. \n\nLong term, the materials that the reactor is made of are constantly bombarded by high energy particles and this does turn them into radioactive waste. Nothing nearly as bad as nuclear fuel, so you wouldn't have a Chenoblyl on your hands, but you'd have to take precautions with the cleanup operation. I believe most biproducts are very well decayed within 100 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another factor is that a fission reactor is loaded with fuel in solid rods to last 1 year or more. Some reactors can be refueled online (i.e. without being shut down) but fundamentally there's tonnes of uranium in the core at any one time. This is what allows reactors to runway or meltdown - the power has to be extremely tightly controlled because there's a hideous amount of potential energy in the core waiting to be released.\n\nIn fusion designs I've seen, the fuel is gaseous hydrogen isotopes and is injected into the core a few seconds before it's needed. So there's never more than a few seconds' worth of fuel available at any one time. In the worst case, all you need to do is shut off the fuel and the reaction will self-extinguish quickly.\n\nEdit: okay, perhaps not the worst case, but if the reaction starts to run away, shutting off the fuel will throw the brakes on far more effectively than a fission reactor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "162498",
"title": "Nuclear meltdown",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "A nuclear meltdown may be part of a chain of disasters. For example, in the Chernobyl accident, by the time the core melted, there had already been a large steam explosion and graphite fire, and a major release of radioactive contamination. Prior to a meltdown, operators may reduce pressure in the reactor by releasing radioactive steam to the environment. This would allow fresh cooling water to be injected with the intent of preventing a meltdown. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "Section::::Safety and the environment.:Accident potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 237,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 237,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Unlike nuclear fission, fusion requires extremely precise and controlled temperature, pressure and magnetic field parameters for any net energy to be produced. If a reactor suffers damage or loses even a small degree of required control, fusion reactions and heat generation would rapidly cease. Additionally, fusion reactors contain only small amounts of fuel, enough to \"burn\" for minutes, or in some cases, microseconds. Unless they are actively refueled, the reactions will quickly end. Therefore, fusion reactors are considered immune from catastrophic meltdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261362",
"title": "ITER",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Responses to criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In the case of an accident (or sabotage), it is expected that a fusion reactor would release far less radioactive pollution than would an ordinary fission nuclear station. Furthermore, ITER's type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon. Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution (no gaseous CO, SO, or NO by-products are produced).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118396",
"title": "Chicago Pile-1",
"section": "Section::::Choice of site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "The risk of building an operational reactor running at criticality in a populated area was a significant issue, as there was a danger of a catastrophic nuclear meltdown blanketing one of the United States' major urban areas in radioactive fission products. But the physics of the system suggested that the pile could be safely shut down even in the event of a runaway reaction. When a fuel atom undergoes fission, it releases neutrons that strike other fuel atoms in a chain reaction. The time between absorbing the neutron and undergoing fission is measured in nanoseconds. Szilard had noted that this reaction leaves behind fission products that may also release neutrons, but do so over much longer periods, from microseconds to as long as minutes. In a slow reaction like the one in a pile where the fission products build up, these neutrons account for about three percent of the total neutron flux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22133",
"title": "Nuclear chain reaction",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear power plants and control of chain reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo a nuclear chain reaction that results in an explosion of power comparable with a nuclear weapon, but even low-powered explosions due to uncontrolled chain reactions, that would be considered \"fizzles\" in a bomb, may still cause considerable damage and meltdown in a reactor. For example, the Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air. Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20766780",
"title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Hybrid concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "This is a key concept in the hybrid concept, known as \"fission multiplication\". For every fusion event, several fission events may occur, each of which gives off much more energy than the original fusion, about 11 times. This greatly increases the total power output of the reactor. This has been suggested as a way to produce practical fusion reactors in spite of the fact that no fusion reactor has yet reached break-even, by multiplying the power output using cheap fuel or waste. However, a number of studies have repeatedly demonstrated that this only becomes practical when the overall reactor is very large, 2 to 3 GWt, which makes it expensive to build.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2269463",
"title": "Thermonuclear weapon",
"section": "Section::::Compression of the secondary.:Foam plasma pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "This would complete the fission-fusion-fission sequence. Fusion, unlike fission, is relatively \"clean\"—it releases energy but no harmful radioactive products or large amounts of nuclear fallout. The fission reactions though, especially the last fission reactions, release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout. If the last fission stage is omitted, by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of lead, for example, the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low. The neutron bomb is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper, allowing most of the fast fusion neutrons as possible to escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nozak
|
what would happen if hackers stole all the digital money from all the countries and corporations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Digital money doesn't actually exist, it is just a system that you gave the bank money, now they owe you that money and you can ask for it when you wish. You cannot steal what does exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Digital money doesn't actually exist, it is just a system that you gave the bank money, now they owe you that money and you can ask for it when you wish. You cannot steal what does exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25129031",
"title": "Zeus (malware)",
"section": "Section::::FBI crackdown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The hackers then used this information to take over the victims’ bank accounts and make unauthorized transfers of thousands of dollars at a time, often routing the funds to other accounts controlled by a network of money mules, paid a commission. Many of the U.S. money mules were recruited from overseas. They created bank accounts using fake documents and false names. Once the money was in the accounts, the mules would either wire it back to their bosses in Eastern Europe, or withdraw it in cash and smuggle it out of the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56412681",
"title": "Cryptocurrency and security",
"section": "Section::::Notable theft.:Currencies.:Bitcoin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Theft also occurs at sites where bitcoins are used to purchase illicit goods. In late November 2013, an estimated $100 million in bitcoins were allegedly stolen from the online illicit goods marketplace Sheep Marketplace, which immediately closed. Users tracked the coins as they were processed and converted to cash, but no funds were recovered and no culprits identified. A different black market, Silk Road 2, stated that during a February 2014 hack, bitcoins valued at $2.7 million were taken from escrow accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56412681",
"title": "Cryptocurrency and security",
"section": "Section::::Notable theft.:Currencies.:Bitcoin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "On May 7th of 2019, hackers stole over 7000 Bitcoins from the Binance Cryptocurrency Exchange, at a value of over 40 million US dollars. Binance CEO Zhao Changpeng stated: \"The hackers used a variety of techniques, including phishing, viruses and other attacks... The hackers had the patience to wait, and execute well-orchestrated actions through multiple seemingly independent accounts at the most opportune time.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13533",
"title": "Hacker",
"section": "Section::::Motives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing credit card numbers or manipulating banking systems. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. And fourth, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3698136",
"title": "Critical infrastructure protection",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "There are many examples of computer systems that have been hacked or victims of extortion. One such example occurred in September 1995 where a Russian national allegedly masterminded the break-in of Citicorp's electronic funds transfer system and was ordered to stand trial in the United States. A gang of hackers under his leadership had breached Citicorp's security 40 times during 1994. They were able to transfer $12 million from customer accounts and withdraw an estimated $400,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43742768",
"title": "North Korea's illicit activities",
"section": "Section::::Politically motivated actions.:Hacking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "On 8 October 2018, Bloomberg reported a North Korean hacking group had tried to steal at least $1.1 billion in a series of attacks on global banks from 2014-2018, as uncovered by cybersecurity company FireEye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26516614",
"title": "Chinese espionage in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cyber cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In January and February 2018, Chinese government hackers reportedly stole 614 gigabytes of data from a Naval Undersea Warfare Center-affiliated contractor. The compromised material reportedly included information on a project dubbed \"Sea Dragon\", as well as United States Navy submarine cryptographic systems and electronic warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
argabs
|
how does a car shutting down automatically at a stop light/sign help with gas consumption?
|
[
{
"answer": "The amount of fuel spent idling at an intersection, keeping the engine rotating are a slow speed with a light load, far exceeds the amount needed to restart the engine.\n\nModern car engines start up very quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An idling engine burns fuel without moving the car. This is the most inefficient thing any car can do. By shutting the engine off, the car is no longer burning fuel while stopped, therefore removing the most inefficient part of a journey, and increasing the overall efficiency of the vehicle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "534382",
"title": "Honda Civic Hybrid",
"section": "Section::::First generation (2003–2005).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- Idle stop - when stopped at traffic light, the engine shuts off automatically, then restarts immediately when the driver takes their foot off the brake, contributing to both greater fuel efficiency and lower emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7527388",
"title": "Hybrid vehicle drivetrain",
"section": "Section::::Types by design.:Electric traction motors.:In detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "When the vehicle is stopped the ICE is switched off without idling, while the battery provides whatever power is needed at rest. Vehicles at traffic lights, or in slow moving stop-start traffic need not burn fuel when stationary or moving slowly, reducing emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11567567",
"title": "Energy-efficient driving",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Coasting or gliding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Turning the engine off instead of idling does save fuel. Traffic lights are in most cases predictable, and it is often possible to anticipate when a light will turn green. A support is the Start-stop system, turning the engine off and on automatically during a stop. Some traffic lights (in Europe and Asia) have timers on them, which assist the driver in using this tactic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231284",
"title": "CAN bus",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Automotive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- Auto start/stop: Various sensor inputs from around the vehicle (speed sensors, steering angle, air conditioning on/off, engine temperature) are collated via the CAN bus to determine whether the engine can be shut down when stationary for improved fuel economy and emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534382",
"title": "Honda Civic Hybrid",
"section": "Section::::First generation (2003–2005).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "During stop and go driving, the engine will turn off when the car comes to a stop for the first time, however, if the car does not go above and stops again, the engine will not turn off unless the car is stopped for more than 15 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352851",
"title": "Start-stop system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "In automobiles, a start-stop system or stop-start system automatically shuts down and restarts the internal combustion engine to reduce the amount of time the engine spends idling, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. This is most advantageous for vehicles which spend significant amounts of time waiting at traffic lights or frequently come to a stop in traffic jams. Start-stop technology may become more common with more stringent government fuel economy and emissions regulations. This feature is present in hybrid electric vehicles, but has also appeared in vehicles which lack a hybrid electric powertrain. For non-electric vehicles fuel economy gains from this technology are typically in the range of 3-10 percent, potentially as high as 12 percent. In the United States, idling wastes approximately 3.9 billion gallons of gasoline per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534382",
"title": "Honda Civic Hybrid",
"section": "Section::::First generation (2003–2005).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "An idle stop feature shuts off the engine automatically when stopped, then restarts immediately when the driver removes their foot from the brake. This auto idle stop system contributes to both greater fuel efficiency and lower emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3klxbi
|
Did the Andean countries ever get into conflict with the mayans or the aztecs?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, they have absolutely no known direct contact. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6845087",
"title": "Zapotec civilization",
"section": "Section::::Warfare and resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The last battle between the Aztecs and the Zapotecs occurred between 1497 and 1502, under the Aztec ruler Ahuizotl. At the time of Spanish conquest of Mexico, when news arrived that the Aztecs were defeated by the Spaniards, King Cosijoeza ordered his people not to confront the Spaniards so they would avoid the same fate. They were defeated by the Spaniards only after several campaigns between 1522 and 1527. However, uprisings against colonial authorities occurred in 1550, 1560 and 1715.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5865939",
"title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, known as the Spanish–Mexica War (1519–21), was one of the primary events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. There are multiple 16th-century narratives of the events by Spanish conquerors, their indigenous allies and the defeated Aztecs. It was not solely a contest between a small contingent of Spaniards defeating the Aztec Empire but rather the creation of a coalition of Spanish invaders with tributaries to the Aztecs, and most especially the Aztecs' indigenous enemies and rivals. They combined forces to defeat the Mexica of Tenochtitlan over a two-year period. For the Spanish, the expedition to Mexico was part of a project of Spanish colonization of the New World after twenty-five years of permanent Spanish settlement and further exploration in the Caribbean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2669483",
"title": "Tlaxcaltec",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Columbian history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Despite early attempts by the Mexica, the Tlaxcalteca were never conquered by the Aztec Triple Alliance. The Aztecs allowed them to maintain their independence so that they could participate in the xochiyaoyatl (flower wars) with them to facilitate human sacrifice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10443117",
"title": "Classic Maya collapse",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Foreign invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "The archaeological evidence of the Toltec intrusion into Seibal, Peten, suggests to some the theory of foreign invasion. The latest hypothesis states that the southern lowlands were invaded by a non-Maya group whose homelands were probably in the gulf coast lowlands. This invasion began in the 9th century and set off, within 100 years, a group of events that destroyed the Classic Maya. It is believed that this invasion was somehow influenced by the Toltec people of central Mexico. However, most Mayanists do not believe that foreign invasion was the main cause of the Classic Maya collapse; they postulate that no military defeat can explain or be the cause of the protracted and complex Classic collapse process. Teotihuacan influence across the Maya region may have involved some form of military invasion; however, it is generally noted that significant Teotihuacan-Maya interactions date from at least the Early Classic period, well before the episodes of Late Classic collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12157",
"title": "History of Guatemala",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Caste War of Yucatán.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The United Kingdom recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a \"de facto\" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and British Honduras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "614149",
"title": "Rafael Carrera",
"section": "Section::::First presidency.:Caste War of Yucatán.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The United Kingdom recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a \"de facto\" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and British Honduras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399215",
"title": "Mesoamerican chronology",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Postclassic Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica, however, and its conquistadores and a large number of native allies conquered the Aztecs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
duby1z
|
Which of the basic forces of nature is the strongest?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, your teacher is correct.\n\nThe reason why gravity seems to be the strongest over large length scales is that the strong and weak forces have very short ranges (~ 10^(-15) and 10^(-18) meters, respectively), and electrostatic forces tend to cancel each other out when you have material that is macroscopically neutrally charged.\n\nSo for material which extends over a large region of space, and has no net charge, gravity tends to dominate. That's why gravity is a very important force for astronomy/astrophysics/cosmology, but it's totally irrelevant for things like atomic/nuclear physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need the gravitational attraction of a whole star or stellar remnant with its over 10^55 atoms to get enough pressure for nuclear reactions.\n\nIf the strong interaction would have a larger range then the force between two elementary particles would be enough to lift up a whole car.\n\nIf you could magically remove one out of 10^17 electrons on Earth the resulting tiny imbalance in electric charge would be sufficient to make Earth explode - against the gravitational attraction.\n\nGravity dominates on large scales only because its range is not limited and because there is only a single type of charge - the more stuff you accumulate the stronger gravity gets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the question is vague and that's the source of your confusion. Yes, gravity can be quite strong if you have a bunch of atoms together because each one contributes positively (there's no negative gravity). But the asker might be asking which is stronger for a given elemental particle at short distances. And, yes, the strong force is really strong there. So strong you can't isolate them and strong enough to stick together the positive protons in a nucleus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imho, the proper answer is the questions \"at what range\"? At extremely short ranges, the strong nuclear dominates regardless of the charge/mass/etc. At the long range, gravity is the dominating force. In the middle(from our perspective) range the particulars matter, but the dominant force is typically either the magnetic or the gravitational force.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think \"which force is the strongest\" is actually an ill-posed question. A better question would be: \"normalizing for the masses, charges, distances, and other properties of the particles involved, which force is the strongest?\" Once you do all those things, the relative strengths of the forces becomes a trivial comparison of scalar coefficients.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can easily prove to you that gravity is a very weak force. \n\nI’m on the second floor of my house. Gravity is pulling me down. But it’s not pulling me through the floor. I can drop a pencil and it falls to the floor but it stops there. The bonds holding the floor together are stronger than the force of gravity acting against the floor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A teacher once pointed out to me that if you jump off a building and gravity accelerated you for 100 stories, the ~~nuclear~~ electromagnetic force holding the concrete together would stop you in less than an inch. That helped me grasp how much stronger nuclear forces are in an analogy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A little late on this so not sure if it is going to get read, but the answer to your question really depends on the distance scale that you are looking at. We have a really good understanding of the strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and electromagnetic forces. For these forces we are able to talk about their strength with a concept called coupling constants, which describes the strength of the force in quantum field theory. The reason we are able to compare the strength of these three forces is because the coupling constants are pure dimensionless numbers. For example the electromagnetic coupling constant is around (1/137) while the strong nuclear force is around (1/5). So it makes sense to say that relative to the strong force, the electromagnetic force is weak.\n\nNow comes in gravity. Gravitational force really doesn’t play like the other forces when it comes to quantum mechanics. While the strength of the other forces are described by just a single number, the strength of the gravitational force depends on the interaction distance. For any practical distance, gravity is still weaker than any of the other forces, but when you get down to REALLY tiny length scales (like the Planck length, it actually becomes stronger than all of the other forces that pretty much keep their same coupling constant. So in a sense you are right. Gravity is the strongest force, when you are looking at the smallest length scale.\n\nIt’s also relevant to talk about the strength of the weak nuclear force. Part of the reason for the name “weak” is that it can only interact over short distances (in reality it is a lot more interesting in that, but I’ll save that for another day). Some current researchers think that on small distance scales, the weak force is stronger than the strong force, because it interacts more quickly than the other forces. This is still a debated topic though.\n\nIf you are interested in learning more I really recommend checking out the Wikipedia page for some things I discussed like coupling constants and quantum gravity. Physics is a really fascinating subject, but unfortunately a lot of the answers are not really too straightforward.\n\nTLDR: conditionally, you are right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "But the strong force is also what is holding the neutrons together. Gravity is not overcoming the strong force as it isn’t turning the star into a mass of quarks. You won’t ever find a stray quark because the strong force will create a new quark if necessary. Sorry if that was bad or wrong, I should probably go to sleep now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "All of the known forces of the universe are classified into four fundamental interactions. The strong and the weak forces are nuclear forces that act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles, including nucleons and compound nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges, and the gravitational force acts between masses. All other forces in nature derive from these four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli exclusion principle, which does not permit atoms to pass through each other. Similarly, the forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are the result of electromagnetic forces and the Pauli exclusion principle acting together to return an object to its equilibrium position. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces that arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27984",
"title": "Strong interaction",
"section": "Section::::Behavior of the strong force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The word \"strong\" is used since the strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces. At a distance of 1 femtometer (1 fm = 10 meters) or less, its strength is around 137 times that of the electromagnetic force, some 10 times as great as that of the weak force, and about 10 times that of gravitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but the hypotheses remain speculative. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169552",
"title": "Fifth force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "In physics, there are four conventionally accepted fundamental forces or interactions that form the basis of all known interactions in nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308955",
"title": "Grand unification energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The unification of the electroweak forces and the strong force with the gravitational force in a so-called \"Theory of Everything\" requires an even higher energy level which is generally assumed to be close to the Planck Scale. In theory, at such short distances, gravity becomes comparable in strength to the other three forces of nature known to date. This statement is modified if there exist additional dimensions of space at intermediate scales. In this case, the strength of gravitational interactions increases faster at smaller distances, and the energy scale at which all known forces of nature unify, can be considerably lower. This effect is exploited in models of large extra dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7774780",
"title": "De Motu (Berkeley's essay)",
"section": "Section::::Concrete and abstract motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Gravity and force are examples of occult qualities. But they can be useful terms. Gravity can designate concrete bodies in motion and force can designate the concrete effort of resisting. However, they should not be used abstractly, separate from concrete, individual things. If no change occurs and there is no effect, then there is no force. Force, gravity, and attraction are mathematical, hypothetical abstractions and they are not found in nature as physical qualities. The parallelogram of composite forces is not a physical quality. It is mathematical. Attempts to explain the cause and origin of motion are abstract and obscure. They are not particular and determinate assertions. Such attempts try to explain the unknown by something that is even more unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169552",
"title": "Fifth force",
"section": "Section::::Experimental approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "A new fundamental force might be difficult to test. Gravity, for example, is such a weak force that the gravitational interaction between two objects is only significant when one of them has a great mass. Therefore, it takes very sensitive equipment to measure gravitational interactions between objects that are small compared to the Earth. A new (or \"fifth\") fundamental force might similarly be weak and therefore difficult to detect. Nonetheless, in the late 1980s a fifth force, operating on municipal scales (i.e. with a range of about 100 meters), was reported by researchers (Fischbach \"et al.\") who were reanalyzing results of Loránd Eötvös from earlier in the century. The force was believed to be linked with hypercharge. Over a number of years, other experiments have failed to duplicate this result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1skyg0
|
what exactly does it mean to "hedge" against something?
|
[
{
"answer": "In essence, a \"hedge\" is an investment designed to offset substantial losses (or gains) made by an individual or organization.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hedge means to fence in. \n\nIn these cases they are trying to fence in potential losses. You might buy stock in an electric car company, but then also buy stock in an oil company to make sure that your losses in one sector are mitigated by your gains in another if you make the wrong bet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok let's say I'm a railroad that buys a whole lot of diesel fuel. When I need to fill my tanks, I call up joe schmoe's oil company and have some fuel sent over. \n\nRather than be purely at the mercy of the pump price fluctuations, I can buy a futures contract for diesel fuel. If the price at the pump jumps, I'm protected because i can still sell that futures contract. Hence I've made a hedge against high fuel prices by using the commodities contract.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hedging isolates and protects your investment or deal from something that you don't control. \n\nImagine that are a farmer and what you are good at is producing wheat. You can't control the price of wheat, but you can control your quality. To hedge against the price of wheat changing, you can do several things. \n\nFor example, you can buy/sell a futures contract. That is to say, if your crop will be ready in 6 months, you can sign a contract to sell your wheat at a specific price determined today in 6 months. If the price goes higher than expected, you don't benefit, but if the price goes lower, you don't lose. This contract is in theory free to sign, but can force a future gain or loss which would perfectly counterbalance the gain or loss in the value of your wheat. There are variations on this (mainly future contracts and forward contracts) and I would be happy to explain the difference if you like.\n\nYou can also buy an option. For example, you can buy a put option to sell your wheat at $2 per kilo in six months. If the price is $3, you won't use your option (it will expire worthless), but if the price is $1, you will exercise your option and force the person who sold it to you to buy your wheat at $2. This guarantees you a minimum sale price, but costs money today to purchase. Again, there are variations of this (mainly various types of put options and call options) and I would be happy to explain the difference. \n\nA farmer could also hedge against the possibility of a snow storm, crop failure, or any other risk to his business. \n\nSimilarly, a mining company might be very good at getting gold out of the ground, but might not want to bet its future on how much gold is worth in two years, so they hedge against the changes in price in gold. A construction company might be good at building houses, but not want to bet its future on changes in the housing market, so it can hedge against changes in housing prices. \n\nIt's worth noting that each hedge takes two parties to the trade. If I buy an option, somebody has to sell it to me. In theory, we can both be hedging, but in practise, there is never a perfect balance of people looking to hedge. In order for hedging to work, therefore, there has to be speculators. That is to say, when a gold company hedges against gold, they are effectively insuring themselves in case it goes down. The person on the other side of the trade is usually a speculator who thinks that it won't go down. \n\nA last interesting note is that hedge funds are precisely the opposite of what their name implies. They use hedging instruments to make speculative bets. They actively seek more risk to multiply their potential gains on the way that they think the market will go. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14412",
"title": "Hedge fund",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The word \"hedge\", meaning a line of bushes around the perimeter of a field, has long been used as a metaphor for placing limits on risk. Early hedge funds sought to hedge specific investments against general market fluctuations by shorting the market, hence the name. Nowadays, however, many different investment strategies are used, many of which do not \"hedge risk\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16879496",
"title": "Foreign exchange hedge",
"section": "Section::::Hedge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "A hedge is a type of derivative, or a financial instrument, that derives its value from an underlying asset. Hedging is a way for a company to minimize or eliminate foreign exchange risk. Two common hedges are forward contracts and options. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460491",
"title": "Financial risk",
"section": "Section::::Hedging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "According to the article from \"Investopedia\", a hedge is an investment designed to reduce the risk of adverse price movements in an asset. Typically, a hedge consists of taking a counter-position in a related security, such as a futures contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4878411",
"title": "The Other Side of the Hedge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The Other Side of the Hedge is a 1911 narrative short story by E. M. Forster. Written in the first-person, \"The Other Side of the Hedge\" concerns the efforts of a \"modern day\" person who is concerned and/or consumed with achieving the goals he has set out for himself while traveling along a road to what may be perceived as success. He keeps close track of his progress along the road with the aid of his pedometer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338007",
"title": "Hedge (finance)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "A hedge is an investment position intended to offset potential losses or gains that may be incurred by a companion investment. A hedge can be constructed from many types of financial instruments, including stocks, exchange-traded funds, insurance, forward contracts, swaps, options, gambles, many types of over-the-counter and derivative products, and futures contracts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338007",
"title": "Hedge (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Hedging is the practice of taking a position in one market to offset and balance against the risk adopted by assuming a position in a contrary or opposing market or investment. The word hedge is from Old English \"hecg\", originally any fence, living or artificial. The use of the word as a verb in the sense of \"dodge, evade\" is first recorded in the 1590s; that of \"insure oneself against loss,\" as in a bet, is from the 1670s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339558",
"title": "Hedge",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Instant hedge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The term \"instant hedge\" has become known since early this century for hedging plants that are planted collectively in such a way as to form a mature hedge from the moment they are planted together, with a height of at least 1.2 metres. They are usually created from hedging elements or individual plants which means very few are actually hedges from the start, as the plants need time to grow and entwine to form a real hedge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rzhv7
|
Are there organisms with more than two functional sexes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some species have multiple morphs which have different behaviors depending on which \"gender\" they are. Where they may be multiple male genders each having a distinct behavioral pattern. But in the terms of reproduction, no species requires three genders. It doesn't make sense because of how dna works. There are two of each chromosome so there is no way of getting 1/3 of the dna. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, there are many examples. Specifically there are fungi that have several thousand.\n\nThe reason is that a `child' can only mate with a small fraction of siblings but with a high fraction of non-siblings, thus leading to greater genetic diversity via sexual selection (I'm a computer programmer who worked in a Biolab, so please excuse me if I am slightly off and abuse terminology).\n\nLink: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but it doesn't work the way you think. Slime molds have quite a few sexes ([13](_URL_0_) or [over 500](_URL_1_), depending on how you count), but any two can breed, as long as they're different sexes.\n\nSo yes, there are multiple sexes, but it only takes two to tango.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Good question, I'd like to extend it further - do \"neuter\" or \"neotenous\" organisms count as a sex? How do such species evolve an indeterminate gender if it cannot reproduce? I'm thinking of bees, which iirc require certain chemicals to morph larvae into queens that are not part of the sexual process. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Symbion Pandora - a parasite that lives in the mouth parts of lobsters - has a very weird reproductive cycle. Not sure how you'd break it down sex/gender wise, they are grouped in to male/female/asexual but it's altogether too alien to really apply those labels with confidence. \n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n\n//Things start to get complicated when you consider their life cycle. Let's start with a feeding animal living on a lobster's mouthparts: this individual – it's hard to assign a sex – can then produce one of three kinds of offspring: a \"Pandora\" larva, a \"Prometheus\" larva or a female.\n\nThe Pandora larva develops into another feeding adult – a straightforward case of asexual reproduction. By contrast, the female remains inside the adult and awaits a male – but, attentive readers will be crying, what male?\n\nThe answer lies in the Prometheus larva. This attaches itself to another feeding adult, then produces two or three males from within itself. These dwarf males, which are even more internally complex than the other stages, seek out the females and fertilise them – though the details are unknown.\n\nOnce the female has been fertilised, she leaves the adult's body and hunkers down in a sheltered region of the lobster's mouthparts. Her body, no longer needed, turns into a hard cyst. Inside this, a fertilised egg develops into yet another stage: the chordoid larva.\n\nIn due course this larva hatches and swims off to colonise another lobster. Once it has attached itself to one, it develops into another adult and the cycle begins again.//\n \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38076",
"title": "Gender",
"section": "Section::::Gender identity and gender roles.:Social categories.:Non-binary and third genders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Joan Roughgarden argues that some non-human animal species also have more than two genders, in that there might be multiple templates for behavior available to individual organisms with a given biological sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20913864",
"title": "Female",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals have both male and female reproductive organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822282",
"title": "Male",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals, such as worms, have both male and female reproductive organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19827221",
"title": "Arthropod",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1235,
"text": "A few arthropods, such as barnacles, are hermaphroditic, that is, each can have the organs of both sexes. However, individuals of most species remain of one sex their entire lives. A few species of insects and crustaceans can reproduce by parthenogenesis, especially if conditions favor a \"population explosion\". However, most arthropods rely on sexual reproduction, and parthenogenetic species often revert to sexual reproduction when conditions become less favorable. Aquatic arthropods may breed by external fertilization, as for example frogs do, or by internal fertilization, where the ova remain in the female's body and the sperm must somehow be inserted. All known terrestrial arthropods use internal fertilization. Opiliones (harvestmen), millipedes, and some crustaceans use modified appendages such as gonopods or penises to transfer the sperm directly to the female. However, most male terrestrial arthropods produce spermatophores, waterproof packets of sperm, which the females take into their bodies. A few such species rely on females to find spermatophores that have already been deposited on the ground, but in most cases males only deposit spermatophores when complex courtship rituals look likely to be successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822282",
"title": "Male",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages (see convergent evolution). The repeated pattern is sexual reproduction in isogamous species with two or more mating types with gametes of identical form and behavior (but different at the molecular level) to anisogamous species with gametes of male and female types to oogamous species in which the female gamete is very much larger than the male and has no ability to move. There is a good argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "765459",
"title": "Eurypterid",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Reproductive biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "As in many other entirely extinct groups, understanding and researching the reproduction and sexual dimorphism of eurypterids is difficult, as they are only known from fossilized shells and carapaces. In some cases, there might not be enough apparent differences to separate the sexes based on morphology alone. Sometimes two sexes of the same species have been interpreted as two different species, as was the case with two species of \"Drepanopterus\" (\"D. bembycoides\" and \"D. lobatus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246891",
"title": "Y chromosome",
"section": "Section::::Origins and evolution.:Before Y chromosome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Many ectothermic vertebrates have no sex chromosomes. If they have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some of them, especially reptiles, sex depends on the incubation temperature; others are hermaphroditic (meaning they contain both male and female gametes in the same individual).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eqv5d
|
Transgenic engineering: when a gene from an original organism is completely foreign to the new host organism, how do we know where to insert it in the host genotype?
|
[
{
"answer": "Foreign genes inserted into a host genome need to have some type of regulatory DNA (called a \"promoter\") in order to be transcribed and translated (\"made into protein\"). There are two ways to do this, generally: 1) include a promoter region just before the foreign gene such that the inserted DNA is actually promoter+gene, not just the gene by itself; or 2) insert the foreign gene into the genome immediately after a naturally-occurring promoter in the host genome (this technique is used to make transgenic mice with the inserted gene being regulated just like whatever endogenous gene it replaced).\n\nHowever, in E. coli, the situation is much easier. Bacteria are able to host smaller loops of DNA separate from the original chromosome. These little loops are called plasmids, and they act like little chromosomes independent from the single bacterial chromosome. Placing the correct regulatory sequence inside the plasmid DNA sequence causes many dozens or hundreds of copies of that plasmid to be present in a single bacterium, in contrast to the single bacterial chromosome.\n\nAlso on the plasmid is the foreign promoter+gene, so the end result is that, \"they copy it into e. coli's genome hundreds of times, the bacteria will make hundreds of times more slime.\"\n\nAt least this is how standard prokaryotic transgenics work; I have not read the details on how this specific study developed their hagfish-slime-bacteria. I also do not know the specifics of how the slime proteins are secreted--it may be the case that no secretion is needed (they could just harvest the bacteria and chemically extract the protein of interest.)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37319629",
"title": "Genetic engineering techniques",
"section": "Section::::Inserting DNA into the host genome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Once the gene is constructed it must be stably integrated into the target organisms genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA. There are a number of techniques available for inserting the gene into the host genome and they vary depending on the type of organism targeted. In multicellular eukaryotes, if the transgene is incorporated into the host's germline cells, the resulting host cell can pass the transgene to its progeny. If the transgene is incorporated into somatic cells, the transgene can not be inherited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8273958",
"title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Gene flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 1295,
"text": "Genes from a GMO may pass to another organism just like an endogenous gene. The process is known as outcrossing and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and can increase in frequency and persist in natural populations. This process, whereby genes are transferred from GMOs to wild relatives, is different from the development of so-called \"superweeds\" or \"superbugs\" that develop resistance to pesticides under natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12339",
"title": "Genetically modified organism",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome. Bacteria can be induced to take up foreign DNA, usually by exposed heat shock or electroporation. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. In plants the DNA is often inserted using \"Agrobacterium\"-mediated recombination, biolistics or electroporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37319629",
"title": "Genetic engineering techniques",
"section": "Section::::Gene manipulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "All genetic engineering processes involve the modification of DNA. Traditionally DNA was isolated from the cells of organisms. Later, genes came to be cloned from a DNA segment after the creation of a DNA library or artificially synthesised. Once isolated, additional genetic elements are added to the gene to allow it to be expressed in the host organism and to aid selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12383",
"title": "Genetic engineering",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Inserting DNA into the host genome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1238,
"text": "The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell’s endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37319629",
"title": "Genetic engineering techniques",
"section": "Section::::Gene manipulation.:Modification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "The gene to be inserted must be combined with other genetic elements in order for it to work properly. The gene can be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. As well as the gene to be inserted most constructs contain a promoter and terminator region as well as a selectable marker gene. The promoter region initiates transcription of the gene and can be used to control the location and level of gene expression, while the terminator region ends transcription. A selectable marker, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance to the organism it is expressed in, is used to determine which cells are transformed with the new gene. The constructs are made using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Subcellular components.:Genetic material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
126h20
|
Why does language become more difficult to read as it gets tilted sideways and then upside-down? Can't our brains compensate?
|
[
{
"answer": "They can, that's why it just gets more difficult but not completely impossible.\n\nMost people learn to read(and practice reading) on things that aren't tilted or upside down. As you learn to read, your brain physically reconfigures itself to handle the task of translating squiggles on a page into language more efficiently, which is why literate adults can do it unconciously.\n\nThis efficiency has a price though:our automatic reading systems aren't very good at dealing with new situations. So when we encounter text that is unusual for some reason, we have to turn on more resource-intensive processes to read the text.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The brain can compensate it just that the more a letterform is rotated thet longer time to rotate it in the mind. \n\nYou just stumbled on the concept of \n_URL_0_\nand the ressearch that was put into it reveals some really interesting things about how the mind seems to function.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196674",
"title": "Hemispherectomy",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "When resecting the left hemisphere, evidence indicates that some advanced language functions (\"e.g.,\" higher order grammar) cannot be entirely assumed by the right side. The extent of advanced language loss is often dependent on the patient's age at the time of surgery. One study following the cognitive development of two adolescent boys who had undergone hemispherectomy found that “brain plasticity and development arise, in part, from the brain’s adaption of behavioral needs to fit available strengths and biases…The boy adapts the task to fit his brain more than he adapts his brain to fit the task.” Neuroplasticity after hemispherectomy does not imply complete regain of previous functioning, but rather the ability to adapt to the current abilities of the brain in such a way that the individual may still function, however differently the new way of functioning is. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406608",
"title": "Cerebral hemisphere",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Hemisphere lateralization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Linear reasoning functions of language such as grammar and word production are often lateralized to the left hemisphere of the brain. In contrast, holistic reasoning functions of language such as intonation and emphasis are often lateralized to the right hemisphere of the brain. Other integrative functions such as intuitive or heuristic arithmetic, binaural sound localization, etc. seem to be more bilaterally controlled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28365380",
"title": "Bicultural identity",
"section": "Section::::Bicultural identity and language.:Cultural frame switching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "It is evident that language can have an effect on an individual’s thinking process; this is because the language itself primes the individual’s cultural values, attitudes and memory which in turn affects behavior. Thus, language has a powerful effect on the way in which an individual responds to change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195177",
"title": "Freudian slip",
"section": "Section::::Alternative explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "In contrast to psychoanalytic theorists, cognitive psychologists say that linguistic slips can represent a sequencing conflict in grammar production. From this perspective, slips may be due to cognitive underspecification that can take a variety of forms – inattention, incomplete sense data or insufficient knowledge. Secondly, they may be due to the existence of some locally appropriate response pattern that is strongly primed by its prior usage, recent activation or emotional change or by the situation calling conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "550504",
"title": "Vestibular system",
"section": "Section::::Otolithic organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Humans can sense head tilting and linear acceleration even in dark environments because of the orientation of two groups of hair cell bundles on either side of the striola. Hair cells on opposite sides move with mirror symmetry, so when one side is moved, the other is inhibited. The opposing effects caused by a tilt of the head cause differential sensory inputs from the hair cell bundles allow humans to tell which way the head is tilting, Sensory information is then sent to the brain, which can respond with appropriate corrective actions to the nervous and muscular systems to ensure that balance and awareness are maintained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48787135",
"title": "Ocular tilt reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "In case of any lesion from the utricle to the brainstem, diminished input from the affected vestibular pathway, for example the left vestibular is the same as stimulation of right vestibular pathway, resulting in the erroneous interpretation by the brain that the head is tilted to the right and consequently that the SVV is tilted to the left. This causes reflex rotation of the head to the left, thus realigning the eyes and head to a position that is actually tilted but which the brain interprets as vertical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3224668",
"title": "Standard Spanish",
"section": "Section::::Present-day issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The lasting influence of linguistic centralism has led some commentators to claim that the problem of fragmentation is non-existent, and that it is enough simply to emulate educated language. One author, for example, repeated the doctrine of Menéndez Pidal when stating that \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e73gck
|
the difference between being asleep, being unconscious and being put asleep with anestesia.
|
[
{
"answer": "Unconsciousness is a broad term. Being conscious means reacting to outside stimuli. A sleeping person is technically conscious because they still react to light, sound, pressure, etc. Someone in a coma - medically induced or otherwise - typically will not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "sleep is the body doing repair work on the brain - it's very easy to wake up a sleeping person\n\nunconsciousness is an emergency shutoff, usually due to trauma - low blood pressure and brain swelling are the usual candidates. - It's (near) impossible to wake up an unconscious person (and usually it's pretty dangerous to do so)\n\nA coma is when, for whatever reason, you don't wake up from being unconscious. This is usually because whatever caused you to go unconscious doesn't go away (this is where brain damage happens, and can turn people in vegetables), and less often because the thing that's supposed to wake you up just... doesn't. - It's impossible to wake up someone in a coma (that's what separates a coma from unconsciousness), and a lot of the treatments for non-traumatic comas are basically just the same drugs you use to wake up unconscious people turned up to 11\n\nanesthesia is for you brain like what happens when you unplug a desktop computer. The drugs just turn off your brain, and it will stay off until the drugs are scrubbed from your system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In simple terms, sleep is surprisingly a very active process. Your brain sends millions of signals and messages when you are asleep - dreams and the like. The brain moves between phases of activity, and during REM sleep actively prevents your limb muscles from moving. \n\nAnaesthesia conversely reduces the activity of your brain. Everything slows down and high levels of anaesthesia drugs can stop all significant electrical activity in your brain (isolelectric EEG). Comas are similar and have varying levels, but in essences yout brain activity is reduced when you are in a coma.\n\n(Am an Anaesthetist (UK))",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of conscious and Anesthesia like a dimmer switch on a light. The lower the switch the dimmer the light. If the switch is broken (coma) the light still works and there still is electricity but it can’t get to the light. Anesthesia basically temporarily changes the dimmer with drugs and when the drugs go away the dimmer goes back to the original setting. To what conscious is can be difficult and becomes very philosophical as we don’t really understand how the original dimmer works we just know if we interact with specific receptors in the brain (I.e. GABA receptors) it artificially activated the dimmer and when we stops the dimmer goes back. Anesthesia providers talk about consciousness in terms of 4 stages. 1st being light sedation (sleep) where I describe to my patients as you can be asleep but might remember things around you (think of napping on the couch at a family gathering). 2nd being an excitatory stage which is the most dangerous part of anesthesia and a side effect of the drugs we have to use (think of a plane taking off or landing). 3rd general anesthesia were you don’t respond to highly stimulating things (like surgery). 4th is essentially the lowest setting on the dimmer, there is brain activity but not much (coma). The dimmer gets broken because of many things could be injury causing swelling, not enough oxygen in your blood, not enough blood in your brain (related to oxygen), or drugs. Luckily thru experiments in the past we now have drugs that can lower the dimmer to a level we want but not so much we break the dimmer. Source I am an Anesthestiology Assistant CAA (think of a physician Assistant that only does anesthesia)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being unconscious generally means you are not aware of your surroundings including ambient sounds, smells, sights, touch or your own existence or the passage of time. \n\nSo being asleep, being knocked out by trauma or anesthesia or being in a coma, being clinically dead or unborn all reflect a state of unconsciousness. There are different levels based on brain activity, if any. \n\nSleep itself has different levels. During one to two hours a night most people have dreams so they are conscious of their own existence but not their surroundings though indirectly ambient noise can influence their dreams. The remainder of their sleep they do not dream and are not aware of their own existence or the passing of time. \n\nThere are reports of people being unresponsive in a coma or undergoing a heart attack or under anesthesia who are actually conscious to the point in which they can hear those around them, process what they are saying and can think about what is happening but cannot move, see or communicate back. This is similar to sleep paralysis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10115962",
"title": "Catathrenia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Catathrenia typically, sometimes even exclusively, occurs during REM sleep, although it may also occur to a lesser degree during NREM sleep. Catathrenia begins with a deep inspiration. The person with catathrenia holds her or his breath against a closed glottis, similar to the Valsalva maneuver. Expiration can be slow and accompanied by sound caused by vibration of the vocal cords or a simple rapid exhalation with no sound . Despite a slower breathing rate, no oxygen desaturation usually occurs. Certain side effects include sore throat, fatigue, and dizziness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5067584",
"title": "Parasomnia",
"section": "Section::::Rapid eye movement (REM)-related parasomnias.:Catathrenia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Before the ICSD-3, Catathrenia was classified as a rapid-eye-movement sleep parasomnia, but is now classified as sleep-related breathing disorder. It consists of breath holding and expiratory groaning during sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, sufferers tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1976353",
"title": "Obstructive sleep apnea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Individuals with OSA are rarely aware of difficulty breathing, even upon awakening. It is often recognized as a problem by others who observe the individual during episodes or is suspected because of its effects on the body. OSA is commonly accompanied with snoring. The terms obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome are used to refer to OSA when it is associated with symptoms during the daytime (e.g. excessive daytime sleepiness, decreased cognitive functions). Symptoms may be present for years or even decades without identification, during which time the individual may become conditioned to the daytime sleepiness and fatigue associated with significant levels of sleep disturbance. Individuals who generally sleep alone are often unaware of the condition, without a regular bed-partner to notice and make them aware of the signs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12277461",
"title": "Onirism",
"section": "Section::::In medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In psychiatry, onirism refers to a mental state in which visual hallucinations occur while fully awake. It is a symptom of some parasomnias (such as REM sleep behavior disorder and breakdown syndromes), but is more often associated with drug abuse. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10115962",
"title": "Catathrenia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Common characteristics in reported cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- People with catathrenia themselves do not feel like they are experiencing a sleep apnea; the breath-holding appears to be controlled through the unconscious. Oxygen desaturation during a catathrenia episode is usually negligible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28445",
"title": "Sleep apnea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "There are three forms of sleep apnea: obstructive (OSA), central (CSA), and a combination of the two called mixed. OSA is the most common form. Risk factors for OSA include being overweight, a family history of the condition, allergies, a small airway, and enlarged tonsils. In OSA, breathing is interrupted by a blockage of airflow, while in CSA breathing stops due to a lack of effort to breathe. People with sleep apnea may not be aware they have it. In many cases, it is first observed by a family member. Sleep apnea is often diagnosed with an overnight sleep study. For a diagnosis of sleep apnea, more than five episodes per hour must occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32149",
"title": "Unconsciousness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Unconsciousness is a state which occurs when the ability to maintain an awareness of self and environment is lost. It involves a complete or near-complete lack of responsiveness to people and other environmental stimuli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nu8jp
|
How Nazis Evaluated The French Revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "Add on question: I'm currently reading a book about the history of Communism, and the author talks about how Karl Marx and many other socialists drew inspiration from the Jacobins. But in describing the Jacobins, it seems they had many qualities that Fascists would value (being against conservatives and radicals, romanticizing service to the state). I've heard Fascism was heavily grounded in 19th century Romanticism, did they too draw inspiration from the French Revolution? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More supplemental questions: Did the Nazis produce a counter-history to that of the Marxists? How did they frame European history? Who were the fascist historians? What was the state of the historical profession in the Third Reich? What was their mission?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have studied the German government under the Nazi party pretty extensively, and after some digging in my own notes and through some of the sources I've used in the past, I truly cannot find a single specific reference to the French Revolution. There was a statement made by Gobbels, the *Reichsminister* for information, regarding revolution in France, but it did not go in depth or even refer to it by name. \n\nIn the absence of any information regarding the party's interpretation, it is logical to believe the party never took an official stance on it. I would, however, be interested to know if it was ever taught in German schools during the time period, and how it was portrayed if it was, but I don't have the resources to look into that, (though if anyone did I would be very interested). \n\nThinking about the way the Nazi party came to power, as well as events in the same general period of time in the geographic area, it is also safe to say that the less information the party allowed the people to know about successful reorganization of the social or political structure through violent revolution the easier it was for them to maintain control. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't read much of it so far but \"Inhumanities: Nazi Interpretations of Western Culture\" by David B Dennis seems to be the place to go for queries of this kind. It shows how the Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter reappropriated figures of Western culture such as Socrates, Da Vince, Beethoven etc and placed them in the Aryan culture.\n\nEdit: Just had a look, one of the chapters is titled: \"Intolerance Toward Enlightenment\".\n\nThere are a few sections addressing the French Revolution: \n\nPg 142\n > The Volkischer Beobachter analysed the French Revolution as primarily a racial conflict between Latin underclasses and the \"Germanic\" French nobility.\n\n > The Volkischer Beobachter's reception of Beethoven centered on the composer's reactions to the Revolution in an effort to refute assertions that he experienced a case of \"revolutionary fever.\"\n\nPg 162-163\n > According to a 1927 article on \"racism in the French Revolution,\" ancestral differences played a much greater role in social and political revolutions than indicated in historical writings that \"didn't pay attention to racial questions.\" For instance, the English Civil War that led to the \"dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell\" was strongly marked by \"racial differences between the Anglo-Saxon majority and the French-Norman aristocracy that had conquered it in 1066.\" In similar ways, the war of the Third Estate against the nobility in the French Revolution correlated with the \"conflict between the Gallo-Roman majority of the French Volk and the originally mainly German class of nobles - among them, Montesqieu.\" Right away in the first battles of the Third Estate for equality of rights, \"racial thinking was used as a weapon, especially in the writings of the Abbe Sieyes, who had such a powerful influence on the path of the French Revolution.\" For the paper, it was no coincedence that Sieyes was a French southerner, coming from Frejus - an area where \"Germanness was of significance during the early Middle Ages, the overwhelmed by the superior numbers of Gallo-Romans.\" An excellent speaker, he was a \"typical Gallo-Roman Frenchman.\" And as cuch, he use \"racial concepts\" in his political advocacy. For instance, to explain why the \"nobility of the nation was foreign\" in What is the Third Estate? Sieyes \"first discussed its laziness, then its political and civil priviedges.\" Then he argued that the \"French Volk had lived in slavery - that is, enslaved by the aristocrats.\" \n\n > Sieyes:\n*...some will say, \"but conquest has upset all relationships and hereditary nobility now descends through the line of the conquerors.\"...The Third Estate will become noble again by becoming a conqueror in its own turn.*\n\n > While Sieyes usually proceeded \"completely ahistorically and puerly rationalistically,\" the Volkischer Beobachter interjected, here he tried to \"strengthen his argument for class war with reference to the racial foreignness of the nobility.\" Moreover, he also sought to draw a portion of the nobility over to the side of the Third Estate, stipulating that since the conquering of Gaul by the Germans \"a strong mixture between them and the Gallo-Romans had taken place.\" So, although the numerically superior Third Estate had to be considered the \"Fathers of the Nation,\" some nobles could be rehabilitated into the ranks of the Third Estate. Therefore, the paper argues, Sieyes' representation of the French aristocracy as a \"racially foreign class of conquerors\" led to \"root out and dissipation of the nobility from France.\" The \"battle against everything Germanic that had commenced in the Renaissance continued in the form of hatred toward everything German.\"\n\nHopefully you find that of some use!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3086381",
"title": "Fascism and ideology",
"section": "Section::::Ideological origins.:Early influences (495 BC–1880 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 2462,
"text": "The French Revolution and its political legacy had a major influence upon the development of fascism. Fascists view the French Revolution as a largely negative event that resulted in the entrenchment of liberal ideas such as liberal democracy, anticlericalism and rationalism. Opponents of the French Revolution initially were conservatives and reactionaries, but the Revolution was also later criticized by Marxists for its bourgeois character and racist nationalists who opposed its universalist principles. Racist nationalists in particular condemned the French Revolution for granting social equality to \"inferior races\" such as Jews. Mussolini condemned the French Revolution for developing liberalism, scientific socialism and liberal democracy, but also acknowledged that fascism extracted and utilized all the elements that had preserved those ideologies' vitality and that fascism had no desire to restore the conditions that precipitated the French Revolution. Though fascism opposed core parts of the Revolution, fascists supported other aspects of it, Mussolini declared his support for the Revolution's demolishment of remnants of the Middle Ages such as tolls and compulsory labour upon citizens and he noted that the French Revolution did have benefits in that it had been a cause of the whole French nation and not merely a political party. Most importantly, the French Revolution was responsible for the entrenchment of nationalism as a political ideology – both in its development in France as French nationalism and in the creation of nationalist movements particularly in Germany with the development of German nationalism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte as a political response to the development of French nationalism. The Nazis accused the French Revolution of being dominated by Jews and Freemasons and were deeply disturbed by the Revolution's intention to completely break France away from its past history in what the Nazis claimed was a repudiation of history that they asserted to be a trait of the Enlightenment. Though the Nazis were highly critical of the Revolution, Hitler in \"Mein Kampf\" said that the French Revolution is a model for how to achieve change that he claims was caused by the rhetorical strength of demagogues. Furthermore, the Nazis idealized the \"levée en masse\" (mass mobilization of soldiers) that was developed by French Revolutionary armies and the Nazis sought to use the system for their paramilitary movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19538029",
"title": "18th-century history of Germany",
"section": "Section::::French Revolution 1789–1815.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "German reaction to the French Revolution was mixed at first. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. The royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the Bildungsbürgertum (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13224",
"title": "History of Germany",
"section": "Section::::1648–1815.:French Revolution, 1789–1815.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "German reaction to the French Revolution was mixed at first. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. The royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the Bildungsbürgertum (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5013592",
"title": "6 February 1934 crisis",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dobry, Michel. \"February 1934 and the Discovery of French Society's Allergy to the 'Fascist Revolution.\" in Brian Jenkins, ed. \"France in the Era of Fascism: Essays on the French Authoritarian Right\" (Berghahn. 2005) pp 129–50\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141013",
"title": "Arthur de Gobineau",
"section": "Section::::Life and theories.:Theory on French aristocrats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1370,
"text": "For Gobineau, the French Revolution having destroyed the racial basis of French greatness by overthrowing and in many cases killing the aristocracy was the beginning of a long, irresistible progress of decline and degeneration which could only end with the utter collapse of European civilization. For Gobineau, what the French Revolution had begun, the Industrial Revolution was finishing and, for him, industrialization and urbanization were a complete disaster for Europe. Gobineau was no socialist, but he had an intense hatred of capitalism, which allowed for poor men to rise up and become rich by their own talents and skills, something that was an affront to everything that Gobineau believed in. Davies wrote about Gobineau: Having identified his own fortunes with a caste that had been overthrown in 1789, he detested an age that had turned against his aristocratic (racial) linage and values. In his estrangement, he consoled himself with sad reflections on the impending death of civilization, although there is sufficient narcissism in his pages to suggest that his own death was also the object—perhaps the true object—of his contemplation… To the jaded man-of-letters, the would-be aristocrat, these \"deep stagnant waters\" over which the fragile structure of civilization was suspended were steadily rising, and France—and Europe—would soon be submerged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1455693",
"title": "Barrington Moore Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Social origins of dictatorship and democracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- In France, the French Revolution did directly include the bourgeoisie, but it was the overwhelming influence of the peasantry that determined \"just how far the revolution could go.\" The peasantry remained thereafter a reservoir of reactionary attitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406597",
"title": "Historiography of the French Revolution",
"section": "Section::::The Marxist/Classic interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The dominating approach to the French Revolution in historical scholarship in the first half of the 20th century was the Marxist, or Classic, approach. This view sees the French Revolution as an essentially 'bourgeois' revolution, marked by class struggle and resulting in a victory of the bourgeoisie. Influenced by socialist politician Jean Jaurès and historian Albert Mathiez (who broke with his teacher Aulard regarding class conflict), historians on the left led by Georges Lefebvre and Albert Soboul developed this view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zdc74
|
space coordinates?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are several astronomical coordinate systems: Horizontal (AltAzimuth), Equatorial, Ecliptic, and Galactic are four commonly used, and each has it's own purpose. The choice of which coordinate system you use depends on what you're looking at, what kind of instrument you're using, and who you're talking to when you try to describe an object's position.\n\nIf you're standing in your backyard, using your eyeball as an observing instrument, and you want to tell somebody standing next to you what you're looking at, the Horizontal (AltAzimuth) system works well: look 12 degrees (clockwise) in Azimuth from due North, then go up 27 degrees in Altitude from the Horizon. Pretty simple, but it doesn't mean much to somebody who is not at your location. Consider how a person in Australia might describe where something is in the night sky, compared with a person in Norway.\n\nThe Equatorial Coordinate System is typically used by scientists to describe the positions of most celestial objects in reference texts, astronomical databases, and in Google Sky. One of the benefits of this coordinate system is that it doesn't matter where on Earth you are, the reference points are out in the night sky instead of the local horizon.\n\nAs a very coarse description, you should know that Right Ascension (R.A) in the sky corresponds to Longitude here on Earth. The difference is that R.A. is measured in hours, minutes, and seconds, based on the idea that the Earth rotates one complete revolution every 24 hours. A circle is 360 degrees, so one hour of R.A. represents exactly 15 degrees of arc (360/24=15). Just like Longitude on Earth is measured from an arbitrary meridian line passing through Greenwich, England, R.A on the sky is measured (clockwise) from a point called the vernal equinox. I'm not going to try to explain what the vernal equinox is here. All R.A. numbers are positive, from 0hr 0min 0sec through 24hrs 0min 0 sec. You can't have a negative R.A.\n\nDeclination (Dec) in the sky is a little easier to understand, it corresponds to Latitude here on Earth. The Celestial Equator (the line on the night sky that you'd see if you could extend the Earth's Equator out into space) is the zero point, and declination is measured positively up to the North Celestial Pole at +90 degrees, and negatively down to the South Celestial Pole at -90 degrees.\n\nThe Ecliptic Coordinate System can be used to locate objects in the Solar System, and likewise, the Galactic Coordinate System can be used to describe objects in our galaxy. There are reasons why it may be more convenient to use one of these rather than the Equatorial Coordinate System, but remember that any given object in the night sky can be described by more than one coordinate system. \n\nTL:DR; We measure everything from were it is as compared to earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several ways to do it, but the key to any coordinate system is a reference point (reference points are what you are gonna compare your position to).\n\nYou can build any coordinate system as long as you have a reference point. Within that coordinate system, the reference point does not move. It doesn't matter if what that point is tied to is moving (like the center of the earth), as long as it doesn't move within the coordinate system.\n\nImagine a satellite that would trail behind the Earth as it rotates the sun. If we compare it's position to the center of the Earth, it is not moving. If we compare it's position to the center of the Sun, it is moving as fast as the Earth.\n\nIn space, you typically set your reference point to where you are going to be travelling, but technically you can use any reference point (but the math gets tricky if you have weird things as reference points).\n\nSatellites that orbit the Earth use the center of the Earth as their reference point.\n\nSatellites that travel to other planets use the center of the Sun as their reference point.\n\nWe haven't dabbled much beyond that, but we can use anything we want as our reference point.\n\nThere is more to it, but I am trying to keep it as simple as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When orienting a spacecraft, we use two types of coordinates: inertial (fixed) and noninertial (moving/on the craft). For this purpose, we consider the galaxy as inertial since the stars don't move much relative to each other. The system of space-fixed coordinates is determined by star tracking instruments on the craft. We then define any noninertial coordinates based off these inertial ones. Hope that made sense!\n\nSource: I'm an aerospace engineer!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coordinates in space work rather easily. It's just a build up of various reference frames.\n\nFor instance, plotting the moon's trajectory around the sun is rather hard. It's a fairly complex motion. However, instead of having the sun as my frame of reference, why don't I shift my frame of reference to the Earth? If my frame of reference is the Earth... well the problem becomes much easier! The moon revolves around the earth! \n\nThe Earth's motion around the sun is also very simple. So instead of plotting how the moon revolves around the sun directly... we plot how the Earth revolves around the sun, and then on top of that we plot how the moon revolves around the Earth.\n\nThat's the beauty of reference frames, a simple shift of reference frame makes a very complex problem a very easy one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1772303",
"title": "Coordinate space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In mathematics, a coordinate space is a space in which an ordered list of coordinates, each from a set (not necessarily the same set), collectively determine an element (or point) of the space – in short, a space with a coordinate system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81931",
"title": "Coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Coordinates of geometric objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example, Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term \"line coordinates\" is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9284",
"title": "Equation",
"section": "Section::::Geometry.:Analytic geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form formula_23, where formula_24 and formula_25 are real numbers and formula_26 are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values formula_24 are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in formula_28 or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in formula_29\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29181",
"title": "Spherical coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global weather simulation in a planet's atmosphere. A sphere that has the Cartesian equation has the simple equation in spherical coordinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12608",
"title": "Geodesy",
"section": "Section::::Coordinate systems in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, \"X\", \"Y\" and \"Z\". Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the \"Z\"-axis is aligned with Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65913",
"title": "Equations of motion",
"section": "Section::::Analytical mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Using all three coordinates of 3D space is unnecessary if there are constraints on the system. If the system has degrees of freedom, then one can use a set of generalized coordinates , to define the configuration of the system. They can be in the form of arc lengths or angles. They are a considerable simplification to describe motion, since they take advantage of the intrinsic constraints that limit the system's motion, and the number of coordinates is reduced to a minimum. The time derivatives of the generalized coordinates are the \"generalized velocities\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2202",
"title": "Analytic geometry",
"section": "Section::::Coordinates.:Spherical coordinates (in a space).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance \"ρ\" from the origin, the angle \"θ\" its projection on the \"xy\"-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis, and the angle \"φ\" that it makes with respect to the \"z\"-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33vmsq
|
Is there any single cell in my body that would have any effect if it suddenly ceased to be?
|
[
{
"answer": "The human body has a lot of redundancy as a protective mechanism...at least off the top of my head I can't think of a situation where functional loss would occur from the loss of a single cell.\n\nAwesome question though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a theory in neuroscience that distinct faces activate single subsets of neurons, or even a single neuron. This is referred to as the grandmother neuron, Halle berry neuron, or Marilyn Monroe neuron hypothesis. As few as one neuron lights up when shown a picture of a famous celebrity. Presumably, removal of that neuron removes the memory of that celebrity's face. Not terribly consequential in the grand scheme of things, but pretty cool.\n\n_URL_1_ - this is the Nature paper on the topic\n\n_URL_0_ - review of topic for those that can't access or don't want to read the scientific paper\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20723049",
"title": "CASY cell counting technology",
"section": "Section::::Principle of CASY technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Cell viability can be assessed based on the integrity of plasma membrane: the living cells have intact plasma membranes whereas membranes of dead cells are broken. When a cell is exposed to a low voltage field, the electric current cannot go through the intact membrane, which is an electric insulator, if it is viable. Otherwise, as the cellular membrane is broken, electric field can go through the injured cell as there are pores on their membrane. For a normal cell, its size cannot be smaller than its nuclear size, which is the criterion to distinguish between living cells and dead cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27103954",
"title": "Chromium toxicity",
"section": "Section::::Forms of chromium.:Trivalent chromium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Ordinarily, cellular transport mechanisms in humans and some other animals limit the amount of chromium(III) that enters a cell. Hypothetically, if an excessive amount was able to enter a cell, free radical damage to DNA might result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "748517",
"title": "Aubrey de Grey",
"section": "Section::::Career.:The seven types of aging damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- This is a phenomenon where some cells can no longer divide, but also do not die and let others divide. They may also do other things that they're not supposed to, like secreting proteins that may be harmful. Cell senescence has been proposed as cause or consequence of diabetes mellitus type 2. Immune senescence is also caused by this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18559351",
"title": "Ethidium homodimer assay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "When cells die, the plasma membranes of those cells becomes disrupted. Because of this, ethidium homodimer may enter those cells and bind to DNA within those cells. Because live cells don't have a compromised membrane, the ethidium homodimer can't enter. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9729302",
"title": "Hashimoto's encephalopathy",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "This would occur most likely through each cell shrinking in size in response to the energy deficit (and/or in extreme situations from some cells dying via either apoptosis or necrosis, depending on location). This may occur as a result of there not being enough ATP to maintain cellular functions: notably failure of the Na/K ATPase, resulting in a loss of the gradient to drive the Na/Ca antiporter which normally keeps out of cells so that it does not build to toxic levels that will rupture cell lysosomes leading to apoptosis. An additional feature of a low energy state is failure to maintain axonal transport via Dynein/Kinesin ATPases, which in many diseases results in neuronal injury to both the brain and/or periphery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2332422",
"title": "Carcinogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Role of infections.:Viral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Depending on their location, cells can be damaged through radiation, chemicals from cigarette smoke, and inflammation from bacterial infection or other viruses. Each cell has a chance of damage. Cells often die if they are damaged, through failure of a vital process or the immune system, however sometimes damage will knock out a single cancer gene. In an old person, there are thousands, tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of knocked-out cells. The chance that any one would form a cancer is very low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146539",
"title": "Senescence",
"section": "Section::::Cancer versus cellular senescence tradeoff theory of aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Senescent cells within a multicellular organism can be purged by competition between cells, but this increases the risk of cancer. This leads to an inescapable dilemma between two possibilities—the accumulation of physiologically useless senescent cells, and cancer—both of which lead to increasing rates of mortality with age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jaba7
|
Were Oktoberfest celebrations held in the German Democratic Republic?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is no, but that would be a bit untruthful since I think what you mean is something else (if not, I apologize):\n\nOktoberfest is not a pan-German phenomenon, it isn't even a pan-Bavarian (whose culture seems to be often associated with Germany in General abroad) one. Oktoberfest is a Munich tradition, it originated in Munich as a celebration of the marriage between King (then crown-prince) Ludwig I. of Bavaria and princess Therese of Sachsen-Hildburghausen (a minor Ernestine duchy). The Theresienwiese, where Oktoberfest takes place, is named after her. \n\nSo you'd be hard pressed to find Oktoberfest celebrations held anywhere outside Munich in the FRG as well, especially in the North. There are copycat 'Oktoberfest' celebrations throughout Germany nowadays, but those piggyback on the popularity of the Munich event.\n\nNow, with that in mind, there are a lot of Volksfeste (literally 'people's festivals', usually a combination of beer or wine festivals, depending on local customs, and carnival) throughout Germany (more than 10.000 a year), and they have a long history going back to the Middle Ages. I'm not a mediaevist, so I'm not going to embarass myself talking about that stuff, but I'll point out that there is a current initiative to have the German Volksfeste accepted into the UNESCO world cultural heritage for the importance they hold in German culture, which tells you a lot about how important they are for many Germans and the communities where they are held. [Here](_URL_0_) is an English language article on the topic. There are many famous other 'Fests', like the Cannstadter Wasen in Stuttgart, the Hamburger Dom and so on. You'll find them even in small cities and villages, accordingly smaller in scale.\n\nThis means, of course, that they were also important for people in the GDR. The leaders of party and state also recognized the role they could play in pacifying and appeasing the population, by providing pleasures and distractions (often by also providing music or products that were not commonly available), while also recognizing the danger that masses of people under alcohol could pose should the mood turn against the system. Thus members of the security organs were usually present, even if attempts to ideologically take over these festivals to instrumentalize them for propaganda were not really successful on a grand scale. \n\nI don't know if there are any English language sources on this topic, but 'Die heile Welt der Diktatur: Alltag und Herrschaft in der DDR 1971-1989' by Stefan Wolle is a good source for everyday culture in the GDR.\n\nThis page has some pictures of Volksfeste/Jahrmärkte in the GDR and some of the attractions you might find there:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nHere's also a map (from 2010) showing the locations of copycat Oktoberfests throughout Germany:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThere you'll also see that, apart from the one in Berlin(West) 1949, this trend as a mass-phenomenon is a pretty new one, taking off really only after the fall of the GDR and in time-periods of which we do not speak here.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55071810",
"title": "Day of the founding of the German Empire",
"section": "Section::::Celebrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Celebrations were held annually on 18 January. At centralised and local events, patriotic speeches were held and songs such as \"Heil dir im Siegerkranz\", the unofficial anthem of the empire were sung. Celebrations also took place publicly during the Weimar Republic (1919-1933) and with the participation of high dignitaries. Nazi Germany only celebrated the founding of the German Empire in 1871.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7688189",
"title": "Oktoberfest",
"section": "Section::::Transformation into a public festival.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "During National Socialism, Oktoberfest was used as part of Nazi propaganda. In 1933, Jews were forbidden to work on the \"Wiesn\". Two years later, Oktoberfest's 125th anniversary was celebrated with all the frills. The main event was a big parade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42454261",
"title": "Weltsekttag",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Sekttag of 1805.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "German student and poet Carl Ludwig Börne was the first to propose the celebration of a \"Weltsekttag\" during an academic conference held at Gießen upon the 4th of March 1805, without favouring a particular date, however. The idea was inspired by attempts in the previous years by French vintners to initiate collective day of marked resistance to the coalition wars and the resulting economic conditions which had had a strongly negative effect upon the wine trade. These attempts were largely unsuccessful. Ludwig Achim von Arnim brought the idea to Halle an der Saale, one of the oldest and most important German universities and a centre of the literary movement of the Enlightenment in the late 18th and early 19th century, where it was picked up by academic \"Kränzchen\" (\"little circles\") and \"Convente\" (\"conventions\") of similar corporations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34797",
"title": "1810s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Other political events.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- October 12, 1810 – First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7303487",
"title": "Oktoberfest celebrations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Oktoberfest is a two-week festival held each year in Munich, Germany during late September and early October. It is attended by six million people each year and has inspired numerous similar events using the name \"Oktoberfest\" in Germany and around the world, many of which were founded by German immigrants or their descendants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39173494",
"title": "Harmonie German Club",
"section": "Section::::Canberra Oktoberfest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "In 1963 a group of Jennings Germans expats from Munich instigated Canberra's annual three-day Oktoberfest and the club has organised it every year since. The festival includes such traditional German celebrations as folk dancing, bands, food and beers. It has attracted attendances of up to 25,000. The festivities outgrew the club's facilities and in 2017 Oktoberfest was staged in nearby Queanbeyan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3436",
"title": "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Year-end tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The German workers' movement began the tradition of performing the Ninth Symphony on New Year's Eve in 1918. Performances started at 11pm so that the symphony's finale would be played at the beginning of the new year. This tradition continued during the Nazi period and was also observed by East Germany after the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19lgwd
|
How did Spanish theologians try to legitimise Spanish overseas expansion in the 16th century, and the treatment of the native people that they 'acquired?'
|
[
{
"answer": "Who is this Vitaria of which you speak? I studied a bit about the period you're talking about but I can't recall the name and Google searches give me nothing.\n\nIn any case, have you heard about the Valladolid debate? It was a debate by two Spanish theologians about the treatment of the native subjects of New Spain. One of those, Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, basically claimed that the Indians were \"natural-born slaves\" incapable of self governance, and we were doing them a favor by bringing them Christianity. The same argument was used multiple times to justify colonial expansion at that time, like in the case of the Portuguese exploration of Africa and India. His opponent, Bartolomé de las Casas, is a very staunch protector of native rights, and you should look into both of these men's history for some illuminating facets of the treatment debate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're not specifically Spanish theologians, but Spain and Portugal for a time did value authority from canon law developed by medieval and early modern ecclesiastical scholars. This was more relevant to the very earliest period of conquest, when Spain and Portugal were first establishing territories off the coast of Africa and in the Americas, and this kind of legitimization had roots in previous conflicts like the Crusades. A big influence in the medieval period was Pope Innocent IV who asserted that there existed papal authority over infidels and a responsibility for the spiritual welfare of all men. James Muldoon's *Popes, Lawyers, and Infidels* is a pretty detailed work on this if you're interested in that kind of background info. \n\nBy the late 15th century, which is a bit closer temporally to what you're talking about, there was some anxiety among Castilians about the legitimacy of the conquest and there was a pretty big difference in how the crown saw the process of conquest versus how it often ended up taking place. The crown was interested in control, which made spiritual responsibility a useful concept. An important development to know include the Requerimiento of 1512 which was what people like Las Casas were reacting to. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about Spanish theologians, but I know the pope was none too amused. The church hierarchy, going all the way too the top was largely opposed to the abuses perpetrated in the new world. This is probably best exemplified by the 1537 papal encyclical [*Sublimus Dei,*](_URL_0_) \n\n > they [the natives] may and should, freely and legitimately, enjoy their liberty and the possession of their property; nor should they be in any way enslaved; should the contrary happen, it shall be null and have no effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People in this thread are kind of dancing around it, but the Carlos I of Spain appealed to the pope for religious justification of conquests in the New World. The previous wars Spain had fought against the Muslims were justified by the Catholic faith because the Muslims were \"heretics\" who had heard the \"Word of God\" and rejected it. There was a considerable moral ambiguity as to whether violence could be brought against people who had never before heard of Christianity. \n\nPope Paul III responded by issuing a papal bull called *Intra Arcana* which ruled that yes, violence could be used against pagans if the goal was to convert them to Christianity. This, combined with the earlier [Treaty of Tordesillas](_URL_0_) effectively gave the Spanish and Portuguese free reign to conquer any native people they encountered with the full backing of the church, so long as the \"official\" goal was to convert them to Christianity.\n\nOriginally they used this as an excuse to enslave the native peoples, (see whitesock's post on the Valladolid debate). But the pope eventually ruled in 1531 (Sublimus Dei) that the American Indians were indeed human and could not be enslaved. The Spanish found ways to get around it by *virtually* enslaving them through the encomienda and later hacienda systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The entire last chapter of [The Age of Reconnaissance](_URL_0_) deals with this subject. Its a classic, you should be able to find it in a larger/academic library. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Francisco de Vitoria was, like many of his contemporaries, very disturbed about the treatment of the natives. His *De Indis* is his attempt to determine whether or not the massacres and plundering were right or wrong. It's important to note here that his works were published based on lecture notes by his students ten years after his death.\n\nThe reason why it was OK in the first place was because the Indians fell into a loophole where they were not protected by any formal or informal law: 1) they were not Spanish subjects, therefore not protected by Spanish civil law, and 2) they were heretics, and so not protected by Christian laws for the protection of innocents.\n\n*De Indis* analyzes arguments that were being made to justify the confiscation of land and horrendous treatment. They all boiled down to that they were heretical, guilty of mortal sin, unsound of mind, not rightful owners to begin with, and that they'd be better off conquered (from Aristotle) and Vitoria showed that each were groundless. He concludes in section II, 16, that \"the aboriginies undoubtedly had true dominion over public and private matters, just like Christians.\" Over in section II, 1, 2, and 6, he insists that Spain had no right to wage war against the Indians and that neither the Emperor (Charles V, both Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain at the time) nor the Pope could authorize the war.\n\nHe goes on to label some protected classes of innocents that must not be attacked in war: women, children, farmers, foreign travelers, clerics and religious persons, and the whole rest of the peaceable population. And this includes foreigners. He says in *De Indis* Section III, 13, \"A prince has no greater authority over foreigners than his owb subjects. But he may not draw his sword against his own subjects unless they have done some wrong. Therefore, not against foreign citizens.\"\n\nHere are some keywords you can search for for looking for: *jus in bello* (\"justice in war,\" as in how to conduct fighting a war), *jus ad bellum* (just war, or when it is just to go into a war). Some sources from which Vitoria expanded on: Gratian of Bologna, St. Augustine, St. Aquinas, and St. Ambrose. Also, Francisco Suarez picked up writing about just war immediately after Vitoria died. There are a lot of histories out there about the history of the laws of war. I would especially recommend seeking out books by Michael Howard.\n\nSources: Paul Christopher's *The Ethics of War & Peace* and \"Just and Unjust Wars\" by Telford Taylor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50801879",
"title": "Spanish conquest of Honduras",
"section": "Section::::Province of Taguzgalpa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The task of incorporating eastern Honduras into the Spanish Empire fell to the evangelising efforts of Spanish missionary orders. The earliest Franciscan missionaries, at the beginning of the 17th century, attempted to convert the natives in their own settlements. It soon became obvious that this was impractical, given the paucity of available missionaries, and the wide dispersal of Indian villages and towns. The friars changed their tactics, and gathered the natives in mission towns, known as reducciones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19599950",
"title": "Franciscan missions to the Maya",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Spreading Christianity to the newly discovered continent was a top priority, but only one piece of the Spanish colonization system. The influence of the Franciscans, considering that missionaries are sometimes seen as tools of imperialism, enabled other objectives to be reached, such as the extension of Spanish language, culture and political control to the New World. A goal was to change the agricultural or nomadic Indian into a model of the Spanish people and society. Basically, the aim was for urbanization. The missions achieved this by “offering gifts and persuasion…and safety from enemies.\" This protection was also security for the Spanish military operation, since there would be theoretically less warring if the natives were pacified, thus working with another piece of the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11738868",
"title": "Catholic missions",
"section": "Section::::History.:Maya.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Spreading Christianity to the newly discovered continent was a top priority, but only one piece of the Spanish colonization system. The influence of the Franciscans, considering that missionaries are sometimes seen as tools of imperialism, enabled other objectives to be reached, such as the extension of Spanish language, culture, and political control to the New World. A goal was to change the agricultural or nomadic Indian into a model of the Spanish people and society. Basically, the aim was for urbanization. The missions achieved this by “offering gifts and persuasion…and safety from enemies.” This protection also offered security for the Spanish military operation, since there would be theoretically less warring if the natives were pacified. Thus the missionaries assisted with another aim of the colonizers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51940655",
"title": "Historiography of Colonial Spanish America",
"section": "Section::::Religion and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "The conversion and incorporation of the indigenous into Christendom was a key aim of Spanish colonialism. The classic work of Robert Ricard examines the sixteenth-century \"spiritual conquest\" prior to the arrival of the Jesuits. Although much scholarly work has been done it was originally published in 1933 in French, it remains an important work. Translating Christian texts to indigenous languages and creating dictionaries was a crucial element in the project. A great deal has been written about Central Mexico and Nahuatl texts, with Louise Burkhart's \"The Slippery Earth\" being particularly important., but clerics in the Andean region grappled with the issues as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50801879",
"title": "Spanish conquest of Honduras",
"section": "Section::::Conquistadors.:\"Encomienda\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1424,
"text": "Honduras was a relatively poor province and did not attract the most distinguished conquistadors. Most conquistadors and colonists who ventured to Honduras desired to return quickly to Spain with newly acquired wealth and improved social status, and were therefore looking for immediate enrichment. The progress of conquest was based on the distribution of \"encomienda\" rights and land concessions. \"Encomienda\" gave the \"encomendero\" (holder of the \"encomienda\") the right to receive tribute and labour from the indigenous inhabitants of a defined area. Up until the middle of the 16th century, the \"encomendero\" could assign his own level of tribute and labour to be provided by the natives within his \"encomienda\", which gave rise to much abuse. The \"encomiendas\" established in Honduras were small, and did not generate rapid income. Social advancement was gained by overlordship of natives within the \"encomienda\" system. In Honduras, the conquistadors gained immediate income by selling natives into slavery on the Caribbean islands and in Panama, and by mining activities. This in turn resulted in a reduction of indigenous population levels in Honduras, with a rapid drop in economic production during the first half of the 16th century. On the whole, the Spanish colonists were unwilling to invest time and resources into the long-term development of the agricultural production of their \"encomiendas\" in Honduras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50801879",
"title": "Spanish conquest of Honduras",
"section": "Section::::First expeditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "The first four decades of conquest were a turbulent period; domination of Honduras was not achieved until 1539. The initial foci of Spanish settlement were Trujillo, Gracias a Dios, and the areas around Comayagua and San Pedro Sula. Unlike in Mexico, where centralised indigenous power structures assisted swift conquest, there was no unified political organisation to overthrow; this hindered the incorporation of the territory into the Spanish Empire. Sometimes the Spanish would conquer an area and move on, just for it to immediately rise in rebellion, or massacre the Spanish colonisers. Initial Spanish efforts concentrated on establishing a presence along the Caribbean coast, with the founding of settlements such as Buena Esperanza, San Gil de Buena Vista, Triunfo de la Cruz, and Trujillo. Soon after, expeditions began to penetrate inland, against stiff indigenous resistance. In 1522, the natives of the Olancho valley rose up and massacred the occupying Spanish forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2827414",
"title": "Spanish Requirement of 1513",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "To the King and Queen of Spain (Ferdinand II of Aragon, 1452–1516 and Isabella I of Castile, 1451–1504) the conquest of indigenous peoples was justified by natural law, embodied in the medieval doctrine of “just wars”, which had historically been a rationale for war against non-Christians, particularly the Moors, but which would now be applied to Native Americans. Coming shortly after the Reconquest, the realization of a centuries-long dream by Christians in Spain, the discovery, and colonization of the New World was directly affected by religious and political conditions in a now-unified Iberian Peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xtik1
|
what exactly does oil have to do with the wars in afghanistan and iraq?
|
[
{
"answer": "oil doesnt have really anything to do with either conflict. iraq does have the worlds 4 largest reserves, but the us doesnt even have access to them. they let the iraqi's bid them out and now china's gas company, BP, Total Sa, and Sidanco are the owners of the oil extraction. theres no oil in afghanistan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The wars were not about oil. They were about fear. The last war in recent memory that could be attributed to oil was the 1st Persian Gulf War when George the First was President and Saddam invaded Kuwait. Saudi Arabia asked us for help to kick Iraq out of Kuwait who was burning up oil fields left and right - though there were other factors involved, oil was a big factor. However this is not the case in Afghanistan or Iraq. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The official reason for invading Iraq was the weapons. However there was quite a lot of doubt as to whether these weapons existed at the time, and the doubters have been proved correct as no weapons of mass destruction were found. Some people find it very suspicious that we would go to the trouble of invading a country over a hunch, so they say the weapons were actually just an excuse to invade for the oil.\n\nWhy would a country like the USA invade Iraq for oil? Because if the countries which produce oil are friendly (which Saddam's Iraq was not) they will sell it for us for a reasonable price and won't threaten us by saying they will increase prices or withhold supply. If this were to happen it would make everything more expensive for us because oil is involved in the production and transportation of just about everything. Although oil is really important to us we could never just admit that we invaded for oil, because Iraq's oil isn't ours and that would just be a confession of armed robbery.\n\nIt gets worse, if you believe all this. The other advantage of stealing Iraq's oil instead of buying it is that we would set up our own companies to extract it and sell it on. The contracts for this would be decided by politicians and would be worth a great deal of money. A lot of members of the Bush government at the time had links to the oil industry in America. This makes things doubly suspicious. Some people therefore believe that the Bush government started a war, not even for America's gain at all, but for their own personal gain at the expense of America and Iraq.\n\nNow even if you don't believe that it was all about oil, you might believe that it was one the many parts of the decision to invade. Put it this way: there are a lot of countries with nasty dictators, and several that might be developing weapons of mass destruction, so if you are going to invade one and not the others, why not invade the one that has oil too?\n\nOil doesn't come into the invasion of Afghanistan, which happened shortly after 9/11 and was a reaction to that. However Afghanistan is very central in the Asian continent and in the 90s there were negotiations with the Taliban by certain companies about building gas pipelines across the country. I'm not sure what became of all that after the invasion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57189380",
"title": "The United Kingdom and the Iraqi oil industry",
"section": "Section::::Role of oil in Iraq.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Oil, as a natural resource and a commodity, can be identified as a contributor to war. In the Gulf and Iraq Wars, oil and its flow to other countries were factors considered by Iraq and the other countries involved in the conflict. Although political changes, economic sanctions, and war created instability in Iraq's oil production, its production could still affect future oil trends. According to senior British Army official in Iraq James Ellery, \"Iraq holds the key to stability in the region, due to its relatively large, consuming population,\" possessing \"the second-largest reserve of oil – under-exploited\", and its geostrategic location \"on the routes between Asia, Europe, Arabia and North Africa ... the Silk Road.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17448",
"title": "Kuwaiti oil fires",
"section": "Section::::Motives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "It is also hypothesized that Iraq decided to destroy the oil fields to achieve a military advantage, believing the intense smoke plumes serving as smoke screens created by the burning oil wells would inhibit Coalition offensive air strikes, foil allied precision guided weapons and spy satellites, and could screen Iraq’s military movements. Furthermore, it is thought that Iraq’s military leaders may have regarded the heat, smoke, and debris from hundreds of burning oil wells as presenting a formidable area denial obstacle to Coalition forces. The onset of the oil well destruction supports this military dimension to the sabotage of the wells; for example, during the early stage of the Coalition air campaign, the number of oil wells afire was relatively small but the number increased dramatically in late February with the arrival of the ground war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48578926",
"title": "Oil production and smuggling in ISIL",
"section": "Section::::ISIL oil production as a military target.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "While degrading oil operations is an obvious target for military operations, the United States was reported to have refrained from using this approach out of concerns for civilian casualties and destabilizing the life of a ten million population that depended on oil from ISIL production. Also, rebel-held areas supported by the U.S. depended on ISIL oil for sustenance. Further, direct hits on oil fields could lead to a natural disaster and make future use difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35817064",
"title": "Oil war",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "An oil war is a conflict about petroleum resources, or their transportation, consumption, or regulation. The term may also refer generally to any conflict in a region that contains oil reserves or is geographically positioned in a location where an entity has or may wish to develop production or transportation infrastructure for petroleum products. It is also used to refer to any of a number of specific oil wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57189380",
"title": "The United Kingdom and the Iraqi oil industry",
"section": "Section::::Corporate interests after 2003.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The Iraq conflict, which began with the 2003 invasion, has had significant effects on the country's oil situation. Iraq and its oil industry suffered from the wars and sanctions, increasing the need for international cooperation and investment. Operations of the most prominent British oil companies, BP and Royal Dutch Shell, in the Kirkuk and Rumaila regions were also affected by the conflict and have evolved. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7044468",
"title": "2003 United States–British–Spanish Draft Resolution on Iraq",
"section": "Section::::Background.:The Bush Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "Critics of the war in Iraq argue the Bush Administration had ulterior motives for the UN resolution. Some argue the Bush administration sought to protect American economic interests and used the investigation and eventual invasion of Iraq to preserve control over massive oil preserves. In 2003 about twenty-five percent of world oil production in 2003 came from Iraq. Saddam Hussein controlled about 60% of the world's known oil reserves. The United States economy relies on oil and is the world's largest net importer of oil. An invasion meant the Bush administration would gain control of Iraqi oil fields and potentially decrease the price of oil in other OPEC countries. The UN resolution gave the US greater control of what was happening in the country. Any invasion for failing to cooperate with the resolution gave the Bush administration direct control over the country’s resources and thus increasing their power in the middle east. Inspecting Iranian weapons also gave the United States a greater presence in the middle east and allowed for the monitoring of extremism in Iran and Saudi Arabia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19099956",
"title": "Oil reserves in Iraq",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "A measure of the uncertainty about Iraq's oil reserves is indicated by widely differing estimates. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated in 2003 that Iraq had . The United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1995 estimated proven reserves were . Iraq's prewar deputy oil minister said that potential reserves might be . The source of the uncertainty is that due to decades of war and unrest, many of Iraq's oil wells are run down and unkept. Repairs to the wells and oil facilities should make far more oil available economically from the same deposits. Iraq may prove to contain the largest extractable deposits of oil in the entire Middle East once these upgrading and facility improvements have advanced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cz4ce
|
why don't device manufacturers provide higher rate chargers with the device?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it can shorten the battery life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My understanding was always that it could shorten the life of the battery as well as cause the charging circuit to think the battery is fully charged and stop charging (or start trickle charging), even though the battery is not really fully charged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a radio control hobbiest. I have learned quite a bit about batteries and one thing I have learned is that the faster you charge these batteries the less time the charge will last. So in a cellphone situation where a big selling point is battery run time and life they are gonna want you to charge it as slow as possible To get the longest run time out of the battery. \n\nCellphone batteries are not designed to charge faster then the output. These are known as 1 C batteries. If the batter in your phone is only 1800mah it can only be charged at 1.8a anything more and it will over heat, cause damage to the battery including puffing and blowing up. \n\nSo cellphone makers are not gonna make a new charger for every different size battery in every different phone they have on the market. They are gonna make a general charger that will charge all or most of their devices.\n\nOn the other side I could be mistaken but I recall reading usb 2.0 is limited in how fast it can charge things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6349042",
"title": "Inductive charging",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Newer approaches reduce transfer losses through the use of ultra thin coils, higher frequencies, and optimized drive electronics. This results in more efficient and compact chargers and receivers, facilitating their integration into mobile devices or batteries with minimal changes required. These technologies provide charging times comparable to wired approaches, and they are rapidly finding their way into mobile devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28341833",
"title": "Apple Battery Charger",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Apple designed the charger so that the batteries draw less energy from the national power grid than other comparable chargers; as a result, energy efficiency is improved. According to Apple, at 30 mW, the standard power usage of the charger is ten times better than the industry average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223407",
"title": "Switched-mode power supply",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies, but they quickly moved to the cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were required. Recently, the demand for even lower no-load power requirements in the application has meant that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary-side sensing components such as optocouplers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23931489",
"title": "No load power",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "As a result, mobile phone manufacturers have become increasingly focused on reducing the no-load consumption of their power chargers. For example, in 2002, a typical design might use about 3 watts on average and in 2007 less than 0.5 watts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2257472",
"title": "USB On-The-Go",
"section": "Section::::Backward compatibility.:Charger compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Some devices can use their USB ports to charge built-in batteries, while other devices can detect a dedicated charger and draw more than 500 mA (0.5 A), allowing them to charge more rapidly. OTG devices are allowed to use either option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Slow battery chargers may take several hours to complete a charge. High-rate chargers may restore most capacity much faster, but high rate chargers can be more than some battery types can tolerate. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from overcharging. Electric vehicles ideally need high-rate chargers. For public access, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electric cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1169469",
"title": "AC adapter",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "But others have argued that these inefficient devices are low-powered, e.g., devices that are used for small battery chargers, so even if they have a low efficiency, the amount of energy they waste is less than 1% of household consumption of electric energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
644sw5
|
Why are energy levels of electrons quantized?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I've read on Yahoo answers that these quantized energy levels are harmonic solutions to Schrödinger's equation and that just like there are some harmonic frequencies that a bell rings at, there are certain harmonic solutions to the equation. In which case my question would be that is this due to the fact that there's a LaPlacian in the equation that needs spherical harmonics to be solved?\n\nThe first part is correct. Although it's nothing specifically to do with the Laplacian or the spherical harmonics. You have a PDE and some boundary conditions. The boundary conditions enforce the condition that only certain solutions to the PDE are allowed.\n\nIt's the boundary conditions which lead to quantization. For example in an infinite square well, it's the boundary conditions which enforce the fact that bound energy eigenstates have discrete wavenumbers, because the wavefunction must go to zero at the boundaries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Too put it simply, Schrodinger's equation resembles wave-like nature very similarly, and a property of waves is that they can only have certain modes or harmonics when you use boundary conditions. In quantum mechanics these modes take the form of energy modes or in other words energy states or more technically speaking energy eigenvalues. If you look up pictures of a particle in an infinite well, you'll clearly see the modes in position space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59444",
"title": "Energy level",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Quantized energy levels result from the relation between a particle's energy and its wavelength. For a confined particle such as an electron in an atom, the wave function has the form of standing waves. Only stationary states with energies corresponding to integral numbers of wavelengths can exist; for other states the waves interfere destructively, resulting in zero probability density. Elementary examples that show mathematically how energy levels come about are the particle in a box and the quantum harmonic oscillator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8752642",
"title": "Nuclear structure",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Introduction to the shell concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The energy levels are found by solving the Schrödinger equation for a single nucleon moving in the average potential generated by all other nucleons. Each level may be occupied by a nucleon, or empty. Some levels accommodate several different quantum states with the same energy; they are said to be \"degenerate\". This occurs in particular if the average nucleus has some symmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84400",
"title": "Zero-point energy",
"section": "Section::::Atomic physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The idea of a quantum harmonic oscillator and its associated energy can apply to either an atom or subatomic particle. In ordinary atomic physics, the zero-point energy is the energy associated with the ground state of the system. The professional physics literature tends to measure frequency, as denoted by above, using angular frequency, denoted with and defined by . This leads to a convention of writing Planck's constant with a bar through its top () to denote the quantity . In these terms, the most famous such example of zero-point energy is the above associated with the ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator. In quantum mechanical terms, the zero-point energy is the expectation value of the Hamiltonian of the system in the ground state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10897878",
"title": "Mesoscopic physics",
"section": "Section::::Quantum confinement effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Because the electron energy levels of quantum dots are discrete rather than continuous, the addition or subtraction of just a few atoms to the quantum dot has the effect of altering the boundaries of the bandgap. Changing the geometry of the surface of the quantum dot also changes the bandgap energy, owing again to the small size of the dot, and the effects of quantum confinement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59444",
"title": "Energy level",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "A quantum mechanical system or particle that is bound—that is, confined spatially—can only take on certain discrete values of energy, called energy levels. This contrasts with classical particles, which can have any amount of energy. The term is commonly used for the energy levels of electrons in atoms, ions, or molecules, which are bound by the electric field of the nucleus, but can also refer to energy levels of nuclei or vibrational or rotational energy levels in molecules. The energy spectrum of a system with such discrete energy levels is said to be quantized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175470",
"title": "Magnetic monopole",
"section": "Section::::Dirac's quantization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Quantum mechanics dictates, however, that angular momentum is quantized in units of , so therefore the product must also be quantized. This means that if even a single magnetic monopole existed in the universe, and the form of Maxwell's equations is valid, all electric charges would then be quantized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44192006",
"title": "Lieb–Oxford inequality",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, it is \"also\" possible to calculate a charge density , which is a function of . More specifically, is defined as the expectation value of charge density at each point. But in this case, the above formula for Coulomb energy is not correct, due to exchange and correlation effects. The above, classical formula for Coulomb energy is then called the \"direct\" part of Coulomb energy. To get the \"actual\" Coulomb energy, it is necessary to add a correction term, called the \"indirect\" part of Coulomb energy. The Lieb–Oxford inequality concerns this indirect part. It is relevant in density functional theory, where the expectation value ρ plays a central role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dj5pqs
|
custom feeds. how are they, how do they work, how do you edit them?
|
[
{
"answer": "A multireddit, now renamed to “custom feed”, is a group of two or more subreddits. Think of it as a folder in your bookmarks. Instead of seeing everything in your home feed, you will see just the ones in that folder. This is the main way I use Reddit. I have all of my subs grouped into topics look at one topic at a time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "509078",
"title": "Atom (Web standard)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Web feeds allow software programs to check for updates published on a website. To provide a web feed, the site owner may use specialized software (such as a content management system) that publishes a list (or \"feed\") of recent articles or content in a standardized, machine-readable format. The feed can then be downloaded by programs that use it, like websites that syndicate content from the feed, or by feed reader programs that allow internet users to subscribe to feeds and view their content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2351677",
"title": "News aggregator",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Web-based feed readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "More advanced methods of aggregating feeds are provided via Ajax coding techniques and XML components called web widgets. Ranging from full-fledged applications to small fragments of source code that can be integrated into larger programs, they allow users to aggregate OPML files, email services, documents, or feeds into one interface. Many customizable homepage and portal implementations provide such functionality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14105582",
"title": "Zuula",
"section": "Section::::Metasearch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Zuula does not combine the results from its source search engines. Instead, tabs are used to organize the results from source engines. When a user carries out a search, the first results that are displayed are those from the search engine assigned to the first tab. The user can then click on other tabs to see the results from other source engines. Users can change the order of the tabs for each search type by moving them into the desired order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37886768",
"title": "Program lifecycle phase",
"section": "Section::::Phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Edit time is when the source code of the program is being edited. This spans initial creation to any bug fix, refactoring, or addition of new features. Editing is typically performed by a person, but automated design tools and metaprogramming systems may also be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23509860",
"title": "Selection (user interface)",
"section": "Section::::Simultaneous editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Simultaneous editing is a technique in End-user development research to edit all items in a multiple selection. It allows the user to manipulate all the selected items at once through direct manipulation. The technique also appears in data wrangling tools, allowing the user to make the same changes to several records of the same kind in a table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "717016",
"title": "Web feed",
"section": "Section::::Scraping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Usually a web feed is made available by the same entity that created the content. Typically the feed comes from the same place as the website. Not all websites, however, provide a feed. Sometimes third parties will read the website and create a feed for it by scraping it. Scraping is controversial since it distributes the content in a manner that was not chosen by the authors and may bypass web advertisements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "717016",
"title": "Web feed",
"section": "Section::::Technical definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Feeds are more often subscribed to directly by users with aggregators or feed readers which combine the contents of multiple web feeds for display on a single screen or series of screens. Some modern web browsers incorporate aggregator features. Users typically subscribe to a feed by manually entering the URL of a feed or clicking a link in a web browser.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60ljgk
|
if our field of vision is limited, why can we not see or imagine "nothing" on the outer edges of our vision, or "black" like the top/bottom edges of movies
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain already \"erases\" information you see but you don't need, as well as \"fills in the blanks\" for information that's missing or assumed.\n\nyou have a blindspot in each eye but if you look at a wall, you don't see two black circles, your visual center just automatically paints in the blindspots, because you don't need to see two blank spots. Your brain also ignores stuff like your nose, you don't need to pay attention to your nose poking into your field if view\n\nSeeing the end of your vision, or seeing a big black region around your visio would serve no purpose and have no advantage, and there's no point for the visual system to evolve such a feature.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3326958",
"title": "Cartesian materialism",
"section": "Section::::Replies and objections to Dennett and his arguments.:Replies from neuroscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Another criticism comes from investigation into the human visual system. Although both eyes each have a blind spot, conscious visual experience does not subjectively seem to have any holes in it. Some scientists and philosophers had argued, based on subjective reports, that perhaps the brain somehow \"fills in\" the holes, based upon adjacent visual information. Dennett had powerfully argued that such \"filling in\" was unnecessary, based on his objections to a Cartesian theater. Ultimately, however, studies have confirmed that the visual cortex does perform a very complex \"filling in\" process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7664101",
"title": "Cortical visual impairment",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "BULLET::::- The field of view may be severely limited. The best vision might be in the centre (like tunnel vision) but more often it is at some other point, and it is difficult to tell what the person is really looking at. Note that if the person also has a common ocular visual impairment such as nystagmus then this can also affect which part(s) of the visual field are best. (Sometimes there exists a certain gaze direction which minimises the nystagmus, called a \"null point.\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2158298",
"title": "Visual impairment",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Low vision\" generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176997",
"title": "Blindsight",
"section": "Section::::Describing blindsight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Patients with blindsight have damage to the visual system that allows perception (the visual cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than the system that controls eye movements. This phenomenon shows how, after the more complex visual system is damaged, people can use the latter visual system of their brains to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to \"see\" objects that they are unconscious of suggests that consciousness is not a general property of all parts of the brain; yet it suggests that only certain parts of the brain play a special role in consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2243071",
"title": "Kuriakose Elias Chavara",
"section": "Section::::Excerpts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Just as without eyes one cannot see the material things of the world, so also without knowledge it will be impossible for us to see or understand the reality of this world and the eternity where God dwells in. As those who have no eyes are called “Blind”, so too those who have no learning are to be called “intellectually blind” Hence it is the responsibility of priest to teach the faithful and of parents to teach their children.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364622",
"title": "Four-dimensional space",
"section": "Section::::Dimensional analogy.:Visual scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "We spatially perceive ourselves as beings in a three-dimensional space, but visually we are restricted to one dimension less: we see the world with our eyes as projections to two dimensions, on the surface of the retina. Assuming a four-dimensional being were able to \"see\" his world in projections to a hypersurface, also just one dimension less, i.e., to three dimensions, it would be able to \"see\", e.g., all six sides of an opaque box simultaneously, and in fact, what is inside the box at the same time, just as we can see all four sides and simultaneously the interior of a rectangle on a piece of paper. The being would be able to discern all points in a 3-dimensional subspace simultaneously, including the inner structure of solid 3-dimensional objects, things obscured from our viewpoints in three dimensions on two-dimensional projections. Our brains receive images in two dimensions and use reasoning to help us \"picture\" three-dimensional objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36087839",
"title": "Varieties of criticism",
"section": "Section::::Self-criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "BULLET::::- People might have \"blind spots\" in their awareness, i.e., they are simply unable to see a part of themselves for what it is (unless others point it out to them). In that case, they are unable to criticize themselves, because they don't know what there is to criticize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vselb
|
why does yellow highlighter not show up when you copy it? and why can't you copy red pages?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's just a matter of contrast. Most copy machines only print black and white; they can't even produce gray except with [dithering](_URL_0_). So every color on the page has to be converted to either black or white. Yellow is very close to white, so it disappears. Red is sort of a half-dark color, so in some areas it turns to black and in some areas it turns to white, and you get huge blotches all over your copy, obscuring the text.\n\nIf you have a more modern scanner/copier with a grayscale option (it can produce 256 different shades of gray), then the problem isn't quite as bad. Yellow will still probably be invisible, because it's still very close to white. But your red might actually show up as a nice gray, and leave the document readable.\n\nAnd, of course, if you have a full color copier, everything will come through perfectly. I scan color stuff all the time at work.\n\nYou can play with this effect a bit if you have a photo editing program like Photoshop, GIMP, or _URL_1_. Pull in an image with a lot of red or bright yellow, and experiment with the desaturate/grayscale and the black and white options, and see what different colors turn into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "851849",
"title": "Highlighter",
"section": "Section::::Styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Many highlighters come in bright, often fluorescent and vibrant colors. Being fluorescent, highlighter ink glows under black light. The most common color for highlighters is yellow, but they are also found in orange, red, pink, purple, blue, and green varieties. Some yellow highlighters may look greenish in colour to the naked eye. Yellow is the preferred color to use when making a photocopy as it will not produce a shadow on the copy. Yet, the use of different colour highlighters simultaneously can systematically make information even more organized and readable and in high contrast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935713",
"title": "Photocopier",
"section": "Section::::How it works (using xerography).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A negative photocopy inverts the colors of the document when creating a photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents which have better focus and are easier to read and study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478313",
"title": "Marker pen",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Highlighters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Highlighters are a form of marker used to highlight and cover over existing writing while still leaving the writing readable. They are generally produced in neon colours to allow for colour coding, as well as attract buyers to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "617411",
"title": "GFA BASIC",
"section": "Section::::Features and functionality.:Manual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Some editions of the GFA manual were printed with black ink on red paper, in an attempt to thwart photocopying and bootlegging. The effectiveness of this tactic was questionable, and the manual returned to the usual black-on-white format after complaints from colour blind users and the proliferation of re-typed copies on the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60125973",
"title": "Shannon Ebner",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Ebner claims a photographer always has the choice to keep the colour or discard it. This means that the choice between colour and black & white is always an act of discarding the color information of the images. For Ebner, photography is about the lines of action: writing with blank ink on a world that's in shades of grey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65448",
"title": "Invisible ink",
"section": "Section::::Invisible ink types.:Inks which alter the surface of paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Fumes created from heating iodine crystals will develop the writing, which will appear brown because the iodine sticks preferentially to the altered areas of the paper. Exposing the paper to strong sunlight will return the writing to its invisible state, as will using a bleach solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Black ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus the easiest color to read. Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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