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1ywm2o
|
how does a radiation meter work?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are different types of radiation detectors\n\n* Geiger tubes: A tube filled with an inert gas at low pressure, when radiation enters the tube it knocks electrons off of the gas and creates a brief pulse of current that can be detected.\n\n* Scintillation counter: Uses a material that releases light upon being struck with radiation. The light is usually detected with a photomultiplier tube, which can detect extremely low levels of light.\n\n* Semiconductor detector: When radiation strikes a semiconductor it produces a brief pulse of current that can be detected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12739994",
"title": "Whole-body counting",
"section": "Section::::Calibration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Any radiation detector is a relative instrument, that is to say the measurement value can only be converted to an amount of material present by comparing the response signal (usually counts per minute, or per second) to the signal obtained from a standard whose quantity (activity) is well known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37379",
"title": "Relative density",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Digital density meters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "\"Radiation-based Gauge\": Radiation is passed from a source, through the fluid of interest, and into a scintillation detector, or counter. As the fluid density increases, the detected radiation \"counts\" will decrease. The source is typically the radioactive isotope cesium-137, with a half-life of about 30 years. A key advantage for this technology is that the instrument is not required to be in contact with the fluid—typically the source and detector are mounted on the outside of tanks or piping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41002",
"title": "Weighting filter",
"section": "Section::::Other applications of weighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "In the measurement of gamma rays or other ionising radiation, a radiation monitor or dosimeter will commonly use a filter to attenuate those energy levels or wavelengths that cause the least damage to the human body, while letting through those that do the most damage, so that any source of radiation may be measured in terms of its true danger rather than just its 'strength'. The sievert is a unit of weighted radiation dose for ionising radiation, which supersedes the older unit the REM (roentgen equivalent man).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3003284",
"title": "Weighting",
"section": "Section::::Weighting and gamma rays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In the measurement of gamma rays or other ionising radiation, a radiation monitor or dosimeter will commonly use a filter to attenuate those energy levels or wavelengths that cause the least damage to the human body but letting through those that do the most damage, so any source of radiation may be measured in terms of its true danger rather than just its strength. The resulting unit is the sievert or microsievert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "839718",
"title": "Radiometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux (power) of electromagnetic radiation. Generally, a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or an ultraviolet detector. Microwave radiometers operate in the microwave wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16509184",
"title": "Survey meter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Survey meters in radiation protection are hand-held ionising radiation measurement instruments used to check such as personnel, equipment and the environment for radioactive contamination and ambient radiation. The hand-held survey meter is probably the most familiar radiation measuring device owing to its wide and visible use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23547932",
"title": "EMF measurement",
"section": "Section::::Meters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "An \"EMF meter\" is a scientific instrument for measuring electromagnetic fields (abbreviated as EMF). Most meters measure the electromagnetic radiation flux density (DC fields) or the change in an electromagnetic field over time (AC fields), essentially the same as a radio antenna, but with quite different detection characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bi3fm0
|
why does the moon look huge in the distance when poping over a mountain but small on a picture or a video?
|
[
{
"answer": "Forced perspective. When it's next to the mountain, your mind has a frame of reference. In a picture, or even just higher in the sky, you don't have that same reference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is it's an optical illusion. This is mainly caused by having something to compare the moon's scale too (mountain, building, etc). \n\nMany people belive its due to being lower to the horizon and the atmosphere \"magnifies\" it, however this is incorrect. \n\nTo test this optical illusion for yourself, hold up an object at arms length to the moon when it is low on the horizon and looks larger. Compare the scale of the moon to the object. Then, later when the moon is higher in the sky and looks normal size, hold the same object at arms length again. You will see its the same size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the other answers, in photography and film, you can use certain lenses and techniques to make the moon look gigantic, while the camera on phones and a lot of other things generally do the opposite. It might look smaller in the picture than it does irl because the camera being used creates the illusion that it is smaller than it really is",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a well known optical illusion called the Moon Illusion. It's even apparent in video games like Minecraft. The closer to the horizon the moon is the bigger it looks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most likely reason for this illusion is how your brain's vision handling system interpets the Moon's distance. Your brain handles the Moon as being 'in the sky', and the sky is where the clouds are.\n\nWhen you are looking near the horizon, the clouds, and that horizon, are a long way away. So our brains assume the Moon is about that same distance away, so they present the Moon to us as very large object among distant things.\n\nWhen you are looking straight up, those same clouds are fairly close. Even when there are no clouds, our brains assume that the sky above us is a flat layer. So we see the moon as a small object that is close.\n\nThis image handling happens on a subconscious level, and the results are passed to our conscious mind. Only then do apply our knowledge that the moon is the same object that is very distant, and that its apparent changing size is not logical. In fact, because the Moon is further away from us when it rises, it should appear slightly smaller at the horizon than when it is overhead - and if you measure it - which is what a camera does - that is what you would find.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure why everyone is explaining why the moon looks bigger near the horizon compared to up in the sky when the question is specifically about comparing it to a photo or video. \n\nThe answer is when you take a photo on your phone, your phone has a wide angle lens which tries to get a wide field of view. I.e it tries to capture the entire scenery in front of you. Distant objects look smaller the wider your lens is. \n\nTo get around this problem you need to use a telephoto lens. Telephoto (zoom) lenses make distant objects appear bigger because they have a narrower field of view. \n\nTo make the moon still appear bigger you could include a distant object in the picture like a building or an airplane. \n\nThe relative size of the distant object to the moon will make the moon look huge.\n\nEdit: edited for clarity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Moon Illusion.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI know it is a WikiLink, but still a good read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > but small on a picture or a video?\n\nThe size the moon appears in a picture or video is dictated by the focal length of the lens you are using, wide angle lenses make the moon appear small in a photograph and telephoto lenses make it appear larger. It would be similar in comparison to looking at the moon through binoculars versus looking at the moon through a telescope. \n\nAs an example phone cameras generally use the equivalent of 35mm or 50mm lenses (compared to 35mm SLR lenses), this is a relatively wide angle lenses so the moon appears very small in the picture. If you use a telephoto lens such as a 200mm, 500mm, or 800mm lens the moon will appear much larger in the photograph. The longer the focal length of the lens the more the moon will be magnified in the picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Focal length makes the background small in a lot of cellphone-type shots. To make the moon big, your best bet is to shoot it with a telescope. To get it big in the background, you would use a 400mm+ lens to shoot an object with the moon in the background.\n\nThe focal length keeps the subject normal but zooms the background a lot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has to do with the lens of the camera. If you shoot the moon with a lens upwards of 85mm it would look like it should, with a proper scale compared to other objects in the picture.\n\nWide lenses (35mm and wider) make things look further away and smaller. And phones rarely have a lens that is longer than 24-28mm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought it had to do with focal length but now everyone in this thread says its because we dont know. Good?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not an optical illusion. It is not a perspective issue either. It is how light hits the camera sensor after bending through a curved lens. This is essentially how lenses are supposed to work.\n\nYou curve the lens to gather light from a wider area. As a consequence, the objects are rendered smaller. If you have one of those small curved rear view mirrors that stick on your existing rear view mirrors in the car, you know what I am talking about. These show you objects, but they don’t give you a good idea of their distance.\n\nOn a wide angle lens like your cellphone, objects at a distance appear smaller. That’s why your subject looks normal but the buildings or the horizon look smaller and get cramped into the scene.\n\nNow compare the distance between your subject and those buildings to the distance between the subject and the moon!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all comes down to the focal length of the lens being used to catch the image. The longer the focal length, the more gigantic distant things are going to look. You can do tricks with this by having distant objects between you and the moon also showcased. So if you're miles away from a city skyline with the moon rising over it and you use say a 400mm lens to capture the image it's going to make the moon look like it takes up a meaningful percentage of the sky.\n\nHere's a good explainer. Photog used a 500mm max zoom dialed to the end with 2 teleconverters connected for an effective focal length of 1000mm or thereabouts.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my experience, whenever you poop over a mountain you have a strain a bit because your butthole gets real nervous. That makes your vision go blurry, so the moon appears bigger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are my eyes broken? Moon always looks small",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275987",
"title": "Moon illusion",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Finally! Why the Moon Looks Big at the Horizon and Smaller When Higher Up\" by Don McCready, Professor Emeritus, Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Revised 10 November 2004, retrieved 31 October 2015\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31156672",
"title": "Supermoon",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "A full moon at perigee appears roughly 14% larger in diameter than at apogee. Many observers insist that the moon looks bigger to them. This is likely due to observations shortly after sunset when the moon is near the horizon and the moon illusion is at its most apparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43777942",
"title": "Face on Moon South Pole",
"section": "Section::::Craters on the Moon.:Face or crater?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "When people describe the images they see on the Moon, such as a face, they are not directly seeing that image displayed upon the Moon. They are rather looking at an irregular section of the Moon's surface. The irregular section consists of deep holes, called craters, and hills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21477128",
"title": "September 2015 lunar eclipse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The Moon appeared larger than normal, because the Moon was just 59 minutes past its closest approach to Earth in 2015 at mid-eclipse, sometimes called a supermoon. The Moon's apparent diameter was larger than 34' viewed straight overhead, just off the coast of northeast Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36094559",
"title": "Solar eclipses on the Moon",
"section": "Section::::At its edges of the near side and its small surroundings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "It also occurs in several polar areas. In that part of the Moon, the Earth is seen in the high-altitude areas of craters, hills, and mountains, as well as a few areas such as lunar seas (also known as plains). In some areas, it is visible in deep craters and most of the surrounding lower-ground areas. In the middle parts, the Earth is never visible, and its eclipses are never seen as the crater and its mountains, including crater ones, block the view. In areas around seven to eight degrees near the far side, a part of the Earth's view is blocked. In some eclipses, this phenomenon begins not long after sunrise in the west and ends not long before sunset in the east. At that location, they are seen at higher altitudes and at most medium altitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "889127",
"title": "Mount Victoria, Wellington",
"section": "Section::::Famous moonrise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The Mount Victoria Lookout is the location where the video Full Moon Silhouettes was shot. It was filmed by photographer Mark Gee at moonrise on 28 January 2013. The real time video footage shows silhouettes of people gathered up on the lookout watching a huge moon rise, and quickly became an internet sensation, gaining international media attention and viewed by millions worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61182504",
"title": "Earth phase",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33hanm
|
difference between a think tank and a lobbyist
|
[
{
"answer": "Lobbyists generally work on the behalf of a specific entity, be it a company or some other interest group. Basically, you tell them what your goals are, and they'll go argue for you for a fee. \n\nThink tanks tend to be more dedicated towards a specific ideology or cause, rather than just lobbying for the desires of whoever pays them. \n\nBut I think it's fair to say that the line between them can be rather blurry at times. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work for a non-profit, non-partisan think tank so I wanted to weigh in here.\n\nThe fundamental difference between a think thank and a lobbying firm is that think tanks research policies (without necessarily endorsing them) and lobbying firms argue for policies.\n\nUnlike lobbyists, who are hired by specific entities (usually large companies) to persuade people (typically politicians) into adopting (or not adopting) certain policies, think thank researchers are not wedded to any specific policy or entity. \n\nIn principle, think tanks conduct independent research on what the policy options are. Again, in principle, they exist to defend the public interest as they see it. Think tanks don't want X policy or Y policy (or right-wing or left-wing), they want the BEST policy.\n\nIn practice, it is a little more muddied than that. Think tanks always get their funding from somewhere/someone. A lot of \"think tanks\" lose their independence (if they had any to begin with) when they start to rely on one or a few large donors. As one example, this article recently condemned a lot of high profile think tanks for taking substantial amounts of foreign money in exchange for tailoring their research agendas to favor the donor nations: _URL_0_\n\nSimilarly, there are many think tanks out there (I won't name them, since I'd rather not have to create a new account) that are merely fronts for industry or political interests, so their \"research\" is highly suspect. \n\nThis problem ultimately manifests in a situation where people are not only entitled to their own opinions, but increasingly to their own \"facts\". \n\nThe way to tell a genuine think tank from a compromised one is to look at their funding sources (any respectable organization will make this information easily available) and make sure that there are a wide variety of sources, ideally some government, some industry (and not all from the same industry), and a lot of funding from respectable charitable foundations like Ford Foundation, Open Society Foundation, Knight Foundation, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A think tank or policy institute is a research institute which performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most policy institutes are non-profit organisations, which some countries such as the United States and Canada provide with tax exempt status. Other think tanks are funded by governments, advocacy groups, or corporations, and derive revenue from consulting or research work related to their projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2286912",
"title": "The Washington Institute for Near East Policy",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The Washington Institute is considered an \"academic think tank\" (akin to the Brookings Institution and Public Policy Institute of California), staffed largely by researchers holding doctorate degrees and generally not having a mission affiliated with a particular ideology, as opposed to an \"advocacy think tank\", which is staffed by individuals with strong ideological leanings. Academic think tanks focus on producing extensive research reports and books, whereas advocacy think tanks focus on marketing their ideas with condensed materials. Think tanks of all types typically also organize conferences, provide briefings to legislative committee staff, and testify as policy experts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Think tanks vary by ideological perspectives, sources of funding, topical emphasis and prospective consumers. Some think tanks, such as The Heritage Foundation, which promotes conservative principles, and the Center for American Progress are more partisan in purpose. Others, including the Tellus Institute, which emphasizes social and environmental topics, are more issue-oriented groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "Section::::Global think tanks.:North American think tanks.:Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 355,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 355,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Government think tanks are also important in the United States, particularly in the security and defense field. These include the Center for Technology and National Security Policy at the National Defense University, the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College, and the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3605920",
"title": "Political agenda",
"section": "Section::::What Players Affect the Political Agenda.:Think tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Think tanks are in need of financial backing. Most times wealthy and established investors who wish to advance a certain idea or cause onto the political agenda establish them. These issues or causes may include: economics, taxes, foreign policy, global development, education, children and families, or healthcare. Examples of think tanks that promote a certain political perspective onto the political agenda are the Heritage Foundation and American Enterprise Institute which are highly conservative. On the other side, the Center for American Progress, are more liberal with their motives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4347957",
"title": "Civitas (think tank)",
"section": "Section::::Policy interests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The think tank describes itself as \"classical liberal\" and \"non-partisan\". However \"The Times\" and \"The Daily Telegraph\" have described it as a \"right-of-centre think-tank\". Its director David G. Green writes occasionally in \"The Daily Telegraph\" and its deputy director Anastasia de Waal frequently contributes to \"The Guardian's\" \"Comment is free\" section. Its areas of policy interest include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16177720",
"title": "Centre for European Policy Studies",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The think tank receives its funding from EU institutions, national governments, charitable foundations, private organisations, publication sales, events and membership fees. CEPS employs a mixture of permanent staff, research fellows based at other institutions such as universities, and stagiaires. The Centre's director is Daniel Gros, a German economist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tlebc
|
why doesn't the government build hospital's with the medicare budget instead of acting as insurance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the issue being addressed isn't \"there are not enough hospitals\".\n\nThere are *plenty* of hospitals in the US. The issue is that not everyone can afford medical care. Medicare/Medicaid are intended to help remedy that issue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are plenty of hospitals, and in most areas there is no reason to build new ones. The problem is paying for medical care. The doctors and nurses will still need to be paid, the equipment still needs to be maintained, the janitors and technicians still need to be paid, the supplies still need to be bought.\n\nWith all those expenses, you are back to people needing Medicare to pay for their medical bills.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "589422",
"title": "Thanatology",
"section": "Section::::Coping with death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "However, various private insurance plans such as Medicare, Medicaid, and HMO will take care of the costs of hospice care, helping it be less detrimental on the family. This helps avoid more trauma to the family by reducing the enormous medical bill necessary to support their loved ones who are fighting the illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58353",
"title": "Medicare (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with private insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Medicare also has an important role driving changes in the entire health care system. Because Medicare pays for a huge share of health care in every region of the country, it has a great deal of power to set delivery and payment policies. For example, Medicare promoted the adaptation of prospective payments based on DRG's, which prevents unscrupulous providers from setting their own exorbitant prices. Meanwhile, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act has given Medicare the mandate to promote cost-containment throughout the health care system, for example, by promoting the creation of accountable care organizations or by replacing fee-for-service payments with bundled payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58353",
"title": "Medicare (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with private insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "Because the federal government is legally obligated to provide Medicare benefits to older and disabled Americans, it cannot cut costs by restricting eligibility or benefits, except by going through a difficult legislative process, or by revising its interpretation of medical necessity. By statute, Medicare may only pay for items and services that are \"reasonable and necessary for the diagnosis or treatment of illness or injury or to improve the functioning of a malformed body member\", unless there is another statutory authorization for payment. Cutting costs by cutting benefits is difficult, but the program can also achieve substantial economies of scale in terms of the prices it pays for health care and administrative expenses—and, as a result, private insurers' costs have grown almost 60% more than Medicare's since 1970. Medicare's cost growth is now the same as GDP growth and expected to stay well below private insurance's for the next decade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58353",
"title": "Medicare (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with private insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Medicare differs from private insurance available to working Americans in that it is a social insurance program. Social insurance programs provide statutorily guaranteed benefits to the entire population (under certain circumstances, such as old age or unemployment). These benefits are financed in significant part through universal taxes. In effect, Medicare is a mechanism by which the state takes a portion of its citizens' resources to provide health and financial security to its citizens in old age or in case of disability, helping them cope with the enormous, unpredictable cost of health care. In its universality, Medicare differs substantially from private insurers, which must decide whom to cover and what benefits to offer to manage their risk pools and ensure that their costs don't exceed premiums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811714",
"title": "Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States",
"section": "Section::::Government involvement.:Health insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In the US, direct government funding of health care is limited to Medicare, Medicaid, and the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), which cover eligible senior citizens, the very poor, disabled persons, and children. The federal government also runs the Veterans Administration, which provides care directly to retired or disabled veterans, their families, and survivors through medical centers and clinics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58353",
"title": "Medicare (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Legislation and reform.:Proposals for reforming Medicare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "Since the mid-1990s, there have been a number of proposals to change Medicare from a publicly run social insurance program with a defined benefit, for which there is no limit to the government's expenses, into a publicly run health plan program that offers \"premium support\" for enrollees. The basic concept behind the proposals is that the government would make a defined contribution, that is a premium support, to the health plan of a Medicare enrollee's choice. Sponsors would compete to provide Medicare benefits and this competition would set the level of fixed contribution. Additionally, enrollees would be able to purchase greater coverage by paying more in addition to the fixed government contribution. Conversely, enrollees could choose lower cost coverage and keep the difference between their coverage costs and the fixed government contribution. The goal of premium Medicare plans is for greater cost-effectiveness; if such a proposal worked as planned, the financial incentive would be greatest for Medicare plans that offer the best care at the lowest cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48453166",
"title": "Safety net hospital",
"section": "Section::::Financing a safety net hospital.:Prospects for safety net hospitals under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1528,
"text": "Under statute, Medicaid and Medicare issue disproportionate share hospital (DSH) payments that offset hospitals’ expenditures for uncompensated care. These payments are intended to improve access for Medicaid recipients and uninsured patients, as well as to shore up the financial stability of safety-net hospitals. Prior to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA, also known as \"Obamacare\"), the Medicare portion of the program has already been limited, and under the ACA the Medicaid portion of the program is also scheduled to be restricted. This was built into the law under the assumption that the amount of uncompensated care would decline substantially under the ACA due to expanded coverage. However, coverage did not expand as much as anticipated in many states due to the unanticipated choice not to expand Medicaid access under the Act (a result of \"National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius\"). An additional issue with Obamacare and safety net hospitals arises from the coverage gap for those who have too high of an income to qualify for Medicaid but have too low of an income to afford a private plan; it is projected that even with the implementation of the health care law in 2016, roughly 30 million people are still expected to be without insurance coverage and find service in safety net hospitals. Another issue revolves around the fact that hospitals are required to provide care for patients in the emergency department, even if the person cannot pay or is an illegal immigrant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4uot0t
|
why do carbonated drinks hurt us when we drink too fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bubbles are composed of carbon dioxide, which can taste \"spicy\"...here's an article with more information _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Carbonated drinks contain dissolved carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide naturally reacts with water (in the drink) to produce carbonic acid (a weak acid). Weak acids such as citric acid (lemon juice) or acetic acid (vinegar) have a sour taste, so carbonating drinks changes their taste along with giving them an interesting texture. \n\nIf you guzzle down a soda the carbon dioxide bubbles collect in your stomach and eventually you burp up almost pure carbon dioxide. If you happen to exhale the burp through your nose then the carbon dioxide can react with the water on the surface of your nasal passage to form carbonic acid. Your nose is sensitive to things like acids to protect you from breathing in nasty things, so having an acid suddenly form on the inside of your nose sets off pain receptors and gives you an eye watering sensation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Mixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11166888",
"title": "Jägerbomb",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "A Brazilian study conducted in 2006 found that combining an energy drink and alcohol \"appears to show us that the use of energy drinks might predispose people to abuse alcohol when its depressant effects—or at least the perception of such effects—are masked by them\". Professor Roseli Boergnen de Lacerda, who conducted the study, also warned of another possible effect: \"a higher risk of car accidents because [people who drank energy drinks with alcohol] felt less intoxicated than they were\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9041803",
"title": "Rev (drink)",
"section": "Section::::Rev-Bomb.:Effects on the drinker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "A Brazilian study conducted in 2006 found that combining energy drinks and alcohol \"appears to show us that the use of energy drinks might predispose people to abuse alcohol when its depressant effects — or at least the perception of such effects — are masked by them.\" Professor Roseli Boergnen de Lacerda, who conducted the study, also warned of another possible effect: \"a higher risk of car accidents because they [people who drank energy drinks with alcohol] felt less intoxicated than they were.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19592348",
"title": "Binge drinking",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Binge drinking has the propensity to result in brain damage faster as well as more severely than chronic drinking (alcoholism), due to the neurotoxic effects of the repeated rebound withdrawal effects. During the repeated alcohol free stages associated with binge drinking, a larger amount of glutamate is released than occurs during withdrawal from chronic alcohol abuse; additionally this extreme release of glutamate happens on a repeated basis in binge drinkers leading to excitotoxicity. The tolerance that occurs during chronic ('non-stop') drinking delays alcohol-related brain damage compared to binge drinking, which induced immediate and repeated insults to the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948043",
"title": "Alcoholic drink",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Short-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22138684",
"title": "Alcohol and sex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Alcohol is a depressant. After consumption, alcohol causes the body’s systems to slow down. Often, feelings of drunkenness are associated with elation and happiness but other feelings of anger or depression can arise. Balance, judgment, and coordination are also negatively affected. One of the most significant short term side effects of alcohol is reduced inhibition. Reduced inhibitions can lead to an increase in sexual behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31196751",
"title": "Epidemiology of binge drinking",
"section": "Section::::The Americas.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "A main concern of binge drinking on college campuses is how the negative consequences of binge drinking affect the students. A study done by the Harvard School of Public Health reported that students who engage in binge drinking experience numerous problems such as: missing class, engaging in unplanned or unsafe sexual activity, being victims of sexual assault, unintentional injuries, and physical ailments. In 2008 the U.S Surgeon General estimated that around 5,000 Americans aged under 21 die each year from alcohol-related injuries involving underage drinking. Rates of binge drinking in women have been increased; high risk drinking puts these women at increased risk of the negative long-term effects of alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7h2bdl
|
Why did people pay money to buy officers commissions in the army?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just to clarify, are you asking why an army would allow people purchase commissions, or why someone would bother paying money for an officer's commission?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While previous questions don't address the precise points you are asking here is a previous archived question with answers including a link to a detailed study of the benefits both to the individual Officer and to the Crown of the British system\n\n_URL_1_\n\nand another, similar question, here\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "459631",
"title": "Purchase of commissions in the British Army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The purchase of officer commissions in the British Army was the practice of paying money to be made an officer in the cavalry and infantry regiments of the English and later British Army. By payment, a commission as an officer could be secured, avoiding the need to wait to be promoted for merit or seniority. This practice was the usual way to obtain a commission in the Army between the 17th and 19th centuries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21866354",
"title": "British Army during the Victorian Era",
"section": "Section::::The Cardwell and Childers Reforms (1868-1881).:Cardwell Reforms.:Terms of service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A major step was the abolition of the system of purchase of commissions, which was replaced by a system of advancement by seniority and merit. This was expensive (as most serving officers had to be compensated for their outlay for their existing commissions, and in effect the War Office had to buy back the army from its officers), but it made possible further internal reforms by unblocking the avenues of promotion to deserving officers, regardless of their personal means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771",
"title": "American Revolutionary War",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of combatants.:Great Britain.:Armed forces.:Leadership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high-ranking commissions by wealthier officers as \"plums for [their] consumption\". Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2812197",
"title": "Andrew Goodpaster",
"section": "Section::::Dates of rank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Note - During and after World War II officers with temporary commissions were commissioned in the Army of the United States (AUS) whereas permanent commissions were in the United States Army (i.e. the Regular Army).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23938306",
"title": "Military of the Ming dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Social Relationships between Colleagues and Kin.:Colleagues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Among soldiers, there were soldiers within the same rank that had more authority than others. Soldiers who had more wealth were able to bribe their superiors with money and other gifts increased their standing and status within the army. Hired soldiers were fairly unified within the army as they would rebel and riot together when they disagreed with how they were treated in the army or when then salaries were not paid on time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1008992",
"title": "Military Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Size of armies.:Administrative sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Thirdly, \"pay rolls\" provide another set of information. They are especially useful to study army costs, but they are not so reliable as muster calls as they only show payments, not real soldiers ready for duty, and before the 19th century \"ghost soldiers\", men falsely enlisted by officers in order to get the fees for themselves, were a very common occurrence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459631",
"title": "Purchase of commissions in the British Army",
"section": "Section::::Great Britain and Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Not all first commissions or promotions were paid for. If an officer was killed in action or was appointed to the Staff (usually through being promoted to Major General), this created a series of \"non-purchase vacancies\" within his regiment. These could also arise when new regiments or battalions were created, or when the establishments of existing units were expanded. However, all vacancies arising from officers dying of disease, retiring (whether on full or half pay) or resigning their commissions were \"purchase vacancies\". A period, usually of several years, had to elapse before an officer who succeeded to a non-purchase vacancy could sell his commission. For instance, if a Captain were promoted to Major to fill a non-purchase vacancy but decided to leave the Army immediately afterwards, he would receive only the value of his Captain's commission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cvkh5w
|
how have actions such as the head nod and head shake become universally understood in contrast to languages.
|
[
{
"answer": "They haven't really. Lots of places won't know what you mean if you shake your head. In India they do a side to side wobble instead of nodding. Stuff like hand signals can mean completely different things in different places, like the OK sign is seriously rude in Thailand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're not actually universal. I've heard that countries like Bulgaria and Macedonia use the opposite signals. Same with giving people a thumbs up. It's an insult in Italy and Iran(?).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A thumbs up or or offering a left hand to shake is serioualy offensive in parts of the middle east (the thunbs up amounts to \"up yours\" and the left hand is considered unclean).\n\nIn places nodding up and down is a sign of confusion.\n\nIn others not meeting your eyes or looking you in the face is a sigb of respect, whereas in the US, etc it's viewed as a bad sign.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In disney Parks, mascot characters will point directionally with both their index and middle fingers together as pointing with just your index is considered rude in some cultures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32988783",
"title": "Head shake",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "An early survey of head shake and other gestures was \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\", written by Charles Darwin in 1872. Darwin wrote to missionaries in many parts of the world asking for information on local gestures, and concluded that shaking head for \"no\" was common to many different groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1833547",
"title": "Nod (gesture)",
"section": "Section::::To indicate refusal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "There are several exceptions, with some cultures swapping the meanings between nodding and head shaking: in Greece, Iran, Turkey, Bulgaria, Albania, and Sicily a single nod of the head up (not down) indicates a \"no\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32988783",
"title": "Head shake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "A head shake is a gesture in which the head is turned left and right along the transverse plane repeatedly in quick succession. In many cultures, it is most commonly, but not universally, used to indicate disagreement, denial, or rejection. Head shaking while trying food, in Western cultures, can also communicate one is enjoying the food or a strong approval of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191350",
"title": "Head bobble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The head bobble, or Indian head shake refers to a common gesture found in South Asian cultures, most notably in India. The motion usually consists of a side-to-side tilting of the head in arcs along the coronal plane. A form of nonverbal communication, it may mean \"Yes\", \"Good\", \"maybe\", \"OK\" or \"I understand\", depending on the context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4149",
"title": "Bulgarian language",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.:Other features.:Miscellaneous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "BULLET::::- The commonly cited phenomenon of Bulgarian people shaking their head for \"yes\" and nodding for \"no\" is true but, with the influence of Western culture, ever rarer, and almost non-existent among the younger generation. (the shaking and nodding are \"not\" identical to the Western gestures. The \"nod\" for \"no\" is actually an \"upward\" movement of the head rather than a downward one, while the shaking of the head for \"yes\" is not completely horizontal, but also has a slight \"wavy\" aspect to it.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191350",
"title": "Head bobble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In India, this particular head shake can also be acknowledgment or encouragement. In the Western world, people often use a nod for the same purpose. It is used to convey a variety of gestures, although 'affirmative' and 'negative' are the most common ones. The meaning of the Indian head bobble depends on the context of the conversation or encounter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32988783",
"title": "Head shake",
"section": "Section::::To indicate rejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Different cultures assign different meanings to the gesture. Shaking to indicate \"no\" is widespread, and appears in a large number of diverse cultural and linguistic groups. Areas in which head shaking generally takes this meaning include the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia, Europe (Greece included), South America, North America and Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fqeoi
|
What was the vikings' knowledge of contemporary mathematics? (What kind of number system did they use, etc?)
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak to much of this, but I doubt they had a concept of zero. If we're talking about the Viking Age here, that's centuries before Fibonacci and the introduction of Hindu mathematics. Vikings *were* sea traders, but sea traders in Europe were fairly mathematically illiterate before Fibonacci and *Di Minor Guisa*, his simplified educational text intended for merchants and such.\n\nThere were some English monks who wrote some texts, mostly of word problems not too far off from the Hindu-Arabic sort, but that's about as close as you could get, I think.\n\nI can dig up my old History of Math book, if you'd like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Looking at some cutouts and designs of ships, I see that they implemented alot of mathematical concepts in their engineering. They use [catenerial](_URL_1_) concavities for their [longship hulls](_URL_0_) and employed rudimentary geometry in their rigging, as seen by the symmetries in the forward and aft lines. They had at least some idea of hydrodynamics, as evidenced by their production and usage of a hydrofoil on the Godstak ship, this used to offset the drag created by the steerboard. Of course all of this is inductive thinking and as such it should be taken with a grain of salt. It is very possible that those members of the Viking Age arrived at these constructs through a process of trial and error, rather than a solid implementation of scientific pursuit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a bit of a problematic question, because these theoretical issues are not typically captured in writing of the time period (which is more concerned with narratives and events). We only have the material evidence to go on (the archaeology), and for that it is hard to determine, as noted, what is derived from 'trial and error' (or what I would call craftsman's experience), and what from deliberate theoretical planning. As Norse shipbuilding is very traditional (designs hardly change over centuries, there is very little experimenting), I suspect tradition is the primary source of technologically advanced designs, rather than deep theoretical insight. And yes, this includes the incorporation of things like geometry and hydrofoils.\n\nThis changes at the rule of Harald Bluetooth, Denmark in the 970s. Particularly the Trelleborg fortresses seem to have been built according to a fixed plan, rather than the ad-hoc forts that are common before that time. It even incorporates a standard length measure (120 meters and variations of it), which also recurs in both aristocratic land measures and, particularly, the monument at Jelling. Numbers (particularly fractures, such as fifths) here play a very important role in the setup of the complex, but the whole 'breaking of tradition' aspect of Harald's monumentality to me is even more evidence that such systematic application of number systems was not in place before that time.\n\nThere are some standard weights found at the marketplace at Hedeby, though, but these point to little more than 'counting', and are not evidence of a mathematical system.\n\nFinally, I could refer you to [this website](_URL_0_); the Viking Answer Lady here provides an excellent overview of numbers on runestones and inscriptions (I am not aware of any such overview from scientific literature).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1091379",
"title": "Viking Age arms and armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Knowledge about military technology of the Viking Age (end of 8th- to mid-11th-century Europe) is based on relatively sparse archaeological finds, pictorial representation, and to some extent on the accounts in the Norse sagas and laws recorded in the 14th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51670361",
"title": "Childhood in the Viking Age",
"section": "Section::::Fun and Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Viking Age Scandinavians had a variety of games to pass the time and children likely participated in a variety of activities, such as boating, swimming, racing, wrestling, and board games. Popular board games include chess and hneftafl, which was played with 24 pieces- 16 of one color, 8 of another- and a \"king piece,\" which was often ornately carved. They also could spectate on more adult activities, like horsefighting, as well as listen to stories and poems, such as the epic poems characteristic of Viking literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276308",
"title": "Old Norse orthography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "An understanding of the writing system of Old Norse is crucial for fully understanding the Old Norse language. Studies of remaining rune stones from the Viking Age reveal many nuances about the spoken language, such as the constant use of alliteration. A comparison of various whetstones from this time period with the works of Snorri Sturluson reveal that alliteration was common in many Old Norse writings, and were not only present in skaldic works. This would then suggest that the Vikings closely tied their language to their auditory sense, which in turn would have helped with the continual transfer of their cultural memory, which was also closely tied to their language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Linguistic and etymological studies continue to provide a vital source of information on the Viking culture, their social structure and history and how they interacted with the people and cultures they met, traded, attacked or lived with in overseas settlements. A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. Old Norse did not exert any great influence on the Slavic languages in the Viking settlements of Eastern Europe. It has been speculated that the reason was the great differences between the two languages, combined with the Rus' Vikings more peaceful businesses in these areas and the fact that they were outnumbered. The Norse named some of the rapids on the Dnieper, but this can hardly be seen from the modern names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34227340",
"title": "The Viking Way (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The Viking Way: Religion and War in Late Iron Age Scandinavia is an archaeological study of Norse paganism in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. It was written by the English archaeologist Neil Price, then a professor at the University of Aberdeen, and first published by the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History at Uppsala University in 2002. A revised second edition is due to be published in 2017 by Oxbow Books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "Later writings on the Vikings and the Viking Age can also be important for understanding them and their culture, although they need to be treated cautiously. After the consolidation of the church and the assimilation of Scandinavia and its colonies into the mainstream of medieval Christian culture in the 11th and 12th centuries, native written sources begin to appear, in Latin and Old Norse. In the Viking colony of Iceland, an extraordinary vernacular literature blossomed in the 12th through 14th centuries, and many traditions connected with the Viking Age were written down for the first time in the Icelandic sagas. A literal interpretation of these medieval prose narratives about the Vikings and the Scandinavian past is doubtful, but many specific elements remain worthy of consideration, such as the great quantity of skaldic poetry attributed to court poets of the 10th and 11th centuries, the exposed family trees, the self images, the ethical values, all included in these literary writings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10309501",
"title": "Icelandic orthography",
"section": "Section::::Alphabet.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from a standard established in the 19th century, by the Danish linguist Rasmus Rask primarily. It is ultimately based heavily on an orthographic standard created in the early 12th century by a document referred to as \"The First Grammatical Treatise\", author unknown. The standard was intended for the common North Germanic language, Old Norse. It did not have much influence, however, at the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5e8wyi
|
why do human babies take years to raise while other animals like puppies or antelopes take only a few months?
|
[
{
"answer": "Partially because of life-expectancy - a human lives 75 years, whereas a dogs life-expectancy is more like 10 years.\n\nAlso, humans traded instinct for a more advanced brain. Animals instinctually know how to do a lot more than we do, but our learning curve beats everything else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381923",
"title": "Talapoin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Their 160-day gestation period (typically from November to March) results in the birth of a single young. Offspring are considerably large and well developed (newborns weigh over 200 g and are about a quarter of the weight of the mother) and develop rapidly. Within six weeks, they eat solid food, and at three months of age, they are independent. The highest recorded age of an animal in captivity was 28 years, while the life expectancy in the wild is not well known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19773811",
"title": "Hominidae",
"section": "Section::::Physical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62696",
"title": "Guinea pig",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Males reach sexual maturity in 3–5 weeks, while females can be fertile as early as 4 weeks old, and can carry litters before they are adults. The female guinea pig is able to breed year-round, with spring being the peak. A sow can have as many as five litters in a year, but six is theoretically possible. Unlike the offspring of most rodents, which are altricial at birth, newborn cavy pups are precocial, and are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight. The pups are immediately mobile and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle. Females can once again become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it is not healthy for a female to be constantly pregnant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2225300",
"title": "Edible dormouse",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Gestation lasts from 20–31 days, and results in the birth of up to 11 young, although four or five are more typical. They develop their fur by 16 days, and open their eyes after around 3 weeks. They begin to leave the nest after around 30 days, and are sexually mature by the time they complete their second hibernation. Compared with similarly sized mammals, they have an unusually long lifespan, and have been reported to live up to 12 years in the wild.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3276759",
"title": "Greater grison",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Litters of up to four young are born from March to September, after a gestation period of 39 days. Newborn young weigh less than , and are initially blind, although with a short coat of hair already bearing the adult pattern. Their eyes open after two weeks, and they begin to eat solid food at three weeks, reaching the adult size in just four months. They have lived for at least ten years in captivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416251",
"title": "African elephant",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and ecology.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Elephants are at their most fertile between the ages of 25 and 45. Calves are born after a gestation period of up to nearly two years. The calves are cared for by their mother and other young females in the group, known as allomothering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20597989",
"title": "African bush elephant",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and ecology.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Gestation lasts 22 months. Interval between births was estimated at 3.9 to 4.7 years in Wankie National Park. Where hunting pressure on adult elephants was high in the 1970s, cows gave birth once in 2.9 to 3.8 years. Cows in Amboseli National Park gave birth once in five years on average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bpc1h1
|
home buying terms
|
[
{
"answer": " > What are points and origination fees?\n\nThe origination fee is like an upfront payment to the lender for creating the loan. It is usually a percentage (0.5%, 1%) of the loan amount. _URL_1_\n\n > Is earnest money basically just a deposit? Does it get factored into the sale at all?\n\nThis is also called \"good faith\" money. It is like a deposit - it shows that you and the seller have taken the first step to put the house under contract, that you intend to buy the house (pending any serious findings from an inspection), etc. If you go through with the sale, then that money will go towards the final cost of the house, like part of an early deposit. If you as a buyer do not go through with the purchase because the inspection found a ton of mold or meth damage that wasn't previously disclosed (or other previously non-disclosed issues) then you should be entitled to the money back. If you do not go through with the purchase because you got cold feet/changed your mind, then you would not get the money back. If the seller changes his/her mind then you would get the money back.\n\n > What is a short sell and why do lenders ask if a house is a short sell?\n\nA short *sale* usually happens when the seller is having financial problems and the house is about to be foreclosed. They are trying to sell the house for less money than what their current loan amount for it is (for instance, they might owe $200,000 still but are trying to sell it for $160,000). Or it could be when the property of the value has fallen lower than what the owner owes and the loan holder might recover *some* money from the sale of the house in its current state. \n\nIt just requires more paperwork and more agreements on everyone's part to get a short sale through, since the bank that owns the title on the house has to agree to sell it at a loss basically. \n\nI would also caution you about short sales and just advise you to assume the worst possible scenario, which is that the person couldn't make financial payments, which means they probably couldn't pay to keep the house up so there might be some serious problems that you'll want to check for during an inspection (and some problems might even be self-evident when you do the initial walkthrough).\n\n > Is the interest rate different than the APR? If so, how are they different? If not, why are both terms used interchangeably?\n\nAPR = annual percentage rate, it is the more technical term for \"interest rate\". They're used interchangeably because they're equally common terms for the same thing. Sort of like how someone might say \"soda\" and someone might say \"pop\", or \"gas\" and \"fuel\". \n\n > What is mortgage insurance and what is covered by it?\n\nAlso called \"Private Mortgage Insurance\" or \"PMI\". It's generally activated when a buyer does not put down at least 20% deposit off the purchase cost. It's basically a way to protect the lender and help ensure the lender's investment in you is covered in case you stop paying the mortgage / fall behind on your payments. Some loans require it by default, others don't. You can read more about it here: _URL_0_\n\n > What happens in the time between going under contract and when you close?\n\nIf the loan isn't secured yet (ie, you were pre-approved so you could make the offer but the loan wasn't fully processed), they would fully process it. You would have licensed home inspectors come and check everything for issues (make sure the outlets work, make sure the appliances work, make sure the air conditioning and heat work, check for structural damage, make sure there aren't any gas leaks or unmitigated radon risks, stuff like that); once these inspections are done you get a report of the issues, and you can even go negotiate with the seller to get some of them fixed as part of a bargaining tool. You'll get homeowner's insurance set up. You can pay to get the title of the property inspected and secured so you don't have someone trying to make a claim against you ten years down the road that the property is part of their great-great-great-grandfather's inheritance that they just received. Stuff like that. \n\n**Since it's your first time buying a house, do research online about what benefits your state might offer you**. In some states there are first time home buyer benefits you can get access to that can help alleviate a little bit of the cost or grant you access to certain loans with better benefits.\n\nedit: If you live in Maryland I know a great guy > _ > I don't want to advertise here, PM me but this agent hooked me up with one of the hardest working lenders and insurance agents I'll probably ever meet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23140972",
"title": "Intermediate rent",
"section": "Section::::Rent to HomeBuy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Another form of Intermediate Rent is known as \"Rent to HomeBuy\". This is where an applicant will be able to live in a property at a discounted rent for a period of three to five years at a subsidised rent, whilst keeping an option to purchase a percentage of the property at any point during the tenancy (typically 25%). This allows the household to live in the property of their choice, whilst using the money they save through the rent subsidy to save for a deposit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3743931",
"title": "Rent-to-own",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Rent-to-own, also known as rental-purchase, is a type of legally documented transaction under which tangible property, such as furniture, consumer electronics, motor vehicles, home appliances, real property, and engagement rings, is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment, with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373963",
"title": "Owner-occupancy",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Houses and the land they sit on are expensive, and the combination of monthly mortgage, insurance, maintenance and repairs, and property tax payments are sometimes greater than monthly rental costs. Buildings may also gain and lose substantial value due to real estate market fluctuations, and selling a property can take a long time, depending on market conditions. This can make home ownership more constraining if the homeowner intends to move at a future date. Some home owners see their purchase as an investment and intend to either sell or rent the property after renovating or letting the house appreciate in value (known as flipping if done quickly).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54070911",
"title": "Home Ownership Investment",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "In a typical home ownership investment, a homeowner will receive 10% of the purchase value of the home in cash from an investor. In exchange, when the contract terminates, the investor will receive some percentage share in the increase or decrease of the value of the home, often between 35-50%, in addition to the initial investment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54070911",
"title": "Home Ownership Investment",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "A home ownership investment can be originated at the time of purchase or on a currently owned home. If the investment in originated at the time of purchase, the purchase price is taken as a reference price for future return calculations. If the home is currently owned, an appraisal may be necessary to determine the original agreed upon price of the asset at origination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423958",
"title": "Pre-approval",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "The \"second\" meaning relates to mortgage lending. People interested in buying a house can often approach a lender, who will check their credit history and verify their income, and then can provide assurances they would be able to get a loan up to a certain amount. This pre-approval can then help a buyer find a home that is within their loan amount range. Buyers can ask for a letter of pre-approval from the lender, and when shopping for a home can have possibly an advantage over others because they can show the seller that they are more likely to be able to buy the house. Often real estate agents prefer to work with a buyer who has a pre-approval as it demonstrates that they are well-qualified to receive financing and are serious about buying a home. A pre-approval is based on the documentation the borrower supplies at the time of application, and any actual eligibility to receive the pre-approved loan depends on the terms and conditions of the pre-approval and ability to secure the loan before the pre-approval expires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5112281",
"title": "Real estate in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::\"Jeonse\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "This unique way of renting a house is called \"jeonse\"; a renter makes a lump-sum deposit on a rental space instead of paying monthly rent, at anywhere from 50 to 100% of the market value, and gets back the whole deposit when the rent contract ends. The home-owner is free to invest the deposit as wanted, as long as the same amount of money is returned to the tenant at the end of the contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ee6chc
|
What causes flesh to rot?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cells die and dry out, releasing gases that attract insects and bacteria as well as other scavengers to break down the flesh. This is a very basic explanation and I’m sure someone else can do a better job of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Microbes.\n\nWithout them you'd just dry out into leather.\n\nThis is why preservation works.\n\nBasically things will eat you unless you can defend and rebuild yourself.\n\nThe causes could also be internal. Like perforated bowel or infection.\n\nThen you got tooth rot, primarily that's the bacteria strep. mutans. The same one that causes strep throat.\n\nWithout microbes nothing would rot and decay as we know it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45255953",
"title": "Morphological symptoms of plant diseases",
"section": "Section::::Necroses.:Necrosis in storage organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Soft rots are those where the pathogen breaks down the host cell walls, resulting in the exudation of juices from the infected tissue. The organ becomes mushy or pulpy and a foul smell often develops due to colonization by secondary invaders. Many fungi and bacteria cause soft rots on several fruits and vegetables. Species of the fungus, \"Rhizopus\" and bacterium \"Erwinia\" are two such commonly found pathogens causing soft rots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45255953",
"title": "Morphological symptoms of plant diseases",
"section": "Section::::Necroses.:Necrosis in storage organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "In a dry rot, the storage organ becomes hard and dry, and in some diseases, there is rapid loss of water and the infected organs become shriveled, wrinkled, and leathery. Dry rots showing such symptoms are referred to as mummifications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48090546",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of leather objects",
"section": "Section::::Causes of deterioration to leather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Red rot is the degradation of leather when it reacts with sulfur dioxide or other air pollutants. Objects affected by red rot go through several stages. In the early stages of red rot, leather will exhibit a pinkish color that becomes progressively darker as the decay progresses. The degradation and disintegration of red rot cannot be reversed. In order to preserve the object in this altered state the two most significant steps for preservation are to store the object in a controlled air environment and to place where minimal handling will occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17843917",
"title": "Turtle shell",
"section": "Section::::Diseases.:Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD)/ Shell rot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Originally described by Kaplan (1957) is often known by its acronym SCUD. Ulcers of the shell may be superficial or deep, and may also be termed \"shell rot\".This disease is known to be caused by a variety of bacteria or fungae entering through some sort of abrasion, combined with poor animal husbandry. The disease is identified by its progression and what starts as ulcerative lesions of the plastron leads to a septacemic infection causing the degradation of the liver and other organs. Without treatment, this will lead to death. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17542723",
"title": "Cutaneous asthenia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Cutaneous asthenia is a skin disorder caused by a collagen defect. Collagen is the protein that binds the cells of the dermis together. It is also called dermatoproxy, hereditary skin fragility or \"cutis elastica\" (\"elastic skin\") and is found in humans, cats, dogs, mink, horses, cattle and sheep. In cattle and sheep, it is called dermatosparaxis ('torn skin'). The skin is also abnormally fragile. The skin flaps peel or slough off very easily, often without causing bleeding. This explains why cats with the condition suddenly \"molt\" their wings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18062",
"title": "Leather",
"section": "Section::::Preservation and conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The natural fibers of leather break down with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to red rot, which causes powdering of the surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities. Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1472548",
"title": "Horse colic",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Inflammation or ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Ulceration of the mucosal surface occurs very commonly in the stomach (gastric ulceration), due to damage from stomach acid or alteration in protective mechanisms of the stomach, and is usually not life-threatening. The right dorsal colon may also develop ulceration, usually secondary to excessive NSAID use, which alters the homeostatic balance of prostaglandins that protect the mucosa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qza1a
|
Celtic Warfare
|
[
{
"answer": "Does your assignment require you to use primary written sources? \n\nOur knowledge of the Celts comes mainly from Greek and Roman writers, from myth and legends ostensibly based on oral traditions and from archaeological evidence. \n\nIf you are permitted to rely heavily on using secondary and tertiary written sources and archaeology you should be okay, but if your assignment marking scheme is focused on your use of primary sources I would not tackle this at this juncture. It feels to me like a post-grad topic rather than an undergrad topic. \n\nHaving said that - if you have the freedom to tackle things from an indirect angle you can sink your teeth in to understanding how historians have interpreted the opaque Celtic world through indirect evidence. I would start by asking for pointers on evidence of battle scenes and warfare over at r/archaeology. A big picture approach runs the risk of getting you bogged down so I'd try to either narrow down to a particular region and period or to look at the development and spread of a particular weapon or tactic. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with writing about Gallic or Brythonic warfare is that unless you base it solely on archaeology, you're going to have to use Roman/Greek sources, and if you don't, your secondary sources are going to be based off of them anyway. Celtic speakers never wrote much about themselves until the early medieval era so your literary sources will be almost non-existent. I don't think there's much harm in using sources like Polybius and Caesar and then extrapolating their descriptions of Gallic or Brythonic warfare to how these people fought amongst themselves.\n\nThis excerpt from Polybius' [*Histories*](_URL_1_) is a wonderful description of a battle between Gauls and Romans, especially its capture of Gallic pre-battle intimidation tactics. Blowing loads of horns and shouting war-cries before a charge seems to have been a fixture of Celtic warfare and was continued up until the end of the medieval era in Ireland. \n\nCaesar's *Commentaries* are another great source because it's actually a first hand account of his wars in Gaul and Britain. It deals with more strategic issues but also has good narrative descriptions of things like Gallic fortifications and the use of chariots in Britain.\n\nYou'll want to look into the Halstatt and later La Tene military aristocracies who were at the core of Gallic society to fully understand Gallic, Brytonic or Goedelic warfare. Your sources for this will mostly be archaeological, and [*Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State*](_URL_0_) has a pretty good rundown on the origins of the warrior aristocracy and its motivations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8824675",
"title": "Celtic warfare",
"section": "Section::::Gallic Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The best known Roman source for descriptions of Celtic warfare is Julius Caesar in his \"Commentaries on the Gallic Wars\" (Commentarii de Bello Gallico) in which he describes the methods of warfare of both the Gauls and the Britons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8824675",
"title": "Celtic warfare",
"section": "Section::::Tribal warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Celtic tribes fought amongst each other and sometimes they allied themselves with the Romans, the Greeks and other peoples against other Celtic tribes. Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6546",
"title": "Celts",
"section": "Section::::Warfare and weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962433",
"title": "Ancient warfare",
"section": "Section::::By culture.:Iron Age Europe.:Celtic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2332287",
"title": "Grady McWhiney",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "\"Attack and Die\" stressed the ferocity of the Celtic warrior tradition. In \"Continuity in Celtic Warfare.\" (1981) McWhiney argues that an analysis of Celtic warfare from 225 BC to 1865 demonstrates cultural continuity. The Celts repeatedly took high risks that resulted in lost battles and lost wars. Celts were not self-disciplined, patient, or tenacious. They fought boldly but recklessly in the battles of Telamon (225 BC), Culloden (1746) and Gettysburg (1863). According to their thesis, the South lost the Civil War because Southerners fought like their Celtic ancestors, who were intensely loyal to their leaders but lacked efficiency, perseverance, and foresight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15137377",
"title": "List of Alien vs. Predator (franchise) characters",
"section": "Section::::\"Alien vs. Predator\".:Predators.:Celtic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Celtic (Whyte) is a large predator who seems to be the leader of the three, after seeing Chopper killed by Grid, he engages the Xenomorph in battle, displaying decent combat skills and eventually succeeds in defeating Grid, however due to his hubris and overconfidence, he fails to land the killing blow on Grid before the latter frees itself from the net. Grid then pins and kills Celtic by using its inner jaw to pierce his head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8824675",
"title": "Celtic warfare",
"section": "Section::::Tribal warfare.:Continuation in Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "Roman conquest eventually extinguished the independence of all the Celtic peoples except in Ireland and the far North of Britain. After the Roman era, only in the British Isles, therefore, could there be said to still exist a distinctly Celtic style of warfare. Ireland was the last region to adopt the La Tène mode of Celtic technology and with a smaller and less dense population than that of the British or Continental Celts, may have sustained the era of small scale elite combat for longer. Traditional patterns of warfare seem to have continued all the way to the Viking and Norman invasions, conducted by foot soldiers, lacking metal armour including helmets, fighting with spears and javelins, occasionally axes and in the case of higher status warriors, swords, protected by a round or oval shield. The Viking invasions saw the adoption of the bow in addition, but never in great numbers. The Norman invasion in the 12th century and the ineffectiveness of traditional tactics in resisting it led to the Irish moving towards a more typically mediæval style of warfare exemplified by the Gallowglass infantry soldier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12k1it
|
Is is possible to regrow half of your liver?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_1_\n\nShorter answer: yes.\n\n[Oh hey, the wikipedia article 'liver'](_URL_0_) says it grow from as little as 25%, though not in the original shape, but expansion from what's left to the same size and function as the original.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45188143",
"title": "Liver regeneration",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "There are two events in which the liver has the capability to regenerate, one being a partial hepatectomy and the other being damage to the liver by toxins or infection . The processes described below deal with the pathways triggered after a partial hepatectomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "44464978",
"title": "Regeneration in humans",
"section": "Section::::Naturally regenerating appendages and organs.:Liver.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The human liver is particularly known for its ability to regenerate, and is capable of doing so from only one quarter of its tissue, due chiefly to the unipotency of hepatocytes. Resection of liver can induce the proliferation of the remaining hepatocytes until the lost mass is restored, where the intensity of the liver’s response is directly proportional to the mass resected. For almost 80 years surgical resection of the liver in rodents has been a very useful model to the study of cell proliferation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45188143",
"title": "Liver regeneration",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The ability for the liver to regenerate is central to liver homeostasis. Because the liver is the main site of drug detoxification, it is exposed to many chemicals in the body which may potentially induce cell death and injury. The liver can regenerate damaged tissue rapidly thereby preventing its own failure. However, a predictor of the true speed of liver regeneration depends on whether Interleukin 6 has overexpression. Liver regeneration is also critical for patients of liver diseases where the partial removal of the liver due to fibrosis or tumor is a common therapy that utilizes the ability of the remaining liver to generate back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51778319",
"title": "Scar free healing",
"section": "Section::::Continued regeneration in adult humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Through this mechanism the liver can be restored to its original state, scar-free. However, despite nearly 80 years of research on liver regeneration much debate still surrounds the exact mechanisms by which the process occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "517879",
"title": "Liver transplantation",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Living donor transplantation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "In a typical adult recipient LDLT, 55 to 70% of the liver (the right lobe) is removed from a healthy living donor. The donor's liver will regenerate approaching 100% function within 4–6 weeks, and will almost reach full volumetric size with recapitulation of the normal structure soon thereafter. It may be possible to remove up to 70% of the liver from a healthy living donor without harm in most cases. The transplanted portion will reach full function and the appropriate size in the recipient as well, although it will take longer than for the donor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17384301",
"title": "Liver",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Liver regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "The liver is the only human internal organ capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue; as little as 25% of a liver can regenerate into a whole liver. This is, however, not true regeneration but rather compensatory growth in mammals. The lobes that are removed do not regrow and the growth of the liver is a restoration of function, not original form. This contrasts with true regeneration where both original function and form are restored. In some other species, such as fish, the liver undergoes true regeneration by restoring both shape and size of the organ. In the liver, large areas of the tissues are formed but for the formation of new cells there must be sufficient amount of material so the circulation of the blood becomes more active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45188143",
"title": "Liver regeneration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Liver regeneration is the process by which the liver is able to replace lost liver tissue from growth from the remaining tissue. The liver is the only visceral organ that possesses the capacity to regenerate. The liver can regenerate after either surgical removal or after chemical injury. It is known that as little as 25% of the original liver mass can regenerate back to its full size. The process of regeneration in mammals is mainly compensatory growth because only the mass of the liver is replaced, not the shape. However, in lower species such as fish, both liver size and shape can be replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35efvf
|
why do newtonian physics break down at a quantum level?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because, Newtonian Mechanics, Quantum Mechanics and other mechanics are simply a model of reality.\n\nIn each case, the model is the simplest explanation (Occam's razor) which could explain and predict all the phenomena observed. When Newton created the Newtonian Mechanics, the existance of Quantum level mechanics wasn't known, so the model never attempted to predict behaviour there.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's not so much that they break down, rather it's that Newtonian physics is an approximation of how the world works that is not totally correct, but in many cases is accurate enough to be incredibly useful. In such circumstances (like the ordinary motion of a baseball), the inaccuracy is so low as to be practically imperceptible, though it is still there. When things become very small, very large, or very fast, however, the Newtonian model is very inaccurate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people here, I feel, aren't really answering your question as to **why** it breaks down. The easiest way to explain this is with examples. One of the initial ways we discovered quantum mechanics is through exploration of the atom. Initially, we formulated the idea of an atom that was rigid, a building block for molecules, that was built off of newtonian forces. As we discovered more and more about the atom, this explanation became increasingly less consistent with the actual data. For example, we discovered that atoms weren't solid objects, but actually mostly empty space, held together by forces that weren't described in newtonian physics (the strong and weak forces). From there, we discovered principles that led much of the structure of the atom to be based on probability (the probability that an electron was in a certain location) rather than rigid orbits, which would have been more consistent (although still not that consistent) with Newtonian mechanics.\n\nSome other examples include the duality of particles (their ability to be both particles and waves) and quantum tunneling (this duality allows some low-mass particles to pass through solid objects!). The current standard model has all forces mediated by particles, which would have never been even dreamed of by Newton.\n\nRelativity does the same, but breaks down ideas mainly about motion and frame of reference (or in the case of GR, gravity).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Theories break down when the postulates behind them are no longer valid. For example, Newton's laws postulate objects at rest stay at rest unless acted upon. At a quantum level, we know this isn't true, because particles are really just smeared out probability distributions telling us we could find the particle in lots of places. This is telling us that firstly the idea of a solid particle is not really accurate at the quantum level, and the idea of something being stationary isn't really applicable too! Newtonian mechanics doesn't take this into account, so when the affects of it become noticeable, it ruins the results of the theory. If we look at the non-quantum limit of systems with quantum mechanics though, we can see Newton's laws emerge as a kind of average behaviour, which is why they work at big scales.\n\nThe same thing happens when you go from quantum mechanics (which is a low energy theory) to quantum field theory (high energy). Quantum mechanics postulate a conserved number of particles (to keep wavefunctions normalised or something, I can't really remember), but that clearly isn't very physical because we know particles can be created and destroyed in real life. Quantum field theory can accommodate both all of quantum mechanics and the extra stuff that comes from moving close to the speed of light, like particle production and relativistic effects. If we take a low energy limit of QFT, we get quantum mechanics back!\n\nThe standard model itself is what's called an \"Effective Field Theory\", because it's only valid up to a certain scale. On very high energies, we know it isn't right because it doesn't know about quantum gravity, so we know it isn't going to give us the right answers.\n\nTL;DR\nTheories (like Newton's) work because the things they don't know about don't really make a difference compared to the things they do (like quantum mechanics or relativity). When the things they don't know about start to cause a big effect, they still don't know about it so give wrong answers. \n\nIt's like if you try to drive a car without knowing about the steering wheel. It's fine if you're moving on a straight road, because you don't need to know about it. But when you meet a corner, you can't do a good job.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "485405",
"title": "Superseded theories in science",
"section": "Section::::Theories now considered incomplete.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- Newtonian mechanics was extended by the theory of relativity and by quantum mechanics. Relativistic corrections to Newtonian mechanics are immeasurably small at velocities not approaching the speed of light, and quantum corrections are usually negligible at atomic or larger scales; Newtonian mechanics is totally satisfactory in engineering and physics under most circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2690589",
"title": "Philosophical interpretation of classical physics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Classical \"Newtonian\" physics has, formally, been replaced by quantum mechanics on the small scale and relativity on the large scale. Because most humans continue to think in terms of the kind of events we perceive in the human scale of daily life, it became necessary to provide a new philosophical interpretation of classical physics. Classical mechanics worked extremely well within its domain of observation but made inaccurate predictions at very small scale – atomic scale systems – and when objects moved very fast or were very massive. Viewed through the lens of quantum mechanics or relativity, we can now see that classical physics, imported from the world of our everyday experience, includes notions for which there is no actual evidence. For example, one commonly held idea is that there exists one absolute time shared by all observers. Another is the idea that electrons are discrete entities like miniature planets that circle the nucleus in definite orbits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577162",
"title": "Relativistic wave equations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early 1920s: Classical and quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "The failure of classical mechanics applied to molecular, atomic, and nuclear systems and smaller induced the need for a new mechanics: \"quantum mechanics\". The mathematical formulation was led by De Broglie, Bohr, Schrödinger, Pauli, and Heisenberg, and others, around the mid-1920s, and at that time was analogous to that of classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation and the Heisenberg picture resemble the classical equations of motion in the limit of large quantum numbers and as the reduced Planck constant , the quantum of action, tends to zero. This is the correspondence principle. At this point, special relativity was not fully combined with quantum mechanics, so the Schrödinger and Heisenberg formulations, as originally proposed, could not be used in situations where the particles travel near the speed of light, or when the number of each type of particle changes (this happens in real particle interactions; the numerous forms of particle decays, annihilation, matter creation, pair production, and so on).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47922",
"title": "Determinism",
"section": "Section::::Modern scientific perspective.:Quantum and Classical Mechanics.:Quantum realm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Thus, quantum physics casts reasonable doubt on the traditional determinism of classical, Newtonian physics in so far as reality does not seem to be absolutely determined. This was the subject of the famous Bohr–Einstein debates between Einstein and Niels Bohr and there is still no consensus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288549",
"title": "Momentum operator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "At the time quantum mechanics was developed in the 1920s, the momentum operator was found by many theoretical physicists, including Niels Bohr, Arnold Sommerfeld, Erwin Schrödinger, and Eugene Wigner. Its existence and form is sometimes taken as one of the foundational postulates of quantum mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59863",
"title": "Correspondence principle",
"section": "Section::::Quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "Because quantum mechanics only reproduces classical mechanics in a statistical interpretation, and because the statistical interpretation only gives the probabilities of different classical outcomes, Bohr has argued that quantum physics does not reduce to classical mechanics similarly as classical mechanics emerges as an approximation of special relativity at small velocities. He argued that classical physics exists independently of quantum theory and cannot be derived from it. His position is that it is inappropriate to understand the experiences of observers using purely quantum mechanical notions such as wavefunctions because the different states of experience of an observer are defined classically, and do not have a quantum mechanical analog. The relative state interpretation of quantum mechanics is an attempt to understand the experience of observers using only quantum mechanical notions. Niels Bohr was an early opponent of such interpretations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58663847",
"title": "Quantum psychology",
"section": "Section::::Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1580,
"text": "Main critique of Quantum theory and its application in the fields of neuroscience and cognitive and behavioural psychology is generally ascribed to the physiology of the brain's bio-environment and the discrepancy in the speed of the classical versus quantum processes in the brain dynamic. It has been argued by Tegmark that quantum effects cannot survive in the warm, wet and noisy environment such as brain and that the \"collapse of the wave function\" is a much faster process than that of the neuronal synaptic firings. It has been further argued by a number of scientists that the executive functions of the macroscopic brain that rely on the complex neuronal dynamics and parallel processing could only be attributed to a very powerful, but solely classical computation models. This is due to the self-averaging effects of quantum fluctuations in the brain which subsequently cannot be used as a part of its complex dynamics. Finally, the opponents and critics of quantum theory of the brain and consciousness hold a strong preference for inherently dualistic model of ontological dualism. This commonly prevailing theoretical model poses challenges for the scientific community due to the fact that the integration and application of quantum theory, especially across psychological disciplines, would call for the radical departure from ontological dualism. The wide range of sciences such as biology, chemistry, medicine, engineering, computing and economics have already began the integration process. In Neuroscience and psychology, however, the process have been slow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
}
] | null |
2uka8z
|
Could an "electromagnetic black hole" exist?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer is no. There are a couple of features of gravity that make it unique and the only candidate force to produce black hole-like phenomena.\n\n1. Gravity interacts with everything on the same way (it's very democratic). And everything is everything, including itself. This is an important ingredient because as soon as some particle was blind to gravity then it could scape from the black hole as it wouldn't even notice there was one.\n\n2. And it's always attractive. Which is important in order to form a black-hole in the first place.\n\nIn the case of the electromagnetic force same charges repel (positive repels positive and viceversa) and opposites attract. What this means in practice is that it is very hard to create configurations with a large amount of charge as they would start to repel each other and will start attracting more strongly opposite charges that would try to neutralize it. An example of this are the atoms, which have a positively charged nucleus (held together by nuclear forces) and then as many electrons as necessary to make it neutral. In fact, this qualitative property affects every Spin 1 theory which covers electromagnetism, weak and strong nuclear forces.\n\nA theorist might wonder, what could happen if existed some unknown force mediated by a Spin 0 massless particle? Could it create a black hole? Well, this theory has the property that it doesn't repel same charges as electromagnetism. So that's good. But it doesn't attract light! In fact, this theory is some sort of relativity Newtonian gravity. And has been ruled out as incorrect through observation, it also predicts the wrong Mercurian perihelium precession.\n\nSo we have ruled out... Spin 0 (as it doesn't attract light), Spin 1 (as same charges repel and also doesn't attract neutral particles). Next step would be a Spin 2 massless theory but that is essentially General Relativity. And it turns out there can't be interacting theories of massless higher spin fields for some technical reasons regarding conserved charges and symmetries.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23922614",
"title": "Primordial black hole",
"section": "Section::::String theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "General relativity predicts the smallest primordial black holes would have evaporated by now, but if there were a fourth spatial dimension – as predicted by string theory – it would affect how gravity acts on small scales and \"slow down the evaporation quite substantially\". This could mean there are several thousand black holes in our galaxy. To test this theory, scientists will use the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope which was put in orbit by NASA on June 11, 2008. If they observe specific small interference patterns within gamma-ray bursts, it could be the first indirect evidence for primordial black holes and string theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42299382",
"title": "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 unofficial disappearance theories",
"section": "Section::::Physically improbable theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "The theory that MH370 may have been consumed by a black hole received considerable attention when Don Lemon asked, on CNN, whether it was \"preposterous\" that it could have happened. Lemon was criticised for this by Jon Stewart on \"The Daily Show\", and by former U.S. Department of Transportation Inspector General Mary Schiavo, who, while appearing on CNN, said that \"...a small black hole would suck in our entire universe so we know it's not that.\" TheWire.com (which \"wasn't satisfied\" with Schiavo's answer) obtained detailed reasons why a black hole couldn't swallow a plane from Columbia University astronomy professor David J. Helfand and Peter Michelson, a professor of physics at Stanford University. It is possible that Schiavo was expressing herself humorously, and did not expect to be taken literally. Another hypothesis is that a meteor might have struck the plane; however, the statistical probability for this is extremely low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709427",
"title": "Micro black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were created in the high-density environment of the early Universe (or Big Bang), or possibly through subsequent phase transitions. They might be observed by astrophysicists through the particles they are expected to emit by Hawking radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27470863",
"title": "Transformation optics",
"section": "Section::::Mimicking celestial mechanics.:Producing black holes with metamaterials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "The first experimental demonstration of electromagnetic black hole at microwave frequencies occurred in October 2009. The proposed black hole was composed of non-resonant, and resonant, metamaterial structures, which can absorb electromagnetic waves efficiently coming from all directions due to the local control of electromagnetic fields. It was constructed of a thin cylinder at 21.6 centimeters in diameter comprising 60 concentric rings of metamaterials. This structure created a gradient index of refraction, necessary for bending light in this way. However, it was characterized as being artificially inferior substitute for a real black hole. The characterization was justified by an absorption of only 80% in the microwave range, and that it has no internal source of energy. It is singularly a light absorber. The light absorption capability could be beneficial if it could be adapted to technologies such as solar cells. However, the device is limited to the microwave range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1415072",
"title": "Fuzzball (string theory)",
"section": "Section::::Information paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Even if quantum information was not extinguished in the singularity of a classic black hole and it somehow still existed, quantum data would be unable to climb up against infinite gravitational intensity to reach the surface of its event horizon and escape. Hawking radiation (so-far undetected particles and photons thought to be emitted from the proximity of black holes) would not circumvent the information paradox; it could reveal only the mass, angular momentum, and electric charge of classic black holes. Hawking radiation is thought to be created when virtual particles— antiparticle pairs of all sorts plus photons, which are their own antiparticle—form very close to the event horizon and one member of a pair spirals in while the other escapes, carrying away the energy of the black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong that nothing—no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, no locally detectable features appear to be observed. In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3016935",
"title": "George Chapline Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Chapline is perhaps best known for his research on black holes, proposing that they \"do not exist.\" Drawing upon quantum mechanical insights of himself and Pawel Mazur from the early 1900s, he proposed that objects currently thought to be black holes are actually dark-energy stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
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] | null |
dzdlb2
|
What if you took some simple scuba gear, maybe a weight, and applied a hydrophobic layer?
|
[
{
"answer": "What stops you from sinking is not friction, but buoyancy. The water pressure supports you with a force equal to the weight of the water you displaced. Having a layer of hydrophobic material doesn't really change this - it's no different to having a layer of clothing or whatever, it's just another surface that the water pressure propagates through. If anything, it may make it slightly *harder* to sink, because the hydrophobic material will repulse the water a little, and increase the volume of water you displace.\n\nThe big thing is the weight. Humans are pretty close to neutrally buoyant, which is why can float without much effort, but also dive under the water without being immediately forced to the top. But if you've got a weight belt or whatever, you can easily get much heavier than the water around you, and sink. The more weight you have, the faster you'll sink.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Are you asking how much less wet would you be with the weight of the water still affecting you the same exact way? \nUnless you create a pressurized container, like a submarine, you really only have a certain limit of depth before the pressure of the water would start to crush you or cause problems like bubbles in your blood. Wearing goggles wouldn’t stop the pressure of the water from popping your eyes out if you go too deep. You definitely need weights to dive down deep, or else you’ll be swimming for a while. Wetsuits increase your buoyancy, so if you go without a wetsuit I guess you could ditch some weight that way. Basically, you can go down as deep as you can until you pass out from the forces. Coating yourself in a hydrophobic layer wouldn’t negate the pressure of a column of water. Bubbles would, though. A lot of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difficulty with deep diving is the pressure. The human body hasn't evolved to work in extremely high pressures and various problems start happening. Some can be mitigated by breathing special gas mixtures rather than normal compressed air. A hydrophobic coating is not going to prevent you being subject to the water pressure.\n\nThe highest air pressure humans have been shown to tolerate (in hyperbaric chamber) is equivalent to a depth of 700 metres, and the deepest actual dive when subject to the pressure of the water is 534 metres. This dive was done using the technique of *saturation diving*. The divers live for days or weeks in a high-pressure environment, usually a hyperbaric chamber on a support ship. When they actually do a dive they are lowered to depth in a pressurised diving bell, before connecting to a gas supply from the surface and exiting in the water. In this way the divers are \"pressurised\" once and then decompressed once, which is less harmful than being subjected to repeated or rapid changes of pressure.\n\nThe record for SCUBA is 332 metres and deep SCUBA diving is considered much more dangerous, because the diver must carry all their gas mixtures with them requiring different gases for different depths and the dive is time limited by the available gas supply.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "1) It would make no difference at all. What stops people diving deep is the water pressure. None of this will have any effect on the pressure. It would be the equivalent of using a drysuit, and a drysuit doesn't change the depth that you can dive to.\n\n2) DO NOT USE EARPLUGS WHEN DIVING! The pressure at depth will ram then deeper and deeper into your ears, then when you come up there will be a pocket of high-pressure air behind the plug which is actually more likely to burst your eardrums than it is to push out the earplugs. It would be incredibly painful, and that close to your brain, life threatening. You do not want an expanding air pocket in your head.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "419852",
"title": "Swimfin",
"section": "Section::::Attachment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
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"text": "Some fins designed for surf use have integral straps which can neither be replaced nor adjusted, but are simple and have no projections which can snag or scratch the swimmer's legs. They are much like full foot pocket fins without the back part of the sole, but do not trap as much sand when used in the surf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "419852",
"title": "Swimfin",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"end_character": 985,
"text": "Types of fins have evolved to address the requirements of each community using them. Recreational snorkellers generally use lightweight flexible fins. Free divers favour extremely long fins for efficiency of energy use. Scuba divers need large wide fins to overcome the water resistance caused by their diving equipment, and short enough to allow acceptable maneuvering. Ocean swimmers, bodysurfers, and lifeguards favour smaller designs that stay on their feet when moving through large surf and that make walking on the beach less awkward. Participants in the sports of underwater hockey or underwater rugby use either full-foot or open-heel fins, and the chosen fin style is usually a compromise in performance between straight-line power and turning flexibility - carbon fibre blades are popular at higher levels of competition, but the over-riding requirement is that the fins must not have sharp or unprotected edges or points, nor buckles, which could injure other competitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "291811",
"title": "Cave diving",
"section": "Section::::History.:UK history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
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"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Progress was typically by \"bottom walking\", as this was considered less dangerous than swimming (note the absence of buoyancy controls). The use of oxygen put a depth limit on the dive, which was considerably mitigated by the extended dive duration. This was the normal diving equipment and methods until approximately 1960 when new techniques using wetsuits (which provide both insulation and buoyancy ), twin open-circuit SCUBA air systems the development of side mounting cylinders, helmet-mounted lights and free-swimming with fins. The increasing capacity and pressure rating of air bottles also extended dive durations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66733",
"title": "Snorkeling",
"section": "Section::::Practice of snorkeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Some commercial snorkeling organizations require snorkelers at their venue to wear an inflatable vest, similar to a personal flotation device. They are usually bright yellow or orange and have a device that allows users to inflate or deflate the device to adjust their buoyancy. However, these devices hinder and prevent a snorkeler from free diving to any depth. Especially in cooler water, a wetsuit of appropriate thickness and coverage may be worn; wetsuits do provide some buoyancy without as much resistance to submersion. In the tropics, snorkelers (especially those with pale skin) often wear a rashguard or a shirt and/or board shorts in order to help protect the skin of the back and upper legs against sunburn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266475",
"title": "Scuba diving",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Diver mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "To take advantage of the freedom of movement afforded by scuba equipment, the diver needs to be mobile underwater. Personal mobility is enhanced by swimfins and optionally diver propulsion vehicles. Fins have a large blade area and use the more powerful leg muscles, so are much more efficient for propulsion and manoeuvering thrust than arm and hand movements, but require skill to provide fine control. Several types of fin are available, some of which may be more suited for manoeuvering, alternative kick styles, speed, endurance, reduced effort or ruggedness. Streamlining dive gear will reduce drag and improve mobility. Balanced trim which allows the diver to align in any desired direction also improves streamlining by presenting the smallest section area to the direction of movement and allowing propulsion thrust to be used more efficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266475",
"title": "Scuba diving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Some scuba divers use a snorkel when swimming on the surface. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66733",
"title": "Snorkeling",
"section": "Section::::Applications of snorkeling.:Scuba diving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "A snorkel can be useful when scuba diving as it is a safe way of swimming face down at the surface for extended periods to conserve the bottled air supply, or in an emergency situation when there is a problem with either air supply or regulator. Many dives do not require the use of a snorkel at all, and some scuba divers do not consider a snorkel a necessary or even useful piece of equipment, but the usefulness of a snorkel depends on the dive plan and the dive site. If there is no requirement to swim face down and see what is happening underwater, then a snorkel is not useful. If it is necessary to swim over heavy seaweed which can entangle the pillar valve and regulator if the diver swims face upward to get to and from the dive site, then a snorkel is useful to save breathing gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qeuc7
|
why the vitamins are named like they are. why do we have 12 vitamin b's but no vitamin j? is there a vitamin b9?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Copy-paste from here:](_URL_0_)\nWhen they[Vitamins] were discovered they were given temporary names, starting with Vitamin A, then B, C, D and so on. Then we discovered that Vitamin B was a mixture of several different chemicals so they were given subscript numbers 1 to 12. We knew what they did, but did not know their chemical composition. Even though we now know their chemical names, we still use their temporary names. (I don't know why we jumped from E to K.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There used to be more vitamin letters, but we later learned that these weren't right, or were the same as others. So, we stopped calling them by things like vitamin J. \n\nAll of the vitamin B vitamins were once thought to be a single vitamin. When we learned more about them and their different sources, we broken them down into sub-vitamins. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "457926",
"title": "B vitamins",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexist in the same foods. In general, dietary supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific number or name of each vitamin: B = thiamine, B = riboflavin, B = niacin, etc. Some are better known by name than number: niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin and folate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34730803",
"title": "Nutrition and cognition",
"section": "Section::::B-Vitamin deficiencies and cognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "B vitamins, also known as the B-complex, are an interrelated group of nutrients which often co-occur in food. The complex consists of: thiamine (B), riboflavin (B), niacin (B), pantothenic acid (B), pyridoxin (B), folic acid (B), cobalamin (B), and biotin. B vitamins are not synthesized in the body, and thus need to be obtained from food. B-complex vitamins are water-soluble vitamins, which means that they are not stored within the body. In consequence, the B vitamins need ongoing replenishment. It is possible to identify broad cognitive effects of certain B vitamins, as they are involved in many significant metabolic processes within the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14538619",
"title": "Vitamin B12",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Vitamin B is one of eight B vitamins; it is the largest and most structurally complex vitamin. It consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers), all of which show physiological activity. It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt (chemical symbol Co) positioned in the center of a corrin ring. The only organisms to produce vitamin B are certain bacteria, and archaea. Some of these bacteria are found in the soil around the grasses that ruminants eat; they are taken into the animal, proliferate, form part of their gut flora, and continue to produce vitamin B.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54110",
"title": "Vitamin B6",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32512",
"title": "Vitamin",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "The missing B vitamins were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins. For example, B is folic acid and five of the folates are in the range B through B. Others, such as PABA (formerly B), are biologically inactive, toxic, or with unclassifiable effects in humans, or not generally recognised as vitamins by science, such as the highest-numbered, which some naturopath practitioners call B and B. There are also nine lettered B complex vitamins (e.g., B). There are other D vitamins now recognised as other substances, which some sources of the same type number up to D. The controversial cancer treatment laetrile was at one point lettered as vitamin B. There appears to be no consensus on any vitamins Q, R, T, V, W, X, Y or Z, nor are there substances officially designated as vitamins N or I, although the latter may have been another form of one of the other vitamins or a known and named nutrient of another type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32512",
"title": "Vitamin",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding (from the German word \"Koagulation\"). At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable. The table \"Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins\" lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32512",
"title": "Vitamin",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5u7ooe
|
How should we remember Captain James Cook?
|
[
{
"answer": "Really there's nothing stopping him from being both. He did have significant navigation/cartographical skills, sailing thousands of miles that he had no maps for. \n\nThat said he was an English sailor under the British Navy at the start of British imperialism. His voyages were basically commissioned to see if Australia existed and to see if there was an opportunity for new outposts for the Empire. He named landings and places he surveyed and we continue to use those over the Indigenous names. \n\nAlso he did try to kidnap a Hawaiian chief, which got him killed. So not the best guy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41218462",
"title": "List of ships of James Cook",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European discovery of eastern Australia, Hawaii and undertook the first circumnavigation of New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35897925",
"title": "James Cook Collection: Australian Museum",
"section": "Section::::James Cook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10867307",
"title": "David Samwell",
"section": "Section::::Personal history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The journal of his experiences aboard Captain James Cook's ship provide a detailed account of the third and last voyages of Cook to the Pacific Ocean. Part of the journal describes the death of Captain Cook at the hands of natives on the Sandwich Islands in 1779. He also wrote an unpublished journal, \"Some Account of a Voyage to the South Seas 1776-1777-1778\" which is an innovative work of social anthropology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15630",
"title": "James Cook",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Captain James Cook (7 November 172814 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16271436",
"title": "Captain Cook Memorial Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Captain Cook Memorial Museum is a history museum in Whitby, North Yorkshire, England. The museum building, Walker's House, belonged to Captain John Walker, to whom James Cook was apprenticed in 1746. Having lodged there as an apprentice, Cook returned to visit in the winter of 1771–72 after his first voyage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33766126",
"title": "Third voyage of James Cook",
"section": "Section::::Publication of journals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Cook's account of his third and final voyage was completed upon their return by James King. Cook's own journal ended abruptly on 17 January 1779, but those of his crew were handed to the Admiralty for editing before publication. In anticipation of the publication of his journal, Cook had spent a lot of shipboard time rewriting it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94155",
"title": "Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology",
"section": "Section::::Pan-Australian mythology.:Captain Cook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The many Aboriginal versions of this 'Captain Cook' are rarely oral recollections of encounters with the Lieutenant James Cook who first navigated and mapped Australia's east coast on the HM Bark \"Endeavour\" in 1770. Guugu Yimidhirr predecessors, along the Endeavour River, did encounter James Cook during a 7-week period beached at the site of the present town of Cooktown while the Endeavour was being repaired. From this time the Guugu Yimidhirr did receive present-day names for places occurring in their local landscape; and the Guugu Yimmidhir may recollect this encounter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9mw9q0
|
why can’t you hum while holding your nose?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can if you open your mouth. The air that carries the sound from your vocal cords has to go somewhere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because humming is essentially forcing sound to come out of your nose. You're basically pronouncing a nasal consonant; so if you're blocking your nose, you can't pronounce a nasal consonant, and thus, cannot hum. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "494319",
"title": "Circular breathing",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The usual first difficulty is to inhale through the nose while blowing out air stored in the cheeks. To some this may be a big hurdle, to others it is no problem at all. This technique may be practiced by holding a finger in front of a thin air stream out of the lips and listening to the wind sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52819587",
"title": "Romanisation of Sindhi",
"section": "Section::::Indus Roman Sindhi.:Basics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "To get the air to come out of your nose, you lower your velum. This opens up your nasal cavity and lets the air out through your nostrils. You can let air out through your nose and mouth at the same time: This makes a nasalized sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48925128",
"title": "Nose-blowing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Nose-blowing is the act of expelling nasal mucus by exhaling forcefully through the nose. This is usually done into a facial tissue or handkerchief, facial tissues being more hygienic as they are disposed of after each use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48536074",
"title": "Flaccid dysarthria",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Damage to the cranial nerves innervating muscles that control the velum may result in hypernasal speech. This can sound like someone is saying things through their nose, making oral sounds like \"b\" or \"d\" sound more like \"m\" or \"n\", respectively. Or, there may be air release through the nose that is audible, as in an attempt to say \"s\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848560",
"title": "Nasolacrimal duct",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "This is the reason the nose starts to run when a person is crying or has watery eyes from an allergy, and why one can sometimes taste eye drops. For the same reason when applying some eye drops it is often advised to close the nasolacrimal duct by pressing it with a finger to prevent the medicine from escaping the eye and having unwanted side effects elsewhere in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3512524",
"title": "Respiratory sounds",
"section": "Section::::Abnormal breath sounds.:Continued.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rales: Small clicking, bubbling, or rattling sounds in the lungs. They are heard when a person breathes in (inhales). They are believed to occur when air opens closed air spaces. Rales can be further described as moist, dry, fine, and coarse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48925128",
"title": "Nose-blowing",
"section": "Section::::Etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Nose-blowing becomes a breach of etiquette if it is done directly in front of someone at a dining table or in a lobby. When nose-blowing needs to take place at the table, the person doing it should turn away from everybody else and especially away from food on the table. If the nose-blowing session is going to be short, then it could be done at the table, but if the nose is too stuffed and the resulting nose-blowing session will be long and loud, then it is strongly advised to go to the restroom/washroom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b45rb3
|
Is it possible to navigate without GPS and satellites using the earth's geomagnetic field instead (like birds do)?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Now, I've heard about Compasses\n\nYou are probably thinking of regular old cheap compasses. But there are high accuracy electronic compasses which is what you appear to be talking about. [Like this one.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No matter how accurately you measure the magnetic field of the earth, that's still all the information you have: magnetic field. This can only be used to tell relative directions. Even if you knew how the field strength and direction varied all over the Earth's surface, you could only narrow your position down to an isomagnetic line, not a unique point. If you had no idea what your latitude and longitude were at your starting point, you couldn't determine it. If you knew your starting point a sufficiently accurate compass would allow you to know your position as you move, as long as you keep track of your heading and distance travelled. Map and compass navigation can be very accurate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While you can't navigate entirely with a compass (well, sort of you can. You can do something called 'dead reckoning' where you determine which direction you need to move in to get where you're going and then you always move in that direction. The problem is, if you get off, you have no way of knowing). \n\nBut there is GPS independent navigation. Interestingly, knowing your latitude is easy. Even back in the days of Newton they could tell their latitude using nothing but a [sextant](_URL_0_). There, you just measure the angle between the horizon and the North Star and you can extract your latitude. \n\nLongitude is harder, since the lines of longitude move through space with the Earth's rotation. To know what longitude you're looking at, you need to know what time you're looking at different stars. Which, is easy for us today, even a cheap quartz watch is accurate enough to tell you time sailing across the ocean, but long ago, it was much harder to know what time it was. They had worked out the mathematics long before they had worked out the time keeping. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Atmospheric effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these errors is a significant challenge to improving GPS position accuracy. These effects are smallest when the satellite is directly overhead and become greater for satellites nearer the horizon since the path through the atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the receiver's approximate location is known, a mathematical model can be used to estimate and compensate for these errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4876592",
"title": "Diver navigation",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Periodically reports are issued suggesting the development of underwater GPS technology, but no system is currently available on market. It is generally thought that the difficulty of locating satellite by signals from underwater at present is not capable of being overcome by existing technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47476",
"title": "Altimeter",
"section": "Section::::Global Positioning System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers can also determine altitude by trilateration with four or more satellites. In aircraft, altitude determined using autonomous GPS is not reliable enough to supersede the pressure altimeter without using some method of augmentation. In hiking and climbing, it is common to find that the altitude measured by GPS is off by as much as 400 feet (120 metres) depending on satellite orientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2208016",
"title": "Geolocation",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "For either geolocating or positioning, the locating engine often uses radio frequency (RF) location methods, for example Time Difference Of Arrival (TDOA) for precision. TDOA systems often use mapping displays or other geographic information system. When satellite navigation (such as GPS) signals are unavailable, geolocation applications can use information from cell towers to triangulate the approximate position, a method that is not as accurate as GPS but has greatly improved in recent years. This is in contrast to earlier radiolocation technologies, for example Direction Finding where a line of bearing to a transmitter is achieved as part of the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63501",
"title": "Paragliding",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The recorded GPS track of a flight can be used to analyze flying technique or can be shared with other pilots. GPS is also used to determine drift due to the prevailing wind when flying at altitude, providing position information to allow restricted airspace to be avoided and identifying one's location for retrieval teams after landing out in unfamiliar territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206450",
"title": "Nav Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Space-based ADS-B.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The cross-linked Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites will, for the first time, make it possible to track aircraft from pole-to-pole, including oceanic airspace and remote regions, facilitating fuel savings, greenhouse gas emissions reduction, and enhanced safety and efficiency for airspace users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308058",
"title": "Magnetic declination",
"section": "Section::::Navigation.:Air navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "GPS systems used for air navigation can use magnetic north or true north. In order to make them more compatible with systems that depend on magnetic north, magnetic north is often chosen, at the pilot's preference. The GPS receiver natively reads in true north, but can elegantly calculate magnetic north based on its true position and data tables; the unit can then calculate the current location and direction of the north magnetic pole and (potentially) any local variations, if the GPS is set to use magnetic compass readings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
555gaf
|
why do separate drops of cooking oil tend to drift towards each other when on water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gravity. Water is polar so it forms a strong surface tension, the oil is less dense so it sits on top. Gravity makes the oil naturally tend to \"puddle\" on top of the water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36065243",
"title": "Surface chemistry of cooking",
"section": "Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Deep fry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The boundary layer of water vapor again serves the purpose of preventing interactions between the oil and the surface of the food. Even as the boundary layer of water breaks down, the initial interactions between the oil and the batter will be minimal. The oil will move into the vacancies left in the batter by the vaporization of the water. At this point there is very little bonding between the fatty acids in the oil and the non polar hydrocarbons that make up the majority of the batter. However the polar portion of the triglyceride molecule does begin to induce dipoles in the hydrocarbon chains that make up the batter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15875167",
"title": "Pickering emulsion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "If oil and water are mixed and small oil droplets are formed and dispersed throughout the water, eventually the droplets will coalesce to decrease the amount of energy in the system. However, if solid particles are added to the mixture, they will bind to the surface of the interface and prevent the droplets from coalescing, making the emulsion more stable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40622541",
"title": "Storm oil",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Oil has a dampening effect on water which absorbs some of the energy of the waves. It also quickly forms a thin layer over a large expanse of the surface of the water through a process of deprotonation. This prevents wind from being able to get traction along the water and thus waves cannot form as easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33065713",
"title": "Lactylate",
"section": "Section::::Functionality.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Due to differences in physical properties, oil does not readily mix with water. Many food and non-food systems require stabilization of mixtures of oil and water in order to prevent phase separation. Therefore, additives are used to provide stability. Lactylates are such additives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392547",
"title": "Fuel oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "When released into water, such as a river or ocean, residual oil tends to break up into patches or tarballs – mixtures of oil and particulate matter such as silt and floating organic matter – rather than form a single slick. An average of about 5-10% of the material will evaporate within hours of the release, primarily the lighter hydrocarbon fractions. The remainder will then often sink to the bottom of the water column.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15470144",
"title": "Ouzo effect",
"section": "Section::::Observation and explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Oil-in-water emulsions are not normally stable. Oil droplets coalesce until complete phase separation is achieved at macroscopic levels. Addition of a small amount of surfactant or the application of high shear rates (strong stirring) can stabilize the oil droplets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265307",
"title": "Weather modification",
"section": "Section::::Storm prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Alexandre Chorin of the University of California, Berkeley, proposed dropping large amounts of environmentally friendly oils on the sea surface to prevent droplet formation. Experiments by Kerry Emanuel of MIT in 2002 suggested that hurricane-force winds would disrupt the oil slick, making it ineffective. Other scientists disputed the factual basis of the theoretical mechanism assumed by this approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1id1mz
|
How much gasoline is actually wasted at a stop sign?
|
[
{
"answer": "well fuel is burned very slowly\n\nI get 33 mpg at 60mph chilling at 3000 RPM in my 4 cylinder 1.9 liter Mazda.\n\nI'd say that I burn 1/33 of a gallon of gas a Minute because I'd have to go 33 miles to use a gallon, right?\n\nSo, idling at a stop sign my car spins at 700 RPM, which is about one quarter of the explosions needed to keep it at 3000 RPM so you could say I burn 1/33/4 gallons of gas a minute at a stop sign. \n\nthat's .0075 gallons per minute. I don't know about you but I'm only actually stopped at a stop sign for a few seconds if that.\n\nI'd say the better question is how much more fuel is consumed in the slowing down stopping and accelerating process vs just maintaining speed over the distance in question",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "0.00314248 gallons, or 0.0118956 L.\n\nAssumes: car must accelerate to 25 mph after stopping. Car weighs 2000 kg. Efficiency of engine is 30%. Gasoline energy density is 35 MJ/L. No other energy losses during acceleration (e.g. no friction).\n\nMy work in Mathematica: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "264875",
"title": "1979 oil crisis",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "As the average vehicle of the time consumed between two and three liters (about 0.5–0.8 gallons) of gasoline (petrol) an hour while idling, it was estimated that Americans wasted up to of oil per day idling their engines in the lines at gas stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2944393",
"title": "Gasoline theft",
"section": "Section::::Theft from station.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Gasoline theft (sometimes known colloquially as fill and fly, gas and dash, and drive-off) is the removal of gasoline from a station without payment. The thief will usually use some form of decoy to prevent nearby witnesses from noticing the lack of payment until they have left the station. Common decoys include pretending to press the wrong buttons after swiping the credit card, or having multiple people get gas at the same time with one paying for another person and the other running off with both cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46491663",
"title": "Michigan Ballot Proposal 2015-1",
"section": "Section::::Policies that would be enacted.:Fuel tax modification and increase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Additionally, the retail sales tax on gasoline is expressly eliminated only for vehicles \"driving on Michigan roads.\" It is not eliminated for off-road vehicles, including boats, agricultural machines, ATVs, snowmobiles, and other gasoline-powered vehicles and tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42289989",
"title": "No Oil Producing and Exporting Cartels Act",
"section": "Section::::Controversy surrounding passage under veto threat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "At the time of passage, U.S. motorists were paying $3.21/gallon for gasoline. The London-based Center for Global Energy Studies cited OPEC restrictions on output as the driving force in pushing oil prices in 2008 to above $60/barrel. The study proposed that this OPEC-driven price increase was the central cause of the consumer gas price increase at the pump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244180",
"title": "1973 oil crisis",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Immediate economic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The average US retail price of a gallon of regular gasoline rose 43% from 38.5¢ in May 1973 to 55.1¢ in June 1974. State governments asked citizens not to put up Christmas lights. Oregon banned Christmas and commercial lighting altogether. Politicians called for a national gasoline rationing program. Nixon asked gasoline retailers to voluntarily not sell gasoline on Saturday nights or Sundays; 90% of gas station owners complied, which produced long queues of motorists wanting to fill up their cars while they could.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8166749",
"title": "Hybrid electric vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Engines and fuel sources.:Fossil fuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "\" Gasoline is the main expense of the cars, practically on a weekly basis, or even more frequently if we use the car very often, we will have to go to our nearest gas station to refuel and make the consequent cost\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4313931",
"title": "Fuel economy in automobiles",
"section": "Section::::Fuel economy statistics.:Speed and fuel economy studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Officials hoped that the limit, combined with a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gasoline production, would reduce total gas consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. This was partly based on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between and that trucks and buses were most efficient at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4c8q75
|
could a nuclear submarine survive in space? if so, for how long?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is strong in compression, in tension it's less clear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263960",
"title": "Warship",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Submarine, a ship capable of remaining underwater for extended periods. Submarines in the world wars could stay under for less than a day, but development of nuclear reactors and air-independent propulsion allows submarines to stay submerged for weeks, even months at a time, with food supplies as the only limiting factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "588250",
"title": "Nuclear submarine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Current generations of nuclear submarines never need to be refueled throughout their 25-year lifespans. Conversely, the limited power stored in electric batteries means that even the most advanced conventional submarine can only remain submerged for a few days at slow speed, and only a few hours at top speed, though recent advances in air-independent propulsion have somewhat ameliorated this disadvantage. The high cost of nuclear technology means that relatively few states have fielded nuclear submarines. Some of the most serious nuclear and radiation accidents ever to occur have involved Soviet nuclear submarine mishaps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491021",
"title": "HMS Artful (S121)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "\"Artful\"s nuclear reactor will not need to be refuelled during the boat's 25-year service. Since the submarine can purify water and air, she will be able to circumnavigate the planet without resurfacing. The main limit is that the submarine will only be able to carry three months' supply of food for 98 officers and ratings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195694",
"title": "T-54/T-55",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:T-55.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Trials with nuclear weapons showed that a T-54 could survive a 2–15 kt nuclear charge at a range of more than from the epicentre, but the crew only had a chance of surviving at . It was decided to create an NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical) protection system which would start working 0.3 seconds after detecting gamma radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29248",
"title": "Space colonization",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Life support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "In space settlements, a life support system must recycle or import all the nutrients without \"crashing.\" The closest terrestrial analogue to space life support is possibly that of a nuclear submarine. Nuclear submarines use mechanical life support systems to support humans for months without surfacing, and this same basic technology could presumably be employed for space use. However, nuclear submarines run \"open loop\"—extracting oxygen from seawater, and typically dumping carbon dioxide overboard, although they recycle existing oxygen. Recycling of the carbon dioxide has been approached in the literature using the Sabatier process or the Bosch reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244071",
"title": "Interstellar ark",
"section": "Section::::Thrust concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Another concern is selection of power sources and mechanisms which would remain viable for the long time spans involved in interstellar travel through the desert of space. The longest lived space probes are the Voyager program probes, which use radioisotope thermoelectric generators having a useful lifespan of a mere 50 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491020",
"title": "HMS Ambush (S120)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "\"Ambush\"'s nuclear reactor will not need to be refuelled during the boat's 25-year service. Since the submarine can purify water and air, she will be able to circumnavigate the planet without resurfacing. The main limit is that the submarine will only be able to carry three months' supply of food for 98 officers and ratings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dmro2y
|
Rhodesia
|
[
{
"answer": "You might find interesting the following previous answers:\n\n* [Why does the story of Rhodesia attract so many racists?](_URL_2_) answered by /u/swarthmoreburke\n\n* [What was Rhodesia's end game during the Bush War?](_URL_1_) answered by /u/profrhodes\n\n* [The Rhodesian bush war is heavily romanticised by certain groups - was this true at the time?](_URL_0_) answered by /u/profrhodes\n\n* [How developed were the white areas of Rhodesia?](_URL_3_) answered by /u/profrhodes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "938876",
"title": "Rhodesia (region)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The term \"Rhodesia\" was first used to refer to the region by white settlers in the 1890s who informally named their new home after Cecil Rhodes, the Company's founder and managing director. It was used in newspapers from 1891 and was made official by the Company in 1895.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14114",
"title": "History of Zimbabwe",
"section": "Section::::Colonial era (1888–1980).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393850",
"title": "World War II by country",
"section": "Section::::Impact by country.:Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 521,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 521,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "[[Southern Rhodesia]] (modern-day Zimbabwe) had been a self-governing British colony since 1923. It was covered by the British declaration of war, but its colonial government issued a symbolic declaration of war anyway. Southern Rhodesia's white troops did not serve in a composite unit (unlike their Australian, Canadian, or South African counterparts) because they constituted a significant part of the settler population; it was feared that the colony's future might be placed in jeopardy if an all-Southern Rhodesian unit went into the field and suffered heavy casualties. Southern Rhodesians served in [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East Africa]], Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and the [[Burma Campaign]]. A significant number of Southern Rhodesian troops, especially in the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]], were black or mixed race. Their service has never been recognised by the ZANU–PF government in Harare. [[Ian Smith]], the future Prime Minister, like many of his white contemporaries, [[Military career of Ian Smith|served]] under British command as a fighter pilot in the [[Royal Air Force]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39782318",
"title": "Salisbury Sports Club tournament in 1970",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Rhodesia was an unrecognised state in southern Africa, run by a predominantly white minority government headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith. Taking exception to the UK's insistence on a set timetable for majority rule as a condition for independence, Smith's colonial administration had unilaterally declared independence in 1965 following a long dispute over the terms. International uproar and the first ever United Nations economic sanctions had ensued, making Rhodesia deeply isolated. This quarantine variously extended to sports. Rhodesian athletes, including the 1968, 1972 and 1976 Olympic squads (which were racially integrated), were barred from international competition on political grounds. Rhodesian cricket and rugby were not greatly affected as these sports largely operated in tandem with South Africa. The Rhodesia cricket team, for example, took part in the annual Currie Cup tournament against South African provincial sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11981397",
"title": "History of Rhodesia (1965–79)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The history of Rhodesia from 1965 to 1979 covers Rhodesia's time as a state unrecognised by the international community following the predominantly white minority government's Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965. Headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Front remained in government until 1 June 1979, when the country was reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56791905",
"title": "Southern Rhodesia Act 1965",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The Southern Rhodesia Act 1965 c. 76 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was designed to reaffirm British legal rule in Southern Rhodesia after Rhodesia had unilaterally declared independence. In practice it only enforced the status of Southern Rhodesia as a British colony in British constitutional theory as the Rhodesian government did not recognise it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33178",
"title": "White supremacy",
"section": "Section::::History.:British Commonwealth.:Rhodesia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "In Rhodesia a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Following the Rhodesian Bush War which was fought by African nationalists, Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith acceded to biracial political representation in 1978 and the state achieved recognition from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe in 1980.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eszrpk
|
United States officials and politicians grossly overstated Soviet military capabilities in the cases known as the "bomber gap", "missile gap" and "cruiser gap". Did Soviet officials ever have similarly overestimated any U.S./NATO military equipment levels and technologies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, very much. One example that comes to mind is the \"military-technical revolution\" of the late 1970s and 1980s. Soviet military leaders during the Reagan years in particular were fairly spooked by Western advances in precision weapons, reconnaissance methods, and other technologies which we would now call 'C4ISTAR,' ISR, or some combination thereof: Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Recon. In plain English: all the technologies and methods used to detect a target, see exactly what and where it is, and tell someone to shoot it before it moves. In modern Western defense circles this is now called the *sensor-shooter system* or *network*. The Soviets (and now the Russians) describe this integration as the *reconnaissance-strike* or *reconnaissance-destruction complex.* In the 1980s, the United States began working on this concept under the general heading Assault Breaker. The Assault Breaker program as a whole was designed to combine airborne radars (E-8 JSTARS, Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System), computerized command posts, long-range guided missiles (ATACMS, Army Tactical Missile System), and advanced artillery systems like guided anti-tank cluster munitions (DPICM, Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition). Assault Breaker was designed to find and destroy Soviet formations \"in the depths,\" that is, far behind the front lines. The Soviets assessed Assault Breaker, and generic recce-strike systems like it, as *comparably destructive to tactical nuclear weapons*. They weren't entirely *wrong*, either, in many observers' analysis: precision-strike weapons like ATACMS would have been used on targets like armor concentrations, supply depots, second echelon and reserve forces, command posts, and so on, which previously would have been prime targets for small nukes. However, the Soviets undertook serious efforts to counter this program, probably disproportionate to how effective Assault Breaker as a whole turned out to be. JSTARS, ATACMS, and DPICM all turned into complete products, but lots of the other systems were either delayed or nonfunctional, such as the Brilliant Anti-Tank munition.\n\nEDIT: [Here is a concept sketch of the Assault Breaker network](_URL_2_), as a visual aid.\n\nFor further reading:\n\nDavid Glantz, *The Soviet Conduct of Tactical Maneuver: Spearhead of the Offensive*, particularly the first two chapters.\n\nVan Atta et al, \"[Transformation and Transition: DARPA’s Role in Fostering an Emerging Revolution in Military Affairs](_URL_0_),\" Ch. IV\n\nLarry A. Brisky (1990) \"The reconnaissance destruction complex: A Soviet operational response to Airland Battle,\" *The Journal of Soviet Military Studies*, 3:2, 296-306, DOI: 10.1080/13518049008429985\n\nMilan Vega,[\"Recce-Strike Complexes in Soviet Theory and Practice,\"](_URL_1_) Soviet Army Studies Office, 1990.\n\nViktor Reznichenko, Тактика (*Taktika - Tactics*), Moscow: Voenizdat, 1984. (Recommend MJ Orr's translation for RMA Sandhurst's Soviet Studies Research Centre if Russian isn't your strong suite.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2266240",
"title": "Missile gap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "In the US, during the Cold War, the missile gap was the perceived superiority of the number and power of the USSR's missiles in comparison with its own (a lack of military parity). The gap in the ballistic missile arsenals did not exist except in exaggerated estimates, made by the Gaither Committee in 1957 and in United States Air Force (USAF) figures. Even the contradictory CIA figures for the USSR's weaponry, which showed a clear advantage for the US, were far above the actual count. Like the bomber gap of only a few years earlier, it was soon demonstrated that the gap was entirely fictional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55832",
"title": "Lend-Lease",
"section": "Section::::US deliveries to the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Obviously, the US saw a threat to itself in this case. Without a doubt, this to some extent worked against achieving victory over Hitler's Germany. The USSR had a small number of heavy bombers. The only modern model of the heavy bomber for the USSR was the PE-8. At the beginning of the war there were 27 units in the ranks, until 1945 less than 100 were produced. In the conditions of heavy war of the USSR could hardly support their number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265142",
"title": "History of the Soviet Union (1953–64)",
"section": "Section::::De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "American fears of Soviet military and especially nuclear capabilities were strong and heavily exaggerated; Moscow's only heavy bomber, the Tu-4, was a direct clone of the B-29 and had no way to get to the United States except on a one way suicide mission and the Soviet nuclear arsenal contained only a handful of weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4244195",
"title": "Terra-3",
"section": "Section::::Anti-satellite weapon claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "When discussing the issue, Soviet officials were somewhat amused. They noted that the US public often had better information than their own military, and that excessive secrecy had led the Soviet citizenry to distrust the military's claims as to their own capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203452",
"title": "Sputnik crisis",
"section": "Section::::Eisenhower's reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the USSR became the first to achieve significantly superior military capability in outer space and create an imbalance of power, it could pose a direct military threat to the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24933",
"title": "Polywater",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "By 1969, the concept had spread to newspapers and magazines. There was fear by the United States military that there was a so-called \"polywater gap\" with the Soviet Union, a popular media term indicating a possible capability \"gap\", or discrepancy, between the US and the USSR, popularized by media hype of the \"bomber gap\", the \"missile gap\", and the \"cruiser gap\", during periods when the USSR appeared to be outstripping the US in numbers of these respective weapons. Likely entering the US vernacular after Watergate, \"gap\" also became widely used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181820",
"title": "1982 Lebanon War",
"section": "Section::::Outcome of the war.:Cold War perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "According to Abraham Rabinovich, the complete dominance of U.S. and Israeli technology and tactics over those of the Eastern Bloc was to have been a factor that hastened the demise of the Warsaw Pact and Soviet Union. However, this was not the first confrontation in which Soviet weaponry had been outmatched by American weaponry. In many of the Cold War conflicts the Americans and their allies had superior technology. Nonetheless, the gap between the First World and Second World weaponry was more apparent in the 1980s and weighed more heavily on Second World leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5euvxr
|
how do nature documentaries capture audio?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I can't help but be bugged by wondering how they manage to capture such pristine audio.\n\nTake along a really good microphone with a cover, or even a microphone within a parabolic dish to get audio from far away. Or of course you can dub it in later from audio captured elsewhere in similar fashion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They capture sound from a distance using a directional microphone with a dish to focus on a specific direction. There are added sound design elements. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "858475",
"title": "Radio documentary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Radio documentary is a spoken word radio format devoted to non-fiction narrative. It is broadcast on radio as well as distributed through media such as tape, CD, and podcast. A radio documentary, or feature, covers a topic in depth from one or more perspectives, often featuring interviews, commentary, and sound pictures. A radio feature may include original music compositions and creative sound design or can resemble traditional journalistic radio reporting, but covering an issue in greater depth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32711189",
"title": "Oceans (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The documentary was produced in collaboration with scientists from the Census of Marine Life and employed technologies including stabilized cameras for rough seas, an electric mini-helicopter to approach and film marine animals without noise, and submerged cameras both towed and on poles over the side of vessels, resulting in film of over 200 species at more than 50 global locations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49142722",
"title": "Frédéric Fougea",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The shooting was carried out having resorted to ultra perfected materials: drones, subaquatic cameras, helicopters, hot-air balloons, flights in Microlights. It is the actor Guillaume de Tonquédec who lends his voice to the narration of the film. All these ingredients have permitted the genre of animal documentary to raise itself to a place rarely reached in prime time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1929856",
"title": "Direct Cinema",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Sound before the 1960s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In other cases the documentary subject was brought into a studio. Sound taken directly from the studio made the documentary nature of the recording arguable. For example, a production might reconstruct a stable in the studio, with a sound engineer close by in a soundproof booth. This mimics the production of some studio films and TV series, but often results in surreal situations, such as cows being in a studio for a documentary on farming, rather than in their natural habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577473",
"title": "All India Radio",
"section": "Section::::Other services.:Documentaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "There is a long tradition of broadcasting documentary features on AIR. There is great interest in radio documentaries, particularly in countries like India, Iran, South Korea and Malaysia. The most prominent broadcaster of English Features was Melville de Mellow, and of Hindi Features, Shiv Sagar Mishra. This format has been revived by AIR producers across India because of its flexibility, its relative low cost to produce, its messaging potential and its creative potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407577",
"title": "Bernie Krause",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Soundscape pioneering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Since 1979, Krause has concentrated on the recording and archiving of wild natural soundscapes from around the world. These recordings – works of art and science commissioned primarily by museums, aquaria, and zoos for their dioramas and sound installations worldwide – have been mixed into ambient tracks for numerous feature films, and downloadable field recording albums from the world's rare habitats. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4026595",
"title": "Nature documentary",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Staged content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Some nature documentaries, particularly those involving animals, have included footage of staged events that appear \"natural\" while actually contrived by filmmakers or occurring in captivity. In a famous example, Walt Disney's \"White Wilderness\" (1958), lemmings were hurled to their deaths - but examples also occur in modern nature documentaries, such as \"The Blue Planet\" (2001) and it hasn't stopped there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hqe0b
|
When did people start realizing that the Soviet Union was going to imminently collapse?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm sorry I don't have the answer to your particular and interesting question, but perhaps you might be interested in this slightly relevant tidbit.\n \nIt was George Kennan, a diplomat stationed at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow at the time, who in 1947 put together an analysis of US-Soviet relationship in terms of foreign policy, the *Sources of Soviet Conduct*. He predicted potential high instability on the side of the Soviets, and that there would be no friendship, only rivalry, between the two nations as their ideological and economic systems were simply incompatible. He also predicted that if the U.S kept constant pressure on the USSR, it might force it to adapt and change, perhaps eventually turn into something more approachable. \n \nConsequently, a large extent of U.S. foreign policy towards the USSR was predicated on the assumption that it should be contained, denied the opportunity to spread, and constantly faced with frustration, and it will eventually lead to its collapse. Again, this was as early as 1947.\n\n \n\n > \"It would be an exaggeration to say that American behavior unassisted and alone could exercise a power of life and death over the Communist movement and bring about the early fall of Soviet power in Russia. But the United States has it in its power to increase enormously the strains under which Soviet policy must operate, to force upon the Kremlin a far greater degree of moderation and circumspection than it has had to observe in recent years, and in this way to promote tendencies which must eventually find their outlet in either the breakup or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power. For no mystical, Messianic movement -- and particularly not that of the Kremlin -- can face frustration indefinitely without eventually adjusting itself in one way or another to the logic of that state of affairs.\"\n \n\n-- George Kennan, Sources of Soviet Conduct, 1947\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Reviewing the history of international relations in the modern era, which might be considered to extend from the middle of the seventeenth century to the present, I find it hard to think of any event more strange and startling, and at first glance more inexplicable, than the sudden and total disintegration and disappearance from the international scene, primarily in the years 1987 through 1991, of the great power known successively as the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union. –George Kennan, 1995\n\nThe collapse of the USSR blindsided many of the foreign policy experts, diplomats, and Kremlinologists in 1991. For example, Paul Kennedy’s 1988 bestseller *The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers* asserted that while Soviet decline was palpable and visible, a collapse was highly unlikely. Kennedy toyed with notions of a Soviet retreat into its own ethnic base in the end of his section on Soviet power, but discounted such a possibility as ahistorical given that all historical precedents of a retreat only came after defeat in a great power war. Kennedy’s myopia is instructive given that many commentators in this period tended to treat both *glasnost* and *perestroika* as evidence of reform and as ushering in a new period of Soviet history not unlike the post-Stalin Thaw. What blinded many public intellectuals was what they only later came to see later: Gorbachev’s reformism were a symptoms of the failures of the late Soviet system. \n\nThe crux of the matter is that the conventional wisdom of 1989-1991 did not seriously entertain the thought that the Soviet elite would voluntarily disestablish its own power base, the Soviet state. Although the Communist Party was no longer had as many barriers to its membership as in earlier Soviet periods, belonging to the Party still was the major glue within the state and administrative apparatuses of the USSR. To democratize the Soviet political system would be to end this monopoly on power. Again, historical precedents made this option seem very unlikely. The 1989 Tiananmen Square crackdown led many commentators to believe that the Communist systems were predicated upon force if put to the wall. In a 22 December 1990 *New York Times* editorial, Richard Pipes incorrectly maintained that Gorbachev had sided with Communist hardliners within the military and KGB:\n\n > The right-wingers -- that is, the generals, the K.G.B. establishment and the nomenklatura of the party -- are moving into a position of authority and forcing Gorbachev to choose, and he has chosen to go with them. If they win, we will see great restrictions on freedom in the Soviet Union and deterioration in foreign relations, combined with increased military activity. The Soviets will put impediments in the way of concluding and implementing various arms-reduction agreements. The Soviet military budget is likely to increase rather than diminish. *Perestroika* has been finished for some time. Perestroika has achieved its goal, which is to dismantle a totalitarian regime, but it failed in putting anything in its place.\n\nThe collapse of the Warsaw Pact states bolstered this pessimism about the Soviet leadership’s commitment to continued reform and democratization. Again, the conventional wisdom held that the Kremlin had seen what happened when there was too lax of an attitude towards open displays of dissidents. The Baltic states’ votes for independence created less confidence that the Soviet government could manage democratic reforms. The *Wall Street Journal* ran an editorial “Tiananmen in Vilnius” in 27 March 1990 which asserted wither Gorbachev will crackdown or face the destruction of the Soviet state. The use of Soviet special forces in Lithuania in January 1991, which resulted in 13 deaths, seemed to confirm this suspicion. Even the conciliatory attitudes towards Gorbachev were predicated on the common logic that there was a limit to Soviet democratization its leadership would not pass. The *New York Times*’s 8 April 1990 editorial “Lithuania Is Not Tiananmen Square” emphasized that:\n\n > Mr. Gorbachev may or may not be willing to go along with Lithuanian independence at some point. It is obvious that whatever his inner feelings, he has no choice but to oppose Lithuania's unilateral declaration of independence. No Soviet leader's power could survive the destruction of the Soviet empire at this time. But he is a far better bet to allow independence, in time, than any of the Russian nationalists, generals and secret police who probably would succeed him.\n\nRunning throughout many of these editorials is the notion that in some form, the Soviet state would continue, either as a federation or under a Deng-like repression mixed with free-market reforms. The third option, dissolution, was invoked only as the *least* likely alternative that would happen only if the Soviet leadership did not act.\n\nAfter the collapse of the USSR, it became a common trope among some Kremlinologists and Soviet specialists to play the “historians should never predict the future” card. However, there also was a subset of public intellectuals that would retroactively claim an acute foresight, especially those on who fell under the rubric of conservative opposition to the Soviet system, such as Pipes. While there is some truth to this claim, their predictions of the bankruptcy of the Soviet system are there in their writings, it misses the forest for the trees. Rereading the conservative analyses of the Soviet Union, two major elements stick out. One, the Soviet state is militarily far more powerful than it was in reality. Secondly, the conservative critiques presuppose that the USSR’s leadership was far more ideologically united and were bound together by a belief in Communist dictatorship. Both suppositions are pretty far off the mark of Soviet reality; although its military was vast, it was not a pliant instrument and was riven with its own institutional conflicts, and the Soviet leadership was far less cohesive in this period. To acknowledge these prescient insights into Soviet collapse, one has to ignore the statements of shrill pessimism that surround them. \n\nThe long and the short of it is most public intellectuals did not really appreciate the Soviet Union was collapsing and only recognized so after its dissolution was a fact. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7271",
"title": "Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for demise.:Western view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985. The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue into the 21st century. The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one-party rule and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs. The immediate causes for the Soviet Union's dissolution were the policies and thoughts of Mikhail Gorbachev, the CPSU General Secretary. His policies of \"perestroika\" and \"glasnost\" tried to revitalize the Soviet economy and the social and political culture of the country. Throughout his rule, he put more emphasis on democratizing the Soviet Union because he believed it had lost its moral legitimacy to rule. These policies led to the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and indirectly destabilized Gorbachev's and the CPSU's control over the Soviet Union. Archie Brown said:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78366",
"title": "Superpower collapse",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Dramatic changes occurred in the Soviet Union during the 1980s and early 1990s, with \"perestroika\" and \"glasnost\", the dramatic fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, and finally ending in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. As early as 1970, Andrei Amalrik had made predictions of Soviet collapse; Emmanuel Todd made a similar prediction in 1976.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39246077",
"title": "Post–Cold War era",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of the Fall of Communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The collapse of the Soviet Union caused profound changes in nearly every society in the world. Much of the policy and infrastructure of the West and the Eastern Bloc had revolved around the capitalist and communist ideologies respectively and the possibility of a nuclear warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7271",
"title": "Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for demise.:Western view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership. The Soviet Union had always been based on fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations. When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191431",
"title": "Eric Voegelin",
"section": "Section::::Voegelin on Gnosticism.:Spiritual revival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In an essay published in 1965, Voegelin suggested that the Soviet Union would collapse from within because of its historical roots in philosophy and Christianity. Later at an informal talk given at University College, Dublin, Ireland in 1972, Voegelin suggested the Soviet Union might collapse by 1980 because of its failure to succeed in its domestic commitments and external political challenges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3239705",
"title": "Alexander Zinoviev",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical thought.:Sociology.:Death of communism and post-Sovietism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 1473,
"text": "The collapse of Soviet communism was considered a tragedy by Zinoviev. Initially, he believed that restructuring was the wrong answer to the managerial crisis that began as an ideological one. The crisis could have been resolved by Soviet methods, but the leaders of the Soviet Union took it for the crisis of the Soviet system. Therefore, the Restructuring inevitably had to lead to its death. Later, he believed that the main reasons for the collapse of communism were not internal contradictions, but the intervention of Western forces with the help of traitors and collaborators of the fifth column, primarily the Soviet and Russian authorities. Communism was finally destroyed between 1991 and 1993. The West may use some of the merits of communism, but, according to Zinoviev, the fate of the vanquished is obvious: after winning the Cold War, the West will not only destroy Russia, but also erase its memory from history (\"The Global Humant Hill\"). The collapse of communism was dangerous for two reasons: first, the communist system was most suitable for Russia due to the peculiarities of the Russian human material; secondly, the defeat of communism cut off the evolutionary branch opposed to Westernism: from now on, humanity will have no alternative organized into a rigid hierarchical structure. At the same time, Abdusalam Huseynov noted, for Zinoviev, the victory of communism in the Cold War and its worldwide expansion would lead to a much worse scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4584893",
"title": "Revolutions of 1989",
"section": "Section::::Economic reforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 260,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 260,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The collapse of the Soviet Union, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed, led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the standards of living in the 1990s in post-Soviet states and the former Eastern bloc. Even before Russia's financial crisis of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d1m22
|
What was the system for giving African American Slaves or Ex-Slaves second names?
|
[
{
"answer": "Howdy!\n\nThe first census of the United States that attempted to count slaves precisely was the 1850 census. The census wanted the name, age, sex, and color of each person (among other things), which would have us to find the name of slaves in each household. For thirty years before that, there were just numbers. However, a counter-amendment scrubbed that, and only age, sex, and color of each slave was mandated.\n\nNow, there was no system! Long before the United States became a country there were slaves with different surnames from their masters or former masters. Post-Civil War some would choose Lincoln or Freedman, or other educated sounding names. However, the easiest route was the former master's last name, which lead to that becoming the most common option.\n\nIf you didn't choose a surname and were forced to write one down, they would often write the surname of your last master. This was especially true for the Army.\n\nI wish I had a reputable source and not a blog to give to you, but my information comes primarily from institutions and museums in and around the Deep South, especially in Louisiana. In addition, [this](_URL_0_) is a very good source book, albeit expensive unless you buy used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37325952",
"title": "Winder (surname)",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:African-American origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "African Americans, most of whom are descendants of slaves, often used, or were given, the name of their owners. In some Southern states, between one-quarter to one-third of slaves after the American Civil War adopted the surnames of their last owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20557093",
"title": "English Americans",
"section": "Section::::English family names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Many African Americans have their origins in slavery (i.e. slave name). Many of them came to bear the surnames of their former owners. Many freed slaves either created family names themselves or adopted the name of their former master.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72243",
"title": "Surname",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ornamental surname.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "During the era of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade many Africans lost their native names and were forced by their owners to take the owners' surnames and any given name the \"owner\" or slave master desired. In the Americas, the family names of many African-Americans have their origins in slavery (\"i.e.\" slave name). Many of them came to bear the surnames of their former owners. Many freed slaves either created family names themselves or adopted the name of their former master.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2289903",
"title": "Cabildo (Cuba)",
"section": "Section::::Names and origins of Cabildos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Slaves were differentiated by their white owners according to their place of origin, with a variety of different names that identified distinct ethnicities from Africa. The names were corruptions of traditional tribal names devised by the slave owners, but they were soon used by the slaves themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72740",
"title": "Slave name",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A slave name is the personal name given by others to an enslaved person, or a name inherited from enslaved ancestors. The modern use of the term applies mostly to African Americans and West Indians who are descended from enslaved Africans who retain their name given to their ancestors by the enslavers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4060452",
"title": "Portuguese name",
"section": "Section::::Brazilian names.:Brazilian surnames.:Giving Portuguese surnames to Afro-Brazilians and native Brazilians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Until abolition of slavery, slaves did not have surnames, only given names. They were even forbidden to use their distinct African or Native Brazilian names and were christened with a Portuguese given name. While slavery persisted, slaves needed to have distinct names only within the plantation (\"fazenda\" or \"engenho\") to which they belonged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050053",
"title": "Welsh Americans",
"section": "Section::::Southern United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "A particularly large proportion of the African American population has Welsh surnames. Factors leading to this result are predominantly in adopting the surname of their former slave masters. A large number of Welsh Americans settled in the American South and were predominant in the slave trade. Examples of slave plantation owning Americans include American Founding Father Thomas Jefferson. While there were cases of slaves adopting slaveholders' names, there were also Welsh religious groups and anti-slavery groups helping to assist slaves to freedom and evidence of names adopted for this reason. In other situations, slaves took on their own new identity of Freeman, Newman, Liberty, while others choose the surnames of American heroes or founding fathers, which in both cases could have been Welsh in origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qrkof
|
what will pot businesses look like in washington and colorado?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coloradan here. The dispensaries, or medicinal marijuana stores, here are not weird or shady places. Many neighborhoods have multiple dispensaries. The recreational marijuana stores will be modeled after dispensaries. In fact, current medicinal dispensaries will have first dibs on licenses to open recreational stores. A customer will walk into the store and wait in a waiting room until they are next to be served. An employee will make sure the customer is over 21 years old by checking ID. An employee, perhaps the same one, who knows a lot about marijuana use will help the customer determine what product or products they want to buy. Customer A gets a half ounce of marijuana to use over a few weeks because they already know what they want. Customer B gets a recommendation for a specific strain of weed to help him or her fall asleep easier at night. He or she gets a quarter ounce of that and also buys a new vaporizer model to vaporize and inhale the marijuana. \nThese recreational stores will be different from a street dealer or buying from your neighbor because there will be dozens of strains of product available with slightly different effect and there will also be pipes, marijuana-infused baked goods, marijuana drinks, hash (a condensed, smokeable marijuana product), and a number of other marijuana and lifestyle products. When it's time to pay, there will be a 25% excise tax on the price of the recreational marijuana that is in addition to the sales tax of 7 to 8%. A half ounce of medical marijuana is around $90 for premium product here. The recreational marijuana policy makers want the experience to be similar to shopping in a liquor store for marijuana with personalized help.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "412152",
"title": "History of Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Colorado is now 1 of 8 states that have legalized both medical and recreational marijuana, allowing them to tax the product. As of July 2014, six months after recreational shops began sales of marijuana in Colorado, the state has enjoyed a tax revenue of 45 million with 98 million expected by the end of the calendar year. This is in addition to increased economic revenues from \"pot tourists.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "107983",
"title": "Adelanto, California",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "In 2016, marijuana cultivation was considered a possible new source of revenue for the city. The city decided to allow multiple types of marijuana businesses, including cultivation, manufacturing and retail sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5399",
"title": "Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Marijuana and hemp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Colorado is open to cannabis (marijuana) tourism. With the adoption of their 64th state amendment in 2013, Colorado became the first state in the union to legalize the medicinal (2000), industrial (2013), and recreational (2014) use of marijuana. Colorado's marijuana industry sold $1.31 billion worth of marijuana in 2016 and $1.26 billion in the first three quarters of 2017. The state generated tax, fee, and license revenue of $194 million in 2016 on legal marijuana sales. Colorado regulates hemp as any part of the plant with less than 0.3% THC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "108422",
"title": "Antonito, Colorado",
"section": "Section::::History and recent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The area's economy has recently experienced an upsurge with the passage of Colorado's recreational marijuana laws. A 420-friendly town, several recreational marijuana dispensaries have opened within the city limits. Additionally, between summer 2015 and early 2016, 10 new businesses, some marijuana-related and some not, opened their doors to customers in the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "108565",
"title": "Trinidad, Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Current Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Today the local economy is currently experiencing a boom due to the town's location on the highway and its proximity to the state border combined with the fact that recreational marijuana is legal in Colorado. In fact, the town has taken on a new name and that is Weed Town, USA. According to a second news report, \"While the bulk of Colorado's $1.09 billion in 2017 recreational marijuana sales occurred in the state's population hubs of Denver and Arapahoe counties, rural Las Animas County, population 14,083, led the state with more than $3,100 of recreational cannabis sold for every adult and child.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49289423",
"title": "Sirius Minerals",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Founded in 2003, the company initially focused on exploring the potential for potash mining in North Dakota. However, after abandoning attempts at overseas exploration in February 2012 and following approval from the North York Moors National Park Authority in June 2015, the then AIM-listed company stated that it would seek financing in order to begin construction at the Woodsmith Mine in North Yorkshire. It was admitted to the main market in April 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205931",
"title": "Capulalpam de Méndez",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The municipality bottles its natural spring water to sell out of a small plant. Other community enterprises include selling gravel and Eco-tourism ventures (Zip-lining, etc.). There is a history of gold mining in the community but through collective action, the community eradicated the mining companies from their lands. However, the struggle remains relevant to keep the mining corporations out because while the community owns the land, the national government technically owns rights to what is beneath the soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g0ns9w
|
watts vs va
|
[
{
"answer": "For a purely resistive load, like a light bulb or heater, volts times amps equals watts. But many loads are not purely resistive; they can also be capacitive or inductive. By far the most common of the two is inductive: most motors, for example, are inductive loads. These loads consume power but \"return\" some of it without using it. So there's a thing called a \"power triangle\" that shows the relationship between the \"real\" power (measured in watts; this is the actual amount of power consumed), the \"reactive\" power (measure in volt amps reactive; this is the power that gets \"returned\"), and the \"apparent\" power (measured in volt amps: for a purely resistive load, this will match the real power).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will try my first ELI5 answer.\n\nTake your little red wagon, some string, and your little brother and go to the bottom of a small hill. Sit your brother on the wagon and tie one end of the string the string to the handle.\n\nNow, grab the string a short distance from the wagon and slowly walk up the hill, pulling the wagon behind you. Be careful not to jerk or pull too hard.\n\nThe strength the string needs to be, so it does not break while you are steadily dragging the wagon, is the Watts.\n\nThis is slightly like a resistive load like you'd find with a light bulb or a heating element (as others have mentioned)\n\nNow go back to the bottom of the hill. Position the wagon and your little brother in the same place but this time walk back up the hill with the other end of the string.\n\nPull the wagon up the hill hand over hand.\n\nEach pull brings your brother a bit closer and the wagon may even coast a little bit before your next pull.\n\nThis is like an inductive load like in an electric motor or the alternating current in an AC circuit (which 'tugs' 60 times a second).\n\nUnlike when you slowly pulled the wagon up with you, in this case you are tugging repeatedly on the string over and over to get the wagon up the hill. This means the string sometimes needs to be a little bit stronger in order to not break when you pull each time. This is like the Volt-Amps.\n\nThe amount of effort it takes to get you, your wagon, and your brother to the top of the hill is about the same in both cases.\n\nThis is why, in electrical systems, wiring and equipment that needs to handle AC current or feed power to motors, etc, are rated in VA because at certain points in time, they need to handle more. VA is always larger than W in these cases. Situations where there is a steady load VA = W as there is no ‘tugging’.\n\nEdit.. Apologies, I kinda broke rule 4 I think.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "585097",
"title": "Psi Corps",
"section": "Section::::The P scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The P Scale or Psi Scale is a method of measuring telepathic power used by the Psi Corps with lower ratings being more common than higher ones. However, the stronger the telepath's P-level, the more control and discipline is needed, as it becomes much harder to block out the random thoughts and voices of others; a low-ebb background 'noise' is generally heard by all teeps above a P-5 in their own thoughts. Training and careful focus is required to control and quiet down the background noises mentally heard by telepaths. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32517",
"title": "VAX",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The name \"VAX\" originated as an acronym for \"virtual address extension\", both because the VAX was seen as a 32-bit extension of the older 16-bit PDP-11 and because it was (after Prime Computer) an early adopter of virtual memory to manage this larger address space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43554083",
"title": "Vertical auto profile",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The VAP test directly measures and routinely reports all five lipoprotein classes and sub-classes, including LDL, HDL, intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), and lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)]. The VAP technology also measures and reports LDL particle concentration (LDL-P).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46684544",
"title": "VAX Unit of Performance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The VAX Unit of Performance, or VUP for short, is an obsolete measurement of computer performance used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). 1 VUP was equivalent to the performance of a VAX 11/780 completing a given task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7332857",
"title": "Pollutant Standards Index",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The PSI is based on a scale devised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to provide a way for broadcasts and newspapers to report air quality on a daily basis. The PSI has been used in a number of countries including the United States and Singapore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57345365",
"title": "Vista Alternative High School",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "VAHS was designed to support students who are at-risk of dropping out of high school and those who have had difficulties at other schools. VAHS is normally only open to Juniors and Seniors, but in the past few years a small number of Sophomores have been admitted. Daily attendance at the school numbers around 200, allowing for a small school environment and smaller teacher-to-student ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2500759",
"title": "Volt-ampere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Some devices, including uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), have ratings both for maximum volt-amperes and maximum watts. The VA rating is limited by the maximum permissible current, and the watt rating by the power-handling capacity of the device. When a UPS powers equipment which presents a reactive load with a low power factor, neither limit may safely be exceeded. For example, a (large) UPS system rated to deliver 400,000 volt-amperes at 220 volts can deliver a current of 1818 amperes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abnnby
|
Do alcoholics develop kidney stones as often as non-drinkers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good question, I googled and found this:\n\n & #x200B;\n\n > While no direct causality has been found between drinking alcohol and the formation of kidney stones, alcohol can contribute to increased risk for the formation of stones through a variety of avenues. Beer and grain alcohol have an especially high purine count. Purines are chemical compounds that can result in uric acid kidney stones. Uric acid is normally released from the body in the urine, but the presence of excessive purines can lead to the accumulation of the acid and eventually result in a kidney stone. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nYou can read [here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38074",
"title": "Kidney stone disease",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "There are no conclusive data demonstrating a cause-and-effect relationship between alcoholic beverage consumption and kidney stones. However, some people have theorized that certain behaviors associated with frequent and binge drinking can lead to dehydration, which can, in turn, lead to the development of kidney stones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38074",
"title": "Kidney stone disease",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Although kidney stones do not often occur in children, the incidence is increasing. These stones are in the kidney in two thirds of reported cases, and in the ureter in the remaining cases. Older children are at greater risk independent of sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38074",
"title": "Kidney stone disease",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Kidney stones can result from an underlying metabolic condition, such as distal renal tubular acidosis, Dent's disease, hyperparathyroidism, primary hyperoxaluria, or medullary sponge kidney. 3–20% of people who form kidney stones have medullary sponge kidney.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1716876",
"title": "Glycogen storage disease type I",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Kidney effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Kidneys are usually 10 to 20% enlarged with stored glycogen. This does not usually cause clinical problems in childhood, with the occasional exception of a Fanconi syndrome with multiple derangements of renal tubular reabsorption, including proximal renal tubular acidosis with bicarbonate and phosphate wasting. However, prolonged hyperuricemia can cause uric acid nephropathy. In adults with GSD I, chronic glomerular damage similar to diabetic nephropathy may lead to renal failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22544",
"title": "Common ostrich",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:System overview.:Kidney function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1965,
"text": "Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large, and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily, and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn, that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water when drinking water is scarce within the kidney system. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake, and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm, and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm, and a urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d to only 0.3–0.5 L·d.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38074",
"title": "Kidney stone disease",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "As with adults, most pediatric kidney stones are predominantly composed of calcium oxalate; struvite and calcium phosphate stones are less common. Calcium oxalate stones in children are associated with high amounts of calcium, oxalate, and magnesium in acidic urine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38074",
"title": "Kidney stone disease",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The lifetime risk is about 10 to 15% in the developed world, but can be as high as 20 to 25% in the Middle East. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50% lower in calcium and 250% higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. In the Middle East, uric acid stones are more common than calcium-containing stones. The number of deaths due to kidney stones is estimated at 19,000 per year being fairly consistent between 1990 and 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33wgud
|
if a nuclear bomb were being tested, and it didn't go off... how is it approached and dismantled?
|
[
{
"answer": "Chances are they'd shoot another (small and conventional) bomb at it to blast it into tiny, no-longer explodable pieces, then pick those up and dispose of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A nuclear bomb is typically set off by a conventional bomb. If the conventional bomb portion failed to fire, they would defuse it just like any other bomb. If the nuclear portion failed to go off, the conventional bomb portion would have scattered the radioactive material all over, so they would have to go recover that material before it poisoned anyone nearby.\n\nDuring the development of nuclear weapons at [White Sands Missile Range](_URL_0_) in New Mexico, they actually built a gigantic container, called [Jumbo](_URL_1_), to catch the nuclear material should the bomb fail to detonate correctly. They were confident that the conventional part would fire, because at that point we had plenty of experience with \"normal\" bombs and didn't doubt it would fire. They were worried that the nuclear portion wouldn't detonate. In the end, though, they didn't use Jumbo, because by the time they were ready to fire they were confident that the nuclear portion would detonate.\n\n > Fears of a fizzle led to the construction of a steel containment vessel called Jumbo that could contain the plutonium, allowing it to be recovered, but Jumbo was not used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "640040",
"title": "10.5 (miniseries)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Part 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Five of the six nuclear bombs have been successfully installed, but during the installation of the sixth, an earthquake occurs, and a warhead is lost. Nolan tries to set it manually, but is pinned by the warhead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20036040",
"title": "A World at War",
"section": "Section::::Research & Production.:Atomic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Only Germany, the US and Russia may research the atomic bomb, and this takes several stages, including controlled reaction and either plutonium production or uranium separation. Success creates a bomb 2-6 turns later, and another every 2 turns thereafter. An atomic bomb may be delivered by bomber, or by rocket or by a German submarine (for either of which a very high research result is needed). An atomic attack on an objective does at least 25 BRPs damage; under some circumstances tactical attacks, where the bomb is deemed to be used on the ground in a battle, may also be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988541",
"title": "1958 Tybee Island mid-air collision",
"section": "Section::::The bomb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1410,
"text": "Some sources describe the bomb as a functional nuclear weapon, but others describe it as disabled. If the bomb had a plutonium nuclear core installed, it was a fully functional weapon. If the bomb had a dummy core installed, it was incapable of producing a nuclear explosion but could still produce a conventional explosion. The 12-foot (4 m) long Mark 15 bomb weighs and bears the serial number 47782. It contains of conventional high explosives and highly enriched uranium. The Air Force maintains that the bomb's nuclear capsule, used to initiate the nuclear reaction, was removed before its flight aboard B-47. As noted in the Atomic Energy Commission \"Form AL-569 Temporary Custodian Receipt (for maneuvers)\", signed by the aircraft commander, the bomb contained a simulated 150-pound cap made of lead. However, according to 1966 Congressional testimony by then Assistant Secretary of Defense W.J. Howard, the Tybee Island bomb was a \"complete weapon, a bomb with a nuclear capsule,\" and one of two weapons lost by that time that contained a plutonium trigger. Nevertheless, a study of the Strategic Air Command documents indicates that in February 1958, Alert Force test flights (with the older Mark 15 payloads) were not authorized to fly with nuclear capsules on board. Such approval was pending deployment of safer \"sealed-pit nuclear capsule\" weapons, which did not begin deployment until June 1958.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37630",
"title": "Neutron bomb",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Although neutron bombs are commonly believed to \"leave the infrastructure intact\", with current designs that have explosive yields in the low kiloton range, detonation in (or above) a built-up area would still cause a sizable degree of building destruction, through blast and heat effects out to a moderate radius, albeit considerably less destruction, than when compared to a standard nuclear bomb of the \"exact\" same total energy release or \"yield\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860737",
"title": "Little Feller (nuclear tests)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "All further tests were conducted under ground, in accordance with the Partial Test Ban Treaty. An additional footnote is Operation Roller Coaster. Although this later series of tests involved no true nuclear detonation, they did disperse radioactive material using conventional explosives and thus may alternatively be considered the last aboveground nuclear test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30598480",
"title": "Project 56 (nuclear test)",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "These experiments were safety tests, the purpose of which were to determine whether a weapon or warhead damaged in an accident would detonate with a nuclear yield, even if some or all of the high explosive components burned or detonated.National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office, \"Plutonium Dispersal Tests at the Nevada Test Site\", April 2010, DOE/NV-1046 The procedure for these tests was to fault the test bomb by removing a detonator wire, or perhaps all but one, for example, possibly enhancing the weapon with extra initiators or an especially enriched core, and then to fire the weapon normally (see Warhead design safety). If there is any nuclear yield in the firing, then the test is deemed a failure from a safety standpoint. A successful test will measure only the chemical explosive in the test bomb exploding, which still, of course, blasts the bomb core and causes the core material to be spread over a wide area if the test is in open air, as all the \"Project 56\" tests were.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40536771",
"title": "Muon tomography",
"section": "Section::::Muon scattering tomography.:Non-proliferation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in any environments. Tools such as muon tomography can help to stop the spread of nuclear material before it is armed into a weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
irf18
|
Will bacteria always find a way to become resistant in the end?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's kind of like saying will human skin ever become resistant to bullets. I don't know too much about cold plasma, but if it perforates the membrane like alcohol does, then there's not really any individual mutation (to my knowledge) that can account for slightly higher survivability among certain bacteria within a population.\n\nDisclaimer: I do not have a PHD.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Is it scientifically possible that this method could create plasma resistant bacteria? \n\n\nI assume you are referring to [this](_URL_1_) article, or a similar one.\n\nQuote from the article:\n\n > Importantly we have shown that plasma is able to kill bacteria growing in biofilms in wounds, **although thicker biofilms show some resistance to treatment**\n\nSo, given this statement, I might ask you: if this actually becomes a regularly used treatment, what do **you** think will happen?\n__________________\nAlso, as far as I can tell, the treatment could only be used for surface infections where you can physically get the torch in position over a localized infection. Perhaps you could go in surgically for internal infections? I'm decidedly not a medical doctor, so I really don't know.\n\nIf it is the case that you could only use it for infections that are easily accesible from without, then that seriously cuts down the number of applications this technology has. This could also mean that the selection pressure exerted by the treatment might be a lot smaller than that exerted by antibiotics, and thus it could take a lot longer for resistance to evolve.\n\n*edit: My obvious implication above was that if thicker biofilms offered some resistance, then thicker biofilms would evolve, and the bacteria could become resistant to the treatment. In [this](_URL_0_) article, however, one of the researchers is alleged to have claimed that bacteria could not develop resistance. The relevant quote:*\n\n > *Eventually, plasma treatments could represent a better option than antibiotics, because microbes will not be able to build up resistance, Ermolaeva said.*\n\n*Perhaps that's true. Then again, one should always be wary when researcher make claims about how effective their solutions to certain problem are, **especially** in medical contexts. I don't really know myself, but I would never count evolution out. It's absolutely unbelievable some of the adaptations living things have come up with.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add into the conversation, bacteria does not *become* resistant. When you use an antibiotic, the ones that are susceptible will die off, but here's the catch: the bacteria that survived already were resistant, before that antibiotics even existed. So the remaining organisms never *became* resistant, they always were, and since they were the only left, they are left free to reproduce, propagating the specific configuration that allows it to stay alive in face of such and such antibiotics. Minor differences in the genetic make up of bacteria allows them to be resistant, right from start, and not \"become\" resistant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. Obviously if you find an entire population and kill them, they can't \"find a way to become resistant.\" They'd just be dead and gone. Of course, that doesn't preclude other bacteria from simply replacing that population/species/what have you with a similar set of genes/characteristics. And it can be damn tricky to kill them all at one go, but it's definitely within the realm of possibility.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041856",
"title": "Porin (protein)",
"section": "Section::::Antibiotic resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "However, due to selective pressure, bacteria can develop resistance through mutations in the porin gene. The mutations may lead to a loss of porins, resulting in the antibiotics having a lower permeability or being completely excluded from transport. These changes have contributed to the global emergence of antibiotic resistance, and an increase in mortality rates from infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478185",
"title": "Disinfectant",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "There are arguments for creating or maintaining conditions that are not conducive to bacterial survival and multiplication, rather than attempting to kill them with chemicals. Bacteria can increase in number very quickly, which enables them to evolve rapidly. Should some bacteria survive a chemical attack, they give rise to new generations composed completely of bacteria that have resistance to the particular chemical used. Under a sustained chemical attack, the surviving bacteria in successive generations are increasingly resistant to the chemical used, and ultimately the chemical is rendered ineffective. For this reason, some question the wisdom of impregnating cloths, cutting boards and worktops in the home with bactericidal chemicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28335087",
"title": "Toxin-antitoxin system",
"section": "Section::::Biological functions.:Antimicrobial persistence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "When bacteria are challenged with antibiotics, a small and distinct subpopulation of cells is able to withstand the treatment by a phenomenon dubbed as \"persistence\" (not to be confused with resistance). Due to their bacteriostatic properties, type II toxin-antitoxin systems have previously been thought to be responsible for persistence, by switching a fraction of the bacterial population to a dormant state. However, this hypothesis has been widely invalidated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "541592",
"title": "Broad-spectrum antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Risks.:Antimicrobial resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Some bacteria have developed resistance to multiple antibiotics, so-called \"superbugs.\" Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one example, and can be life-threatening without the appropriate therapy. Other examples of emerging resistant organisms include vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" carbapenemase (KPC), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing E coli (ESBL).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1914",
"title": "Antimicrobial resistance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Resistance arises through one of three mechanisms: natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. All classes of microbes can develop resistance. Fungi develop antifungal resistance. Viruses develop antiviral resistance. Protozoa develop antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria develop antibiotic resistance. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations. However, extended use of antimicrobials appears to encourage selection for mutations which can render antimicrobials ineffective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cqtd1h
|
what causes bond interest rates to fluctuate?
|
[
{
"answer": "The more you want a bond, the less the government has to pay you in interest to buy it. How much do I have to pay you per day to pick up dog poop? A lot. Now how much do I have to pay you per day to pet kittens? Very little, because everyone wants to pet kittens! If everyone wants a 10-year bond, they don't need to lure you into buying it by promising a huge interest rate - they already have your excitement to have one.\n\nTo take your question a step further, WHY does someone want a 10-year bond? Or a 2-year bond? It's a safe place to store your money and still get paid some interest in the process (as opposed to a bank account or under your mattress, which pays you essentially nothing). The problem is that more people want a bond that lasts for 10 years than one that lasts for 2 years. Crazy, right? Why would you rather have a bond that doesn't pay you back your original amount for 10 years than one that pays you back in two years? Because more and more, people are convinced that the economy will be terrible in two years, but will be back to normal in 10 years. By buying 10 year bonds, they're guaranteeing themselves that nice little interest rate for 10 years, rather than just two - in case things turn bad in two years and there are no more good interest rates available.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "93768",
"title": "Government bond",
"section": "Section::::Risks.:Interest rate risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Interest rate changes can affect the value of a bond. If the interest rates fall, then the bond prices rise and if the interest rates rise, bond prices fall. When interest rates rise, bonds are more attractive because investors can earn higher coupon rate, thereby holding period risk may occur. Interest rate and bond price have negative correlation. Lower fixed-rate bond coupon rates meaning higher interest rate risk and higher fixed-rate bond coupon rates meaning lower interest rate risk. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60737",
"title": "Bond (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Investing in bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fixed rate bonds are subject to \"interest rate risk\", meaning that their market prices will decrease in value when the generally prevailing interest rates rise. Since the payments are fixed, a decrease in the market price of the bond means an increase in its yield. When the market interest rate rises, the market price of bonds will fall, reflecting investors' ability to get a higher interest rate on their money elsewhere — perhaps by purchasing a newly issued bond that already features the newly higher interest rate. This does not affect the interest payments to the bondholder, so long-term investors who want a specific amount at the maturity date do not need to worry about price swings in their bonds and do not suffer from interest rate risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16436684",
"title": "Inverse floating rate note",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "As short-term interest rates fall, both the market price and the yield of the inverse floater increase. This link often magnifies the fluctuation in the bond's price. However, in the opposite situation, when short-term interest rates rise, the value of the bond can drop significantly, and holders of this type of instrument may end up with a security that pays little interest and for which the market will pay very little. Thus, interest rate risk is magnified and contains a high degree of volatility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8421588",
"title": "Amortizing loan",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- Interest rate risk: A secondary effect is that amortization reduces the duration of the debt, reducing the debt's sensitivity to interest rate risk, as compared to debt with the same maturity and coupon rate. This is because there are smaller payments in the future, so the weighted-average maturity of the cash flows is lower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2029112",
"title": "Bond market",
"section": "Section::::Volatility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "But participants who buy and sell bonds before maturity are exposed to many risks, most importantly changes in interest rates. When interest rates increase, the value of existing bonds falls, since new issues pay a higher yield. Likewise, when interest rates decrease, the value of existing bonds rises, since new issues pay a lower yield. This is the fundamental concept of bond market volatility—changes in bond prices are inverse to changes in interest rates. Fluctuating interest rates are part of a country's monetary policy and bond market volatility is a response to expected monetary policy and economic changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849779",
"title": "Bond convexity",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical definition.:How bond duration changes with a changing interest rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "As the interest rate increases, the present value of longer-dated payments declines in relation to earlier coupons (by the discount factor between the early and late payments). However, bond price also declines when interest rate increases, but changes in the present value of sum of each coupons times timing (the numerator in the summation) are larger than changes in the bond price (the denominator in the summation). Therefore, increases in r must decrease the duration (or, in the case of zero-coupon bonds, leave the unmodified duration constant). Note that the modified duration D differs from the regular duration by the factor one over 1+r (shown above), which also decreases as r is increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21326076",
"title": "Bond vigilante",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In the bond market, prices move inversely to yields. When investors perceive that inflation risk or credit risk is rising they demand higher yields to compensate for the added risk. As a result, bond prices fall and yields rise, which increases the net cost of borrowing. The term references the ability of the bond market to serve as a restraint on the government's ability to over-spend and over-borrow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2u26yk
|
why doesnt your soda get "shaken up" when it falls out of the vending machine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two reasons that both contribute:\n\n1) The vending machine acts as a fridge, and at a colder temperature the CO2 gas requires more force to seperate from the liquid\n\nBut more importantly:\n\n2) The \"drop\" you see in these machines isn't as dramatic as you may think. There are [columns](_URL_0_) of each different type of drink and the bottom drink (the one next in line when the consumer selects that drink) has a 5-10cm fall to the slanted surface that brings the drink to them. \n\nThe ~~kinetic energy~~ forces acting upon it during the 5-10cm fall and sliding down the slant is barely more than how much you impart when you put the drink down, so it doesn't get shaken up that much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda siphons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas, and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838101",
"title": "Soda jerk",
"section": "Section::::Origin of term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The term \"soda jerk\" was a pun on \"soda clerk\", the formal job title of the drugstore assistants who operated soda fountains. It was inspired by the \"jerking\" action the server would use to swing the soda fountain handle back and forth when adding the soda water. The soda fountain spigot itself typically was a sturdy, shiny fixture on the end of a pipe or other similar structure protruding above the counter, curving towards where the glasses would be filled. All of the drinks were made with unflavored carbonated water. Consequently, the tap handle was large, as the soda jerker would use it frequently. This made the mixing of drinks a center of activity at the soda fountain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41205461",
"title": "Small Town Sheriff",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Not knowing what to do after his car was stolen, the man comes to a soft drink stand operated by a black civet. Despite the stand being labelled \"soda\", the beverages served there seem to give customers depressant-like effects such as drowsiness. The man orders a soda bottle, but is unable to open it. As an alternative, the civet offers soda in a glass. Upon drinking the beverage, he starts to twitch and lose consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154665",
"title": "Vortex",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Stability in a vortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The vortices that you create becomes more stable after you stop shaking the container because as you shake the forces acting on the whole fluid are uneven. When you stop shaking the cup or put it down on a surface, the vortex is able to evenly distribute force to the liquid. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41894112",
"title": "BreakMate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The BreakMate was a three-flavor soda fountain for The Coca-Cola Company developed in the 1980s in conjunction with BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte. Its compartment held three one-liter plastic containers of syrup and a CO tank, which mixed the water and syrup into a 5:1 ratio, with a reservoir for water for storage if water was not accessible for the machine. Designed for offices of between 5-50 employees, the machine was deemed a commercial flop due to unforeseen complications in cost and parts. In 2007, Coca-Cola stopped supplying parts, and in 2010 the company finally stopped supplying syrup for the machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1692026",
"title": "Crown cork",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Prior to the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, soda bottles had ordinary cork bottle stoppers and often had rounded bottoms so they could not be stored standing upright. The reason for this is corks have a tendency to dry out and shrink, which allows the gas pressure in the bottle to cause the cork to \"pop.\" Storing bottles on their side prevents the corks from drying out and \"popping.\" After the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, this problem was eliminated, and soda bottles could be stored standing upright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7211838",
"title": "Pop pop boat",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The operation of the pop pop boat may seem surprising, since one might expect that if water is going in and out through the exhaust tube, the boat should merely shake back and forth. But while the water pushed out carries away with it momentum, which must be balanced (by Newton's third law) by an opposite momentum on the part of the boat, the water sucked in quickly impinges on the boiler tank and transfers its momentum to the boat. The initial reaction force on the boat (which would pull it backwards) is therefore cancelled by the pushing of the water when it hits the inside of the boiler. The result is that the inflow of water causes no appreciable force on the boat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vo2c9
|
What is the evolutionary background behind Temperature Dependent Sex Determination?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would be curious if the lizards realize temperature affected sex. Like would they intentionally control for more females if populations were dwindling. Or for more males if predators were a problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let me preface that while I'm a grad student of evolutionary bio, my understanding of the topic is relatively shallow and half of what I'm saying is just an educated guess.\n\n\nWhy mostly reptiles? Well, consider the environment of the developing embryo. TSD would make sense for organisms that develop at variable temperatures. This rules out mammals that develop within a constant-temperature environment (inside the mother). Birds can be ruled out too, as birds are homeothermic, so eggs are incubated at a constant temperature. Reptiles don't incubate eggs and thus develop in a variable environment that could allow evolution of TSD.\n\n\nHow did it evolve? Systems of sexual differentiation are evolutionarily flexible. All it takes is the introduction of a new mechanism to cause differential activation of the developmental pathways that lead to \"male\" or \"female\" development. For reptiles, even if sex chromosomes existed ancestrally, a new system could be take over if it's epistatic to the first.\n\n\nBut why would TSD be more fit than genetic sex determination? (otherwise it wouldn't be likely to become fixed)? I don't think there's a specific consensus about that. It could be that sex-specific fitness is correlated with the environment, and temperature can be a cue. The following is just an example, not based on anything specific: Say it's more beneficial to be born early in the season (when it's cooler) if you're a male, so you can grow larger before competitors, but better to be a female later in the season (when it's warmer) when predators are rarer. This could favor TSD where males develop at cooler incubation temperatures, and females at warmer incubation temperatures.\n\n\nWhy is it opposite in turtles? No clue. I remember reading about red-ear slider turtles and how TSD is correlated with epigenetic changes (methylation I think) to promoters (I think?) for aromatase, which converts testosterone to estrogen. Opposite patterns could easily be achieved by these changes occuring in silencers vs promoters/enhancers, so that the same temperature cue in one organism results in either constitutive (or enhanced) aromatase expression, or silencing of expression.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly, there's some idea that temperature dependent sex determination is the ancestral state, and that other forms of sex determination evolved from that. The idea is that sex is most useful in times of environmental stress (ie the chances of passing on genes is better if they are mixed with lots of other genes in a really diverse set). But there's still a lot of research being done on the origins of sex and sex differentiation (note that these are also separate questions, since organisms can produce both gametes as well). \n\nUnfortunately, I got most of this from a lecture so I don't have a citation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Also, why is the TSD pattern in turtles the opposite from crocodiles and lizards?\n\nI did some work with TSD as an undergrad, and my professor explained this to me. Nobody knows for sure, but here's a hypothesis.\n\n[This image](_URL_0_) from Wikipedia shows two different patterns of TSD. Pattern I shows turtles, a reversed Pattern I would represent most lizards and crocodilians. They seem completely opposite. But some reptiles (American alligator & leopard gecko, according to Wikipedia) show Pattern II, where especially cold or hot temperatures create females and median temperatures create males.\n\nThese patterns are genetically determined, and can shift up or down, stretch or compress. It's easy to see how turtles could have shifted their TSD pattern leftward (toward lower temps) to create what looks like Pattern I. Crocs and lizards could have done the same in the opposite direction. The \"other side\" of the pattern may still exist in these groups, but at temperatures they would never encounter naturally, or which would be dangerous for the embryos.\n\nThis, by the way, suggests part of an answer to\n > why it is restricted to mostly reptiles\n\nTSD depends on reptiles' body temperature as embryos. It only works if embryos can develop properly at a range of body temperatures, which reptiles can do. Their physiologies work fairly well at various temperatures. Not so in some other groups. Warm-blooded animals such as mammals and birds have bodies finely tuned to work at a specific temperature. If our own internal body temperature changes even a few degrees, we either have a fever or hypothermia, either of which can be very bad. Even some fish, which are cold-blooded, remain at basically the same temperature because the water of their habitats don't change much, so they are sensitive to changes in body temp.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "though several people have given good information about how the biological process works and why it is restricted to reptiles, I notice that no one has yet used the word 'spandrel'.\n\nSo in answer to the question of why this would evolve: it's probably a spandrel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you figure it out it's an easy PhD. Currently there is no answer and probably isn't a good cookie-cutter answer that has to do with fitness. It is logistically hard to test because you can only take eggs once a year to run experiments on. It is entirely possible that TSD did not evolve to aid fitness of the species and is a side effect of some other process. Like you said, red eared sliders are opposite of alligators, and I think leopard geckos can produce females at extremes. I'm sure somewhere an individual turtle species is the opposite of red-eared sliders. Try to apply a theory to one species and realizing it is contradicted by another makes there seem to be no direct apparent rhyme or reason to having a sex pop out at a particular incubation temperature. Fun fact, if you incubate at certain temperatures 50% will be male, 50% female, and all ratios in between depending on which direction you go. You can even take one egg out of a batch that is incubated at a 100% female temperature and turn the gonads back to male (there is a point of no return and also intersex is possible).\n\nIn general scientists and PhD seekers are just trying to elucidate the molecular pathway for the sake of science (and let's be honest-further NIH grants are needed to eat). The endgame isn't so much about fitting it into evolution and fitness. So yes, I mean your question reminds me of my mindset and how I thought after learning the general theory and examples taught in Bio: Intro to Genetics. That is how clean science CAN be but science rarely can be boiled down to something as meaningful and/or obvious. \n\nSource: Aborted 100's of turtles/geckos/alligators during varying stages of development and incubation temperatures to harvest tissue for experiments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49414",
"title": "Sex-determination system",
"section": "Section::::Environmental systems.:Temperature-dependent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "It is unknown how exactly temperature-dependent sex determination evolved. It could have evolved through certain sexes being more suited to certain areas that fit the temperature requirements. For example, a warmer area could be more suitable for nesting, so more females are produced to increase the amount that nest next season. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9975050",
"title": "Temperature-dependent sex determination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) is a type of environmental sex determination in which the temperatures experienced during embryonic/larval development determine the sex of the offspring. It is only observed in reptiles and teleost fish. TSD differs from the chromosomal sex-determination systems common among vertebrates. It is the most popular and most studied type of environmental sex determination (ESD). Some other conditions, e.g. density, pH, and environmental background color, are also observed to alter sex ratio, which could be classified either as temperature-dependent sex determination or temperature-dependent sex differentiation, depending on the involved mechanisms. As sex-determining mechanisms, TSD and genetic sex determination (GSD) should be considered in an equivalent manner, which can lead to reconsidering the status of fish species that are claimed to have TSD when submitted to extreme temperatures instead of the temperature experienced during development in the wild, since changes in sex ratio with temperature variation are ecologically and evolutionally relevant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9975050",
"title": "Temperature-dependent sex determination",
"section": "Section::::Adaptive significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "\"Temperature sex determination could allow the mother to determine the sex of her offspring by varying the temperature of the nest in which her eggs are incubated. However, there is no evidence thus far that sex ratio is manipulated by parental care.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49414",
"title": "Sex-determination system",
"section": "Section::::Environmental systems.:Temperature-dependent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1699,
"text": "Many other sex-determination systems exist. In some species of reptiles, including alligators, some turtles, and the tuatara, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated during a temperature-sensitive period. There are no examples of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in birds. Megapodes had formerly been thought to exhibit this phenomenon, but were found to actually have different temperature-dependent embryo mortality rates for each sex. For some species with TSD, sex determination is achieved by exposure to hotter temperatures resulting in the offspring being one sex and cooler temperatures resulting in the other. This type of TSD is called \"Pattern I\". For others species using TSD, it is exposure to temperatures on both extremes that results in offspring of one sex, and exposure to moderate temperatures that results in offspring of the opposite sex, called \"Pattern II\" TSD. The specific temperatures required to produce each sex are known as the female-promoting temperature and the male-promoting temperature. When the temperature stays near the threshold during the temperature sensitive period, the sex ratio is varied between the two sexes. Some species' temperature standards are based on when a particular enzyme is created. These species that rely upon temperature for their sex determination do not have the SRY gene, but have other genes such as DAX1, DMRT1, and SOX9 that are expressed or not expressed depending on the temperature. The sex of some species, such as the Nile tilapia, Australian skink lizard, and Australian dragon lizard, is initially determined by chromosomes, but can later be changed by the temperature of incubation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33928201",
"title": "Behavior mutation",
"section": "Section::::Behavioural degradation under spontaneous mutation accumulation.:Sex-ratio behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1432,
"text": "The study of sex allocation has provided some of the most convincing tests of adaptive behaviour. Theory predicts that organisms can adjust the allocation of resources to male and female offspring in response to environmental conditions. Sex ratio behaviour is the sex ratio response of a female in various conditions. Mutation accumulation is important because it is one evolutionary cause that increases variation between individuals in sex-ratio behaviour. For example, female wasps can adjust their offspring sex ratios by choosing whether to fertilize an egg because they are haplodiploid. In particular, female \"Nasonia vitripennis\" produce less males when laying eggs alone, and more males when laying eggs on a patch with other females. If female parasitoid wasps produce too few male offspring, then some of the female offspring will remain unmated. On the other hand, if too many sons are produced, then resources are wasted that could have been used to produce more daughters. Females of other strains show no similar conditional sex ratio behaviours. Researchers find that these behaviours are indeed subject to genetic variation. However, genetic variation in natural population is low and it has low heritability as for other fitness-related traits. The observation of this type of behavioural mutation has been argued to pose a problem for sex-ratio theory because the mutations are likely to have decreased fitness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7286999",
"title": "Common house gecko",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "There is some weak evidence to suggest a trend towards higher temperature for females, which has an evolutionary advantage of increasing the speed of egg development. However, there fails to any statistically significant data to support this. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2686634",
"title": "Polyphenism",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sex determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Sex-determining polyphenisms allow a species to benefit from sexual reproduction while permitting an unequal gender ratio. This can be beneficial to a species because a large female-to-male ratio maximizes reproductive capacity. However, temperature-dependent sex determination (as seen in crocodiles) limits the range in which a species can exist, and makes the species susceptible to endangerment by changes in weather pattern. Temperature-dependent sex determination has been proposed as an explanation for the extinction of the dinosaurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vreyb
|
What are the chances that a ray, if projected outwards in a random direction, will hit a planet before it exits the observable Universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you assume that the ray doesn't diffract and stays the same size like a laser beam I would estimate that the chances are as close to zero as you can get.\n\nIf it does diffract and spread out - like the beam from a flashlight then the probability becomes almost 100%",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say that there's a planet every 5 light years (an overestimation, certainly), and let's say that planet is the size of jupiter. For objects much smaller than their distance away, the angular size is approximately the diameter of the object/distance to the object. So let's take the infinite sum (diam/dist+diam/dist\\*2 +diam/dist\\*3 +...) = diam/dist( 1 + 1/2 +1/3 +...). Now the following sum is divergent (meaning it doesn't terminate if there are infinitely many terms), so let's assume that we stop counting planets within the radius of our galaxy (and assume that additional planets represent a finite series of truly pointlike sums (thus summing to no additional angular area). So 250,000 ly/5ly = 50,000 terms in the series, which is the 50,000th Harmonic number, about 11.4, so diam/dist*11.4\n\nNow the solid angle subtended by that angle is 2\\*pi(1-cos(theta)). Now for these ridiculously small angles, cos(theta) ~ 1-theta, so 2\\*pi(1-1+cos(theta)~ 2\\*pi\\*diam/dist\\*11.4. \n\nSo throwing that into wolfram alpha, I get about 2.1 \\* 10^-7 steradians. A whole sphere is 4 pi steradians, so with these **vast** overassumptions, we show that planets cover about (5/3)\\*10^-8 of the sky, so ***no more than about .000001667%***",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29459180",
"title": "Stellar collision",
"section": "Section::::Stellar collisions and the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Our star will likely not be directly affected by such an event, but the Earth may be easily affected by a nearby collision. Astronomers say that if a stellar collision happens within 100 light years of the Earth, the resulting gamma-ray burst could possibly destroy all life on Earth. This is still very unlikely though because there are no stellar clusters this close to the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Galactic interaction.:Galactic collision and planetary disruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:The right location in the right kind of galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Gravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. Hence the further a planet lies from the Galactic Center or a spiral arm, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide which could extinguish all complex life on a planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647505",
"title": "Strangelet",
"section": "Section::::Natural or artificial occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "These scenarios offer possibilities for observing strangelets. If there are strangelets flying around the universe, then occasionally a strangelet should hit Earth, where it would appear as an exotic type of cosmic ray. If strangelets can be produced in high-energy collisions, then they might be produced by heavy-ion colliders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10877467",
"title": "Gliese 581c",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Radius.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "If the planet transits the star as seen from our direction, the radius should be measurable, albeit with some uncertainty. Unfortunately, measurements made with the Canadian-built MOST space telescope indicate that transits do not occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7901784",
"title": "Andromeda–Milky Way collision",
"section": "Section::::Fate of the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Two scientists with the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics stated that when, and even whether, the two galaxies collide will depend on Andromeda's transverse velocity. Based on current calculations they predict a 50% chance that in a merged galaxy, the Solar System will be swept out three times farther from the galactic core than its current distance. They also predict a 12% chance that the Solar System will be ejected from the new galaxy sometime during the collision. Such an event would have no adverse effect on the system and the chances of any sort of disturbance to the Sun or planets themselves may be remote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16091266",
"title": "WR 104",
"section": "Section::::Supernova progenitor.:Effects on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "If these jets happen to be aimed towards our solar system, its consequences could significantly harm life on Earth and its biosphere, whose true impact depends on the amount of radiation received, the number of energetic particles and the source's distance. Knowing that the inclination of the binary system containing WR 104 is roughly 12° relative to line of sight, and assuming both stars have their rotational axes similarly orientated, suggests some potential risk. Recent studies suggest these effects pose a \"highly unlikely\" danger to life on Earth, with which, as stated by Australian astronomer Peter Tuthill, the Wolf-Rayet star would have to undergo an extraordinary string of successive events:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dvm001
|
what is the rationale behind kicking out a business from a strip mall/shopping center and leaving the space to sit for months/years?
|
[
{
"answer": "If it’s empty, they get tax write offs. Maybe they want to empty out the whole place and sell it for multi-family housing development.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4438616",
"title": "ShoppingTown Mall",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "In 2012 a community theater, Central New York Playhouse, opened. This was part of a trend in which local businesses and community groups filled some of the space created by the loss of national retail tenants. Between 2015 and 2016 the mall lost three of its four anchor tenants, Macy's, Dick's Sporting Goods, and J.C. Penney. In February 2015, Moonbeam Capital Investments proposed plans to demolish the Sears wing and turn it into a strip mall. This has been halted indefinitely because of a tax dispute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37294420",
"title": "East Broadway (Manhattan)",
"section": "Section::::Structures and places.:East Broadway Mall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "However, since the 2010s, gentrification has been rapidly increasing in the area, which also has affected the rent prices of the storefront spaces resulting in many of the businesses to move out causing a large influx of them to now be empty and often the new businesses that would take over the spaces would stay only a short period and then close. The mall is now slowly experiencing minor gentrification as there is now currently an art gallery occupying a storefront space by a non Asian occupant.It is also a very similar situation at another mini mall at 75 East Broadway, called in Chinese translation 東方商場, which literally translates in English, East Coast Mall that is right across the street from the East Broadway Mall. These malls that were once very vibrant during the 1990s to 2000s with many Fuzhou customers have now become quieter as there are not as many businesses and the Fuzhou residents in the area are now slowly declining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8185866",
"title": "Greyfield land",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The term has historically been applied to formerly-viable retail and commercial shopping sites (such as regional malls and strip centers) that have suffered from lack of reinvestment and have been \"outclassed\" by larger, better-designed, better-anchored malls or shopping sites. These particular greyfield sites are also referred to as \"dead malls\" or \"ghostboxes\" if the anchor or other major tenants have vacated the premises leaving behind empty shells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2703826",
"title": "Dead mall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Many malls in North America are considered \"dead\" (for the purposes of leasing) when they have no surviving anchor store (often a large department store) or successor that could serve as an entry into or attraction to the mall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25103858",
"title": "Highlands Mall",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "With no anchor tenant for the first time in over 30 years, other businesses at the mall continued to close, leaving the mall a shadow of its former self. Some smaller tenants rented former store space for offices, but the mall now offered very little in the way of choices for retail shoppers. Because of few cars outside the mall, it was assumed during the mall's last few years that it had been closed for some time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37294420",
"title": "East Broadway (Manhattan)",
"section": "Section::::Structures and places.:East Broadway Mall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "There has also been issues where the mall owners have been accused of illegally increasing the rents at very high rates on tenants who have been longtime small businesses as an attempt to gentrify the mall. This resulted in protests against the mall owners. There have been accusations that the mall owners were prejudice against Fuzhou immigrant shopkeepers and threatened to clean them out of the mall. One example was a female tenant named Mei Rong Song, originally paying rent less than $3,000 a month, it increased dramatically to $12,000 in 2008. Mei Rong Song went into disagreement with her new rent rate and began fighting the eviction proceedings in court. In retaliation, the mall’s managers closed Mei Rong Song's heat and water services to her space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56980343",
"title": "Funan DigitaLife Mall",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline and revamp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Due to the popularity of online shopping, business at the mall had been declining over the past few years, forcing tenants to close down. The mall was initially planned to be renovated in 2014. However, it was later slated for demolition. The last day of mall operation was 30 June 2016. All tenants have since relocated and the building was later demolished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mn1bl
|
how does a game like call of duty have practically no online delay at all while when playing a game like nba 2k17, multiplayer modes experience about a full second of delay between when the button is pressed and when the game responds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Err. I haven't noticed this to happen in any online game so thought I'd start with that. \n\nVideo games online don't use much bandwidth so getting a faster connection doesn't really impact them that much. (Unless it comes with better latency)\n\nGames are mostly impacted by latency or ping, this is how long it takes for a piece of information to get from your computer to the host.\n\nSome games select a player with a good connection as a host and others use a central server. \n\nThe graphics are rendered locally with just the information about what movements the players are making sent back and forth. \n\nHaving played NHL, Madden, and NBA 2k I have never noticed long delays. Are you playing one of these games on a computer and the other on TV? Delays in console gaming especially can be very long if your TV isn't in \"game mode\"\n\nMost modern TVs put a 1/2 second delay on what they show so that they can upscale, and insert additional frames to make things look smoother- this obviously negatively impacts gaming. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are mutliple ways of how you setup your networking when implementing networks for a game.\n\nOne of the most important, if not the most important aspect when doing this is if your game uses deterministic lockstep.\n\nWhen using a deterministic lockstep networking model, every action your client wants to do, has to be authorized by the authority of the game session, which in a client-server structure would be the server.\n\nIf you use peer-to-peer the authority of the gamesession would be one of the players who basically runs a server either within the client itself as paralel thread or as a dedicated program which is initiated by the gameclient which is called a child process (the gameclient would be the parent process while the server executable would be the child process).\n\nEitherway, when a gameclient wants to do something, it first has to get an ok from the authority. So you press a button which does the \"pass\" in a basketball game, and before it gets executed the authority will check if you are allowed to do this, and give you an ok if you are. Once the ok arrives, your client starts to execute the pass command you just game.\n\nAs you might already see, latency and server overload might cause the ok message to take a while. And until then, nothing is displayed for you. On the upside is, that what you see, is actually what is considered the correct state of the game... at all times. When you see a certain player holding the ball, you know, that this player hold the ball.\n\nNow there is another common way of doing network, which is predictive networking. As the name suggests your client predicts certain things. Movement for example. You move your character, and the client predicts that the authority does give it's ok, and starts displaying it right away. Or if you do an invalid command like trying to walk through a wall, it will predict that the authority will not give it's ok, and stop your model from going through the wall.\n\nNow the first thing is, with that your current gamestate will always be out of sync unless nothing moves or changes in any way. This often requires the authority to give a bit of leeway. Ever wondered why people can shot you while you were already behind a wall on your screen? Well the authority got a \"hey I shot this guy\" and due to the out of sync nature the authority decided that yes, indeed you got shot as the timeframe in which your client said \"I walked behind this wall\" and the other client said \"I shot this guy\" is within the margin of error. Without that margin of error you might never hit someone, as nobody would be where your client shows them, unless they stand still. And if you for a longer period of time not get updates, your client might run completely out of sync, in which case it needs to be resynced by the latest state from the authority, which is often shown as everyone either moving really fast or teleporting around.\n\nBut on the plus side is, that any action done on your side is immediatly reflected on your screen.\n\nAlso those two might be combined in certain ratios. An example would be Guild Wars 2 which allows predictive movement, but requires determinitis lockstep actions for skills.\n\nWhen you have a lag or a disconnect, you can still move as if nothing happened, and in case of a lag, the server might actually accept your movement if you could have reached that place within the timeframe in which no updates arrived. But at the same time using skills will not work, as you won't get an ok from the server.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7987115",
"title": "EABA",
"section": "Section::::Game Mechanics.:Combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Combat time in V2 is run on an expanding scale, something unique to EABA. In most RPGs, time in combat is broken down into small manageable chunks: a combat turn in GURPS is always one second, for example. A combat round is EABA starts at one second, the next is 2 seconds, then 4, 8, 15, 30, and one minute. The goal is to make time manageable, but also to allow characters to perform complex actions during combat without taking hours of play time to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17933",
"title": "Latency (engineering)",
"section": "Section::::Communication latency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Online games are sensitive to latency (or \"lag\"), since fast response times to new events occurring during a game session are rewarded while slow response times may carry penalties. Due to a delay in transmission of game events, a player with a high latency internet connection may show slow responses in spite of appropriate reaction time. This gives players with low latency connections a technical advantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12070411",
"title": "Lockstep protocol",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "As all players must wait for all commitments to arrive before sending their actions, the game progresses as slowly as the player with the highest latency. Although this may not be noticeable in a turn-based game, real-time online games, such as first person shooters, require much faster reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24985969",
"title": "Kenka Bancho: Badass Rumble",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "In normal mode, the game runs on a 7-day time limit, depending on the players actions, they can earn various endings, the game can then be replayed as a new game plus that carries over everything the player has earned except for their peons. There is also a more casual mode called \"Night Out\". This mode does not have a fixed time limit and allows the player to fight as many opponents as they like before quitting (a quick-play style of mode) however, players are limited to only a few districts, fewer sets of enemies and will not be able to call on peons for help nor be able to sleep to restore health and stamina. Players also will not be able level up in this mode, instead enemies will randomly drop glowing experience orbs known as Bancho Souls (in normal gameplay, leveling up will also allow the player to earn bancho souls) which will allow the player to strengthen their Bancho or sell for cash. Players will find themselves using this mode often as enemies gradually get stronger as the player levels up in normal gameplay not to mention to obtain the various item and money drops to help prepare. This mode can be played with a friend locally via \"ad hoc\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2149333",
"title": "The Hobbit (1982 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Unlike other works of interactive fiction, the game is also in real time, insofar as a period of idleness causes the \"WAIT\" command to be automatically invoked and the possibility of events occurring as a result. This can be suppressed by entering the \"PAUSE\" command, which stops all events until a key is pressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21827711",
"title": "Photo Spot",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Any random attempts to locate the differences will only trigger an annoying buzzer and result in time penalty. However, there are 3 hints available in the game to assist you through some of the difficult level that you would encounter, but by keeping them unused would help you gain bonus score towards the end of each level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296972",
"title": "Konami Code",
"section": "Section::::The Variations Of Konami Code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "A common misconception is that the code ends with Start or Select Start. In many titles, the player must press Start after entering the code in order to start a game, or press Select to switch to two-player mode and then start the game, leading to the confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8cpf94
|
how does saudi arabia make sure all of their expats like engineers, businessman, and english teachers follow their religious laws?
|
[
{
"answer": "It only 'counts' inside the country. If you hang out with Arabs, you quickly learn they are all hypocrites and will happily travel to a less restrictive country where they get to drink and party.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Expats from Saudi Arabia, or those in Saudi Arabia? They have no control over those that have left their country, but for those moving to their country they do have the ability to check their homes, computers, phones, etc for what they deem to be illegal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you are talking about alcohol and clubs, then there is no place to get booze excepts embassies. embassies usually hold parties and alcohol is served there, some is smuggled through. and there are compounds, which pretty much is a different countries inside saudi arabia.\nif you are talking about pornography then there is good old vpn, some saudis might even recommend you something. \nI have asked many foreigners who work in saudi, the worst part is that there is no night time activities like in the western world, and most go to dubai or kuwait or bahrain to have a good time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's hard to wrap your head around if you assume the end goal is maintaining absolute purity of the country & laws are enforced fairly & equally. It's much simpler to understand if you view it as a tool of control.\n\nIf you're a foreigner with money & don't make enemies of the wrong people, you can get away with a lot of things as long as you do them in private. It's only after you piss off the wrong people or are stupid enough to do things publicly that they start coming after you to make an example out of you.\n\nSaudi Arabia isn't a modern Western Liberal Democracy. It's a theocratic absolute monarchy where the royal family literally owns the majority of the country and they aren't bound by pesky details like a \"Constitution\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main rules we had to follow was this: don’t flout the rules publicly. If you were drunk in your home, nobody cared as long as you didn’t sell alcohol to the locals. And don’t be drunk on the street. \n\nDon’t, don’t, don’t get caught drivinf under the influence. \n\nLong sleeve pants were strongly encouraged, but with all the heat out there, it was a great idea anyway! (Bare skin + vinyl car seat in July = PAIN)\n\nMost bigger companies paired the new folks up with a more experienced family who helped get you up to speed with the society’s expectations. Sometimes you got a welcome book from the company, too - giving you advice and guidance on not breaking the laws. \n\nThe mutawwah these days have much less power, you won’t get arrested for inappropriate dress; harassed, sure, but not as bad as before. \n\nAlso, depends on what city you’re in; the coastal cities are more liberal than the central highlands. \n\nYour luggage gets inspected at the airport (well, xrays now) but you’re not followed around. \n\nSource: 20+ years in KSA",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For one, many foreign workers live in special 'compounds'. Basically an area where foreigners live. The best analogy I can think of is like a gated community in the US. So generally, many of the stricter laws don't apply. Like if you're a white American woman working in Saudi, you will probably live on a compound and not have to wear the niqab.\n\nDrugs and alcohol are illegal, but I mean, drugs are illegal in Canada too. People still get drugs and do them. Saudis get drunk too. They also have prostitutes and anything else you can think of. What makes you think Saudi is any different? Yeah, the punishments are harsh and you don't drink in public, but people have their own supply in their own homes. It's risky to get it into the country, like smuggling weed across the US border, but people do it. People also make their own. Saudi is not as religious as people think. Islam has a real concept of hiding your sins. The 'worst' thing you can do is talk about your sins. So people drink, fuck, drugs... and the culture and religious custom is to just not talk about it. Flout the rules publicly and yeah... you will get hit hard. \n\nInternet is something that foreigners are probably not exempt from. im not privvy to their surveillance programs, but i assume they watch all. But like all countries, people use VPNs or other stuff to bypass it. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4149397",
"title": "Catholic Church in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Saudi Arabia allows Catholics and Christians of other denominations to enter the country as foreign workers for temporary work, but does not allow them to practise their faith openly. As a result, Catholics and Christians of other denominations generally only worship in secret within private homes. Items and articles belonging to religions other than Islam are prohibited. These include Bibles, crucifixes, statues, carvings, items with religious symbols, and others, although the government's stated policy was that such items were allowed for private religious purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17752049",
"title": "The Center for Democracy and Human Rights in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Political reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "All levels of Saudi Government should adhere to highest standards of transparency and accountability. The holy shrines in Makkah (Mecca) and Madinah (Medina) should have their own elected governing council with representatives from all Muslim countries. This council’s mandate will be limited to religious affairs and it will have no political influence in the affairs of the Saudi state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349303",
"title": "Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "According to estimates there are about 1,500,000 Christians in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as foreign workers for temporary work, but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. The percentage of Saudi Arabian citizens who are Christians is officially zero, as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (apostasy) and punishes it by death. According to Pew Research Center there are 390,000 Hindus in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243407",
"title": "Education in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Education management system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The education system in Saudi Arabia is primarily under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education and the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training. Other authorities such as the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the Presidency of the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior provide their affiliates and children with education at all levels, consistent with Ministry of Education guidelines. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243407",
"title": "Education in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of the Saudi education system and reform proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The Saudi education system has been criticised. One observation was, \"The country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243407",
"title": "Education in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "When Saudi Arabia formally became a nation in 1932, education was largely limited to instruction for a select few in Islamic schools. Today, public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. The second largest governmental spending in Saudi Arabia goes for education. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8 % of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 4.6%, which is nearly double the global average on education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322743",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an Islamic theocratic absolute monarchy in which Sunni Islam is the official state religion based on firm Sharia law. No law requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government’s interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for noncitizens, deportation. Children born to Muslim fathers are by law deemed Muslim, and conversion from Islam to another religion is considered apostasy and punishable by death. Blasphemy against Sunni Islam is also punishable by death, but the more common penalty is a long prison sentence. According to the U.S. Department of State's 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom, there have been 'no confirmed reports of executions for either apostasy or blasphemy' between 1913 and 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ev7rz
|
mountains are brown, yellow, and green and definitely not blue or purple, yet they look purplish-blue from far away. why is this?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because if they are far away, there's more stuff i.e. atmosphere between you and the mountains and thus it gets a slight bluish tint. It's the same reason why the sky is blue. Blue wavelengths are scattered less easily than red ones so they 'dominate'.\n\nYou'll notice that not only mountains appear bluish at a distance but really everything does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the mountains are really far away the volume of air between you and them is so high that it absorbs most of the visible light of the spectra but the blue light. With other words it is a result of the presence of air and its particular molecular composition. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2476105",
"title": "Greater Blue Mountains Area",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The area is called \"Blue Mountains\" based on the fact that when atmospheric temperature rise, the essential oil of various eucalyptus species evaporates and disperse in the air, then visible blue spectrum of sunlight propagates more than other colours. Therefore, the reflected landscape from mountains seems bluish by human eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17964669",
"title": "Blue Mountains (ecoregion)",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Like the Cascades, but unlike the Northern Rockies, the Blue Mountains are mostly volcanic in origin. However, the core of the Blue Mountains and the highest ranges, the Wallowa and Elkhorn mountains, are composed of granitic intrusives, deep sea sediments, and metamorphosed rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462535",
"title": "Blue Ridge Mountains",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The Blue Ridge Mountains are noted for having a bluish color when seen from a distance. Trees put the \"blue\" in Blue Ridge, from the isoprene released into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the characteristic haze on the mountains and their distinctive color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21123967",
"title": "Valle de la Luna (Bolivia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Because the mineral content of the mountains varies greatly between individual mountains, the sides of the mountains are different colors, creating striking optical illusions. A majority of them are a clear beige or light brown color, but some are almost red, with sections of dark violet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44087926",
"title": "Blue Hills (Washington)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "For a more complete list of hills see List of mountains and hills of Kitsap County, Washington. The name \"Blue Hills\" is said to come from the green trees appearing blue at a distance due to atmospheric optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10187471",
"title": "Purple Mountain (Kerry)",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Purple Mountain is composed of sandstone particles of various sizes which are collectively known as \"Old Red Sandstone\". Old Red Sandstone has a purple-reddish colour, and has virtually no fossils. The colour gave its name to the mountain group. The composition of \"Old Red Sandstone\" is variable and contains quartz stones, mudstones, siltstones, and sandstone particles (boulders of conglomerate rock containing quartz pebbles are visible).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340524",
"title": "White Mountains (California)",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The White Mountains also have small remnant groves of lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine, Sierra juniper and aspen including an unusual dwarf variety. These species are common in the nearby and wetter Sierra Nevada range west of the Owens Valley and must have been more widespread in the White Mountains until Holocene droughts extirpated them in most of this drier range. A number of plant species are endemic to the White Mountains, including the White Mountains horkelia, \"Horkelia hispidula\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
518gob
|
now that mother teresa is saint teresa, how does her image change in the minds of christians?
|
[
{
"answer": "Catholics and Christians already held Mother Teresa in a Saint like regard, so her getting actual Sainthood doesn't actually change very much.\n\nAs for her position, technically she isn't \"worshiped\", but she will be prayed to for people seeking guidance, and she now has a \"Feast Day\" (September 5th) where Catholics Bishops can decide to hold a feast in her honor.\n\nNo Church is actually obligated to host a feast for her, the Catholic Church currently has [810 saints](_URL_0_) and celebrating all of the Saint feast days would mean having a multiple feasts on every single day of the year, so the Bishops pick and choose which saints will celebrate which feast days are and are not celebrated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For Protestants nothing changes. We do not celebrate or honor the Saints, and some Protestants view doing so as idolatry. Many think the work that she did was great, but it does not go beyond that. \n\nFor Catholics she is among the list of people that can be prayed to for guidance or help. But being canonized does not really change much, because people had to have already had high opinion of her for her to be canonized. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you admire Mother Teresa, you really might want to [inform yourself better.](_URL_0_)\n\nAmong other things, she let people suffer needlessly because she was obsessed with the Christian view of suffering as a virtuous act. Less charitably put, she tortured people because she found their pain beautiful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47427751",
"title": "Mother Teresa: Saint or Celebrity?",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "In \"Mother Teresa: Saint or Celebrity?\", Gëzim Alpion explores the significance of Mother Teresa to the mass media, to celebrity culture, to the Church and to various political and national groups. Drawing on new research on Mother Teresa's early years, Alpion charts the rise to fame of this pioneering religious personality, investigating the celebrity discourse in which an exemplary nun was turned into a media and humanitarian icon. The book provides an in-depth cultural and critical analysis of Mother Teresa, and the way she and others created, promoted and censored her public image, in the context of the sociology of fame, media, religion and nationality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38948361",
"title": "Kranti Redkar",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "she played Mother Teresa as a three-year-old in school, performing artist Kranti Redkar scarcely ever envisioned that sometime down the road she would get a chance to assume the part of a Christian sister on the wide screen. The performing artist has now been reserved in by Hollywood chief William Riead for his film The Letters ... in view of Mother Teresa\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347105",
"title": "Mother Teresa",
"section": "Section::::Spiritual life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Analysing her deeds and achievements, Pope John Paul II said: \"Where did Mother Teresa find the strength and perseverance to place herself completely at the service of others? She found it in prayer and in the silent contemplation of Jesus Christ, his Holy Face, his Sacred Heart.\" Privately, Teresa experienced doubts and struggle in her religious beliefs which lasted nearly 50 years (until the end of her life); according to her postulator, Brian Kolodiejchuk, \"She felt no presence of God whatsoever ... in her heart or in the eucharist\". Teresa expressed grave doubts about God's existence and pain over her lack of faith: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355036",
"title": "Hell's Angel (TV programme)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "BULLET::::- The media's credulous reporting on Mother Teresa started with a 1969 BBC documentary by Malcolm Muggeridge called \"Something Beautiful for God\". It reported on Mother Teresa's Home for the Dying in Kolkata, India. Some parts of the documentary were successfully filmed in dark interior spaces and Muggeridge claimed that the ability to see details in the film was due to Mother Teresa's \"divine light.\" However, the camera operator at the time, Ken McMillan, is interviewed and says the real explanation was that a new, higher-sensitivity film from Kodak was being used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55195267",
"title": "Sunil K. Dutt",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "\"From the day I first met her Mother always appeared to me a living saint in action,\".\"My association with Mother Teresa has impacted my life in a very big way. Whenever I think of her I feel a profound peace in the very core of my heart.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26991731",
"title": "Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor is a 1997 made-for-television biographical film directed by Kevin Connor and starring Geraldine Chaplin as Mother Teresa. Mother Teresa herself had approved the script but withdrew her imprimatur shortly before her death. It was broadcast on what was then known as The Family Channel on 5 October 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347105",
"title": "Mother Teresa",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and depictions in popular culture.:Film and literature.:Documentaries and books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- Teresa is the subject of the 1969 documentary film and 1972 book, \"Something Beautiful for God\", by Malcolm Muggeridge. The film has been credited with drawing the Western world's attention to Mother Teresa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x1tj4
|
Why are peasant rebellions so present and successful in Chinese history as opposed to European history?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the success is an impression. Because of China's myriads of historical peasant rebellions, only two can be called successful - the Red Turbans who overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and established the Ming Dynasty, and the communist revolution which established the PRC (and even that one, you can argue either way because the PRC did not start as a peasant based organisation, it just became that way when the shift in communist support happened after the White Terror).\n\nThe other famous peasant based rebellions - the Yellow Turbans, the Kingdom of Heavenly Peace, the Chen Sheng rebellion at the end of the Qin Dynasty...did not eventuate in stable dynasties.\n\nAs for why they're so present, I don't know of established historical theories so I'll let others take a shot at it first. I'm trying to formulate an argument about how the difference between mandate of heaven vs. divine rights of kings may affect this. \n\n\n\nedit: okay I've come back and am forced to conclude that the mandate of heaven system and relative meritocracy of feudal China vs. medieval Europe *must* have a role. Particularly, the mandate of heaven is a system which means that the Emperor rules by the will of heaven but this will is not eternal and can be withdrawn. This is usually tied up in the Confucianist system of morality where the personal virtue of the Emperor/his predecessors affected the mandate of Heaven. \n\nSo basically things like natural disasters, hardships etc. are a sign that the mandate of heaven for the dynasty has been withdrawn, and uprisings can in the eyes of rebels be justified that way. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian records that the anti-Qin rebels found a fish with a message in its gut saying that the Qin Dynasty must be overthrown. Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou also records the Yellow Turban rebels claiming portents etc. for the end of the Han Dynasty, and these claims/rebellions generally coincide in times of hardship/misrule. So this fallibility of the Imperial clan is one factor which leads to rebellions being seen as okay.\n\nThe second factor then is that starting from the Eastern Han Dynasty there really wasn't that much in China in the way of nobility - ie. princes, dukes, barons and what have you. There were wealthy land owning families, scholar families (the gentry), merchant families etc. but really you couldn't call them feudal nobility like you could with the European aristocracy. So with this kind of semi-meritocratic society there is no need as there is in Europe to find alternative monarchs based on bloodlines and claims etc. Of course it generally *helped* if you could claim you were from a better family. eg. in the Three Kingdoms era the three competing dynasties had their founders descend respectively - from the adopted son of a eunuch (not something very respectable), basically a commoner (who had ties to the royal family like a century ago) and from a merchant (again, not very respectable).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It could have been related to the \"equal field system\" that was set in place as a tax system. Land was distributed equally to cultivators (males who were able to farm), who paid taxes in labor and grain. However, because the scholar/elite class were exempted from paying taxes, yet were able to gain greater amounts of land through \"grants\" from the emperor, they levied this heavy tax weight back onto the peasant class. The system was thus unequal, times get hard, and the peasant class would rebel. \n\nAnyway, this is the theory I remember from my Chinese history class. Might not be 100% correct but I am sure it is along these lines. I double checked this theory from the source below. \n\nSource: Craig, Albert M.. \"The T'ang Dynasty.\" The heritage of Chinese civilization. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2001. 58-59. Print.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Impression is one of them. The unification of China goes all the way back to the time of the Roman Republic. That's a lot of history compared to the relatively short history of modern European nation-states, which makes for a lot more opportunities for successful peasant rebellions.\n\nAlso, in the post Roman world, Europe was far more fragmented compared to China. Whereas China maintained a relatively unified culture, government, language, etc., Europe was splintered into many different feudal states with varying cultures, language, and government. \n\nKeep in mind that China has historically encompassed an area the size of Europe and a population to match as well. A peasant rebellion in 800AD in say, Normandy, may not be much of an concern beyond the Duke of Normandy and may have little influence on a county in Burgundy which at the time would have shared a different kingdom entirely. However, in that same time, a peasant rebellion in Hubei could ignite one in Hunan and spread across China who were all under the rule of the same Emperor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supplementary question here, how are peasant rebellions represented in Chinese literature and popular media historically speaking?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1947039",
"title": "States and Social Revolutions",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Chapter 3: Agrarian Structures and Peasant Insurrections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1694,
"text": "Chapter 3 analyzes the situation of the peasantry and its contribution to the great Revolutions. Attention is given to the conditions for and against peasant insurrections. Skocpol states that societal political crises alone were not sufficient enough to produce social-revolutionary situations in France, Russia, and China. Urbanites and peasantry were dependent on each other. Peasant revolts have been crucial in almost all successful revolutions to date, especially in the French, Russian, and Chinese Revolutions. This is not surprising since social revolutions have usually occurred in agrarian countries where peasants made up the major producing class. Peasant revolts destroyed the old agrarian class relations and weakened the military and political supports for liberalism or counterrevolution. Successful revolts by urban workers may not have been necessary in the Revolutions, but peasant revolts against landlords were definitely a necessary ingredient in all three Revolutions. The peasant revolts of the three Revolutions were all directed particularly against landlords. Skocpol defines peasants as primary agricultural cultivators. Because of political and social marginality as well as socio-economic immobility, peasants must bear the burden of combinations of taxes, rents, interest rates, and discriminatory prices. They always have grounds for rebellion against landlords, state agents, and merchants who exploit them. The issue at hand is the degree to which grievances that are always at least implicitly present can be collectively perceived and acted upon. Peasants struggled for concrete goals such as access to more land, or freedom from claims on their surpluses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1455693",
"title": "Barrington Moore Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Social origins of dictatorship and democracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "BULLET::::- In China, the overwhelming strength of the peasantry vis-a-vis the bourgeoisie and the landed elites resulted in the Chinese Revolution, but they were its first victims. Here, the bourgeoisie allied with the peasants, and created a \"revolution from below.\" Moore criticized attempts by other sociologists to retroactively identify some kind of useful \"function\" served by the Chinese system of imperial government, and argued that the more likely reason for its prolonged survival was that most people, especially peasants, simply accept their social system \"unless and until something happens to threaten and destroy their daily routine.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24374239",
"title": "Samlaut Uprising",
"section": "Section::::Causes, Background & Origins of the Rebellion.:A Localized Rebellion: Political Environment & Socio-Economic Conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Also, peasant discontent was contributed by the growing domination by the Chinese and other landowners, including Government officials. The continual buying and selling of land, due to failed crops, produced increasing impoverishment and a class conflict. Centered on rapidly growing fruit plantations, it was a conflict between a ‘rich ad enterprising Chinese bourgeoisie which has taken possession of the land, and the alienated, indebted, and already semi-independent village communities.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1947039",
"title": "States and Social Revolutions",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Chapter 3: Agrarian Structures and Peasant Insurrections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- “agrarian sociopolitical structures that facilitated widespread peasant revolts against landlords were the sufficient distinctive causes of social revolutionary situations commencing in France, 1789, Russia, 1917, and China, 1911” (154)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1947039",
"title": "States and Social Revolutions",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Chapter 3: Agrarian Structures and Peasant Insurrections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1262,
"text": "The last and final subsection of this chapter is titled \"Peasant Incapacity and Gentry Vulnerability in China\" (147–154). This section turns to the third positive case of social revolution and discusses China's structural conditions (148–150) and patterns of agrarian unrest (150–154). The Chinese Revolution is the most obviously peasant-based social revolution of the trio (France, Russia, China) presented in this book. Despite some similarities to France and Russia, the agrarian class and local political structures of old-regime China resembled those of England and Prussia. Although a peasant revolution against landlords did eventually occur in China as in France and Russia, the peasants of China lacked the solidarity and autonomy that allowed the peasant revolutions in France and Russia to react quickly to the collapse of the central governments of the Old Regimes. Unlike the French and Russian agrarian revolution, the Chinese agrarian revolution was more protracted. In sum, in Chapter 3 Skocpol argued that “agrarian sociopolitical structures that facilitated widespread peasant revolts against landlords were the sufficient distinctive causes of social revolutionary situations commencing in France, 1789, Russia, 1917, and China, 1911” (154).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39766702",
"title": "Activism",
"section": "Section::::Definitions of activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "In English history, the Peasants' Revolt erupted in response to the imposition of a poll tax, and has been paralleled by other rebellions and revolutions in Hungary, Russia, and more recently, for example, Hong Kong. In 1930 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi thousands of protesting Indians participated in the Salt March as a protest against the oppressive taxes of their government, resulting in the imprisonment of 60,000 people and eventual independence for their nation. In nations throughout Asia, Africa and South America, the prominence of activism organized by social movements and especially under the leadership of civil activists or social revolutionaries has pushed for increasing national self-reliance or, in some parts of the developing world, collectivist communist or socialist organization and affiliation. Activism has had major impacts on Western societies as well, particularly over the past century through social movements such as the Labour movement, the Women's Rights movement, and the civil rights movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4799746",
"title": "Urban history",
"section": "Section::::Non-Western cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In China the Maoist ideology privileged the uprising of the peasants as the central force in Chinese history, which led to a neglect of urban history until the 1980s. Academics were then allowed to assert that peasant rebellions were often reactionary rather than revolutionary, and that China's modernizers of the 1870s made significant advances, even if they were capitalists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hvqba
|
What is alcohol actually doing to our brains when we drink? And why does it improve moods so quickly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ethanol (common drinking alcohol) is a drug that interacts with a variety of neurotransmitter systems; most importantly GABA-a, but also serotonin and NMDA receptors.\n\nYour body produces a molecule called GABA(gamma aminobutyric acid), which acts as a neurotransmitter. Neurons with GABA receptors are ubiquitous throughout your body; GABA acts as the major inhibitory transmitter in your body. When GABA binds to it's receptor a gated ion channel opens, releasing Cl- ions across the neurons membrane. This drops the neuron's membrane electrical potential, and inhibits any further action potentials to neighboring synapses. ~~The molecular structure of ethanol has similar steric (it can fit inside the receptor) properties as GABA. When it binds to GABA-a receptors, it elicits a different response~~* (this can be generalized to any molecule/drug with similar chemical structure to a neurotransmitter. Compare the chemical structure of serotonin and the trpytamine class of hallucinogenic drugs for an obvious example.) \n* This is wrong. See /u/ADplusP 's comment below\n\nAs /u/callmemateo points out, the limbic system and frontal cortex are two of the functional brain areas effected by alcohol intoxication which give rise to the subjective effects.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And why does it affect me so differently? I've never enjoyed alcohol, though I've had my fair share of it. I don't just mean the morning after, I mean the moment i start to feel the effects I get flush, pale, sweaty, and generally not good feeling. These days, at 28, I can't even have a shot without feeling utterly terrible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "840273",
"title": "Depression (mood)",
"section": "Section::::Connections.:Alcoholism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Alcohol can be a depressant which slows down some regions of the brain, like the prefrontal and temporal cortex, negatively affecting our rationality and memory. It also lowers the level of serotonin in our brain, which could potentially lead to higher chances of depressive mood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685784",
"title": "Effects of alcohol on memory",
"section": "Section::::Mode of actions.:Effects on other brain regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Alcohol also impairs and alters the functioning in the cerebellum, which affects both motor function and coordination. It has a notable inhibitory effect on the neurons of the cerebral cortex, affecting and altering thought processes, decreasing inhibition, and increasing the pain threshold. It also decreases sexual performance by depressing nerve centers in the hypothalamus. Alcohol also has an effect on urine excretion via inhibition of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion of the pituitary gland. Lastly, it depresses breathing and heart rate by inhibiting neuronal functioning of the medulla.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2869",
"title": "Anxiolytic",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Miscellaneous.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Ethanol is used as an anxiolytic, sometimes by self-medication. fMRI can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain. The British National Formulary states, \"Alcohol is a poor hypnotic because its diuretic action interferes with sleep during the latter part of the night.\" Alcohol is also known to induce alcohol-related sleep disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43903922",
"title": "Alcohol-related brain damage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685784",
"title": "Effects of alcohol on memory",
"section": "Section::::Mode of actions.:Effects on the hippocampus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Alcohol acts as a general central nervous system depressant, but it also affects some specific areas of the brain to a greater extent than others. Memory impairment caused by alcohol has been linked to the disruption of hippocampal function — particularly affecting gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) neurotransmission which negatively impacts long-term potentiation (LTP). The molecular basis of LTP is associated with learning and memory. Particularly, damage to hippocampal CA1 cells adversely affects memory formation, and this disruption has been linked to dose-dependent levels of alcohol consumption. At higher doses, alcohol significantly inhibits neuronal activity in both the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cell layers of the hippocampus. This impairs memory encoding, since the hippocampus plays an important role in the formations of new memories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38568822",
"title": "Long-term impact of alcohol on the brain",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of action.:Inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Excessive alcohol intake (binge drinking) causes a decrease in hippocampal neurogenesis, via decreases in neural stem cell proliferation and newborn cell survival. Alcohol decreases the number of cells in S-phase of the cell cycle, and may arrest cells in the G1 phase, thus inhibiting their proliferation. Ethanol has different effects on different types of actively dividing hippocampal progenitors during their initial phases of neuronal development. Chronic alcohol exposure decreases the number of proliferating cells that are radial glia-like, preneuronal, and intermediate types, while not affecting early neuronal type cells; suggesting ethanol treatment alters the precursor cell pool. Furthermore, there is a greater decrease in differentiation and immature neurons than there is in proliferating progenitors, suggesting that the abnormal decrease in the percentage of actively dividing preneuronal progenitors results in a greater reduction in the maturation and survival of postmitotic cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1967493",
"title": "Prefrontal cortex",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Chronic intake of alcohol leads to persistent alterations in brain function including altered decision making ability. The prefrontal cortex of chronic alcoholics has been shown to be vulnerable to oxidative DNA damage and neuronal cell death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9gw1at
|
When and how did the names for aircrafts go from being nouns (Hurricane, Spitfire) to alphanumeric codes (F-16)?
|
[
{
"answer": "You’re confused. The two planes you listed with names are British. The British have retained the name only system (e.g. the Eurofighter Typhoon).\n\n Meanwhile the US Army air corps/air Force has used a type-number designation since after the First World War (e.g. the F-16, B-52). The letters stand for the type of aircraft it is f - fighter, b-bomber. \nIn addition to the type-number designation US planes also have a name (the F-16 is the “fighting falcon”, the B-52 is the “stratofortress”). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As noted, the British (Spitfire, Hurricane) and American (F-16) air forces have different aircraft designation systems. If you're interested in the reverse of the question, \"When did (British) aircraft names go from alphanumeric codes to nouns?\", the answer is 1918.\n\nDuring the First World War manufacturers all had their own naming schemes with a variety of letters and numbers representing different elements. To pick a few examples - the Handley-Page Type O, Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 (its eighth \"Reconnaissance Experimental\" type), Airco DH.9 (the ninth type Geoffrey de Havilland had designed for the company), Avro 504 (not the 504th Avro design, the series started with the Avro 500 for some reason), Vickers F.B.5 (\"Fighting Biplane\") etc. Many acquired unofficial nicknames like \"Harry Tate\", \"Nine Ack\" and \"Gunbus\"; Sopwith types in particular seemed to lack an official alphanumeric designation so were known as e.g. the Tabloid, Pup and most famously Camel (from the \"hump\" in front of its cockpit).\n\nIn 1918, with the formation of the Royal Air Force, the Air Ministry decided to standardise naming as the designer/manufacturer followed by a nickname. The nicknames were to follow a pattern, such as zoological names for fighters (with certain exceptions, e.g. birds of prey were already used by Rolls-Royce engines), geographical names for bombers, and at first initial letters were assigned based on manufacturer. This was fine for the firm of Vickers naming bombers geographically starting with \"Vi\" such as the Vimy and Virginia, but the firm of Boulton & Paul obviously struggled with zoological names starting with \"Bo\" - their first fighter design was the Boulton & Paul Bobolink. The naming system therefore evolved over the 1920s and 30s to be more practical (removing manufacturer-specific initials; alliteration would continue to be a theme, but not a rule), and inspiring. Being confronted with a Bobolink would hardly be a terrifying experience (except for a field of grain), the zoological names for fighters were dropped in favour of names \"indicating speed, activity or aggressiveness\" - the Gloster Grebe and Gamecock were succeeded by the Gauntlet and Gladiator. That's how the Spitfire and Hurricane got their names.\n\nOver in the US the Army Air Service adopted the Mission Letter(s) - Number scheme, which also evolved over the 1920s and 30s to the familiar system in place for the Second World War - B (Bomber), C (Cargo), P (Pursuit, or fighter) etc. resulting in the the B-17, C-47, P-51 and such. The Navy had their own alphanumeric scheme that incorporated a letter for the manufacturer - the F4F was the fourth Fighter type built by Grumman (who got the manufacturer letter 'F'), the SBD was the first Scout Bomber built by Douglas. US aircraft also had common names, often bestowed by the manufacturer - B-17 Flying Fortress, F4F Wildcat etc., and of course aircraft tended to acquired a variety of unofficial nicknames from their operators (often less than flattering). \n\nThe Second World War resulted in an interesting overlap (and sometimes collision) between the systems with large numbers of US-built aircraft in RAF service, ordered before the war and later supplied via lend-lease. The RAF used their standard naming scheme with an appropriately American twist, so bombers got US town names (Douglas Boston, Martin Maryland and Baltimore, Consolidated Catalina). The aircraft that would become the P-51 was first ordered by the British, and their name for it (Mustang) would stick in the US as well. Where aircraft had established names they were generally retained; the B-17 and B-24 in RAF service were the Fortress and Liberator respectively, despite not being geographical, the P-38 Lightning and P-47 Thunderbolt appropriately indicated \"speed, activity or aggressiveness\" anyway. Most aircraft ended up with the same name in both air forces; it was briefly suggested that the Bell P-39 should be named Caribou in RAF service, but this was swifly dropped in favour of the manufacturer's Airacobra. US carrier aircraft were initially named along British lines, seabirds for fighters and fish for torpedo bombers - the F4F Wildcat became the Grumman Martlet, the TBF Avenger was the Grumman Tarpon, but in 1944 the American names were adopted instead. A few aircraft retained different names; the Curtiss P-36 Hawk and P-40 Warhawk were slightly tweaked to Mohawk for the former, Tomahawk and Kittyhawk for the latter in the UK, and the C-47 Skytrain, the military version of the DC-3, became the Douglas Dakota.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "483548",
"title": "List of aircraft of Canada's air forces",
"section": "Section::::Designations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "During the First World War no official standards existed for the naming of aircraft and so all designations at this time were assigned by the original manufacturer and both numbers and names were used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2029556",
"title": "List of historical tropical cyclone names",
"section": "Section::::North Atlantic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 2879,
"text": "By 1950, tropical cyclones that were judged by the US Weather Bureau to have intensified into a tropical storm started to be assigned names. Storms were originally named in alphabetical order using the World War Two version of the Phonetic Alphabet. By 1952 a new phonetic alphabet had been developed and this led to confusion as some parties wanted to use the newer phonetic alphabet. In 1953, to alleviate any confusion, forecasters decided to use a set of 23 feminine names. After the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season, public reception to the idea seemed favorable, so the same list was adopted for the next year with one change; Gilda for Gail. However, after storms like Carol and Hazel got a lot of publicity during the 1953 season, forecasters agreed to develop a new set of names for 1955. However, before this could happen, a tropical storm was declared significant on January 2, 1955 and was named as Alice. The new set of names were developed and used in 1955 beginning with Brenda continuing through the alphabet to Zelda. For each season before 1960, a new set of names were developed. In 1960 forecasters decided to begin rotating names in a regular sequence and thus four alphabetical lists were established to be repeated every four years. The sets followed the example of the western Pacific typhoon naming lists and excluded names beginning with the letters Q, U, X, Y and Z. These four lists were used until 1972 when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), replaced them with 9 lists designed to be used from 1972. In 1977, NOAA made the decision to relinquish control over the name selection by allowing a regional committee of the World Meteorological Organization to select the new sets of names which would contain male names and some Spanish and French names in order to reflect all the cultures and languages within the Atlantic Ocean. The World Meteorological Organization decided that the new lists of hurricane name would start to be used in 1979. Since 1979 the same lists have been used, with names of significant tropical cyclones removed from the lists and replaced with new names. In 2002 Subtropical Cyclones started to be assigned names from the main list of names set up for that year. In 2005 as all the names preselected for the season were exhausted, the contingency plan of using Greek letters for names had to be used. Since then there have been a few attempts to get rid of the Greek names, as they are seen to be inconsistent with the standard naming convention used for tropical cyclones and are considered generally unknown and confusing to the public. However the lists of preselected names for the year, are not expected to be used up frequently enough to warrant any change in the existing naming procedure and thus the Greek Alphabet will be used if the list of pre selected names should ever be used up again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75085",
"title": "British military aircraft designation systems",
"section": "Section::::The military designation system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Following the formation of the Royal Air Force in April 1918 the Ministry of Munitions introduced a new system as \"Technical Department Instruction 538\". They mainly followed the February 1918 scheme but certain names already used for engines were excluded, for example birds of prey were used by Rolls-Royce. The names related to zoology, geography and mythology were withdrawn in 1927 and the Air Ministry introduced names with the initial letters relating to role, for example \"C\" for troop carriers as used by the Handley Page Clive. A further change was made in 1932 and 1939 to use more appropriate names. Fighters were to use \"General words indicating speed, activity or aggressiveness\" and trainer would be \"words indicationg tuition and places of education\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3430069",
"title": "List of retired Atlantic hurricane names",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1261,
"text": "By 1947, tropical cyclones developing in the North Atlantic Ocean were named by the United States Army Air Forces in private communications between weather centres and aircraft using the Phonetic alphabet. This practice continued until September 1950, when the names started to be used publicly after three hurricanes (Baker, Dog, Easy) had occurred simultaneously and caused confusion within the media and the public. Over the next two years, the public use of the phonetic alphabet to name systems continued before at the 1953 Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference it was decided to start using a new list of female names during that season, as a second phonetic alphabet had been developed. During the active but mild 1953 Atlantic hurricane season, the names were readily used in the press with few objections recorded; as a result, the same names were reused during the next year with only one change: Gilda for Gail. Over the next six years a new list of names was developed ahead of each season, before in 1960 forecasters developed four alphabetical sets and repeated them every four years. These new sets followed the example of the typhoon names and excluded names beginning with the letters Q, U, X, Y, and Z, and keeping them to female names only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181146",
"title": "Attack aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Definition and designations.:United States definition and designations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Presently, U.S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in \"A-6 Intruder\" and \"A-10 Thunderbolt II\". However, until the end of World War II the \"A-\" designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for USAAF aircraft (as opposed to \"B-\" prefix for medium or heavy bombers). The US Navy used a separate designation system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers (SB) or torpedo bombers (TB or BT). For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the \"attack\" (A) designation, when it renamed BT2D Skyraider and BTM Mauler to, respectively, AD Skyraider and AM Mauler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167667",
"title": "Eurofighter Typhoon",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Procurement, production and costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "On 2 September 1998, a naming ceremony was held at Farnborough, United Kingdom. This saw the Typhoon name formally adopted, initially for export aircraft only. The name continues the storm theme started by the Panavia Tornado. This was reportedly resisted by Germany, perhaps because the Hawker Typhoon was a fighter-bomber aircraft used by the RAF during the Second World War to attack German targets. The name \"Spitfire II\" (after the famous British Second World War fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire) had also been considered and rejected for the same reason early in the development programme. In September 1998, contracts were signed for production of 148 Tranche 1 aircraft and procurement of long lead-time items for Tranche 2 aircraft. In March 2008, the final aircraft out of Tranche 1 was delivered to the German Air Force, with all successive deliveries being at the Tranche 2 standard. On 21 October 2008, the first two of 91 Tranche 2 aircraft, ordered four years before, were delivered to RAF Coningsby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75079",
"title": "United States military aircraft designation systems",
"section": "Section::::History.:Army aviation 1924 to 1962.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "From 1924 to 1947 the Air Service, United States Army Air Corps, United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force used a designation system based on mission category, with each model in a category numbered sequentially. In 1947, the designation system was extensively overhauled, with several categories being dispensed with, and others renamed For instance, the Lockheed P-80 \"Shooting Star\" (Pursuit) was redesignated as F-80 (Fighter), while the A-26 medium bomber/attack aircraft was redesignated as the B-26, reusing the designation, the Martin B-26 having retired in the meantime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46qul7
|
uk vote on leaving the eu - brexit
|
[
{
"answer": "ELI5, why has this referendum come about? What lead up to it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* What is a referendum?\n\nA referendum is when the electorate (general public who can vote), or the parliament (although usually MPs can't vote, but not in this specific referendum), vote on a specific issue, such as, for example, a law. \n\nUsually, it's basically that you choose \"yes\" or \"no\" on a particular law, for example, but sometimes there can be multiple choices as well.\n\n* What is the European Union?\n\nA political and economic union (or actually the economic part is only in the European Economic Area) between multiple countries, and most of them are usually located within Europe. Currently, there are 28 member countries. The idea of it is that basically those countries can work together, make laws which apply to all of them, have a unified trading market, have the same currency (the euro, of which 19 member countries currently use it), etc.\n\n* What is going to be asked in this UK referendum?\n\nThe exact question is \"*Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?*\"\n\n* Is the parliament only the people who can vote on that question?\n\nNope, if you're a UK citizen who's over 18 years old, or you're a UK citizen who's living abroad but have done so for less than 15 years, or a commonwealth citizen residing in the UK, then you are able to vote.\n\n* Should the UK leave the European Union?\n\nSome people say that yes, it should, because they say that the European Union has too many rules for businesses, and they also say that even though the UK pays lots of money as membership fees, they don't get much stuff in return. They also want to reduce the number of people coming to the UK for work (as to basically get to control the borders and not have \"free movement\", which is a thing in the European Union wherein you don't need a visa to go to from one member country to another), etc.\n\nSome people say that no, it shouldn't (and that includes the UK prime minster, David Cameron, as well), because then it's easier to trade between other member countries, and that also that the immigrants who're coming for work actually help to boost the economy.\n\n* So, should the UK leave or not?\n\nIt depends, as there are plently of arguments on either side saying yes, it should, and no, it shouldn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the UK leaves the EU, what will change for the UK citizens living in the EU and vice versa?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What exactly is this \"deal\" that Cameron has got? How does it change the relationship with the EU and what does it allow the UK Parliament to do which it couldn't do before?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What affect will this have on Ireland? Especially the border between the Republic and the North?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does the EU event WANT the UK to stay? I got the impression that the Brits have already bullied the EU into giving them special treatment multiple times. So... is keeping the UK in the EU really worth it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Will non UK citizens who remain in the UK on some sort of visa likely to be entitled to free health care etc if they remain or will life become harder once on a visa / different terms and thus encourage people to leave the UK?\n\n(I'm thinking families who have lived here for years and work here that may suddenly find it difficult, and have to return to their home land, which may put a strain on businesses) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain to me the reasons the UK would want to stay in the EU and the reasons they would want to leave?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can anyone give an idea of what applying to university will become post referendum?\n\nAssume that I was offered a position today, but started in the autumn, how would this affect my studies?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "London Mayor Boris Johnson said he is campaigning to support the \"brexit.\" How important is this news and how influential is his opinion?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess what really blows my mind is Europe has the potential to be the most powerful state in the world economically, but the constant divisions and infighting leave it mostly impotent ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why would England beg Scotland not to leave the UK, but the same people want to take UK out of EU?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And so Europe gets a little closer to another war between us.\n\nIt may be that the EU kept us together for so long (and ofc the nukes)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way I understood it was if Scotland left the UK then we (England) would most likely go into another economic depression. Would any sort of similar thing happen if the UK left the EU? If so, what? And as a more general question what are the major economic effects on the general public as a whole (including things like if, how and when currency will change, if and how earning change etc.)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Britain leaving the EU; is it the UK (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) or just England? What are the possible ramifications for 1) the UK, 2) Republic of Ireland, if it is the UK, 3) the rest of Europe, with regards to travel/visa arrangements, trade, etc?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47756463",
"title": "European Union Referendum Act 2015",
"section": "Section::::Outcome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Following the referendum result and the verdict of the R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union case in January 2017 the UK Government led by Prime Minister Theresa May passed the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017 which legally allowed the UK to formally begin the process and formally notified the European Union of the United Kingdom's intention to leave both the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community by triggering Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union on Wednesday 29 March 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51221487",
"title": "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "On 29 March 2017, the United Kingdom (UK) invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) which began the member state's withdrawal, commonly known as Brexit, from the European Union (EU). In compliance with the TEU, the UK gave formal notice to the European Council of its intention to withdraw from the EU to allow withdrawal negotiations to begin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50539063",
"title": "2015–16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "The United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership was a package of changes to the United Kingdom's terms of European Union (EU) membership and changes to EU rules which was first proposed by Prime Minister David Cameron in January 2013, with negotiations beginning in the summer of 2015 following the outcome of the UK General Election. The package was agreed by the President of the European Council Donald Tusk, and approved by EU leaders of all 27 other countries at the European Council session in Brussels on 18–19 February 2016 between the United Kingdom and the rest of the European Union. The changes were intended to take effect following a vote for \"Remain\" in the UK's in-out referendum, at which point suitable legislation would be presented by the European Commission. Due to the Leave result of the referendum, the changes were never implemented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4917774",
"title": "Withdrawal from the European Union",
"section": "Section::::Withdrawals.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; a majority voted to leave the European Union. On 29 March 2017, Theresa May's administration invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK was due to cease being a member at 00:00, 30 March 2019 Brussels time (UTC+1), which would have been 23:00 on 29 March British time. Following the UK parliament's failure to ratify the leaving deal negotiated with the European Council by the UK government, an extension of the deadline was agreed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54315587",
"title": "Brexit in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; a majority voted to leave the European Union. On 29 March 2017, Theresa May's administration invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK was set to leave on March 29, 2019, unless the Brexit Withdrawal agreement was adopted by the House of Commons, in which case the UK would have left in May 2019.. With the failure to ratify the withdrawal agreement by the British Parliament, the Prime Minister negotiated a further extension until 31st October 2019 \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52179334",
"title": "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union",
"section": "Section::::Facts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "Following a referendum held on 23 June 2016, in which 51.9% of votes cast were in favour of leaving the EU, the UK government stated its intention to invoke Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (the formal procedure for withdrawing) on 29 March 2017. On the Monday following the referendum, three academics (Nick Barber, Dr Tom Hickman and Professor Jeff King) published a blog which argued that an Act of Parliament would be necessary before the Government could give notice to leave the EU. A few days later David, Lord Pannick QC, a columnist for \"The Times\", asked whether an Act of Parliament was needed before notification could lawfully be given of the UK's intention to leave, and cited the arguments of Barber, Hickman and King in agreeing with them that an Act of Parliament was required. The government argued that the use of prerogative powers to enact the referendum result was constitutionally proper and consistent with domestic law whereas the opposing view was that the exercise of prerogative powers would undermine the European Communities Act 1972 and would set aside rights previously established by Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27269553",
"title": "Dominic Raab",
"section": "Section::::Parliamentary career.:May ministry (2016–2019).:The \"Miller\" case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "On 3 November 2016, and in response to the decision of the High Court in \"R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union\" on whether Her Majesty's Government was entitled to notify an intention to leave the European Union under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union without a vote in Parliament, Raab stated that in the 2016 EU membership referendum \"the British people gave a clear mandate for the UK Government to leave the EU and take back control of our borders, laws, money and trade. It is disappointing that today the court has chosen to ignore their decision\". He went on to state that the decision was \"a plain attempt to block Brexit by people who are out of touch with the country and refuse to accept the result. However, the vote to leave the EU was clear and they should not seek to obstruct it\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7witzr
|
Do babies remember their parent's faces and voices before four months?
|
[
{
"answer": "Also if someone has a source for their answer, that would be a huge help. Not trying to be picky though. If it's difficult at all to find one then it'll be no issue. I'm mostly just hoping for an answer. Thank you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't read it in a while and don't have a copy to answer your question directly, but a fantastic book called \"The Self Illusion\" by psychologist Dr. Bruce Hood goes into great detail about this topic. If someone doesn't answer the question to your satisfaction then I highly recommend checking it out. Very readable book. Super interesting. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5366050",
"title": "Speech perception",
"section": "Section::::Research topics.:Infant speech perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "If day-old babies are presented with their mother's voice speaking normally, abnormally (in monotone), and a stranger's voice, they react only to their mother's voice speaking normally. When a human and a non-human sound is played, babies turn their head only to the source of human sound. It has been suggested that auditory learning begins already in the pre-natal period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31136207",
"title": "Memory development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18685654",
"title": "Infant cognitive development",
"section": "Section::::The development of mental processes.:Memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2383086",
"title": "Language development",
"section": "Section::::Different aspects.:Phonological development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Babies can recognize their mother's voice from as early as few weeks old. It seems like they have a unique system that is designed to recognize speech sound. Furthermore, they can differentiate between certain speech sounds. A significant first milestone in phonetic development is the babbling stage (around the age of six months). This is the baby's way of practicing his control over that apparatus. Babbling is independent from the language. Deaf children for instance, babble the same way as hearing ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33932515",
"title": "Social cue",
"section": "Section::::Infants and children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Research has found that from birth, babies prefer infant directed speech over adult directed speech. As young as 6 months old, babies prefer someone that has previously talked to them and who speaks their native language, over someone who speaks a foreign language. According to Guellai and Steri, at 9-weeks-old, babies fixate more on an adult's eye region when they are talking to them, than when they are silent and looking at them. Guellai and Steri concluded that at birth, babies are able to read two forms of social cues which are eye gaze and voice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18685654",
"title": "Infant cognitive development",
"section": "Section::::The development of mental processes.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "In the first three months of life babies will generally use different crying types to express their different needs, as well as making other sounds such as cooing. They will begin mimicking facial expressions and smiling at the sight of familiar faces. Between the ages of 4–6 months infants have a greater response towards different tones in voices, and greater engagement, watching the speaker's face. The child's own language skills develop with larger variation in babbling sounds, and elicit responses in conversation through babbling. From 7 months to the end of their first year babies are able to understand frequently heard words and can respond to simple requests. Their babbling becomes more complex and they communicate with it as if they are making sense, they use babbling to express their desires. Non-verbal communication also develops and actions such as waving goodbye are produced. This is also the period in which babies often say their first word, an important milestone in the child's life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19361790",
"title": "Deaf education",
"section": "Section::::Identifying deaf students.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "A child can also acquire hearing loss at a young age due to a middle ear infection, a serious head injury, exposure to loud noises over a long period, and many other ways. If this occurs, the same symptoms would occur as they do with congenital hearing loss. If this happens when a child is older, around toddler or preschool age, there are more signs to look for. Signs could include a child not replying when their name is called. The child may pronounce words differently than the rest of their peers. If the child turns up the TV incredibly high or sits very close, this could also be an indication. One of the biggest indications that a child may have hearing loss is when they are having a conversation with someone, they intensely focus on the person's lips and facial expressions to understand what they are saying. If a child has these signs, getting a screening for hearing loss would be the next step. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1923h4
|
Explain to me the science behind something I witnessed this morning in my water bottle
|
[
{
"answer": "You most likely experienced a [supercooling](_URL_0_) phenomenon. This happens, simplistically, when the liquid has nothing to grab onto (a bit of dust, something like that) to form crystals or other ordered structure like ice. When you took it out, you probably agitated it enough that it found something to form crystals around, and those ice crystals are what you saw (they're like snow, of course).\n\nPretty cool that you watched it happen!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16278",
"title": "James Randi",
"section": "Section::::Career.:\"Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live\" television show.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "BULLET::::- A dowser, Forrest Bayes, claimed that he could detect water, even in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box. He was shown twenty boxes and asked to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle. He selected eight of the boxes, which he said contained water, but it turned out that only five of the twenty contained water. Of the eight selected boxes, only one was revealed to contain water and one contained sand. It was not revealed whether any of the remaining six boxes contained water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25864167",
"title": "List of crowdsourcing projects",
"section": "Section::::D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "BULLET::::- Drift bottle experiments are citizen science experiments in which a surveying organization throws into large bodies of water, bottles containing messages requesting finders of the bottles to return the messages to the organization with a statement of the time and place at which the bottles were found, allowing the organization to determine patterns of water circulation in the bodies of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19425160",
"title": "The Mole (Australian season 4)",
"section": "Section::::Mole Activity.:Sabotage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The Rhyming Slang Challenge: The only way to see the bottles in the swimming pool was when the surface of the water was unbroken, and Petrina immediately jumped in the water and caused ripples that made it impossible to see, from above, where the bottles were.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26580795",
"title": "Water (Brad Paisley song)",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "In \"Water,\" the narrator lists off various situations involving water: playing in a kiddie pool as a child, jumping from a rope swing with friends on a riverbank, and later wet t-shirt contests on spring break and skinny dipping with a girlfriend. He describes each situation as beginning a \"love affair with Water.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26848013",
"title": "Amygdala hijack",
"section": "Section::::Positive hijacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "He also cites the case of a man strolling by a canal when he saw a girl staring petrified at the water. \"[B]efore he knew quite why, he had jumped into the water—in his coat and tie. Only once he was in the water did he realize that the girl was staring in shock at a toddler who had fallen in—whom he was able to rescue.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176148",
"title": "Spa, Belgium",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Pliny the Elder noted \"In Tongrie, country of Gaul, there is a famous source, whose water, while sparkling bubbles, a ferruginous taste that is, however, feel that when we finished drinking. This water purges the body, cures fevers and dispels calculous affections.\"(C lib.XXXI VIII).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38950140",
"title": "Tanzie Well",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Writing in 2008 of the 1940s, Elis White said that the well, spring, or spoot \"had the purest, clearest water and as far as I know came when Scott’s Loch up around Knadgerhill was drained to run into the river at various places. In any case, it was a popular drink for invalids and it was a common sight for us to see people walking away from it carrying a bottle of the water from it. Even a jug in earlier days, and I well remember going to it as a wee lassie along with my father to take some to my Granny in Townhead.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yh4ny
|
What evidence is there, that Carthage sacrificed humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "Historically, the practice of child sacrifice is attested by Greek historian Plutarch, and Carthaginian Christian historian Tertullian, and Orosius, Philo, and Diodorus Siculus. Some scholars contend that these records are exaggerated remembrances and propaganda by the Romans against their arch-nemesis.\n\nHowever, archaeologically, there is a vast graveyard of cremated human remains, mostly infants and children. It is referred to as the \"Tophet\", after the word for such a thing found in the Hebrew Bible. Some scholars have contended that it wasn't a religious ritual, but rather a graveyard for infants and children who died of natural causes. This is the official view of Tunisia, the modern country where Carthage is located (mostly because it's not exactly savory to be host to a massive child sacrifice cult site). However, I believe the archaeological evidence points to ritual child sacrifice. There are an estimated 20,000 urns filled with cremated child remains in the Carthage tophet alone, and there are a couple other Tophet-like sites in other Phoenician/Canaanite cities around the Mediterranean.\n\nThe remains do include some small animals, and the argument goes that if the animals were sacrificed, then it is logical that the children were too. There is also a correlation between the rate of cremated children and the well-being of the city. When the city is in dire straits from war or natural disaster, the rate of cremated children in the Tophet skyrockets.\n\nAnother argument from Patricia Smith is that the infant bones are from children aged two months, which is not usual for infant mortality as previously reported, indicating sacrifice. The original round of skeletal analyses were very contradictory, and the original scholar who performed them (Schwartz) has contradicted himself and his own results several times, and has not produced a consistent aging of the cremated children, despite making several attempts to do so. His efforts were so inconsistent, the directors of the excavation actually removed him from the project and brought in other scholars. Despite this, he continues to publish studies on the Tophet. Personally, given that I know most of the scholars involved, I would not trust Schwartz's work on the Tophet, but rather would look to Pat Smith and Sherry Fox for much better analysis. The most recent work (done by Sherry Fox and Patricia Smith) has indicated that the children were healthy at the time of death, and of an age when infant mortality is not usual. The fact that so many children are of the same age at death, when this age is not associated with infant mortality indicates a purpose behind the deaths and cremations. There are just too many children, over a long period of time, all of a similar age (and not fetuses, but children who have survived the first few months), all bearing no skeletal signs of deformity or disease or injury that would have indicated death from some other method. This coupled with the historical accounts of child sacrifice are the evidence.\n\nWhy did they sacrifice children? Notice I mentioned before that the rate of child sacrifice is inversely proportional to the wellbeing of the city. Great distress requires great sacrifice, according to Carthaginian religion. When your city is in extreme peril, and you need to get the god's attention, you make a sacrifice. For them, the greatest possible sacrifice was a child. It was not undertaken lightly, but was the most visceral, last-ditch effort to call to their god for help.\n\nIt's a controversial and divided subject, to be sure. But the majority of scholars who have worked on it who are unaffiliated with the country of Tunisia are of the opinion that child sacrifice took place. The major opponents to this have not done particularly exemplary work on the subject. I have heard lectures by the major excavators of the site, and they would agree. Unfortunately, due to the sensitive nature, some of this is unpublished or in the process of publication. Most of the published research is by Schwartz, who was removed from the project by the directors for producing inconsistent results with age distribution of the remains, and generally poor scholarship, but he took his data with him and continues to publish, for better or worse.\n\nSome sources:\n\n Paolo Xella, Josephine Quinn, Valentina Melchiorri and Peter van Dommelen (2013). Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet. Antiquity, 87, pp 1199-1207. \n\nPatricia Smith, Lawrence E. Stager, Joseph A. Greene and Gal Avishai. Age estimations attest to infant sacrifice at the Carthage Tophet. Archaeology. Volume: 87 Number: 338 Page: 1191–1199. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6555",
"title": "Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Archaeological site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. René Dussaud identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4748941",
"title": "Religion in Carthage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The religion of Carthage in North Africa was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion with significant local modifications. Controversy prevails regarding the possible existence and practice of propitiatory child sacrifice in the religion of Carthage. However, a recent study of archeological evidence confirms this ritual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54385",
"title": "Child sacrifice",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Phoenicia and Carthage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Neighbors criticized Carthage for their child sacrifice practices. Plutarch (ca. 46–120 AD), Tertullian, Orosius, and Diodorus Siculus mention this practice; however, Livy and Polybius do not. The ancestors of Carthage, Canaanites, were also mentioned performing child sacrifices in the Hebrew Bible and by some Israelites, at a place called the Tophet (\"roasting place\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4947706",
"title": "Bulla Regia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Punic town.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Carthage gained control over the town during the 3rd century, when inscriptions reveal that the inhabitants venerated Baal Hammon and buried their dead in urns in the Punic style. A capital from a temple of Tanit is preserved at the site's museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20663625",
"title": "Ancient Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Carthage under the Phoenicians was accused by its adversaries of child sacrifice. Plutarch (20:14,4–6) alleges the practice, as do Tertullian (Apolog.9:2–3), Orosius, Philo and Diodorus Siculus. However, Herodotos and Polybius do not. Sceptics contend that if Carthage's critics were aware of such a practice, however limited, they would have been horrified by it and exaggerated its extent due to their polemical treatment of the Carthaginians. The Hebrew Bible mentions child sacrifice practiced by the Canaanites, ancestors of the Carthaginians. The Greek and Roman critics, according to Charles Picard, objected not to the killing of children but to the religious nature of it. As in both ancient Greece and Rome, inconvenient children were commonly killed by exposure to the elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10983626",
"title": "Slavery in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Forms of slavery.:Slaves for sacrifice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Human sacrifice was common in West African states up to and during the 19th century. Although archaeological evidence is not clear on the issue prior to European contact, in those societies that practiced human sacrifice, slaves became the most prominent victims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20663625",
"title": "Ancient Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Accounts of child sacrifice in Carthage report that beginning at the founding of Carthage in about 814 BC, mothers and fathers buried their children who had been sacrificed to Ba`al Hammon and Tanit in the\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zjoj3
|
Scissors' effect on a molecular level
|
[
{
"answer": "Both are happening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3443031",
"title": "Price scissors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "This phenomenon draws its name from a graphical illustration of its effects over time. Plotting time on a horizontal axis against price level on a vertical axis, with agricultural prices and industrial prices shown in two separate curves, the graph should appear like a pair of opening scissors. Historically, the phenomenon has most frequently taken the form of falling prices for agricultural produce and steady prices for industrial goods. Thus, the price scissors is most devastating to countries that are net agricultural exporters and net industrial importers. Perhaps the most vivid illustration of the effects of the price scissors and its potential effects occurred in countries throughout Eastern Europe in the early 1930s. The phenomenon is not exclusively of international scale: early Soviet Union had industry/agriculture price scissors internally, see Scissors Crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2375883",
"title": "Basic fighter maneuvers",
"section": "Section::::Maneuvers.:Scissors.:Rolling scissors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Rolling scissors, also called vertical scissors, tend to happen after a high-speed overshoot from above. The defender reverses into a vertical climb and into a barrel roll over the top, forcing the attacker to attempt to follow. The advantage lies in the aircraft that can pull its nose through the top or bottom of the turn faster. In battles with aircraft that have a thrust-to-weight ratio of less than one the aircraft will quickly lose altitude, and crashing into the ground becomes a possibility. According to author Mike Spick, \"Disengagement from a vertical rolling scissors is best made with a split-s and a lot of hope.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51118813",
"title": "Coil winding technology",
"section": "Section::::Winding processes.:Needle winding technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "A precise synchronization of the rotary motion with the stroke movement is required so that the needle does not touch the groove channel during the up and down movement. Influencing variables for the maximum winding speed are the needle stroke, the rotation angle of the stator (number of poles), the wire diameter and the groove channel width and the helix angle of the angularly grooved stators. The mass of the wire guide and the needle support experience a high acceleration. This can lead to unwanted vibrations that have an effect on the winding quality. The lifting motion is normally generated by ball screws. During this movement, the servo drives must constantly reverse in order to reverse the direction of the needle movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41304",
"title": "Knife-edge effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The knife-edge effect is explained by Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new wavefront. This new wavefront propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47637100",
"title": "Nickel titanium rotary file",
"section": "Section::::Components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "BULLET::::- Helix angle – Helix angle is an angle between the cutting edge and the long access of a file. Helix angle plays an important role in debris collection and it also determines the direction of rotation. Helix angle can be constant or accelerating (changes along the length of a file). Accelerating helix angles decreases the screw in effect when most of the working surface of a file is engaged and it can decrease the torsion stress on a file.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4549091",
"title": "The Scissors",
"section": "Section::::The rolling scissors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "The rolling scissors maneuver is somewhat different. Like the flat scissors, the rolling scissors maneuver is typically an engagement of two fighters of similar capabilities with respect to their thrust-to-weight ratios (and thus similar climbing capabilities), turning characteristics and wing loading. Whereas the flat scissors typically results from a failed attack resulting in a slow speed differential overshoot of the defender by the attacker, the rolling scissors usually results from a failed attack at higher speed, and overshoot. The rolling scissors is also often initiated by the attacker first diving from a higher altitude at the bandit and overshooting the bandit in the vertical, as well as horizontal plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751777",
"title": "Francis turbine",
"section": "Section::::Degree of reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Degree of reaction can be defined as the ratio of pressure energy change in the blades to total energy change of the fluid. This means that it is a ratio indicating the fraction of total change in fluid pressure energy occurring in the blades of the turbine. The rest of the changes occur in the stator blades of the turbines and the volute casing as it has a varying cross-sectional area. For example, if the degree of reaction is given to be 50%, that means that half of the total energy change of the fluid is taking place in the rotor blades and the other half is occurring in the stator blades. If the degree of reaction is zero it means that the energy changes due to the rotor blades is zero, leading to a different turbine design called the Pelton Turbine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mgf5v
|
How socially liberal was the Middle East before Wahhabism?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're making the assumption that Wahabism is widely spread across the middle east. It is not, and it never was. It has always been a Saudi phenomenon, and even then not all Saudi citizens are Wahabists. The movement was founded in the Nejd region of Saudi Arabia; Bahrain (eastern Arabia) is Shiite and the Hedjaz was Hanafi for a very long time under the Ottoman empire. Wahabism has always been intristicly tied to the Saudi royal family since the movement's inception, it was never a populist ideology. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think OP is assuming that Wahhabism is spread all over the Middle East and that is what people from other parts of the world think of when they think of human rights violations in that part of the world.\n\n_URL_0_ Check out the Wiki for a bunch of threads that might be closer to what you want to know",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You ask a pretty broad question, and as /u/Blaze86420 notes, a somewhat inaccurate one. The answer is pretty much \"it depends\". For example, the Nasrid dynasty in Spain could be seen as pretty liberal, as well as the Cordoba Caliphate, while the Almoravids adhered to a much stricter interpretation of Islam. The Ottoman empire was relatively religiously tolerant, although certain Ottoman rulers like Mehmed II voiced their desire to eradicate Christianity. Sources by Hungarian slaves in the Ottoman Empire talk about how repressed women were (not much different to modern Saudi Arabia), while other European sources say that women were relatively free and even discussed how the Ottoman treatment of women was progressive.\n\nAlso, the word \"liberal\" is a bit of a misleading word. When I say these countries are \"liberal,\" they certainly aren't the modern US or UK, but rather I'm comparing them to medieval contemporaries in Europe and the Middle East.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I am assuming correctly, what you want to know is how socially liberal parts of the Middle East were in the 20th century, which is much easier to answer. Like other posters have stated, Wahabism is a Saudi creation and had not spread much beyond its borders. However, religious adherence among Muslims in the Middle East was affected in several ways in the 20th century.\n\nThe first issue that needs to be covered is the size of the peasantry in the Middle East. Before WWII, the peasantry comprised almost 90% of the population in most nations in the region. For example, in Egypt, the effendi, the middle class, were only about 10% of the population, the landowners were 1-2%, and the peasantry were the rest. As is seen across the world, less well off people are usually more conservative; as was the case with the peasantry. They were usually strict adherents to whatever beliefs they held (Orthodox, Copt, Islam, Judaism, etc). \n\nHowever, the rising middle class of this time had been educated in Europe (depending on the country in either France or England). The returning educated middle class undertook several reforms throughout the region. Starting in literature and art, the middle class wanted to liberalize the culture before the government. Educated literati throughout the region began publishing novels and, most importantly, newspapers. The goal was to rile up the peasantry and utilize them to affect change in the country, which worked. In Egypt, the peasantry were given greater educational opportunities and were becoming more dissenting with colonial rule. After an incident in the Nile Delta that resulted in the deaths of several Egyptians, the movement to release Egypt from British colonial rule succeeded. This put the middle class firmly in charge, though they were offset by the King and the British. \n\nWhile the case example is Egypt, similar circumstances happened in Syria, Iraq, Jordan, etc. With the middle class in charge, the countries social climate drastically changed. Ideas of nationalism, pan-arabism, and others brought with them liberalized reforms that created better working conditions, less religious law, public welfare, education, etc. They were copying the European models from the 19th century and translating them for the Middle East. This was the general trend. \n\nBy the time of the Gamel Abd-el Nasser (1940s & 50s), Egypt and much of the Middle East had a larger middle class with a more educated population and liberal societies. Religious dress was not as popular in the cities, jazz had taken hold as a form of anti-imperialist music, universities were opening up across the region, and a general sense of liberalism and modernization had taken root. \n\nHowever, it wasn't until 1956 that nationalism, the driving force of liberalization in the Middle East up to this point, exploded. The Suez Canal Crisis proved that Britain and France no longer had the pull to dominate in the Middle East, thus Nasser was considered a hero of the Arab people and the third-world. With this new status, Nasser's, basically Egypt's middle class, reforms took hold throughout the region. Public education raised literacy rates, thus allowing for a larger middle class, burgeoning economies, modernization, etc. The hijab was not seen in cities as often as it was 50 years before. People began to secularize for the most part everywhere, following the Turkish/French form of state-sponsored secularism. In Turkey, Ataturk had declared religion to be a private affair and not having a place in the governance of the state. However, where Ataturk differed from most places was how he imposed secularism. To accomplish his goals, Ataturk created a ministry to deal with religion that tightly regulated it and forced it to remain within the home rather than the school or the public forum. \n\nNot much changed between then and 1979. However, it is essential to understand that, for many Arabs, Nasser's dream had failed. Thus, the idea of Pan-arabism was gone and the leading anti-imperialist dissenter was gone. A hole needed to be filled. In 1979, it was, when the Ayatollah with his own forces along with Marxist forces rose up and ousted the Shah. In a quick turn-around, the Ayatollah then ousted the Marxists as well, leaving Iran as an authoritarian theocracy. This served as a beacon for many people who were in tough times in the Middle East and had lost their hero, Nasser. Iran fulfilled this role to a certain extant. While people did not see Iran as a fellow in a cultural sense (Iran was persian, not Arab), they had successfully ousted the foreign powers that were controlling them. \n\nAfter 1979, many nations in the Middle East experienced an Islamic revival with a more conservative understanding of it. Turkey found itself with large populations of people dissenting against Ankara for its incredibly secular structure; people wanted more places of worship and less restrictions, but Ankara was less than willing. The same happened in the Egypt and Jordan where the Muslim Brotherhood gained a multitude of followers after the Iranian Revolution. The Muslim Brotherhood soon became a huge threat to national security in Egypt until Mubarak began to negotiate with them. The trend was clear. More people were following a more conservative form of Islam and were upset that their countries' governing structures were not allowing it due to their harsh forms of secularism. More people began attending religious schools rather than secular ones (especially among the poor), people began to don religious dress once again, and Islamic traditions were more strictly followed.\n\nNow there is a lot more factors that feed into this, but the 1979 revolution played a huge role in the development of religion place in today's Middle East.\n\nEDIT: Just as a note, after 1979, the Middle East didn't regress. It continued to progress in all sectors of society, but there was an increasingly conservative trend in many countries except a few.",
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"answer": "I think a better question would be: How liberal Saudi(Arabia) was before the Wahabist movement?",
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{
"answer": "So, the \"classical liberal\" position is a system guaranteeing individual rights (you can see how the non-radical left in America is traditionally called \"[social] liberals\" and the pro-business right in much of the rest of the world is called \"[economic] liberals\" despite very different positions today). Today, we think of progressive political movements spreading democracy around the world--that's our metric of political rights. However, in the 19th and early 20th century the measure was much more about constitutional rights rather than voting.\n\nBefore World War 1 in the Middle East, there were two big constitutional movements corresponding to the two big empires. The Constitutional Movement in the Ottoman Empire first achieved success in 1876, though tragically the [First Constitutional Period](_URL_3_) only lasted until 1878, when the Empire returned to absolutism. Nader Sohrabi (convincingly) argues that the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) gave a big kick in the pants to constitutionalist movements around the world. Here, for maybe the first time, we see a modern, non-European state decisively defeat a modern, European state. Political liberals pointed out that Japan had a constitution and the modern system worked well, and Russia had no constitution and was incredibly backwards. This helped lead, Sohrabi argues, to a \"wave\" of constitutionalism.\n\nTwo of the most important parts of this wave were in the Ottoman Empire and the Qajar (Iranian) Empire. In 1905, protests broke out in Iran that eventually worked up into the Iranian Constitutional movement. The 1906 constitution, I believe, held until the end of the Qajar Empire in 1925 (when Reza Shah took over in a British-assisted coup). Similarly, the Young Turk movement ended Ottoman absolutism. Almost immediately after coming to power, they restored the 1876 constitution and ushered in the [Second Constitutional Period](_URL_0_) which also lasted until the end of the Empire.\n\nBoth the regimes that came after the Empires were politically High Modernist, prizing things like women's rights, secularism, secular education, industrialization, etc. Many of the regimes that took over the colonized parts of the former Ottoman Empire (both the post-War 1 mandates, and the parts of North Africa colonized by the French) once they became fully independent, generally in the 50's and 60's. Tunisia, Egypt, Syria in particular seem to have followed this high modernist models. These were \"socially liberal\", but were generally not politically liberal. Most have had interruptions of political rights and free and fair elections, but in different proportions. Turkey has had the best record, having elections consistently since 1950 but military interruptions in 1960, 1971, 1980, and sort of 1997. Egypt likely has had the worst record (in terms of elections). Iran has obviously had a period of free elections, a period where foreign powers helped reimpose a monarchy, and the post-1979 period of elections-with-theocratic-rule. Most of the free and semi-free regimes generally tolerated social freedom in the cities (if not political dissent) but meddled less with the socially conservative countryside (which made up the majority of the population). Generally, the social conservatism that existed in these societies, especially pre- the 1979 Islamic Revolution (several other regimes, from Sadat to Saddam to democratic movements in Turkey have tried to use politicized Islam to increase their legitimacy), was society-driven, rather than state-driven. Leaders like Bourguiba in Tunisia, Atatürk in Turkey, and Nasser in Egypt tried to lead their countries into a socially progressive if not politically free \"secular modernity\" (Bourguiba famously would eat on television during the Ramadan fast). Part of their legitimacy was due to thinks like pushing women's rights. In those countries, the state was really pushing what we associate with social liberalism (but, again, not necessarily political liberalism) on to their populations (the populations *generally* responded well to this; again, more in the cities than the countryside).\n\nWahhabism is associated with the Saudi States (the current Saudi Arabia is actually the *third* Saudi state). Saudi Arabia, and the Arabia peninsula generally, has none of the \"core countries\"' traditions of political liberalism or social liberalism. Saudi Arabia is today one of the very few countries that doesn't have a constitution. Wahhabism, or even Salafism, have limited influence outside of the Arabian Peninsula. Movements calling for a theocratic, Qom-like *Vali-ye faqih*-style political order is similarly not particularly prominent in the Shi'a world outside of Iran.\n\nSo if we mean the Middle East as a whole, Wahhabism isn't very influential and political liberalism has a long history. There is, however, a long and mixed history of social and political liberalism, particularly in the cities. This started to change in some places in the 1970's and 80's, often in response to Islam-influenced movements (all the major movements in Palestine were left-nationalist until the 1980's, for example; electoral Islamist parties started in the 70's and became important only in the 80's in Turkey; the Muslim Brotherhood started really leading social change in the 1970's in Egypt, though they're a much older movement, etc.). These movements are not necessarily illiberal, and in fact most studies have found that Islamist movements are increasingly liberal (see for example, [Kurtzman and Naqvi](_URL_4_), or [Tezcür](_URL_1_)). If we mean the Arabian peninsula where Wahhabi-style Salafism is influential, there isn't a significant history of political or social liberalism. You might be interested in the article \"[No Saudi Spring](_URL_2_)\", which does deal with both recent events and the general structure of political life in Saudi Arabia.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19280734",
"title": "Liberalism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "In the Middle East, liberalism led to constitutional periods, like the Ottoman First and Second Constitutional Era and the Persian constitutional period, but it declined in the late 1930s due the growth and opposition of Islamism and pan-Arab nationalism. However, there were various examples of intellectuals who advocated liberal values and ideas. Prominent liberals during the period were Taha Hussein, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq al-Hakim, Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri, Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri and Muhammad Mandur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "38667945",
"title": "Pan-Arabism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Pan-Arabism, or simply Arabism, is an ideology which espouses the unification of the countries of North Africa and Western Asia from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, which is referred to as the Arab world. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts the view that the Arabs constitute a single nation. Its popularity reached its height during the 1950s and 1960s. Advocates of pan-Arabism have often espoused socialist principles and strongly opposed Western political involvement in the Arab world. It also sought to empower Arab states against outside forces by forming alliances and – to a lesser extent – economic co-operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3473169",
"title": "Orientalism (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the ruling Arab elites indicate they are imperial satraps who have internalized the romanticized \"Arab Culture\" created by French, British and, later, American Orientalists; the examples include critical analyses of the colonial literature of Joseph Conrad, which conflates a people, a time, and a place into a narrative of incident and adventure in an exotic land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355699",
"title": "Salafi movement",
"section": "Section::::History.:Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Modern Salafists consider the 18th-century scholar Muhammed bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and many of his students to have been Salafis. He started a reform movement in the remote, sparsely populated region of Najd. He advocated purging practices such as shrine and tomb visitation, which were widespread among Muslims. 'Abd al-Wahhab considered this practice to be idolatry, representative of impurities and inappropriate innovations in Islam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283877",
"title": "Fabian Society",
"section": "Section::::Organisational history.:Second generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "In the Middle East, the theories of Fabian Society intellectual movement of early-20th-century Britain inspired the Ba'athist vision. The Middle East adaptation of Fabian socialism led the state to control big industry, transport, banks, internal and external trade. The state would direct the course of economic development, with the ultimate aim to provide a guaranteed minimum standard of living for all. Michel Aflaq, widely considered as the founder of the Ba'athist movement, was a Fabian socialist. Aflaq's ideas, with those of Salah al-Din al-Bitar and Zaki al-Arsuzi, came to fruition in the Arab world in the form of dictatorial regimes in Iraq and Syria. Salāmah Mūsā of Egypt, another prominent champion of Arab Socialism, was a keen adherent of Fabian Society, and a member since 1909.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159040",
"title": "Wahhabism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "In the country of Wahhabism's founding – and by far the largest and most powerful country where it is the state religion – Wahhabi ulama gained control over education, law, public morality and religious institutions in the 20th century, while permitting as a \"trade-off\" doctrinally objectionable actions such as the import of modern technology and communications, and dealings with non-Muslims, for the sake of the consolidation of the power of its political guardian, the Al Saud dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5445077",
"title": "Hamad Nazzal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Nazzal is a critic of totalitarian Arab regimes; the US foreign policy in the Middle East; and the fundamental Islamic movements in the region. Democracy, in his view, is the only path towards development and progress. He argues that the current popularity of Islamist organizations in the Middle East is temporary as the public mood in the region is historically moderate. The past fifty years of Arab dictatorships had produced massive state failure which led to increasing the support of traditional forces (religious groups) who were powerless in the region from 1900-1990. “What’s taking place in the Arab world is not unprecedented, when people suffer they resort to churches and temples\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f1yak
|
what does this joke mean? i've been staring at it and i just don't understand it.
|
[
{
"answer": "The doctor is supposed to be objective and not influenced by personal opinion/judgement when dealing with patients. The fact that the doctor, whose duty is to the patient's care and wellbeing, joined the waiting room group in belittling the protagonist is where the self-deprecating part comes into play. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22297504",
"title": "Fishsticks (South Park)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The joke, which plays on the similarity of the phrases \"fishsticks\" and \"fish dicks\" when spoken, becomes a hit throughout South Park. When Cartman begins taking half credit for the joke, Kyle tells Jimmy he should stand up to Cartman. When Jimmy tells Cartman he feels he wrote most of the joke, Cartman fears Jimmy will try to take full credit and asks Kyle for advice on how to deal with Jimmy. Kyle instead says he believes Jimmy wrote the entire joke, and suggests that Cartman's ego is so big that he subconsciously remembers things incorrectly to make himself feel more important. This is supplemented by Cartman's flashbacks to the creation of the joke, which become more overblown and ridiculous as the episode goes on, showing him to truly believe that he deserves credit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16267",
"title": "Joke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "A joke is a display of humour in which words are used within a specific and well-defined narrative structure to make people laugh and is not meant to be taken seriously. It takes the form of a story, usually with dialogue, and ends in a punch line. It is in the punch line that the audience becomes aware that the story contains a second, conflicting meaning. This can be done using a pun or other word play such as irony, a logical incompatibility, nonsense, or other means. Linguist Robert Hetzron offers the definition:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39551224",
"title": "List of practical joke topics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "This is a list of practical joke topics (also known as a prank, gag, jape or shenanigan) which are mischievous tricks or jokes played on someone, typically causing the victim to experience embarrassment, perplexity, confusion, or discomfort. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5938192",
"title": "Benoît Brisefer",
"section": "Section::::Main character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "A recurring joke is Benoit's inability to narrate and explain events clearly when in haste or excited, as whenever he tries to warn the police. He talks excessively mixing his words, names and events, and ends up befuddling and confusing the adults. As a result, he is never taken seriously, even if later he is proven right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27006902",
"title": "Peter McGraw",
"section": "Section::::The Benign Violation Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A particular strength of the theory is that it predicts when things are not funny: a situation can fail to be humorous because it depicts a violation that does not simultaneously seem benign, or because it depicts a benign situation that has no violation. For example, play fighting and tickling cease to elicit laughter either when the attack stops (strictly benign) or becomes too aggressive (malign violation). Jokes similarly fail to be funny when either they are too tame or too risqué.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512812",
"title": "Lamia",
"section": "Section::::Hellenistic folklore.:As seductress.:Lamia the courtesan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "A longstanding joke makes a word play between Lamia the monster and Lamia of Athens, the notorious \"hetaira\" courtesan who captivated Demetrius Poliorcetes (d. 283 BC). The double-entendre sarcasm was uttered by Demetrius' father, among others. The same joke was used in theatrical Greek comedy, and generally. The word-play is also seen as being employed in Horace's \"Odes\", to banter Lucius Aelius Lamia the praetor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4746837",
"title": "Jokester",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "By computer analysis, the characters in the story investigate the origin of humour, particularly why there seems to be no such thing as an original joke, except for puns. Every normal joke is something that was originally heard from someone else.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fqi5q
|
when a sound or person wakes you up while dreaming, is it just me or is the noise always perfectly timed with an event in the dream?
|
[
{
"answer": "Memory of what happened in dreams is quite inaccurate. Your brain can actually construct the memory afterward, for example showing you that something happened simultaneously that didn't.",
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},
{
"answer": "Your dream may have ended at that point many minutes before you were woken up, you just have no memories of the intervening time and to you the events were simultaneous.\n\nSame things happening when you find yourself always waking up at the \"good bit\" of a dream.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "According to a psych course I took in university, dreams occur when information is transfered from short term memory to long term memory. During that transfer the brain sees that information, it doesn't make sense as it is just a bunch of random images and gets confused. To avoid confusion it makes up a story and presents it to you as a dream. \n\nI would imagine this would work for external stimuli as well - brain hears a noise, incorporates it into the dream.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Other associated phenomena.:Incorporation of reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "During the night, many external stimuli may bombard the senses, but the brain often interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream to ensure continued sleep. Dream incorporation is a phenomenon whereby an actual sensation, such as environmental sounds, is incorporated into dreams, such as hearing a phone ringing in a dream while it is ringing in reality or dreaming of urination while wetting the bed. The mind can, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7973164",
"title": "Anomalous experiences",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Dreams and lucid dreams.:False awakenings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "A false awakening is one in which the subject believes he/she has woken up, whether from a lucid or a non-lucid dream, but is in fact still asleep. Sometimes the experience is so realistic perceptually (the sleeper seeming to wake in his or her own bedroom, for example) that insight is not achieved at once, or even until the dreamer really wakes up and realises that what has occurred was hallucinatory. Such experiences seem particularly liable to occur to those who deliberately cultivate lucid dreams. However, they may also occur spontaneously and be associated with the experience of sleep paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2954690",
"title": "Focal seizure",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Simple partial seizures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "However, since the person is still acting in the dream-like state from which they woke, they will assimilate any hallucinations or delusions into their communication, often speaking to a hallucinatory person or speaking of events or thoughts normally pertaining to the dream they were having or other hallucination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826127",
"title": "False awakening",
"section": "Section::::Further concepts.:Continuum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Another type of false awakening is a continuum. In a continuum, the subject falls asleep in real life, but in the dream following, the brain simulates the subject as though they were still awake; i.e. the subject thinks he or she is still awake, but in reality, is asleep. At times the individual can perform actions unknowingly. The movie \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" popularized this phenomenon. This phenomenon can be related to that of sleep-walking or carrying out actions in a state of unconsciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236449",
"title": "Sleep paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Imagined sounds such as humming, hissing, static, zapping and buzzing noises are reported during sleep paralysis. Other sounds such as voices, whispers and roars are also experienced. These symptoms are usually accompanied by intense emotions such as fear and panic. People also have sensations of being dragged out of bed or of flying, numbness, and feelings of electric tingles or vibrations running through their body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20732132",
"title": "Dream Director",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "By playing themed sounds to sleepers when they are dreaming, it is hoped to alter the content of their dreams. For instance, sound effects evoking large echoey spaces might result in dreams set in large or open spaces. The question of whether a participant's altered dream could be said to be art is still open to debate, and indeed Jerram encourages this discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558642",
"title": "The Interpretation of Dreams",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Sources of dream content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Oftentimes people experience external stimuli, such as an alarm clock or music, being distorted and incorporated into their dreams. Freud explained that this is because \"the mind is withdrawn from the external world during sleep, and it is unable to give it a correct interpretation ...\" He further explained that our mind \"wishes\" to continue sleeping, and therefore will try to suppress external stimuli, weave the stimuli into the dream, compel a person to wake up, or encourage him or her to overcome it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
543osu
|
what did wells fargo do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you went to the bank to open a checking account and the banker tried everything possible to get you to sign up for a credit card and maybe even a second checking account to \"help you manage your finances\" but you just kept saying no. \n\nAfter you left the bank, the banker opened those accounts anyways and just never told you about them. But what about all the fees? WF employees then created transactions moving money between those fake accounts so the fees would be waived. In some cases where bankers got promoted, lost access to accounts, or were terminated, account holders then got late fees, overdraft charges, monthly fees or other penalties on accounts they never knew they had.\n\n• Opened deposit accounts and transferred funds without customer authorization, sometimes resulting in insufficient funds fees for customers.\n\n• Applied for credit card accounts without consumers' knowledge or consent. Customers were hit with annual fees, in addition to finance and interest charges and late fees for some consumers.\n\n• Issued and activated debit cards, creating PINs for customers, without their consent.\n\n•Created phony email addresses to enroll consumers in online-banking services.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16597487",
"title": "Wells Fargo",
"section": "Section::::Operations and services.:Charter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Wells Fargo operates under Charter #1, the first national bank charter issued in the United States. This charter was issued to First National Bank of Philadelphia on June 20, 1863, by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. Traditionally, acquiring banks assume the earliest issued charter number. Thus, the first charter passed from First National Bank of Philadelphia to Wells Fargo through its 2008 acquisition of Wachovia, which had inherited it through one of its many acquisitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457363",
"title": "William Fargo",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Wells Fargo & Company.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "In 1852, Henry Wells and Fargo created Wells Fargo & Co. when Butterfield (and other directors of American Express) objected to the extension of its operations to California. The original \"Wells Fargo & Co.\" was created to facilitate an express business between New York and San Francisco by way of the Isthmus of Panama and on the Pacific coast. The new company offered banking services, which included buying gold and selling paper bank drafts, and express services, which included rapid delivery of gold and anything else valuable. The company opened for business in the gold rush city of San Francisco, and soon the Company's agents opened offices in the other new cities and mining camps in the West.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8902654",
"title": "History of Wells Fargo",
"section": "Section::::1980–1990.:Purchase of Crocker National Corporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In May 1988, Wells Fargo acquired Barclays Bank of California from Barclays plc. In the late 1980s, the company considered expanding into Texas, where it made an unsuccessful bid for Dallas's FirstRepublic Corporation in 1988. In early 1989, Wells Fargo expanded into full-service brokerage and launched a joint venture with the Japanese company Nikko Securities, Wells Fargo Nikko Investment Advisors. The company also divested itself of its last international offices in 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16597487",
"title": "Wells Fargo",
"section": "Section::::Lawsuits, fines and controversies.:Connections to the gun industry and NRA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Wells Fargo is the top banker for US gun makers and the National Rifle Association (NRA). From December 2012 through February 2018 it reportedly helped two of the biggest firearms and ammunition companies obtain US$431.1 million in loans and bonds. It also created a US$28-million line of credit for the NRA and operates the organization's primary accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8902654",
"title": "History of Wells Fargo",
"section": "Section::::Early history.:Expansion into Overland Mail services and the Panic of 1855.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "Surviving the Panic of 1855 gave Wells Fargo two advantages. First, it faced virtually no competition in the banking and express business in California after the crisis; second, Wells Fargo attained a reputation for dependability and soundness. From 1855 through 1866, Wells Fargo expanded rapidly, becoming the West's all-purpose business, communications, and transportation agent. Under Barney's direction, the company developed its own stagecoach business, helped start and then took over Butterfield Overland Mail, and participated in the Pony Express. This period culminated with the 'grand consolidation' of 1866, when Wells Fargo consolidated the ownership and operation of the entire overland mail route from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean and many stagecoach lines in the western states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "975406",
"title": "Wells Fargo Advisors",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Wells Fargo Advisors traces its history to 1879, where it grew through mergers with many of the industry's regional and national firms. These include Wachovia Securities, A. G. Edwards, and Bache & Co..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16597487",
"title": "Wells Fargo",
"section": "Section::::Operations and services.:Wealth and Investment Management.:Wells Fargo Securities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Wells Fargo Securities (WFS) is the investment banking division of Wells Fargo & Co. The size and financial performance of this group is not disclosed publicly, but analysts believe the investment banking group houses approximately 4,500 employees and generates between US$3 and US$4 billion per year in investment banking revenue. By comparison, two of Wells Fargo's largest competitors, Bank of America and J.P. Morgan Chase generated approximately US$5.5 billion and US$6 billion respectively in 2011 (not including sales and trading revenue). WFS headquarters are in Charlotte, North Carolina, with other US offices in New York, Minneapolis, Boston, Houston, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, with international offices in London, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Tokyo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1whscs
|
What were some common phobias throughout history that don't exist today?
|
[
{
"answer": "I wouldn't call it common, as there's only a handful of well documented cases in the literature and much of the other evidence for its prevalence is anecdotal, but I'll mention it because it's wonderfully weird... \n\nFrom the 15th to the 17th century in Europe wealthy and educated people were struck with [glass delusion](_URL_1_) the belief that one is literally made of glass, or another fragile material such as porcelain, and therefore that one is at risk of shattering. \n\nThe most famous case was that of Princess Alexandra of Bavaria, who purportedly believed she had swallowed a glass Piano as a child and so insisted on walking through doorways sideways so as not to get stuck. Her case and the history of the delusion is discussed in this Stuff You Missed in History Class [Podcast](_URL_0_) \n\nAs discussed in the episode whether this was a genuine Phobia is a contested point - it was described as a 'scholars malady' that is to say a condition that people tended to self diagnose with after they heard that someone they regard as prestigious had it. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "while not entirely a phobia since I would think that it implies an irrational fear, the fear of being buried alive, which still happens nowadays albeit rarely, was pretty much in vogue in the 19th century. \nIt got to a point where people would actually install bells that would be above their graves and connected through a tube in their coffins so, where they to woke up, they could ring it and thus be rescued. \n_URL_0_\n\nIn Japan victims of Fugu would lay next to their coffins for 3 days out of fear they where actually paralyzed not really dead, so this was done to avoid cremating them alive. \n\nIn One Hundred Years of Solitude, based largely on Colombian folklore, one of the main characters asks to be decapitated before being buried out of the same fear. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "766888",
"title": "Psychopathology",
"section": "Section::::\"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- Phobias Found in people of all ages. Characterized by an abnormal response to fear or danger. Persons diagnosed with Phobias suffer from feelings of terror and uncontrollable fear, exaggerated reactions to danger that in reality is not life-threatening, and is usually accompanied by physical reactions related to extreme fear: panic, rapid heartbeat, and/or shortened breathing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21382720",
"title": "Scopophobia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Phobias have a long history. The concept of social phobias was referred to as long ago as 400 B.C. One of the first references to scopophobia was by Hippocrates who commented on an overly-shy individual, explaining that such a person \"loves darkness as light\" and \"thinks every man observes him.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4829543",
"title": "Heliophobia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Phobias are classified as a type of anxiety disorder. There is often no discernible cause of phobia onset, though Rachman describes three possibilities: classical conditioning, vicarious acquisition and informational/instructional acquisition. Occasionally they are triggered by harmful events surrounding the phobic object or situation - in this case, for example, severe sunburn, chronic light-triggered migraines, or trauma accompanied by bright sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23337",
"title": "Phobia",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Phobias are a common form of anxiety disorder, and distributions are heterogeneous by age and gender. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 8.7 percent and 18.1 percent of Americans suffer from phobias, making it the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25. Between 4 percent and 10 percent of all children experience specific phobias during their lives, and social phobias occur in one percent to three percent of children and adolescents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14238471",
"title": "Specific social phobia",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "In the past, when the prevalence was estimated by sampling the psychiatric clinical cases, social phobia was thought to be a rare disorder. It is now recognized that this way of estimating is inappropriate, because people with social phobia rarely seek psychiatric help by the very nature of their disorder. A more reliable source used now is community surveys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9819241",
"title": "Exposure therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Phobia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Agoraphobia and social anxiety disorder are examples of phobias that have been successfully treated by exposure therapy. Agoraphobia is a fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or that help would not be available if things go wrong, originating from the Ancient Greek term \"Agora\" or Marketplace, while social anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by a significant amount of fear in one or more social situations. Such fears can be very debilitating in themselves, and in addition patients often worry about showing anxiety and losing control in public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8750561",
"title": "Phobophobia",
"section": "Section::::Cause and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "Phobophobia is mainly linked with internal predispositions. It is developed by the unconscious mind which is linked to an event in which phobia was experienced with emotional trauma and stress, which are closely linked to anxiety disorders and by forgetting and recalling the initiating trauma. Phobophobia might develop from other phobias, in which the intense anxiety and panic caused by the phobia might lead to fearing the phobia itself, which triggers phobophobia before actually experiencing the other phobia. The extreme fear towards the other phobia can lead the patient to believe that their condition may develop into something worse, intensifying the effects of the other phobia by fearing it. Also, phobophobia can be developed when anxiety disorders are not treated, creating an extreme predisposition to other phobias. The development of phobophobia can also be attributed to characteristics of the patient itself, such as phylogenetic influence, the prepotency of certain stimuli, individual genetic inheritance, age incidence, sex incidence, personality background, cultural influence inside and outside the family, physiological variables and biochemical factors. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7id8bi
|
why is it that you are able to start a manual car by popping the clutch in second gear?
|
[
{
"answer": "No-one is really addressing the *why* portion.\n\nIn short there are several ways to ignite fuel. One is by a spark, another other is by compressing the fuel/air mix. Boyle's law tells us that when you compress a gas the temperature increases. If you compress the fuel/air mix enough it will ignite, just as though the spark-plug had ignited it (this is how [fire pistons](_URL_0_) work for starting campfires).\n\nIt works because if the car is in gear there is a direct link from the crank that the pistons turn to the wheels. Normally the pistons fire, turn the crank, the engine, the driveshaft, and eventually the wheels. As long as the vehicle is in gear this process works in reverse too. This is why you downshift when going down a steep hill, you are bleeding speed off by making the wheels turn the engine.\n\nSecond gear (and reverse) have the best gear ratio to start an engine at the speed you can reach by pushing the vehicle.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5033135",
"title": "Gear stick",
"section": "Section::::The gear knob and switches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Starting the car in gear with the clutch engaged causes it to lurch forwards or backwards, since the starter motor by itself produces sufficient torque to move the whole vehicle; this can be highly dangerous, especially if the parking brake is not firmly applied and can be injurious to the starter and drivetrain. Therefore, novice drivers are taught to rock the knob of a manual gearbox from side to side before starting the engine to confirm that the gearbox is in neutral. For the same reason, modern cars require the clutch pedal to be depressed before the starter will engage. The latter practice is also useful in extremely cold conditions or with a weak battery, as it avoids the starter motor also having to turn over a gearbox full of cold and highly viscous oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "869961",
"title": "Semi-automatic transmission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "A clutch-less manual facilitates gear changes by dispensing with the need to press a clutch pedal at the same time as changing gears. It uses electronic sensors, pneumatics, processors and actuators to execute gear shifts on input from the driver or by a computer. This removes the need for a clutch pedal which the driver otherwise needs to depress before making a gear change, since the clutch itself is actuated by electronic equipment which can synchronize the timing and torque required to make quick, smooth gear shifts. The system was designed by automobile manufacturers to provide a better driving experience through fast overtaking maneuvers on highways. Some motorcycles also use a system with a conventional gear change but without the need for manual clutch operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7402591",
"title": "Autostick",
"section": "Section::::Volkswagen Autostick.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Marketed as the \"Volkswagen Automatic Stickshift\", the three speed manual transmission was connected to a vacuum-operated automatic clutch. The top of the gear shift was designed to easily depress and activate an electric switch, i.e. when engaged by the drivers hand. When pressed, the switch operated a 12 volt solenoid in turn operating the vacuum clutch, thus disengaging the clutch and allowing shifting between gears. With the driver's hand removed from the gearshift, the clutch would re-engage automatically. The transmission was also equipped with a torque converter, allowing the car to idle in gear, like an automatic. The torque converter was operated by transmission fluid. This would allow the car to stop in any gear and start from a standing stop in any gear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "869961",
"title": "Semi-automatic transmission",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Volkswagen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1207,
"text": "For the 1968 model year, the Volkswagen Beetle offered an optional transmission marketed as Automatic Stickshift (in the United States and Canada, in most of the world it was simply called an \"Automatic\") which was essentially a three-speed manual without a clutch pedal. Application of the driver's hand to gearshift knob caused the clutch to disengage via a 12 volt solenoid operating the vacuum clutch, thereby allowing shifting between gears. Once the driver's hand was removed, the clutch would re-engage automatically. The transmission was also equipped with a torque converter, allowing the car to idle in gear, like an automatic. The torque converter was operated by transmission fluid. This would allow the car to stop in any gear and start from a standing stop in any gear. This transmission was first available on the 1968 Volkswagen Beetle (on sale in August 1967), and was made available on the Karmann Ghia during 1968. VW dropped the transmission option in North America in 1976, although it continued to be available in other markets until 1979. Some older (early 1960s) VW's sold in Europe had a Saxomat system which used a centrifugal clutch coupled to a standard four-speed transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6517",
"title": "Clutch",
"section": "Section::::Major types by application.:Vehicular (general).:Automobile powertrain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The default state of the clutch is \"engaged\" - that is the connection between engine and gearbox is always \"on\" unless the driver presses the pedal and disengages it. If the engine is running with the clutch engaged and the transmission in neutral, the engine spins the input shaft of the transmission but power is not transmitted to the wheels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4164508",
"title": "Presto-Matic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The driver would use the clutch pedal any time when selecting low, high, or reverse gear. Once underway, the accelerator could be eased and the car would engage the overdrive. With the Fluid Drive coupling, the car could be brought to a halt in gear without releasing the clutch and would creep like an automatic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.:Ease of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 1377,
"text": "Because manual transmissions require the operation of an extra pedal, and keeping the vehicle in the correct gear at all times, they require more concentration, especially in heavy traffic situations. The automatic transmissions, on the other hand, simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed, with the vehicle doing the work of choosing an appropriate gear. Manual transmissions also place a greater workload on the driver in heavy traffic situations, when the driver must operate the clutch pedal quite often. Because the clutch pedal can require a substantial amount of force, especially on large trucks, and the long pedal travel compared to the brake or accelerator requires moving the entire leg, not just the foot near the ankle, a manual transmission can cause fatigue, and is more difficult for injured people to drive. Additionally, because automatic transmissions can be driven with only one foot, people with one leg that is missing or impaired can still drive, unlike the manual transmission that requires the use of two feet at once. Likewise, manual transmissions require the driver to remove one hand periodically from the steering wheel while the vehicle is in motion, which can be difficult or impossible to do safely for people with a missing or impaired arm, and requires increased coordination, even for those with full use of both hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ojjt9
|
how can colleges legally create "customized" textbooks and not be found guilty of unlawful monopoly/duopoly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your college isn't the only one offering BIO 101 or whatever the course is. It's not exclusionary because you could have chosen a different college, so they aren't doing anything anti-competitive. It's sort of like how a bank can charge you a fee that no other bank charges, but they get away with it because they can say \"hey you could've picked a different bank.\"\n\nI'm not saying it's right, but that's the loophole that they're dancing around in while they flip you the bird.\n\nedit: by the way, my school is doing the same thing for one of my courses, and what they're doing is they package the lab manual (which you need your own copy of) in with the textbook, so you can't just use a library copy or something. It's highway robbery, but it's legal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Higher education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In the U.S., college and university textbooks are chosen by the professor teaching the course, or by the department as a whole. Students are typically responsible for obtaining their own copies of the books used in their courses, although alternatives to owning textbooks, such as textbook rental services and library reserve copies of texts, are available in some instances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33425002",
"title": "Online pass",
"section": "Section::::Textbooks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "A similar system has been recently used by textbook publishers, by requiring the use of an online pass to offer supplemental content; including an online message board, an assignment system where homework may be assigned or handed in, or even an e-book version of the title. It is similarly intended to discourage the second-hand re-sale or sharing of these textbooks by only allowing their online functionality to be utilized by a single student; requiring others to buy their own copy of the book or obtain an access code individually. tablet case\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17327644",
"title": "Open textbook",
"section": "Section::::Instruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Many open textbooks are licensed to allow modification. This means that instructors can add, remove or alter the content to better fit a course's needs. Furthermore, the cost of textbooks can in some cases contribute to the quality of instruction when students are not able to purchase required materials. A Florida governmental panel found after substantial consultation with educators, students, and administrators that \"there are compelling academic reasons to use open access textbooks such as: improved quality, flexibility and access to resources, interactive and active learning experiences, currency of textbook information, broader professional collaboration, and the use of teaching and learning technology to enhance educational experiences.\" (OATTF, p. i)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123427",
"title": "Education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Curriculum.:Textbook review and adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 257,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 257,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In some states, textbooks are selected for all students at the state level, and decisions made by larger states, such as California and Texas, that represent a considerable market for textbook publishers and can exert influence over the content of textbooks generally, thereby influencing the curriculum taught in public schools,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41222249",
"title": "2014 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:November.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 254,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 254,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "BULLET::::- November 22 – The Texas Board of Education approves a new controversial version of textbooks to be used in the state, ending months of outcry over lessons some say exaggerate the influence of Moses in American democracy and negatively portray Muslims. The board sanctions 89 books and classroom software packages for more than 5 million public school students to begin using next fall after hours of sometimes testy discussion and hundreds of last-minute edits, some to no avail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14734913",
"title": "Norwood v. Harrison",
"section": "Section::::The Court's Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The Supreme Court ruled that a state may not constitutionally give or lend textbooks to students who attend a school that discriminates on the basis of race, otherwise the discriminatory conduct of the private school could be considered \"state action\" and would thus be in violation of the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Market.:Used textbook market.:Student online marketplaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Online marketplaces are one of the two major types of online websites students can use to sell used textbooks. Online marketplaces may have an online auction format or may allow the student to list their books for a fixed price. In either case, the student must create the listing for each book themselves and wait for a buyer to order, making the use of marketplaces a more passive way of selling used textbooks. Unlike campus buyback and online book, students are unlikely to sell all their books to one buyer using online marketplaces, and will likely have to send out multiple books individually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fftsxg
|
What exactly are VPN’s and how do they work?
|
[
{
"answer": "All of your traffic that goes to the VPN adapter is addressed to the same destination (the VPN gateway). Inside those packets (encrypted) is another packet with the real destination and contents that you want. \n\nThe VPN gateway unencrypts the packet and sends it on its way with a source address that’s part of the network the VPN gateway is in. It does the same for packets headed back to you. \n\nWhat that means is your traffic is (virtually) inside the network that’s behind the VPN gateway. \n\nLet’s say that that network is your home (many home WiFi routers can run a VPN gateway). \n\nIt lets all of your traffic from your laptop that’s away from home get to your home computers without going through the router so things like printer sharing will work without exposing your printer through port sharing etc. It’s as if your laptop was on your home WiFi. \n\nIt’s great for things like being on your work network, when you’re not at work. \n\nSo why do people like them for “security”?\n\nWell, anyone spying on your remote laptop only sees encrypted traffic going to one place (the VPN gateway). It doesn’t know what’s in it, or where it’s going. \n\nThe final destination of your traffic doesn’t have to be within that VPN. It could be intended for _URL_0_. When the traffic gets to that VPN it would be sent out to that server from the VPN and back to you via that VPN. Anyone wanting to charge someone with piracy would only be able to charge the owner of the VPN (who probably lives outside the US). \n\nNobody can connect you to that piracy (unless the owner of the VPN decides to turn over their records).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply put, a VPN is like a privately run underground train system in a city. \n\nYou enter a station at one point and leave at another, but no one knows where you came from or where you are going, unless they run the underground train system. But they promise really really hard, that they aren't looking or writing anything down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you have to do everything by mail, and you don't feel safe sending postcards due to your post office being staffed by your overprotective mother. A VPN is like putting the postcard in an envelope to your buddy who is away at college. Your buddy opens the envelope and resends the postcard. He gets a response via postcard and puts it in an envelope back to you.\n\nNow the benefit to avoiding your snooping mother (who is actually an ISP) is obvious, but you often hear things like \"Australian Nexflix has that show, sucks to be in Canada.\" If your buddy (who is the VPN endpoint) is in Australia, how does Netflix know? As far as they're concerned, they're sending stuff to an Australian address.\n\nAs to how it works, it's mainly software in your PC or your router that's signed up for a service that encrypts traffic and sends it to the designated endpoint. One of the less talked about applications is very common in remote work - Companies set up VPNs so you can connect to all the internal tools as though you're on the company network by setting up endpoints within the company firewall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The diagrams below are an oversimplification of TCP/IP and IPSec, to get the point across without going too far into the weeds about the details.\n\nA VPN is designed to prevent anyone between two computers from being able to inspect the information being sent between the two computers. \n\nAs for how it works, we can look at an example of non-vpn traffic and compare it to vpn traffic. The data your computer sends over the internet is sent in chunks called packets. A normal TCP/IP packet looks like this\n\n |------|------|--------------|\n | IP | TCP | Data |\n |------|------|--------------|\n\nIP contains the source and destination IP. TCP contains the source and destination Port information. Data contains the data being sent to the destination IP. \n\nAnyone, such as an ISP, with access to this packet can read it an know what server you are sending information, as well as the information itself. You can protect the data you are sending using HTTPS, which will encrypt the Data portion of the packet using Transport Layer Security (TPS). But this just encrypts the data, not the source and destination TCP/IP information. So someone might know you're visiting a banking website, but won't be able to read whatever data is being sent, like your account password or balance or whatever other information is being sent. \n\nHowever, HTTPS doesn't obscure the TCP/IP information, so someone can still figure out your browsing habits if they really wanted to. \n\nVPNs go an extra step by taking the entire original packet, encrypting it, and wrapping it in another new packet with different destination information. Like so:\n\n |--- Encrypted ---|\n |-- Original Packet --|\n |------|------|------|------|--------------|---------|----------| \n | New | ESP | IP | TCP | Data | ESP | ESP Auth |\n | IP |Header| | | | Trailer | Trailer |\n |------|------|------|------|--------------|---------|----------|\n\n\n\nYou can see the original packet is still there, surrounded by new parts. VPN software using ESP, Encapsulating Security Payload, to encapsulate the original packet to protect it from eavesdroppers. This new packet is not sent to the original destination IP, but to an intermediate VPN device. The packet is protected while enroute to the new VPN IP. Once it reaches the VPN endpoint, the endpoint unpackages and decrypts the original packet, overwrites the source information with its own information, and then sends it along to the original destination. Anyone listening would find it exceedingly difficult to discover the true origin of this packet. \n\nThe VPN endpoint will also do the same thing in reverse. Once the packet reaches its destination server, the server will respond with data, sending it to the VPN endpoint. As far as the destination is concerned, the VPN _is_ the originator of the packet. The VPN will then encapsulate and encrypt the return packet, and send it back to your device. \n\n\nThis is useful for a lot of different things. Businesses can use it to securely share a file server to remote locations without exposing the file server traffic to the public internet, for instance. If you have to routers set up with a VPN tunnel between them, then the devices on either end of that tunnel wouldn't even necessarily be aware that they weren't on the same internal network and were actually traversing other networks.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "11282548",
"title": "Mobile virtual private network",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other VPN types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "A VPN maintains an authenticated, encrypted tunnel for securely passing data traffic over public networks (typically, the Internet.) Other VPN types are IPsec VPNs, which are useful for point-to-point connections when the network endpoints are known and remain fixed; or SSL VPNs, which provide for access through a Web browser and are commonly used by remote workers (telecommuting workers or business travelers).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44249235",
"title": "Outline of computer security",
"section": "Section::::Computer defenses and security measures.:Network security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "BULLET::::- Virtual private network (VPN) – extends a private network across a public network, such as the Internet. It enables a computer or network-enabled device to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if it were directly connected to the private network, while benefiting from the functionality, security and management policies of the private network. A VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point connection through the use of dedicated connections, virtual tunneling protocols, or traffic encryptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147130",
"title": "Virtual private network",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "VPNs can be characterized as \"host-to-network\" or \"remote access\" by connecting a single computer to a network, or as \"site-to-site\" for connecting two networks. In a corporate setting, remote-access VPNs allow employees to access the company's intranet from outside the office. Site-to-site VPNs allow collaborators in geographically disparate offices to share the same virtual network. A VPN can also be used to interconnect two similar networks over a dissimilar intermediate network; for example, two IPv6 networks over an IPv4 network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147130",
"title": "Virtual private network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "A VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point connection through the use of dedicated circuits or with tunneling protocols over existing networks. A VPN available from the public Internet can provide some of the benefits of a wide area network (WAN). From a user perspective, the resources available within the private network can be accessed remotely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863095",
"title": "Internet security",
"section": "Section::::Internet security products.:VPNs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "A VPN is a software application that's primary purpose is to encrypt online data traffic. First developed for business protection purposes, over the years VPN providers developed applications for personal use. Additionally, VPN masks and changes IP address, and is a popular tool for bypassing Geo-blocking. Some VPNs also offer server obfuscation services, adBlocks, and disables trackers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47019900",
"title": "Avast SecureLine VPN",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "It also anonymizes the user's online activity, protects users from hacking, can avoid some forms of surveillance, and allows unrestricted access to the Internet. A VPN also prevents user's detailed browsing data and history from being collected and sold by ISPs or other entities that may otherwise have access to them. The VPN can be set to automatically turn on when the user connects to a public Wi-Fi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40498683",
"title": "RESTENA",
"section": "Section::::Access services for individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The VPN (Virtual Private Network) service provides a secure connection to the network. The service is available to any user connected outside the network wishing to access normally inaccessible intranet services, or external services reserved for RESTENA users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fgrwi
|
if we die after roughly 3 weeks without eating, why do eat 3 times a day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eating three times a day is actually a modern invention (modern in terms of human history as a species). It wasn’t uncommon, or even unhealthy to eat once a day, or sometimes skip a day every few days. It still isn’t unhealthy to do that today, you are just so used to eating three times a day that it would be difficult.\n\nWe die after 3 weeks of not eating because we are healthy and well nourished. If you ate rarely and were malnourished you would die much quicker. We eat daily to make sure we are in top health.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Our body stores enough fuel to keep going for a while, but regular meals allow us to keep those reserves stable. Over the course of starvation your body dramatically cuts back energy use as well; if we were flirting with starvation we would be weak, stupid, slow to heal if at all, and generally unfit for anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Broke college kid here, I've eaten only once or twice a day pretty much all year. Haven't noticed any difference.\n\nBreakfast is a scam. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Firstly, as others have said, three meals a day is a modern thing people in wealthy countries do. A lot of people are lucky to get one good meal in a day, that's why we've evolved to survive so long without food.\n\nNow, you would never want to go three weeks without food. Even two weeks would inflict a terrible toll. The first thing to go is your body fat, as you'd expect. When you start running out of fat, your body starts breaking down your muscles. You'd completely lose any energy and just feel like sleeping all the time. If you ever reach that point you're in serious danger because you can very easily pass the point of no return. That is to say, you can get into a situation where you totally lack the energy or ability to feed yourself. Days could go by in slumber as your body eats itself. By this point your ability to digest food would also be compromised - we use lots of energy breaking our food down - and eating solid food would be impossible. You'd most likely vomit it back up assuming you could swallow it in the first place; if you kept it down it would most likely constipate you.\n\nAfter you've the majority of your body fat and muscles, your body would then turn to all the other soft organs in your body. That means your liver, kidneys, pancreas, and your brain. Nerve cells are largely made up of fatty acids and are therefore full of energy. As your body breaks down your brain, it's possible to experience irreversible brain damage that causes significant defects in learning, memory, and perception. Anyone experiencing in this condition needs to be admitted to hospital, as not only are they likely to be a danger to themselves due to not knowing what's going on around them, they're also at risk of sudden heart failure. By this point levels of potassium are likely to be extremely low, and we need potassium to send signals down our nerves. This is a common killer in acute anorexia; the signal literally stops going to the heart and boom, they're dead.\n\nI've seen someone go down to just under four stone due to a combination of anorexia and bulimia, and that's pretty much what happened. You wouldn't believe what the body does to keep itself alive; it will even sacrifice the person inside. So, don't starve yourself. It's best to eat reasonable, healthy meals on a regular schedule. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Three a day isn't really a rule, but a certain amount of nutrition is needed to 'keep ahead' of what's needed.\n\nThink of it this way... your body is a chemical furnace. Picture a steam boat. You need to keep throwing logs on the fire or it will go out. If you run out of logs, you can start taking apart the boat... stuff you can live without first, like some stairs, a few chairs, and so on. As time goes on you start getting down to more and more important stuff that doesn't burn as well, but you're desperate... the rudder, the floor... and as you cannibalize your boat it eventually just falls apart.\n\n... (gets less ELI5 from here. To an actual 5 year old, I'd probably stop with that)...\n\nNormally, you have a reserve of logs (fat) sitting along the side of the boat. Your body likes to avoid using this reserve because it's designed to be a backup source of energy. And when you do use it up, it wants to replace it as soon as possible (brings diet issues into focus a bit, eh?), because your body is built to survive emergency shortages.\n\nAdd to this complication that it's not *literally* a fire... you need specific \"Types of Wood\" if you will. So while you can work off the backup fuel, it's not as good for you (and it doesn't \"burn as hot\"... the energy doesn't work as efficiently as things like glucose/sugar).\n\nAnd, to throw on more unnecessary information and walk farther away from a true ELI5 response, add to the complication that certain body parts, like your brain, require certain fuels... such as your brain which really only uses glucose as fuel (part of what makes unmonitored blood sugar in diabetics so dangerous).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If my car can drive for fifty thousand miles without an oil change before it's totally ruined, why do I change the oil every three or four thousand?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Surviving is not the same as living. That said, I eat a banana for breakfast skip lunch, and then eat meat and veggies for dinner. Think of how inactive most of us are, sleep, stand get dressed, sit in car/train, stand to walk in to job, sit for four hours, stand to go to cafeteria, sit to eat, stand to go back to office, sit for four hours, stand to get to train car, sit to go home, stand to go inside make dinner, sit to eat dinner, sit to watch tv unwind, lay down to sleep, repeat. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "There is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40% death is almost inevitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227456",
"title": "Forensic toxicology",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Time since death can be approximated by the state of digestion of the stomach contents. It normally takes at least a couple of hours for food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine; a meal still largely in the stomach implies death shortly after eating, while an empty or nearly-empty stomach suggests a longer time period between eating and death (Batten, 1995). However, there are numerous mitigating factors to take into account: the extent to which the food had been chewed, the amount of fat and protein present, physical activity undertaken by the victim prior to death, mood of the victim, physiological variation from person to person. All these factors affect the rate at which food passes through the digestive tract. Pathologists are generally hesitant to base a precise time of death on the evidence of stomach contents alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258979",
"title": "Malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "In those who are severely malnourished, feeding too much too quickly can result in refeeding syndrome. This can result regardless of route of feeding and can present itself a couple of days after eating with heart failure, dysrhythmias and confusion that can result in death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29979736",
"title": "Snacking",
"section": "Section::::Unhealthy snacking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "BULLET::::- Not eating causes one form of unhealthy snacking. Evelyn Tribole and Elyse Resch claim in their book \"Intuitive Eating\" that the symptoms of starvation occur when the absence of eating is extended longer than a period of three to six hours. When the body undergoes a period of starvation, metabolism decreases and food cravings increase, causing a binge in eating high-carbohydrate foods. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a chemical in the brain produced during periods of starvation that triggers the need for carbohydrates. After a bout of starvation, NPY causes an eating binge of carbohydrates in which one surpasses the daily allowance, causing weight gain. Ingesting carbohydrates causes an increase in serotonin production which cancels the production of NPY. The longer the starvation period, the more intense food cravings become, making it difficult to follow the five characteristics of healthy snacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5040",
"title": "Inedia",
"section": "Section::::Scientific assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3731756",
"title": "Hazards of outdoor recreation",
"section": "Section::::Specific accidents and ailments.:Metabolic imbalances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- If deprived of food for several days, travelers may become \"malnourished\". Malnutrition takes several weeks to kill a person, but because it impairs judgment, it can cause problems much sooner. \"Low blood sugar\" may have a similar effect, especially for those with diabetes. Carrying extra food will minimize risk to the hiker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an \"obesity epidemic.\" Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
3oo9yd
|
How much 'real time control' did pre-20th century generals have over the battlefield?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on when and where. Pre-20th century, after-all, covers over 2500 years. While I've not read anything explicitly stating it, it seems to me command style changed with the size of the army and battlefields.\n\nIn Classical Greece, commanders could basically only lay out a battle plan before it starts. Once all the sub-commanders have their orders and the battle starts, there's nearly no control whatsoever. This is due to the fact that the general fought as a hoplite on the front lines. So it was very hard for him to know what's going on and issue new orders. The best he can do is guide his own detachment according to the pre-set plans. With battlefields being relatively small in size and usually no reserves to speak of, it didn't really matter that much I suppose.\n\nJust prior to Alexander, generals on horseback began to appear in Greece. But they still very much fought on the front with the cavalry. So they had more control and could respond better to situations around the battlefield and far more quickly. Alexander at Gaugamela is a well known example, but I like Pelopidas responding to battlefield situations at Cynocephelae even better.\n\nThe successor states probably eventually adopted having the commander and his bodyguard cavalry sit in reserve, so he's busy commanding instead of busy fighting. And this way he knew where to send the reserves because watching from slightly behind the lines. If the successor states didn't do it, certainly by the Roman Empires that's what was done.\n\nIt's not all that linear though. For example at Hastings long after the fall of the Western Empire when armies were smaller again, Harold was on foot in line with his housecarls, similar to the hoplite style, with no control over what his brothers did with their contingents. William on the other side fought with his Norman cavalry (though I'm not sure if he was in reserve or not, it seems he was pretty active). He had to take off his helmet to show everyone he was still alive at a point in the battle, and led a few attacks.\n\nThere are other variations too. Supposedly Mongols like to set up their commands on a hilltop instead of with the army and issue orders with horns, drums, flags, signal arrows, etc (forgot which book I read that in, was it *Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World*?) Similarly, by late Sengoku the Japanese prefer to place the commanding general and his personal troops on a hilltop slightly behind the fighting where he can see what's going on and issue command to move forward. And on the other side of the world this was also done in European battles such as Naseby, as both King Charles and Fairfax were slightly behind the battle on top of ridges, though Charles apparently didn't commit until it was too late, so ended up not committing at all.\n\nBy the 19th century (at the latest) army sizes and battlefield had grown so large that it was very difficult (or impossible) for the commanding general to see the entire battlefield. So a lot of time the general have to act on reports of aides and messengers. Since messages travelled at the speed of a horse, and you aren't seeing it with your own eyes, it could get pretty confusing. See examples in this thread.",
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"answer": "Bear in mind that it would be much easier to control your forces pre-gunpowder era than later, and with smaller army sizes. A battlefield with cannon and musket fire echoing across it would be much harder to communicate with, say, horns or drums, in comparison to if these horns were used in a pre-gunpowder era battle. Similarly, with smaller army sizes, you'd have less of a problem conveying messages from one side to the other, and overall you'd be able to keep an eye on the entire unfolding. In terms of \"real time control\", you also have to account for the delay between messengers getting messages across, where they could be delayed by opposing forces, or simply due to the time taken to traverse the field on horse or by foot. A basic battle plan would be in place but, as all battles go, would probably be modified as it progressed - you'd have a rough formation idea at the beginning, as well as certain rules for engagement/retreat, however it also relied on the best judgement of the commanding officer (who would relay his commands down through the hierarchy) or, if he wasn't available, the next person down, and so on.",
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"answer": "An interesting case study in the real-time control of the battlefield is the famous Charge of the Light Brigade. \n\nThe British commander was Lord Raglan, who was standing on top of a hill and able to see the whole battlefield. In front of him, at one end of a long valley was his brigade of Light Cavalry. At the other end of the valley was a well-defended enemy Russian artillery battery. \n\nBehind Lord Raglan one of the Russians' other artillery batteries was in retreat. Raglan wanted to order the Light Cavalry Brigade to chase after them and seize their artillery. With no radio, he had to send a runner with a note which read *Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front, follow the enemy, and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. Troop horse artillery may accompany. French cavalry is on your left. Immediate.*. This was accompanied with a verbal order to attack immediately. \n\nNow there was a crucial mistake would not have occurred with modern technology. The Light Brigade only had knowledge of one Russian artillery unit, the well-defended one at the other end of the valley they were standing in. The Brigade set off down the valley. The runner suddenly realised the mistake, and chased after them to redirect them, but was shot down by the Russians. There was no mechanism to contact the unit and call them back. The Brigade did successfully and bravely seize the artillery but were surrounded and taken out by other Russian units. \n\nLucan, the commander of the cavalry, later claimed that he had asked the runner which guns were being referred to and the runner had unhelpfully swept his arm across the whole battlefield, where only those at the end of the valley were visible.",
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"answer": "There is a lot to this question, and answers will vary considerably depending on the era and the army. In the Napoleonic era, generals had their ADCs on horseback, typically in a \"string\" taking turns making runs out to relay orders to individual units. Aides were typically very trusted appointees who were part of the General's \"military family\" or retinue and very often a son or son-in-law, so in some respects they were expected to know very intimately what a general was thinking. They were often entrusted with scouting missions-- for instance, a Corps commander would send a staff colonel off with a fighting patrol of a squadron or two of light cavalry to take prisoners and see what he could stir up. On a lower level, a brigade commander could put his ADC, a captain, in charge of a light company and two grenadier companies from one of his regiments and have them overrun a troublesome artillery battery. Both these examples come from Col. H.C.B. Rogers, \"Napoleon's Army\" (1982), which has a rare couple of case studies of Napoleonic battles on a small scale. The memoirs of Baron Marbot also contain a lot of info about the role of an aide and light cavalry officer. The system relied on the skill and initiative of subordinates as well as the ability of a senior officer such as a army or corps commander to assume direct control over a developing situation. It helped that armies were relatively small and fought in small areas compared with 20th century armies. As Napoleonic armies swelled ever larger with masses of conscripts, and the best of the generals were killed off one by one, command and control grew more difficult and the tactics devolved into bludgeoning contests like Borodino or Wagram. For a details of how a battle plan could get entirely too elaborate for green troops and inexperienced officers to follow, \"the War of 1812 in the Old Northwest\" by Alec Gilpin (or most other accounts of that conflict) have plenty of examples. One case in particular is the Battle of the Rapids which occurred during the siege of Fort Meigs on May 5, 1813. I could write a detailed account but the basic details are available in plenty of sources in print or online. It illustrates perfectly what could happen when a commander lost command and control during a battle taking place over a wide, wooded area--and General Harrison was a professional soldier who had been schooled as an ADC for General Anthony Wayne fighting over the very same area. Basically, once a situation was developed it came down to the initiative of field officers to react or rally their units. Militia officers and their men weren't necessarily bad troops, but they had to be kept close in hand or risk disaster. Generals could affect a situation if they were able to gallop into the midst of a battle and rally or coordinate troops, but they ran the risk of getting shot, which frequently changed the game if their subordinate was not as energetic or skilled as they.",
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"answer": "My are is First World War and just before, which isn't *technically* within the scope of your answer, but I'll go ahead and answer anyways because I think you might find the answer helpful.\n\nFirst, let's pick apart your question a little bit, because I think that in doing so, we can start to see some of the ways in which battle and the concept of \"a battle\" had changed and was still changing by 1914. How much real time control a commander involves two things, in my estimation: a) the ability to get accurate information regarding the course of battle at any given moment and b) his ability to relay to combat forces his commands. The fulfillment of one of these conditions does not necessarily mean the second is automatically fulfilled. On the other hand, both are closely related and often rely on the same technologies, or lack thereof.\n\nMoving on, some people in the thread have mentioned that the answer depends, based on what period we're talking about. This is obviously true, but it also depends hugely on what level of army organization you're looking at. /u/ParallelPain answered with regards to a Classical Greek battle, where you could theoretically watch the entire battle from a high enough vantage point. One of the biggest trends in nineteenth century military history is the expansion of armies with mass conscription and states with the organizational and material wealth necessary for fielding armies of millions. By the outbreak of the First World War, we've got not only regiments (the basic unit of infantry armed strength), but also divisions (which unite infantry strength with artillery and cavalry force, as well as logistical support), but also corps, armies, and even army fronts comprising two or more armies.\n\nThis also forces us to acknowledge that by the 20th century and the First World War, even the concept of a \"battle\" has to be looked at and played with a little bit. Going back to Greece, a battle might last a few hours. Skipping over quite a few centuries of military history, by Gettysburg we have a three day battle. But these are still unquestionably 'battles.' By 1914, we see weeklong engagements like Tannenberg, the Marne and Komarow. These single 'battles' are titanic when compared to single-day infantry clashes in Classical Greece. In fact, these 'battles' may be more accurately described as a vast network of smaller battles all being fought with regards to a single operational objective, e.g. \"capturing X town.\" Then we have Verdun and (moving forward) things like Stalingrad, which challenge the conception of a 'battle' as a unit of analysis even further. \n\nAll this was a very roundabout way of saying that commanders at different levels are going to have different means for a) observation and b) control based on the number of men (and cavalry detachments, artillery batteries, and supply columns) they're commanding and the geographical and temporal scope of the 'battle' they're overseeing.\n\nI focus on the Austro-Hungarian Army, so we'll use them as an example. Each turn of the century army had its institutional peculiarities, but *roughly*, this should suffice in general. I'd love for people more knowledgeable about specific armies to chime in and provide some context. \n\nNow for the actual answer. Let's start at the top. The truth is, radio and telephone communication at the outbreak of the First World War were nascent technologies and their application to ground combat was still being figured out. But with the larger units of organization - armies, corps, divisions and even regiments - the telephone and telegraph were being used quite well by the Austrian Army. In 1914, each division had its own signals detachment, armed with a portable telegraph set and several kilometers of telegraph/telephone wire that could be unrolled and laid at the will of the commanding officer. Communications travelling from division commands up to corps and army headquarters were quite regular. The Austrian Army meticulously (by necessity) recorded a lot of information on each telegraph: when the message was sent, where it was sent from, which command was sending it and to whom, but also when it was received, when it was read, by whom it was read and to whom it was passed along. These messages varied in the level of detail, but the most common message was a \"Disposition\" and sought to give the corps or army headquarters where the division and its constituent regiments were located and what they were doing. For example, a telegraph I have a facsimile of from the Vienna War Archives reads, \"have arrived in the Cossack barracks [in the town of Zamosc]... and captured assorted war material, including a munitions wagon, 2 portable kitchens, as well as 2 guns on the road towards Lubelskie.\" This was sent from a divisional commander to his corps commander and is typical of the type of communication being sent up the chain. As you can see, this message and others like it leave a lot to be desired. Telegrams were also being sent down the chain of command, with corps commanders telling divisional commanders where their neighboring units were, how their mission objectives were progressing and whether enemy activity had been reported in their sectors. These telegrams were essentially aimed at giving commanders an idea of where forces were on the battlefield and what they were doing. Divisional and corps commanders also relied on hand-drawn dispositional sketches showing where units were with regards to certain objectives and landmarks. What these sketches made up for in detail that telegrams couldn't convey, they lacked in speed. Maps had to be ridden (by bicycle, horse or car) to the pertinent headquarters. This could take anywhere from ten minutes to several hours depending on the state of roads, how well the area was known to the different commands, and the combat and traffic situation of those roads.\n\nThis has all so far been about how commanders got information on where their troops were. As you can see, it would take a powerful intellect with massive amounts of training to put together a cogent picture of what was going on. In engagements which were lasting several days to a week, the time constraint was, as with all combat, very important, but commanders could usually get a telegraph message from a subordinate within an hour, from the moment the subordinate decided to send the message to the moment a transcribed message was handed to the superior officer. This, combined with illustrated disposition maps and the spoken word of messengers, was no Blue Force Tracker, but it worked reasonably well.\n\nAs for sending commands and trying to affect the flow of battle, commanders relied on the same sorts of technologies. Written commands were transferred via telegraph to subordinates in the same way dispositions were reported going the other direction. For example, one telegram I have from II Korps to 13th Division command tells that commander: \"both infantry brigades, the artillery brigade and artillery HQ are to immediately assume a disposition on the northern egress road from Zamosc and to establish connections with 25th Infantry Division.\" Like reports being sent up the ladder, commands being sent down the ladder could be expected to be read by the pertinent subordinates within an hour.\n\nThe telegraph I chose helps me segue into the next issue, that is, sub-divisional commands and reporting. By 1918, individual regiments would be armed with telegraph units and plugged into the communications network, but in 1914, all communications at the sub-division level (regiment and battalion) were done on paper or by messenger. The Vienna War Archives is literally full of these tiny bits of paper, about three inches by five inches, with written dispatches on them. The blank dispatch cards were printed en masse in perforated card books so that the officers using them could save time by plugging in the information into pre-printed spaces. In typical Habsburg bureaucratic function, there are spaces for every bit of pertinent information: sender, receiver, time sent, date sent, area sent from, etc. Speaking to the paramountcy of the horse and rider to sub-divisional command is the spot on the dispatch card where the writer is asked to circle one of the following: \"trot\" \"gallop\" or \"trot and gallop.\" These messages took significantly longer to relay, depending on the geographical proximity of the sender and receiver and the intensity of combat in the area. Of course, many messengers went missing, were captured or killed and many messages never received, often resulting in lives lost. Hand-drawn maps were also very important at the sub-divisional level, especially as a means by which regimental commanders showed divisional commanders where their units were located.\n\nFinally, at the very nitty gritty level of sub-regimental command, what we would consider \"combat\", flags, written notes and messengers had to be used. Since radios wouldn't become standard until the Second World War, battalion commanders had to rely largely on flag signalling and messengers to get their commands into the hands of lieutenants. At the beginning of the war, each platoon (60 men or so) had a 3-man signalling section: a patrol leader, an observer and a signaller. The signaller had two flags and used these to relay observations and reports up the chain. At the company-level, the Austrian Army experimented with field telephones even at the beginning of the war, but they were not standard, especially in the context of highly limited financial resources prior to the First World War. These telephones were operated using Morse code and were carried along with about a mile of telephone wire.\n\nSources:\n\nLucas, J.S. *Austro-Hungarian Infantry, 1914-1918.* Almark Publications, 1973.\n\nVienna War Archives, independent research",
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"answer": "In the Franco-Prussian War the command and control system relied more on the independence of low level commanders on the battlefield, with von Moltke the Elder organizing the larger scale plans of battle. \nThe idea was von Moltke could command the strategic movements of the armies, but allow the lower commanders who fully understood the ground situation to make the tactical decisions.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "56727562",
"title": "The Commanders",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "\"The Commanders\" was described by History as an \"anthology scripted series envisioned as an annual television event ranging from four to 10 hours in length. It will dramatize pivotal moments in U.S. history that defined the legacy of the men who served as Presidents of the United States — from the first one, George Washington, to No. 42, Bill Clinton.\"\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2589535",
"title": "Civilian control of the military",
"section": "Section::::Methods of asserting civilian control.:Technological developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
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"text": "Historically, direct control over military forces deployed for war was hampered by the technological limits of command, control, and communications; national leaders, whether democratically elected or not, had to rely on local commanders to execute the details of a military campaign, or risk centrally-directed orders' obsolescence by the time they reached the front lines. The remoteness of government from the action allowed professional soldiers to claim military affairs as their own particular sphere of expertise and influence; upon entering a state of war, it was often expected that the generals and field marshals would dictate strategy and tactics, and the civilian leadership would defer to their informed judgments.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1225714",
"title": "Military exercise",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "21st century militaries still use wargames to simulate future wars and model their reaction. According to Manuel de Landa, after World War II the Command, Control and Communications (C) was transferred from the military staff to the RAND Corporation, the first think tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "207142",
"title": "Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke",
"section": "Section::::Second World War.:Chief of the Imperial General Staff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
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"text": "The post of CIGS was less rewarding than command in an important theatre of war but the CIGS chose the generals who commanded those theatres and decided what men and munitions they should have. When it came to finding the right commanders he often complained that many officers who would have been good commanders had been killed in the First World War and that this was one reason behind the difficulties the British had in the beginning of the war. When General Sir Claude Auchinleck was to be replaced as the commander of the British Eighth Army in 1942, Brooke preferred Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery instead of Lieutenant General William Gott, who was Churchill's candidate. Soon thereafter Gott was killed in an air crash and Montgomery received the command. Brooke would later reflect upon the tragic event which led to the appointment of Montgomery as an intervention by God. Earlier in 1942 Brooke had been offered the command of British forces in the Middle East. Brooke declined, believing he now knew better than any other general how to deal with Churchill.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "23283418",
"title": "Commanders at War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Commanders at War is a TV show on the Military Channel (now American Heroes Channel). It highlights specific battles or skirmishes from World War II, where one commander is pitted against another. Using computer-generated imagery, many scenes are illustrated using cardboard-cutout-like figures to represent soldiers and equipment. Key battle decisions are examined, in order to explain the overall outcome of the battle.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "326213",
"title": "Technology during World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "One could characterize the earlier years of the First World War as a clash of 20th-century technology with 19th-century military science creating ineffective battles with huge numbers of casualties on both sides. On land, only in the final year of the war did the major armies make effective steps in revolutionizing matters of command and control and tactics to adapt to the modern battlefield and start to harness the myriad new technologies to effective military purposes. Tactical reorganizations (such as shifting the focus of command from the 100+ man company to the 10+ man squad) went hand-in-hand with armored cars, the first submachine guns, and automatic rifles that a single individual soldier could carry and use.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3851464",
"title": "Real-time tactics",
"section": "Section::::Brief history and background.:Establishing the genre: the late-1990s rise in popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Around 1995, computer hardware and developer support systems had developed enough to facilitate the requirements of large-scale real-time tactical games. It was in 1995 that the regimentally focused wargame \"\" was released, groundbreaking not only in that it focused purely on the operational aspects of combat (with all aspects pertaining: regimental manoeuvring and formations, support tactics, terrain, etc.), nor only in that it was entirely real-time, but also that it introduced zoomable and rotatable 3D terrain. In 1997 Firaxis Games' released \"Sid Meier's Gettysburg!\", a detailed and faithful recreation of some of the most significant battles of the American Civil War that introduced large scale tactical battlefield command using 3D.\n",
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2ffwny
|
Why is it better letting banks loan 10x of bonds they hold (fractional reserve banking), than letting people to spend 10x of bonds they hold?
|
[
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"answer": "The short answer is bank loans are generally supposed to be done in a manner which is controlled, conservative and carrying a large chance of return. Banks also usually have large diversity of revenues streams, which means they are supposed to be relatively stable in the case of minor problems in the markets - neither of these are easy to quantify for a small scale individual.\n\nIts also worth noting that banks can only give you interest by loaning that money away, so even if only loaning the money they have, a bank run still kills them. \n\nThis doesn't exist to anywhere near the same degree in most individuals' general purchases (it also frequently does not exist in banking either for that matter), but there's nothing stopping a wealthy individual with diverse revenue streams setting up as a bank and 'spending' 10x their bonds on loans to people - it all just comes down to what you want to spend the money on and what you have coming in as revenue.\n\n",
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"answer": "I'm not sure I completely understand your question - in fractional reserve banking, any individual bank doesn't loan 10x the money they receive. They only loan a portion of the money they receive from depositors (90% say). This money is spent by the loan recipients, and (in a developed economy) ultimately ends up redeposited in someone else's account. This process thus happens over and over again. Mathematically, you can calculate that the ultimate economic effect is that the total money spent is 10x the amount that the bank holds in reserves (by adding up .9 + .81 + .729 + ...).\n\nIt's worth noting that each round of this involves individuals spending the money they receive from the bank as a loan. So for example when the bank loans me 100k to buy a house, I get the house and the money goes back into the bank account of the person I bought it from. I'm still on the hook to pay back the bank, just like the bank is still on the hook to give money back to people out of their checking account. This works because not everyone is going to want their money back at once.\nThe bank's job us to keep track of everything, to pick good people to loan to (whether they do a good job at this is a separate discussion), and to provide interest and services so people want to deposit money with them.\n\nAn additional complexity is that the government guarantees many bank accounts. This means that if the bank screws it up (or if everyone simply gets scared and decides to take out all their money and put it under their mattress), the government has promised to find a way to give the money back to people who deposited into the bank. In actuality, even making this promise should prevent them from ever needing to do this on a large scale since it keeps people from freaking out and withdrawing everything. Furthermore, in exchange the banking industry is highly regulated - the fact that banks are required to keep a certain reserve percentage by law is one example of this. These regulations are supposed to insure that banks don't take on excessive risks.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22099091",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate",
"section": "Section::::Liquidity.:Lower interest rates.:Arguments for lower interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
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"text": "Lower interest rates may also help banks \"earn their way out\" of financial difficulties, because banks can borrow at very low interest rates from depositors and lend at higher rates for mortgages or credit cards. In other words, the \"spread\" between bank borrowing costs and revenues from lending increases. For example, a large U.S. bank reported in February 2009 that its average cost to borrow from depositors was 0.91%, with a net interest margin (spread) of 4.83%. Profits help banks build back equity or capital lost during the crisis.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "38286",
"title": "Inflation",
"section": "Section::::Controlling inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
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"text": "Higher interest rates reduce the economy’s money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the federal funds rate exceeded 15 percent, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1 percent, from US$8.6 trillion down to $7.9 trillion.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "36883526",
"title": "Loan-deposit ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "If the ratio is lower than one, the bank relied on its own deposits to make loans to its customers, without any outside borrowing. If on the other hand the ratio is greater than one, the bank borrowed money which it reloaned at higher rates, rather than relying entirely on its own deposits. Banks may not be earning an optimal return if the ratio is too low. If the ratio is too high, the banks might not have enough liquidity to cover any unforeseen funding requirements or economic crises. Banking analysts commonly used metric for assessing a bank's liquidity.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "164391",
"title": "Monetary policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Money creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::6. Since banks have more free reserves, they may loan out the money, because holding the money would amount to accepting the cost of foregone interest When a loan is granted, a person is generally granted the money by adding to the balance on their bank account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8432120",
"title": "Refinancing risk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Most large corporations and banks face this risk to some degree, as they may constantly borrow and repay loans. Refinancing risk increases during rising interest rates, as the borrower may not have sufficient income to afford the higher interest rate on a new loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "277069",
"title": "Reserve Bank of India",
"section": "Section::::Policy rates and reserve ratios.:Repo rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "If banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow , it has to provide government securities at least worth 100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5%–10% of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid as interest. This is the reason it is called repo rate.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "152835",
"title": "Debt",
"section": "Section::::Terms.:Interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "For some loans, the amount actually loaned to the debtor is less than the principal sum to be repaid. This may be because upfront fees or points are charged, or because the loan has been structured to be sharia-compliant. The additional principal due at the end of the term has the same economic effect as a higher interest rate.\n",
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7yyyiq
|
the strength of currency
|
[
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"answer": "You're right. It's a common misconception to say, for example, that since you get more Canadian dollars in exchange for US dollars, the US dollar is worth more. If prices were the same in both countries that would be the case, but prices are not even consistent from one city to the next within the same country, let alone across international borders. \n\nOnce US dollar is worth about 1.25 Canadian dollars. If a product that costs $1 in the US costs $1 in Canada, it's cheaper in Canada because the Canadian dollar is worth less, but if the same product that costs $1 in the US costs $1.50 in Canada, it's cheaper in the US because 1.25 is less than 1.50. \n\nThe more accurate metric is how the exchange rate changes. If exchange rate changes from 1 USD = 1.25 USD to 1 USD = 1.1 USD, that means the Canadian dollar is worth more than it used to be, indicating that the Canadian economy is growing faster than the US economy. ",
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"answer": "It is mostly irrelevant to compare what 1 of one currency is compared to 1 of another. You're right about that.\n\nThe \"strength\" of a currency that I think you're referring to is more of the confidence in it that it will retain its current value - value not meaning how it exchanges to other currencies, but what you can actually purchase with it.\n\nLook at the Venezuelan bolivar as an extreme example of a weak currency. You could be able to afford a car this month and bicycle next month with the same amount of bolivar. ",
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"answer": "The analogy between dollars/euros and dollars/cents is missing a key point: the cent is defined as 1/100 of a dollar; that number cannot vary (barring an act of Congress, at least).\n\nMeanwhile, a dollar will buy a varying amount of euros over time. Both currencies are fairly stable, so this isn't an enormous swing, but - if you used $1,000 to buy euros three months ago, you would have gotten €849.53. If you were to then exchange that €849.53 back to dollars today, you would receive $1,047.80.\n\nSo the euro, relative to the dollar, has gotten stronger in the last three months - one euro is worth more dollars now than it was then.\n\nThe inherent strength of a currency is a harder concept to nail down, but one way to think about it is in terms of how stable prices are for domestic goods where the currency is used. One of the reasons the US dollar is a strong currency is that prices are relatively stable. If you earn a dollar today, you expect it to be worth pretty much the same (in terms of what you can buy) tomorrow. This means that the dollar serves as a useful store of wealth.\n\nThis, in turn, can be (in part) attributed to the belief that the US government won't suddenly go on a money-creation spree. That is, they won't start creating dollars (by spending) too much faster than they destroy them (by taxing). \n\nIt can also (in part) be attributed to the belief that the US government won't collapse or be torn down - note that perhaps the most basic reason government-issued currency has value is because the government insists you pay your taxes in its currency. This means that you need a ready supply of dollars to pay your US taxes, which means there's a built in demand for dollars in the domestic economy.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "28467960",
"title": "Currency strength",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Currency strength expresses the value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related to the currency; for example, fundamental data, overall economic performance or interest rates. It can also be calculated from currency in relation to other currencies, usually using a pre-defined currency basket. A typical example of this method is the U.S. Dollar Index. The current trend in currency strength indicators is to combine more currency indexes in order to make forex movements easily visible. For the calculation of indexes of this kind, major currencies are usually used because they represent up to 90% of the whole forex market volume.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "21871884",
"title": "Asian Banker Research",
"section": "Section::::The Asian Banker 300.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_character": 956,
"text": "Since 2003, the guide has added a strength ranking, which measures each of the 300 banks according to a strength formula. The formula weights assets, year-on-year growth in loans, year-on-year growth in deposits, and eight other criteria to arrive at a total strength score. Invariably, the largest banks are not necessarily the strongest banks, and in the 2007 financial year, the 10 strongest banks in the Asia Pacific region were Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation, Hang Seng Bank, China CITIC Bank, AXIS Bank, Westpac Banking Corporation, Bank of China, Bank of East Asia, United Overseas Bank, and ANZ. The ranking is a recognized benchmark among financial institutions in Asia, and banks that have mentioned the ranking in their investor relations materials and financial reports include Siam Commercial Bank, Maybank, Shanghai Pudong Development Bank, DBS, Bumiputra-Commerce Holdings and Hang Seng Bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21860252",
"title": "The Asian Banker",
"section": "Section::::Research.:The Asian Banker 300.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "Since 2003, the guide has added a strength ranking, which measures each of the 300 banks according to a strength formula. The formula weights assets, year-on-year growth in loans, year-on-year growth in deposits, and eight other criteria to arrive at a total strength score. Invariably, the largest banks are not necessarily the strongest banks, and in the 2009 financial year, the 10 strongest banks in the Asia Pacific region were HDFC Bank, Punjab National Bank, Public Bank, Bank of Nanjing, Bank Central Asia, China CITIC Bank, ANZ National Bank, Union Bank of India, Westpac Banking Corporation and China Construction Bank. The ranking is a recognised benchmark among financial institutions in Asia, and banks that have mentioned the ranking in their investor relations materials and financial reports include Siam Commercial Bank, Maybank, Shanghai Pudong Development Bank, DBS, Bumiputra-Commerce Holdings and Hang Seng Bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "28484698",
"title": "Absolute currency strength",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Absolute currency strength (ACS) is a technical indicator used in the technical analysis of forex markets. It is intended to chart the current and historical gain or loss of a currency based on the closing prices of a recent trading period. It is based on mathematical decorrelation of 28 cross currency pairs. It shows absolute strength momentum of selected major currency (EUR, GBP, AUD, NZD, USD, CAD, CHF, JPY).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "395888",
"title": "Bretton Woods system",
"section": "Section::::Design of the financial system.:Informal regimes.:Previous regimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The only currency strong enough to meet the rising demands for international currency transactions was the U.S. dollar. The strength of the U.S. economy, the fixed relationship of the dollar to gold ($35 an ounce), and the commitment of the U.S. government to convert dollars into gold at that price made the dollar as good as gold. In fact, the dollar was even better than gold: it earned interest and it was more flexible than gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39090488",
"title": "Currency strength index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Currency strength index expresses the index value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related to the currency; for example, fundamental data, overall economic performance or interest rates. It can also be calculated from currency in relation to other currencies, usually using a pre-defined currency basket. A typical example of this method is the U.S. Dollar Index. The current trend in currency strength indicators is to combine more currency indexes in order to make forex movements easily visible. For the calculation of indexes of this kind, major currencies are usually used because they represent up to 90% of the whole forex market volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "477372",
"title": "Large denominations of United States currency",
"section": "Section::::Overview and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "Large-denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher) had been used in the United States since the late 18th century. The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780. Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780 and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781. High-denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812). During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes. During the federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high-denomination notes included three-year Interest-bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861. In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high-denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates.\n",
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]
}
] | null |
404s7n
|
why wont an xbox dvd work on a playstation, or computer?
|
[
{
"answer": "its just different hardware. DVD machines are made to be able to be played on multiple different systems (theres sortof a standard), while thats just not the case for console gaming. They have no need to keep a standard so they dont. \n\n > It would, however, destroy the whole \"console exclusive\" thing.\n\nand there you have it. its not in inability, its a choice ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are you talking about the video games on discs? If so, they are Blu-ray now, but that doesn't matter. \n \nYour question is the same as \"Why doesn't this Windows program run on Mac?\", it's because they have different programming. \n \nAll Blu-ray movies can play on all Blu-ray players (not taking into account region coding or anything like that) because all Blu-ray players are programmed to read the same data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "219210",
"title": "Copy protection",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Video game console systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The Xbox has a specific function: Non-booting or non-reading from CDs and DVD-Rs as a method of game copy protection. Also, the Xbox is said to use a different DVD file system (instead of UDF). It has been theorized that the discs have a second partition that is read from the outside in (opposite current standards thus making the second partition unreadable in PC DVD drives) which give the tracks the appearance that the disc was spun backwards during manufacture. The Xbox 360 copy protection functions by requesting the DVD drive compute the angular distance between specific data sectors on the disc. A duplicated DVD will return different values than a pressed original would.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7588416",
"title": "Xbox 360 HD DVD Player",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The drive plays standard DVDs in addition to HD DVD titles; however it does not read Xbox or Xbox 360 game discs, Audio CDs or mixed media CDs. All Xbox 360 games continue to use DVD-9 media. No Xbox 360 with a built-in HD DVD drive was ever released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627189",
"title": "Linux for PlayStation 2",
"section": "Section::::Capabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "The Linux Kit turns the PlayStation 2 into a full-fledged computer system, but it does not allow for use of the DVD-ROM drive except to read PS1 and PS2 discs due to piracy concerns by Sony. Although the HDD included with the Linux Kit is not compatible with PlayStation 2 games, reformatting the HDD with the utility disc provided with the retail HDD enables use with PlayStation 2 games but erases PS2 Linux, though there is a driver that allows PS2 Linux to operate once copied onto the APA partition created by the utility disc. The Network Adaptor included with the kit only supports Ethernet; a driver is available to enable modem support if the retail Network Adaptor (which includes a built-in V.90 modem) is used. The kit supports display on RGB monitors (with sync-on-green) using a VGA cable provided with the Linux Kit, or television sets with the normal cable included with the PlayStation 2 unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11065091",
"title": "HD DVD",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Compatibility.:General purpose computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "HD DVD drives can also be used with a desktop/laptop personal computer (PC) running Windows XP, Windows Vista, Mac OS X v10.5 \"Leopard\", and many varieties of Linux. Third-party player software for Windows and Linux have successfully played HD DVD titles using the add-on drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17416342",
"title": "Xbox (console)",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Unlike the PlayStation 2, which could play movie DVDs without the need for a remote control (although an optional remote was available), the Xbox required an external IR adapter to be plugged into a controller port in order to play movie DVDs. If DVD playback is attempted without the IR sensor plugged in, an error screen will pop up informing the user of the need for the Xbox DVD Playback Kit. Said kit included the IR sensor and a remote control (unlike the PS2 the Xbox controller could not be used to control DVD playback). Said remote was manufactured by Thomson (which also manufactured optical drives for the console), which meant a modified version of the remote design used by the RCA, GE and ProScan consumer electronics of the era was used for the Xbox remote, and therefore users wishing to use a universal remote were instructed to utilize RCA DVD remote codes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "924732",
"title": "AnimePlay",
"section": "Section::::Anime Play DVD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Anime Play DVDs are the only English-language visual novels that are playable on standard DVD players; they can also be played on PCs with DVD-ROM drives or video game consoles that can play DVDs like the PlayStation 2 or Xbox. The restrictions of the DVD format mean that these games are missing many features present in most visual novels such as separate volume controls for music and voices; controlling the speed at which text is played; and ability to save the game at any point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11917935",
"title": "PlayStation Portable system software",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Other features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Like many other video game consoles, the PlayStation Portable is capable of photo, audio, and video playback in a variety of formats. However, unlike Sony's home consoles such as the PlayStation 3 and the PlayStation 4, it is not possible to play Blu-ray or DVD movies on the PlayStation Portable directly since it lacks of a standard Blu-ray or DVD drive. While it does have a UMD drive and there exist UMD movies, the UMD format never saw implementation on any device other than the PlayStation Portable and as a result the market is very limited compared to those for other optical media formats. There have been no more movies released on UMD since 2011, and the final Harry Potter movie was one of the final releases on the format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nna4m
|
How much influence had Fake News to cause the Spanish–American War of 1898?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this is an incredibly complex question, and really one that has gained added depth the further we have gone from the events as more has been learned.\n\nIn particular I want to focus on two areas, the reporting of pre US intervention newspapers from Cuba, and the reaction to the loss of the Maine.\n\nMen working on behalf of Hearst and Pulitzer in particular could be shameless at times in their reporting, such as relating how brutal Spanish police violated the privacy of a young American woman's bedroom and ordered her stripped in the hunt for smuggled messages and money for the rebels. But conversely the war against the Cuban rebels DID take some brutal turns, and for almost a century American interests had been eyeing Cuba while there was a feeling of at least basic support for a local uprising against a backwards colonial holdout. \n\nAnd eyeing it all with both some general support, but also an eye on the bottom line Hearst in response to reports of cooling tensions was quoted as saying to one of his men in Cuba. \n\n > \"You provide me with the photographs, and I'll provide you with the war\"\n\nHowever most evidence suggests this was apocryphal, while Hearst expected a Cuban victory and supported it, the paper was not actively engaged yet in supporting a US participation, nor were tensions particularly cooling at the time. The rebellion was still actively being fought. _URL_1_ \n\nHowever an actual declaration of war in support of the rebels was far from on the table, McKinley was still uninterested in military action, but sought to appease both business interests and Cuban supporters by negotiating with Spain for reforms to bring peace, however that went nowhere in the end. However Spain did recall its Governor General from Havana who had been a good deal harsher than his predecessor, but this then enflamed loyal Cubans as a sign of wavering support and led to agitation in the capital. \n\nIn response the US Consul in Havana, Fitzhugh Lee(nephew of Robert E. Lee and a former CSA cavalry officer), called for a warship to help protect US citizens and property, and thus arrived the USS Maine. 3 weeks into her stay at about 9:30 PM an explosion completely destroyed the battleship and killed 3/4 of her crew. In March a naval inquiry reached the conclusion that the Maine had been sunk by the explosion of a mine. For the weeks following the sinking Hearst and Pullitzer's papers had been demanding blood, while Pulitzer supposedly thought it ridiculous that Spain would try to mine a US warship the fact was the Maine was now sitting in the harbor mud, and Spain was the obvious culprit. Calls for concessions did little to dampen tempers and the blood of the public. While many in government too thought war was the only answer, such as Senator henry Cabot Lodge, and his confidant, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt. Thus with enough support in Congress and a penned in Executive, with a public calling for blood a month after the end of the Maine inquiry, with the caveat that the US would not annex Cuba thanks to the Teller Amendment, in late April the Congress passed a bill authorizing military force by the President to liberate Cuba and war followed a few days later. \n\nThe key here is of course the sinking of the Maine, and calls to \"Remember the Maine\" were echoed around the nation. In years since though there has been a good deal of examination into what actually sank the ship. Most notably was an investigation in the mid 70's by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover. Rickover was a no nonsense, damn near authoritarian, who was almost singlehandedly responsible for the creation and state of the modern nuclear navy even today. And his interest was peaked by the possibility, discounted at the time that a coal fire was responsible for setting of Maine's forward magazine.\n\nHe came to a conclusion that thanks to the use of more dangerous Bituminous Coal over Anthracite, combined with atmospheric conditions, and insufficient inspection and ventilation, were at least as likely as a mine. Bit coal has a dangerous tendency to self combust compared to Anthracite which could have produced the fire of sufficient heat to set off the magazine next door. In particular they noted a similar event in the USS New York shortly before the Maine's explosion where the same brand of coal that had sat for 2 weeks began to burn just 3 hours after being checked. The Maine went up 12 hours post inspection and the coal had been in that bunker for nearly 3 months! \n\nThe report that was prepared for Rickover: _URL_0_\n\nSo while modern scholarship has come around to an accident though it is not unanimous, and a few voices raised the suggestion at the time, the reporting of the papers holding Spain to account for the loss were not out of step with what the US government concluded themselves had happened, just with more gusto.\n\nI should recommend as another fine overview on the period and the coming together of many different interests as a good first reading on the topic: *The War Lovers: Roosevelt, Lodge, Hearst, and the Rush to Empire, 1898* by Evan Thomas. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5584",
"title": "History of Cuba",
"section": "Section::::1895–98: War of Independence.:The \"Maine\" incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "(1934). He stated that \"In the opinion of the writer, the Spanish–American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation.\" It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was the failed secret attempt, in 1896, to purchase Cuba from a weaker, war-depleted Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52881503",
"title": "Fake news",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In the late 19th century, Joseph Pulitzer and other yellow journalism publishers goaded the United States into the Spanish–American War, which was precipitated when the U.S.S. Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3635027",
"title": "Cuban War of Independence",
"section": "Section::::The Spanish–American War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "“It's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer's \"New York World\" and William Randolph Hearst's \"New York Journal\"”. Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled “The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press”, published in “American Imperialism” in 1898: “In the opinion of the writer, the Spanish–American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation.” It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25712830",
"title": "The Mystery of the Sea",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.:Spanish–American War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1583,
"text": "As suggested by the reviewer's reference to a \"recent controversy\", the Spanish–American War was only recent history when \"The Mystery of the Sea\" was published in 1902. The Spanish–American War began in 1897 with America's involvement in the Cuban insurrection against Spain. Cuban revolutionaries had begun fighting Spanish rule in 1895, and Spanish troops were sent to Cuba, where they set up camps known as reconcentrados, meant to contain the rebels. Conditions in these camps were very poor, and they became fodder for \"yellow journalism\" in the United States, provoking sympathy and outrage on behalf of the Cubans. Many American politicians supported the idea of going to war, and some even wanted to annex Cuba to the United States. Tensions with Spain intensified upon the publication of a letter from the Spanish minister that insulted President William McKinley, calling him weak. However, the event leading up to the war that caused the greatest public uproar and bears particular significance to \"The Mystery of the Sea\" was the explosion of the battleship \"Maine\" in Havana in 1898. This caused an outpouring of public sentiment against the Spanish, even though the explosion was most likely not the result of a vicious attack. Popular headlines and slogans like \"Remember the \"Maine\", to Hell with Spain\" suggest that the character Marjory's attitude is a representation of the broader American public attitude during the Spanish–American War, and adds significance to her decision to use her fortune to buy a battleship for the U.S. Navy to use against the Spanish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37644435",
"title": "Atrocity propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Atrocity propaganda in history.:Before the 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "In the lead up to the Spanish–American War, Pulitzer and Hearst published stories of Spanish atrocities against Cubans. While occasionally true, the majority of these stories were fabrications meant to boost sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14137008",
"title": "Propaganda of the Spanish–American War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "The situation prior to the Spanish–American War was particularly tense. Several members of the media, such as William Randolph Hearst, and of the military were calling for intervention by the United States to help the revolutionaries in Cuba. American opinion was overwhelmingly swayed and hostility towards Spain began to build. American newspapers ran stories of a sensationalist nature depicting fabricated atrocities committed by the Spanish. These stories often reflected on how thousands of Cubans had been displaced to the country side in concentration camps. Many stories used depictions of gruesome murders, rapes, and slaughter. During this time there was a riot in Havana by those sympathetic to the Spanish. The printing presses of newspapers that had criticized the actions of the Spanish Army were destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14137008",
"title": "Propaganda of the Spanish–American War",
"section": "Section::::Propaganda and the media.:The sinking of USS \"Maine\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Many stories like the one published by Hearst were printed across the country blaming the Spanish military for the destruction of USS \"Maine\". These stories struck a chord with the American people stirring public opinion up into a divided frenzy, with a large group of Americans wanting to attack and another wanting to wait for confirmation. The Americans that wanted to attack wanted to remove Spain from power in many of their colonies close to the U.S. Those easily persuaded by the Yellow Journalism eventually prevailed, and American troops were sent to Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cuzx1
|
why is the fetal position so comforting?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simple answer: *We don't know.*\n\nPostulation: The fetal position may be a learned response, similar to how some people sit and sway back and forth when distressed.\n\nSince we associate the position with fetus's, or young babies, it may be a visual cue to others, expressing \"I am not a threat\" or a request for attention and/or comfort.\n\nIt may also serve the functions of protecting the face, head, anterior vital organs, and the genitals from attack.\n\nFurthermore, try bending the other way... Not as comfortable, *right*?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36076964",
"title": "Maternal sensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Role of maternal sensitivity in development.:Infancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Infants whose mothers are more sensitive are more likely to display secure attachment relationships. Because the maternal figure is generally accessible and responsive to the infant's needs, the infant is able to form expectations of the mother's behaviour. Once expectations are met and the infant feels a consistency in the mother's sensitivity, the infant is able to find security in the maternal figure. Those infants whose mothers do not respond to the signals from their children or respond inappropriately to their children's cries for attention will form insecure and anxious attachments because the infants are unable to consistently depend on the maternal figures for predictable and safe responses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996317",
"title": "Fetal position",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The fetal position is also one of the most comfortable and familiar positions to the human, as they remain in the position for the last two trimesters of pregnancy. Babies are most often found stretched out, however, because they do not have full control of their limbs, resulting in flailing and twitching.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "119596",
"title": "Elimination communication",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Parents report that the squat or \"potty\" position that they tend to use to hold their baby in order to go is very comfortable for the baby. The position aligns the digestive tract and supports relaxation, as well as contraction of the pelvic floor muscles, helping babies to release their urine or stool and simultaneously build control of the urinary and anal sphincter muscles. This especially helps babies who are suffering from mild constipation. Many babies find defecating to be an unsettling process, especially as they transition to solid food. With EC, parents hold their infant in a supportive position as they defecate into the toilet or a suitable receptacle, offering loving emotional and physical support during this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996317",
"title": "Fetal position",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Fetal position (British English: also foetal) is the positioning of the body of a prenatal fetus as it develops. In this position, the back is curved, the head is bowed, and the limbs are bent and drawn up to the torso. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17968101",
"title": "Position (obstetrics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In obstetrics, position is the orientation of the fetus in the womb, identified by the location of the presenting part of the fetus relative to the pelvis of the mother. Conventionally, it is the position assumed by the fetus before the process of birth, as the fetus assumes various positions and postures during the course of childbirth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37876147",
"title": "Fathers as attachment figures",
"section": "Section::::Predictors and correlations of father-child attachment.:The child.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The infant's temperament can influence the role that the father plays in child rearing. A great deal of research has shown that fathers are less likely to be involved with their infant if the infant has a difficult temperament. Furthermore, one study suggests that this lack of paternal involvement in the case of fussy infants may harm the mother's relationship with her child if the mother believes that the paternal care giving role is important.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11312592",
"title": "Cupboard love",
"section": "Section::::Theory of attachment.:Developing attachment in infancy.:Factors that affect attachment.:2. Quality of care-giving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Ainsworth speculates that quality attachment is dependent on quality attention from the mother. A mother who promotes secure infant attachment is generally sensitive, has a positive attitude, and is supportive. Infants often develop resistant attachment when the parents are inconsistent in their caregiving. An infant is at risk of developing insecure attachment when the mother is self-centered, abusive, depressed, or mistreats her infant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qoa0m
|
How was sovereignty and colonialism different 2000 years ago?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're talking about whether states had the same sense of external sovereignty as we do today, and the answer is generally no. The modern idea of noninterference in another state's affairs, at least in Europe, was only cemented in 1648 after the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years' War. Before this, the Church as well as the Holy Roman Emperor had a lot of say in the administration of their demesne and fiefdoms. After this, the HRE and the church declined, allowing each nation to continue.\n\nSo back in, say, the Roman times, there were tons of colonies. It's way out of my area of expertise though, but I can assure you that Britain, modern day Eastern Europe, into Syria and North Africa were all colonized because the Romans didn't see those barbarians as on par with them. \n\nChina preferred the system of tributaries and suzerainty in its dealings with neighboring nations, so basically economic dominance leading to cultural dominance, especially in modern day Korea, Mongolia, into Central Asia on one side and Ryukyu on the other. The cultural dominance part definitely extended into Japan and Vietnam as well. For them, this was almost on par with colonialism, because China historically weren't really conquest-oriented. They did, however, have major campaigns against the Xiongnu (who may or may not be the ancestors of the Huns today), the Yuezhe, the Scythians, the Parthans, and a whole lot of folks, but I don't think they exactly treated them like states... more like nomadic peoples who are on their territories, that's all.\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The early Romans copied the Greek city-state method of when over populated, take excess population and ship them off to settle a colony. This was not the same as colonization as we think of it in British-Empire-in-America terms as this colony would be completely independent of their home city/country. They would acknowledge one was their parent state and have friendly relations/trade, but the parent state wouldn't feel obligated to protect, aid, nurture, etc their 'child'. \n\nThe later Romans used colonies as a method of helping to spread roman values, trade, and influence around, especially to control or repopulate boarder areas. These colonies were mostly filled with retired soldiers and other citizens. The colonies would be within the empire. Augustus settled approximately 150,000 retired soldiers in this way during his life, at his own expense. The colonies were approximately 2-3k in population, and some died out with the decline of the empire, but others survive to this day. These colonies were similar to other roman institutions in many ways - laid out in strict grid pattern (similar to military encampments), each had the same government structure which replicated Rome (annually elected officials, same positions and duties if not same titles as their equivalents in Rome). These towns would/could/might eventually have all of the structures you would find in other large cities, the forum, temples, theaters and/or amphitheaters, etc. They were located near water and in the valley floors (unlike in previous times where in say, Gaul, vast majority of settlements were hillforts for defensive purposes). \n\nI'm not sure if this was the \"turning point\" for colonies as I don't know anything about colonization during the middle ages, as if it existed in any form, I haven't heard of it. \n\nsource: History of Rome class I'm currently in ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to simply point out that the notion of a \"nation-state\" did not exist back in the times that you might be referring to. In the words of one of my professors, \"God did not create the world and say, Let there be nation-states!\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hoo boy. This is a topic that I think is way more complicated than you know. Greek and Phoenician colonies, at least were fairly simple in purpose: They were large trading posts. Some of these, like Syracuse, morphed into large cities--after the Peloponnesian Wars and perhaps even before Syracuse was the largest and most powerful Greek city-state anywhere. Carthage, of course, became a very powerful empire in its own right. There doesn't seem to have been a \"cultural\" program, although the effect of Greek colonies on surrounding areas is a very interesting and very complicated topic that I could go into in depth if anyone wants me to.\n\nRoman colonies were much more complicated. To be sure, there were Roman colonies that were purely commercial--there are even a few in India. I don't mean to downplay them, because they are also quite complex and interesting--for example, there are a few Republican colonies found in France that were populated almost exclusively by slaves. The reasoning is that it is much easier for slaves to be intermediaries because they were not legally distinct from their owners, and so could conduct business deals on their owners' behalf. Sorry, didn't mean to get sidetracked.\n\nAnyway, as far as I can tell, you are wondering if Roman colonies had a civilizing mission. This is a very complicated topic that is still very much debated, but my answer is **no**. The Roman Empire did employ a rhetoric of \"civilizing the barbarians\" but there is very little evidence that this was anything more than just rhetoric. Provinces entered into the Roman way of life at their own pace, and heavy Imperial investment into the provinces is more or less undetectable until Hadrian, by which time all the provinces were more or less thoroughly Romanized. To be sure, the emperors did donate to building projects--think Baalbek--but that didn't really affect their character. Again, think Baalbek, which was very distinct from a Greco-Roman temple in form and function.\n\nSo what was the nature of the colonies? I, for one, would love to know that. Unfortunately, we don't really have good evidence for this. It is possible that colonies like Gloucester were populated by Romans who were transplanted from overcrowded cities. Or, conversely, it could have simply been an administrative designation with no real indication of its makeup (London was largely non-British, at least at the beginning, but was never a colony). Or it could be a mix of the two--founded by ex-legionaries and \"settlers\" but mostly populated by rural migrants. I favor the latter interpretation, but there is no way to know. A very interesting test case is Corinth, which was redounded as a military colony by Julius Caesar. However, it becomes a basically \"Greek\" city with a few generations.\n\nRepublican colonies are a different matter. Unfortunately, that is outside my specialty, although I will only caution against trusting Livy completely on this.\n\nI can't really give a clear answer, but that is because there is none.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8195726",
"title": "International law",
"section": "Section::::History.:Emergence of modern international law.:Establishment of \"Westphalian system\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
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"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1118,
"text": "The concept of sovereignty was spread throughout the world by European powers, which had established colonies and spheres of influences over virtually every society. Positivism reached its peak in the late 19th century and its influence began to wane following the unprecedented bloodshed of the First World War, which spurred the creation of international organisations such as the League of Nations, founded in 1919 to safeguard peace and security. International law began to incorporate more naturalist notions such as self determination and human rights. The Second World War accelerated this development, leading to the establishment of the United Nations, whose Charter enshrined principles such as nonaggression, nonintervention, and collective security. A more robust international legal order followed, which was buttressed by institutions such as the International Court of Justice and the United Nations Security Council, and by multilateral agreements such as the Genocide Convention. The International Law Commission (ILC) was established in 1947 to help develop, codify, and strengthen international law\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11768709",
"title": "Banana republic",
"section": "Section::::Modern interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Countries that obtained independence from colonial powers in the 20th and 21st centuries have at times thereafter tended to share traits of banana republics due to influence of large private corporations in their politics; for example, Maldives (resort companies), Chile (foreign mining companies), and the Philippines (tobacco industry, U.S. government and corporations).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346028",
"title": "Stellaland",
"section": "Section::::Status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Whether or not the independence of any of these states was ever recognised by another country is not clear. In Stellaland’s favour, one can point out that the Montevideo convention which formalised the definition of sovereignty in the modern sense would not be signed until 1933, and that the local chiefs approved its existence. On the other hand, several British sources refer to Van Niekerk and his followers as \"freebooters\" and \"marauders\", but \"de jure\" recognition from the United Kingdom can be implied from a telegram that was erroneously sent by Sir Charles Warren, military commander for British Bechuanaland, to Van Niekerk in which he endorsed Cecil Rhodes' settlement in Stellaland. Only later did Warren realise that his wording could be interpreted as an acknowledgement of Stellaland’s legality, and he tried to deny the message's implications. In February 1884, Great Britain unilaterally declared the area a British protectorate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892479",
"title": "Secessionist movements of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Movements seeking independence from Canada.:Western Canada.:British Columbia and Yukon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Many First Nations politicians and some First Nations in BC, nearly all claiming and still technically holding unceded sovereignty, want varying degrees of autonomy, with some asserting outright independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1368578",
"title": "International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues related to sovereignty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In their relations with other peoples and countries during the colonial era the Concert of Europe adopted a fundamental legal principle that the supreme legal authority, or sovereignty, lay outside the indigenous nations. That legal principle resulted in the creation of a large number of dependent states with restricted sovereignty or colonial autonomy. Various terms were used to describe different types of dependent states, such as condominium, mandate, protectorate, colony, and vassal state. After World War II there was strong international pressure to eliminate dependencies associated with colonialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1815296",
"title": "Decolonisation of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Internal causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Indeed, in the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of leaders educated in Western universities and familiar with ideas such as self-determination. In some cases where the road to independence was fought, settled arrangements with the colonial powers were also being placed. These leaders came to lead the struggles for independence, and included leading nationalists such as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, now Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), and Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28791",
"title": "Sovereignty",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The concepts of sovereignty have been discussed throughout history, and are still actively debated. Its definition, concept, and application has changed throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority and recognition. According to Stephen D. Krasner, the term could also be understood in four different ways: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a3l6ra
|
why are the front and back cameras on smartphones not the same to begin with? why do they need to differ in quality?
|
[
{
"answer": "cost and size.\nif all other variables remain constant, a bigger lens allows for better photos, as well as a bigger image sensor (the light sensing chip behind the lens). since they’re intended for different things, they just use different cameras. smaller cameras are also better at taking pictures of things closer to themselves (like a selfie)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Size. And cost.\n\nOne has to discreetly fit beside the screen, not look like a hideous lens obscuring your screen size, and only needs to take photos up close of your face. The other one needs to function as an actual camera and take detail, be able to zoom, etc.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back cameras are much larger and are able to do many more things. There’s no need to have two of them on a phone. The front facing camera is mostly for selfies so there’s no need for a zoom or wide lens",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people are never going to use the selfie camera for anything other than - you guessed it - selfies, or possibly video chat, which by their very nature never need to be all that high quality. Putting a top quality camera in the front camera position would just increase the cost for a benefit, from most people's perspective, of very little. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bette the camera the more it costs to make. So the phone markers chooses cameras that are just good enough for what they are used for.\n\nThe back page camera is often used for big scenes with many details and need more data. The front camera is often used for selfies or similar, where details are not as needed or necessarily good thing (which is why we have filters that smooth the skin etc).\n\nHistorically the front camera was for video chat, which was limited by bandwidth and data, makings low resolution good enough. \n\nEdit: Switched back/front. D'uh!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Every penny saved on a component, when you're shipping several million units, adds up quick!!!\n\nIf the selfie camera just needs to be adequate enough to do a good enough job, it's hard to justify the few extra pennies on the component, especially since selfie cams are not that popular of a selling point. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54606546",
"title": "Nokia 8",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.:Cameras and multimedia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The front and rear cameras' combined standout feature is an advanced dualphotographic image camera (rebranded \"Bothie\" by Nokia), where the cameras can be used simultaneously by dividing the screen into a split-image setup, a technology Nokia calls Dual-Sight mode. Both the front and main cameras use ZEISS optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "667163",
"title": "Camera phone",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:External camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In 2013-2014 Sony and other manufacturers announced add-on camera modules for smartphones called lens-style cameras. They have larger sensors and lenses than those in a camera phone but lack a viewfinder, display and most controls. They can be mounted to an Android or iOS phone or tablet and use its display and controls. Lens-style cameras include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81429",
"title": "Rangefinder camera",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons.:Large lenses block viewfinder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Larger lenses may block a portion of the view seen through the viewfinder, potentially a significant proportion. A side effect of this is that lens designers are forced to use smaller designs. Lens hoods used for rangefinder camera may have a different shape to those with other cameras, with openings cut out of them to increase the visible area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004947",
"title": "Digital camera back",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Digital backs which are used in place of the normal film back are available for most medium and all large-format cameras with adaptors which can allow the same digital camera back to be used with several different cameras, allowing a photographer to choose a body/lens combination best suited for each application rather than using a body/lens system which represents a compromise of design to fit a variety of applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004947",
"title": "Digital camera back",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mergers and partnerships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Another trend is the release of new camera systems designed to tightly integrate with digital backs; this provides users with the ability to use film, but is easier to use for digital work than a film camera with a less-integrated accessory digital back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31822809",
"title": "Nokia N9",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "The main (back) camera has an autofocus feature, dual LED flash, is optimized for 16:9 and 4:3 aspect ratios, and has a 4× digital zoom for both video and camera. The sensor size of the back camera is 8.7 megapixels (3552 × 2448 px); the effective resolution for the 16:9 aspect ratio is 3552 × 2000 px (7.1 megapixels), and 3248 × 2448 px (8 megapixels) for the 4:3 aspect ratio. Typically, a 16:9 picture format on a digital camera is achieved by cropping the top and bottom of a 4:3 image, since the sensor is 4:3. Nokia N9 genuinely provides more in the width of the picture by choosing the 16:9 aspect ratio option by using the full 3552-pixel width of the sensor, and more in the height of the picture by choosing the 4:3 aspect ratio option by using the full 2448-pixel height of the sensor. The Carl Zeiss lens has quite unusual specifications for a mobile phone: 28mm wide-angle lens focal length, fast (for this class) f/2.2 aperture, and a 10 cm-to-infinity focus range. It is capable of recording up to 720p video at 30 fps with stereo sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15790548",
"title": "Ultra wide angle lens",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Better aperture setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Thanks to the small focal length, these lenses can shoot longer exposures without fear of camera shake in the image. (In longer lenses camera shake is multiplied by the zoom factor, but in shorter lenses it is much less apparent). This means that the photographer can afford to use a much smaller aperture if they choose, and still retain a balanced image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dqn0a
|
Why are gamma rays so hard to stop?
|
[
{
"answer": " > But gamma rays are extremely high energy photons, they should have enough energy to excite any electron, so why doesn't every material absorb them?\n\nGamma rays typically have *more than enough* energy to excite atomic electrons. They have enough energy to ionize atoms (kick electrons out of their bound states) or even excite/break apart atomic nuclei.\n\nThe energy loss of high energy photons through matter is dominated by three processes: the photoelectric effect (kicking electrons out of their bound states), Compton scattering (scattering of photons off of electrons or nuclei), and pair production (a gamma ray moving through matter with enough energy can produce and electron/positron pair).\n\nBut to answer your question, gamma rays are hard to stop because they have a lot of energy to give up, whereas visible or UV light has less energy,",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer given by /u/RobusEtCeleritas is not a good answer, although it naively sounds like it makes sense. The reason why glass is transparent to gamma rays is not primarily because it takes a lot of interactions to absorb its energy, but because gamma rays tend to not interact frequently with the material.\n\nFor example, any photon (gamma ray or not) that frees electrons via the photoelectric effect will be completely absorbed, with all of the photon's energy being transferred to the electron (any energy above the binding energy will simply result in an electron with greater kinetic energy). If this occurred just as frequently for gamma rays in glass as it does for UV rays, then gamma rays would be absorbed just as well.\n\nThe best explanation that I can think of that doesn't rely heavily on advanced physics and math is related to the effective 'size' of a gamma ray. The wavelength of light is very loosely analogous to its size (or its interaction cross-section). The wavelength of UV light is between roughly 1 to 100 nm, which is very large by atomic standards (atoms are about 0.1 to 0.5 nm in diameter). The spacing of atoms in glass and in most materials is also much smaller than the wavelength of a typical UV ray, and so the UV photon is very likely to interact with it.\n\nThe longest wavelength gamma rays are about 1000 times smaller than the shortest wavelength of UV rays, and much smaller than atoms and the atomic separation in a material. They are much more likely to pass through it then without really noticing the matter they're traveling through.\n\nA crude analogy is throwing basketballs and ping pong balls through the poles of a fence, where the poles represent the atoms of a material and the balls are UV and gamma rays, respectively. The larger basketballs are much more likely to hit the poles, whereas most of the ping pong balls will go between them completely undisturbed.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48803",
"title": "Gamma-ray burst",
"section": "Section::::Energetics and beaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Because their energy is strongly focused, the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 10 J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass () energy equivalent—which is still many times the mass-energy equivalent of the Earth (about 5.5 × 10 J). This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib/c supernova and within the range of theoretical models. Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs. Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5468844",
"title": "Stanford E. Woosley",
"section": "Section::::Research interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "According to Woosley's collapsar model, gamma-ray bursts arise from the collapse of stars that are too massive to successfully explode as supernovae. Instead, they result in a hypernova, which produce black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21779590",
"title": "GRB 970508",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived \"afterglow\" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Ionizing radiation.:Gamma radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Gamma rays can be stopped by a sufficiently thick or dense layer of material, where the stopping power of the material per given area depends mostly (but not entirely) on the total mass along the path of the radiation, regardless of whether the material is of high or low density. However, as is the case with X-rays, materials with high atomic number such as lead or depleted uranium add a modest (typically 20% to 30%) amount of stopping power over an equal mass of less dense and lower atomic weight materials (such as water or concrete). The atmosphere absorbs all gamma rays approaching Earth from space. Even air is capable of absorbing gamma rays, halving the energy of such waves by passing through, on the average, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48803",
"title": "Gamma-ray burst",
"section": "Section::::Rate of occurrence and potential effects on life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Gamma ray bursts can have harmful or destructive effects on life. Considering the universe as a whole, the safest environments for life similar to that on Earth are the lowest density regions in the outskirts of large galaxies. Our knowledge of galaxy types and their distribution suggests that life as we know it can only exist in about 10% of all galaxies. Furthermore, galaxies with a redshift, \"z\", higher than 0.5 are unsuitable for life as we know it, because of their higher rate of GRBs and their stellar compactness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18616290",
"title": "Gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Penetration of matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Due to their penetrating nature, gamma rays require large amounts of shielding mass to reduce them to levels which are not harmful to living cells, in contrast to alpha particles, which can be stopped by paper or skin, and beta particles, which can be shielded by thin aluminium. Gamma rays are best absorbed by materials with high atomic numbers and high density, which contribute to the total stopping power. Because of this, a lead (high Z) shield is 20–30% better as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another low-Z shielding material, such as aluminium, concrete, water, or soil; lead's major advantage is not in lower weight, but rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protective clothing, goggles and respirators can protect from internal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting particles, but provide no protection from gamma radiation from external sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22549887",
"title": "GRB 090423",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an \"afterglow\" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5p4xi5
|
If you flip a coin an infinite amount of times, will you also at some point have an infinite streak of heads?
|
[
{
"answer": "For any fixed n, you will (almost surely, aka with probability 1) have a string of n heads in a row sometime; if you divide up your throws in sets of n, you have probability 2^(-n) of getting all of them heads in that set - so prob. of never getting n successive heads in k*n throws is at most (1-2^(-n))^k, and as the amount of throws (and k) increases, this approaches 0.\n\nHowever, \"at some point have an infinite streak of heads\" means that after N throws, all the remaining coin tosses result in heads; but that happens with probability 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consider the sequence a_n with a_k = 0 or 1 means the kth flip is tails or heads, respectively.\n\nThe series sum{n=1,...} a_n 2^(-n) is between 0 and sum{n}2^(-n) = 2, so it converges to a real number A. If the sequence a_n eventually becomes \"heads-only\" (i.e. there is a finite N such that n > N - > a_n=1), then A must be rational.\n\nBut the set of rational A is countable, while the set of [real] A is not countable. So the probability of a randomly chosen A being rational is 0, and the probability of getting an infinite streak of heads is 0; but since there actually are rational A, it is described as \"almost never\" happening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a sense, but not really. There is a subtle distinction in where you apply the infinity. \n\nThere is no limit to the length of the longest streak. I can choose any number from a choice of infinity, and there is a streak that has that length. In this sense a streak can be infinitely long.\n\nHowever, there is no streak that continues infinitely. No matter how long the streak is, by continuing to flip infinitely many times, it will eventually hit a tails to end it. In this sense all streaks are finite and not infinite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ain't this the same as asking if there are more pair numbers than natural numbers? In which case both sets are infinite in the same \"size\" of infinite? I don't remember that much from my logics classes and set theory but I would like to know if the case is the same",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "351908",
"title": "Almost surely",
"section": "Section::::Illustrative examples.:Tossing a coin repeatedly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "However, if instead of an infinite number of flips we stop flipping after some finite time, say a million flips, then the all-heads sequence has non-zero probability. The all-heads sequence has probability formula_29, while the probability of getting at least one tails is formula_30 and the event is no longer almost sure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "453078",
"title": "Gambler's ruin",
"section": "Section::::Example of Huygens' result.:Fair coin flipping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "If there are no other limitations on the number of flips, the probability that the game will eventually end this way is 1. (One way to see this is as follows. Any given finite string of heads and tails will eventually be flipped with certainty: the probability of not seeing this string, while high at first, decays exponentially. In particular, the players would eventually flip a string of heads as long as the total number of pennies in play, by which time the game must have already ended.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12970",
"title": "Gambler's fallacy",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152. When flipping a fair coin 21 times, the outcome is equally likely to be 21 heads as 20 heads and then 1 tail. These two outcomes are equally as likely as any of the other combinations that can be obtained from 21 flips of a coin. All of the 21-flip combinations will have probabilities equal to 0.5, or 1 in 2,097,152. Assuming that a change in the probability will occur as a result of the outcome of prior flips is incorrect because every outcome of a 21-flip sequence is as likely as the other outcomes. In accordance with Bayes' theorem, the likely outcome of each flip is the probability of the fair coin, which is .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12970",
"title": "Gambler's fallacy",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "If a fair coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. The probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is . This is an application of Bayes' theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102651",
"title": "Bernoulli process",
"section": "Section::::Formal definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Note that the probability of any specific, infinitely long sequence of coin flips is exactly zero; this is because formula_21, for any formula_22. A probability equal to 1 implies that any given infinite sequence has measure zero. Nevertheless, one can still say that some classes of infinite sequences of coin flips are far more likely than others, this is given by the asymptotic equipartition property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1096354",
"title": "Trip distribution",
"section": "Section::::Entropy analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The number of ways a two-sided coin can come up is formula_26, where n is the number of times we toss the coin. If we toss the coin once, it can come up heads or tails, formula_27. If we toss it twice, it can come up HH, HT, TH, or TT, four ways, and formula_28. To ask the specific question about, say, four coins coming up all heads, we calculate formula_29. Two heads and two tails would be formula_30. We are solving the equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7035429",
"title": "Okey",
"section": "Section::::Official rules of Okey 101.:Point scoring and end of the game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "BULLET::::- If a player finishes their entire hand in one turn when none of the other players have opened yet all points get doubled as well. Points get doubled again if the player is also able to finish with a joker as well. In this case, the player that finished receives 404 minus points and all other players receive 808 penalty points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9m8d63
|
how does an epipen work to help severe allergies and why don’t we use it for moderate/mild allergies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it’s a huge strain on the system of the person receiving it. It’d be like killing an ant mound with a bazooka — it would work, perhaps, but it’s not a thing you’d do often, and there are better, less-scorched-earth tools that are better suited to the situation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It causes bronchial dilation so your airway stays open when it’s trying to close in anaphylaxis. It increases blood pressure too. It’s the same thing as adrenaline. It’s only meant to be used in ER situations. It does nothing for histamine which is the cause of most every day allergies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An epipen contains epinephrine, commonly known as adrenaline, one of the main hormones released by the body when PANICKING OMG THERE'S A LION. \n\nIt's great for doing things like restarting your heart, lifting a car off your child, or removing blood flow from parts of your nose and throat that might be blocked by an allergic reaction, thus allowing you to breathe, but it also removes blood flow from your digestive system until your body can filter it out which... Well, apart from the explosive diahrroea brought on by extended use, your stomach will eventually dissolve it's own lining and dump a strong acid into your bloodstream, if that lining isn't grown back. \n\nLack of blood flow inhibits your body's ability to grow back your stomach. Which in mediocre cases result in ulcers. \n\nEpinephrine is healthy if released by your body occasionally. Injecting it on a regular basis isn't. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4850169",
"title": "Epinastine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Epinastine (brand names Alesion, Elestat, Purivist, Relestat) is a second-generation antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer that is used in eye drops to treat allergic conjunctivitis. It is produced by Allergan and marketed by Inspire in the United States. It is highly selective for the H receptor and does not cross the blood-brain-barrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Early exposure to potential allergens may be protective. Treatments for allergies include avoiding known allergens and the use of medications such as steroids and antihistamines. In severe reactions injectable adrenaline (epinephrine) is recommended. Allergen immunotherapy, which gradually exposes people to larger and larger amounts of allergen, is useful for some types of allergies such as hay fever and reactions to insect bites. Its use in food allergies is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298600",
"title": "Procaine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Procaine can also cause allergic reactions causing individuals to have problems with breathing, rashes, and swelling. Allergic reactions to procaine are usually not in response to procaine itself, but to its metabolite PABA. Allergic reactions are in fact quite rare, estimated to have an incidence of 1 per 500,000 injections. About one in 3000 white North Americans is homozygous (i.e. has two copies of the abnormal gene) for the most common atypical form of the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, and do not hydrolyze ester anesthetics such as procaine. This results in a prolonged period of high levels of the anesthetic in the blood and increased toxicity. However, certain populations in the world such as the Vysya community in India commonly have a deficiency of this enzyme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175734",
"title": "Local anesthetic",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Potential side effects.:Immunologic allergy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Adverse reactions to local anesthetics (especially the esters) are not uncommon, but legitimate allergies are very rare. Allergic reactions to the esters is usually due to a sensitivity to their metabolite, para-aminobenzoic acid, and does not result in cross-allergy to amides. Therefore, amides can be used as alternatives in those patients. Nonallergic reactions may resemble allergy in their manifestations. In some cases, skin tests and provocative challenge may be necessary to establish a diagnosis of allergy. Also cases of allergy to paraben derivatives occur, which are often added as preservatives to local anesthetic solutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3678047",
"title": "Oral allergy syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Antihistamines may also relieve the symptoms of the allergy by blocking the immune pathway. Persons with a history of severe anaphylactic reaction may carry an injectable emergency dose of epinephrine (such as an EpiPen). Oral steroids may also be helpful. Allergy immunotherapy has been reported to improve or cure OAS in some patients. Immunotherapy with extracts containing birch pollen may benefit OAS sufferers of apple or hazelnut related to birch pollen-allergens. Even so, the increase in the amount of apple/hazelnut tolerated was small (from 12.6 to 32.6 g apple), and as a result, a patient's management of OAS would be limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956888",
"title": "Cetirizine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Cetirizine, sold under the brand name Zyrtec among others, is a second generation antihistamine used to treat allergic rhinitis (hay fever), dermatitis, and urticaria. It is taken by mouth. Effects generally begin within an hour and last for about a day. The degree of benefit is similar to other antihistamines such as diphenhydramine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Immunotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Allergen immunotherapy is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an effort to change the immune system's response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sqcf7
|
if oil has a finite supply and is steadily running out, why does the price per barrel fluctuate?
|
[
{
"answer": "It comes down to basic economics of supply and demand.\n\nThe amount of oil in the ground is finite but the amount of oil that has been pumped to the surface and available for use changes on a regular basis. Currently the US, Iraq and Libya are pumping more oil than in the past. Combine that with the fact that Saudi Arabia has decided not to slow its own production and you have a large supply.\n\nOn the other side of the equation you have demand. China and Europe are currently using less oil than they were a few years ago.\n\nWhen you have high supply and low demand the price tends to drop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually oil reserves grows as time goes on : ) Its because new oil is being found everyday.\nIn 1944 there \"were\" 51 billion of oil barrels..\nBetween 1945 and 2003 917 billions were used. In 2003 there were known 1,266 billion of oil reserves.\n\nIf you were to take all known oil reserves in 1980 and rate at which oil were used this year you would conclude that we gonna run out of oil in 25 years. Do you recall something like that happening? : )\n\n\nThere is cool lecture on that _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There IS a finite supply, but its a VERY large finite supply, so it wont run out for a very very long time. The price is rising, but very very slowly over the long term. \nThe more common price fluctuations are due to other more immediate factors, as stated in other comments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "849508",
"title": "Peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420199",
"title": "Hirsch report",
"section": "Section::::Applicability beyond the US, critical remarks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "During the significant oil price rise through 2007, a theme among several industry observers was that the price rise was only partially due to a limit in crude oil availability (peak oil). For example, an article by Jad Mouawad cited an unusual number of fires and other outages among U.S. refineries in the summer of 2007 which disrupted supply. However, a lack of refining capacity would only seem to explain high gasoline prices not high crude oil prices. Indeed, if the refineries were unable to process available crude oil then there should be a crude oil glut that would reduce crude prices on international crude oil markets. Then again, sharp changes in crude oil prices can also be due to stock market volatility and fear over the security of future supplies, or, on the other hand, an anticipation by investors of a rise in the value of crude oil once refining capacity picks up again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849508",
"title": "Peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Oil price increases were partially fueled by reports that petroleum production is at or near full capacity. In June 2005, OPEC stated that they would 'struggle' to pump enough oil to meet pricing pressures for the fourth quarter of that year. From 2007 to 2008, the decline in the U.S. dollar against other significant currencies was also considered as a significant reason for the oil price increases, as the dollar lost approximately 14% of its value against the Euro from May 2007 to May 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16006394",
"title": "Food vs. fuel",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.:Oil price increases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Demand for oil is outstripping the supply of oil and oil depletion is expected to cause crude oil prices to go up over the next 50 years. Record oil prices are inflating food prices worldwide, including those crops that have no relation to biofuels, such as rice and fish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19366351",
"title": "World oil market chronology from 2003",
"section": "Section::::2004 to 2008: rising costs of oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "From 2005 onwards, the price elasticity of the crude oil market changed significantly. Before 2005 a small increase in oil price lead to an noticeable expansion of the production volume. Later price rises let the production grow only by small numbers. This was the reason to call 2005 a tipping point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4425541",
"title": "Petrodollar warfare",
"section": "Section::::The hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Another component of the hypothesis is that the price of petroleum is more stable in the U.S. than anywhere else since importers do not need to worry about exchange rate fluctuations. Since the U.S. imports a great deal of oil, its markets are heavily reliant on oil and its derivative products (jet fuel, diesel fuel, gasoline, etc.) for their energy needs. As the price of oil can be an important political factor, U.S. administrations are quite sensitive to the price of oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14297439",
"title": "2000s in Angola",
"section": "Section::::2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "The price of crude oil declined from $147.27 per barrel on 11 July 2008 to a 70% price drop in December. Many OPEC members advocated cutting the supply of oil by 1.5 to 2 million barrels to artificially inflate the price of petroleum to roughly $75 per barrel. Richard Segal, an analyst for the United Bank of Africa, posited that the global financial crisis made borrowing from the Chinese government cheaper than taking loans from the West. President dos Santos visited China shortly after the crisis erupted, meeting with President Hu Jintao, Prime Minister Wen Jiabao, and Wu Bangguo, the President of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. He asked his Chinese counterparts for $1 billion in investment in Angola's infrastructure, specifically in housing and water transportation. The Chinese government has invested $5–7 billion in Angola in return for Angola's crude oil. Nonetheless, Ricardo Gazel, a senior economist for the World Bank, predicted that Angola's initial budget for 2009, based on oil exports at $55 per barrel, would be revised with a much more modest outlook by as early as April 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1t4ye1
|
what causes cars to sometimes explode when they flip over in a crash?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cars generally don't actually tend to blow up.\n\nThe only reason a car would explode would be a spark or fire reaching the gas tank and even then its not quite like how you see it in movies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a 25+ years firefighter / Paramedic I have NEVER seen a car that has exploded in an accident. And have rarely even seen cars catch fire. The few that I have seen catch fire are usually because the fuel line or gas tank has ruptured, and the fuel comes in contact with hot metal (Catalytic converter or engine block) Yes these fires can consume a car (and occupants) quickly but not like in the movies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295679",
"title": "Side collision",
"section": "Section::::Broadside or T-bone collision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "When a vehicle is hit on the side by another vehicle, the crumple zones of the striking vehicle will absorb some of the kinetic energy of the collision. The crumple zones of the struck vehicle may also absorb some of the collision's energy, particularly if the vehicle is not struck on its passenger compartment. Both vehicles are frequently turned from their original directions of travel. If the collision is severe, the struck vehicle may be spun or rolled over, potentially causing it to strike other vehicles, objects, or pedestrians. After the collision, the involved vehicles may be stuck together by the folding of their parts around each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12144371",
"title": "Hot Wheels Stunt Track Driver",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Windows version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Crashes may be caused by loss of control, particularly on curves and inaccurate landings after a jump (even when no stunts are attempted, cars tend to twist out of control while aloft.) Crashes may also result from different objects found on the tracks, including other cars; in two sequences, hazards are encountered off the track as the car passes through the walls between two mouse-holes, and across a billiard table. All crashes cost time while the car is replaced on the track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20276602",
"title": "Run-off-road collision",
"section": "Section::::Causes and consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "If the vehicle strikes a fixed object (an object that will move very little when struck, such as a tree, bridge structure or utility pole) or rolls over, the crash is likely to result in injuries or fatalities. 2005 statistics from the US show that run-off-road crashes resulted in 31% of fatal crashes, but were only 16% of all crashes. Run-off-road collisions where the vehicle is sliding or spinning and runs broadside into a fixed obstacle are particularly dangerous since the vehicle doors and sides provide less protection to occupants than the front of the car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6730986",
"title": "Vehicle explosion",
"section": "Section::::Car explosions in film and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Many films and television programs overdramatise car explosions, showing them as being far more likely than they actually are. Cars in these media frequently explode after a crash or when being hit by bullets. This was debunked in the 2009 season of \"MythBusters\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954465",
"title": "Rumble strip",
"section": "Section::::Accident and driver dynamics.:\"Classic\" one-car crashes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "The 'classic' one-car crash results when a vehicle slowly drifts to the right, hits dirt or rumble strips on the right shoulder of the road, and the driver becomes alert and overreacts, jerking the wheel left to bring the vehicle back onto the road. This motion causes the left front tire to strike the raised edge of the pavement at a sharp angle, often causing a rollover or a swerve into oncoming traffic. This form of one-car crash is \"classic\" because it occurs very often. Raised edges of pavement (or \"edge-drops\") were once common, but are now recognized as a hazard; it is now standard practice to level the gravel shoulder with the pavement, although edge-drops may reform due to soil erosion. This \"slowly drift to the right\" scenario applies to jurisdictions with right-hand traffic, so in jurisdictions with left-hand traffic it would be a \"slowly drift to the left\" scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744079",
"title": "Waverly, Tennessee, tank car explosion",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The National Transportation Safety Board eventually blamed the blast on the car itself, as a crack had developed when the car was damaged by the derailment. It is believed that this crack expanded when the car was moved off the tracks, eventually causing overpressurization in the tank, causing the single wall to give out. The NTSB commended the town of Waverly on its preparedness for such an emergency, but also exposed the need for all people involved in accident cleanups to be trained in how to handle hazardous materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21292036",
"title": "2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene",
"section": "Section::::Adoption by automotive industry.:Flammability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In August 2012, Mercedes-Benz showed that the substance ignited when researchers sprayed it and A/C compressor oil onto a car's hot engine. A senior Daimler engineer who ran the tests, stated \"We were frozen in shock, I am not going to deny it. We needed a day to comprehend what we had just seen.\" Combustion occurred in more than two thirds of their simulated head-on collisions. The engineers also noticed etching on the windshield caused by the corrosive gases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8sb7r3
|
What is the history of Rome's Colloseum from post-roman times through to modern time?
|
[
{
"answer": "The emperor Honorius abolished man vs man gladitorial games in AD 404. There were some animal games (venationes) in 503, and in 508 the place suffered earthquake damage. Rome's population had plummeted by about two thirds over the previous century and although there were idle rich about, these spectacles were not cheap to put on. The last recorded was in celebration of the consulship of Anicius Maximus in 523. The Ostrogothic ruler of Italy Theodoric the Great (illegitimate some of Alaric the Goth) gave his permission, but also made it clear that [he didn't think much of the games](_URL_3_) as an occupation for respectable men. If there were others after that, we have no record.\n\nWhich left the structure, an impressive pile of second hand building material. First to go were the bronze clamps used to secure blocks, much as abandoned buildings today get stripped of copper piping. the probable culprit is Totila, who[ sacked the city in 545](_URL_1_). (Obviously the building didn't fall because of the metal being taken out, but the architects who built the thing had a large budget, so why not err on the side of safety?) Rome's population plummeted, those who remained preferred to gather by the river (no more aqueducts, and toting water is tiresome). The Colosseum went into decline, unnerving to the locals who thought it a bit creepy.\n\nBy the ninth century things in Rome were looking up again. We have evidence of people turning some of the interior space into living quarters and animal stables, and the center into a market. It must have made a nice little neighborhood, if you didn't mind the trek to the river to get water, or if you could afford the water carriers who would do it for you for a price.\n\nAlas, 1084, Robert Guiscard comes to sack the city (see [here](_URL_0_) for more), leaving in his wake a city broken down into zones controlled by various powerful families and their bully boys (think gang turf rivalry). The Colosseum fell under control of the Frangipane family. With one brief interruption (rebelling citizens, tired of the baronial families, threw the lot of them out for the period of 1144-1159 and tried to restore an ancient Republic) that family held it until the Anabali family wrested the building from them at the end of the 12th century. They in turn had to give it over to the church in 1312.\n\nAnother serious earthquake in 1349 more or less put it out of commission for shelter. Instead it became a quarry for building material, a great source of profit for the Benedictines who held the lease hold of the place. The area continued in that role for the next hundred years; much of St Peters started life at the Colosseum.\n\nYou can see [woodcuts ](_URL_2_)of the building dating from the fifteenth and sixteen century. Much of what you see today is restoration. Serious restoration.\n\n(I used to live about a mile from it, and have always taken an interest in the place.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47956240",
"title": "Eclogues of Calpurnius Siculus",
"section": "Section::::The Poems.:Eclogue VII.:Commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Different scholars have attempted to identify the theatre described in Eclogue VII with different historical theatres in Rome. Merivale, Gibbon and (more recently) Hubbard identify it with the Colosseum (referring to the mosaics and marble walls described in Eclogue VII); Keene and Armstrong identify it with Nero's earlier wooden amphitheatre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25148788",
"title": "Roman amphitheatre",
"section": "Section::::Important Roman amphitheatres.:The Colosseum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, more generally known as the Colosseum, is the archetypal and the largest amphitheatre. Built from 72 to 80 AD, it remains as an icon of ancient Rome. Its building and arena dimensions are 188 × 156 and 86 × 54 meters respectively. It was commissioned by the Emperor Vespasian for the capital city of the ancient Roman Empire from 70-80 AD but was not completed and opened until 80 AD by his son Titus, as a gift for the people of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31370427",
"title": "Leipzig Panometer",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "2005–09: Ancient Rome. A recreation of an 1889 panorama of Rome by Alexander von Wagner, portraying Constantine the Great's entry into the city following his success in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. The exhibition covered the day-to-day life and architecture of Ancient Rome, and featured plaster casts from the University of Leipzig's antiques collection along with paintings, architectural drawings and models of famous Roman buildings. It included a reconstruction of the partly destroyed, high Colossus of Constantine, rebuilt as an anamorphosis (a kind of visual illusion). Since December 2014 this panorama and the colossus are displayed in the Pforzheim Gasometer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15399234",
"title": "Piazza della Repubblica, Florence",
"section": "Section::::History.:Piazza del Mercato Vecchio and the Ghetto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The sole surviving witness to the old piazza del Mercato is the \"Colonna della Dovizia\" or \"Colonna dell'Abbondanza\" (Column of Abundance, re-positioned in 1956) on a stepped base. Once considered to be the centre of the city, this column was erected at the crossing of the cardo and decumanus of the ancient Roman city. The present column dates to 1431, and is surmounted by a grey sandstone statue of Dovizia (or Abbondanza), by Giovan Battista Foggini, replacing an original by Donatello (found to be irreparably eroded in 1721. Today Foggini's original statue is in \"Palazzo della Cassa di Risparmio\" in via dell'Oriuolo, whilst on the column is a 1956 replica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30189420",
"title": "London Colosseum",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "The Colosseum was a venture of English artist and surveyor, Thomas Hornor, built to exhibit a vast panoramic view of London. The panorama was based on drawings Hornor had made from the vantage point of a temporary hut placed at the top of the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, while the cross and ball were being replaced in 1821-2. Initial plans to sell panoramic views came to nothing, but an elaborate scheme to create a 360-degree panorama on the inside of a dome of the Colosseum, specially built in Regents Park (and resembling the Roman Pantheon rather than the Roman Colosseum), came to fruition, but at such expense that its principal backer, Rowland Stephenson MP, had to flee to America in 1828, soon followed by Hornor. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2179974",
"title": "Albenga",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.:Ancient remains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Albenga is also home to the remains of a Roman amphitheatre dating from the 3rd century BC. It represents the only example of theatrical construction known on the entire Western Riviera. Placed a short distance away from the Amphitheatre and from the Via Julia Augusta, is the so-called \"Pilone\", standing over the eastern slope of the Mount. This is the most renowned and characteristic Ingaunian funeral monument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368967",
"title": "Bernardo Bellotto",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In 1769 the painter and his son Lorenzo (1744-1770) accomplished another large royal commission - fourteen views of Rome, ancient and papal, based on the collection of etchings by Giovanni Battista Piranesi entitled \"Vedute di Roma\". The collection was dispersed in the early nineteenth century and today various paintings can be admired in different museums in Russia - \"The Roman Forum as seen from the Capitol to the south-east\" and \"Piazza della Rotonda with Pantheon\" (Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow), \"View of the Piazza Navona\" (State Museum in Gorky), \"View of S. Maria Maggiore\" (Museum of Art in Khabarovsk) and in private collections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eyq1ij
|
why we get sleepy in situations that sleeping can kill us
|
[
{
"answer": "What situations do you mean?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah I've always wonder why we get sleepy after hitting your head. I remember my parents always telling me to not fall asleep while they drove me to the hospital....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bit of your brain that decides when to be sleepy can't access higher rational thought, it's based on the brain's physiological status. \n\nYour brain gets sleepy when the chemistry in your brain indicates that it needs to sleep, along with some hormonal inputs from the body like adrenaline which tell it that something critical is going on and you need to be awake. But the part of your brain thinking \"I better not fall asleep while driving because I could crash\" can't communicate that information to the part of the brain that decides when to be sleepy. As far as that part of your brain is concerned, if you are driving late at night you are sitting calmly in a quiet, dark place and you haven't slept in a while and now would be a good time. \n\nThis is not entirely terrible, it makes it harder for you to sleep-depriving yourself to a dangerous extent. And it's not like your conscious mind can't override sleepiness for a long time. But the modern world has a lot of situations where it would be a bad idea to be sleepy but there are no obvious cues the sleepiness part of your brain is adapted to interpret, and this causes problems (like, you aren't going to be sleepy if there's a large predator staring at you, because you are innately going to be adapted to respond to that. But there's no innate adaptation to staying awake while driving).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "170803",
"title": "Mood (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Lack of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "However, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has sometimes been used as a treatment for major depressive disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4761393",
"title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder",
"section": "Section::::Lifestyle changes.:Sufficient sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:October.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 637,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 637,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Researchers have shown that a fundamental reason for sleep is to clean the brain of toxins. This is achieved by brain cells shrinking to create gaps between neurons, allowing fluid to wash through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46966",
"title": "Sleep disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Disruptions in sleep can be caused by a variety of issues, including teeth grinding (bruxism) and night terrors. When a person suffers from difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep with no obvious cause, it is referred to as insomnia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27982883",
"title": "Differential diagnoses of depression",
"section": "Section::::Sleep disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "BULLET::::- Insomnia: While the inability to fall asleep is often a symptom of depression, it can also in some instances serve as the trigger for developing a depressive disorder. It can be transient, acute or chronic. It can be a primary disorder or a co-morbid one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36677584",
"title": "Effects of sleep deprivation in space",
"section": "Section::::Performance errors relative to sleep desynchronization and work overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Individuals who work at night and attempt to sleep during the day suffer because the timing of their sleep/wake schedule remains out of phase with the timing of the environmental light. Night workers are particularly prone to vehicle accidents, and their decreased alertness, performance, and vigilance are likely to blame for a higher rate of industrial accidents and quality control errors on the job, injuries and a general decline in work productivity rate. Recent information also suggests that as the body normally releases melatonin when it is dark, working under artificial like at night suppresses the released of melatonin, which may increase the risk of developing cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50798",
"title": "Insomnia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "It is common for patients who have difficulty falling asleep to also have nocturnal awakenings with difficulty returning to sleep. Two-thirds of these patients wake up in the middle of the night, with more than half having trouble falling back to sleep after a middle-of-the-night awakening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
6adtg6
|
Why was Henry 1 Charter of liberties largely ignored by monarchs until the issuing of Magna carter?
|
[
{
"answer": "To answer the question in depth we first have to look at the circumstances of the charter. After William II. Rufus died on August 2nd of 1100, Henry hurried first to Winchester - to secure the royal treasure - and then to Westminster, where he was crowned king on August 5th, despite only a handful of nobles being present and both archbishops of the kingdom unavailable. This haste was necessary though because Henry's oldest brother, Robert Curthose, also had a very good claim to the throne of England, even though during this time he was still on his way back from the first crusade.\n\nSo, either on the day of his coronation or a few days after (there is no consensus on this, but for this question it can be ignored) Henry issued the charter, which was largely based on the threefold coronation oath common at the time, and had it distributed in the kingdom. It's not entirely sure if the initative to the charter came from Henry himself or if Henry was pressed by the nobles, as many of the points in the charter discussed the relation between king and nobles, especially the status of heirs and widows. In any case the charter can be seen as a token to secure Henry's reign which wasn't very stable in its first years. The charter was confirmed again by Henry when his brother Robert set sail in 1101 to gain the english throne which he laid claim on. In the end Robert could be paid off by Henry and the first rough part of his reign laid behind him.\n\nSo, why is this important? The monarchs following Henry simply had more support in the nobility than Henry had in his first years. Stephen, at least in the beginning of his reign in England, had the support of the nobles while Mathilda and Geoffrey of Anjou were busy in Normandy until 1144. In 1154 Henry II could wait six whole weeks between the death of Stephen and his own coronation because he didn't have to fear anyone taking the throne in the meantime. And Richard even had the support of the french king Philipp August, even though that friendship broke apart quite soon.\n\nDespite this I wouldn't say that the charter was forgotten. Stephen and Henry issued coronation charters themselves, and the charter of liberties was nothing else before it became the charter of liberties (the name was applied later on). Both of them even referenced the coronation charter of Henry I, even though their charters weren't as long as Henrys. Henry II basically wrote *I give you all the good laws that my grandfather Henry gave*. So while the contents may have been ignored or simply not enforced, a tradition of distributing the oral coronation oath in written form seems to have taken hold in England. Henry II was later on even confronted by Thomas Becket who explicitly referred to Henry II's coronation charter.\n\nThe charter then got new gravitas when Stephen Langton used it as a blueprint for Magna Carta. This may have been caused by a rising interest in justice and law. J. C. Holt, Magna Carta, 3rd ed., Cambridge 2015, p. 25, writes on this:\n > [...] there were many copies of Henry I's Charter in circulation in the early years of the thirteenth century, and [...] they were studied intensively – which is what has always been apparent from the chroniclers, inaccurate though some of the details of their accounts have been judged to be.\n\nThis may be the cause why the charter comes up again more than a century later. In the events preceeding Magna Carta the charter of liberties came in handy for the barons and especially Stephen Langton.\n\nI hope this answers your question at least partly. Feel free to ask further. I have to admit though that my strong side at the moment is the time of Henry I and not really the time of Magna Carta.\n\nHere is some further reading.\n\nOn the Charter of Liberties:\n\nTeunis, Henry B., The coronation charter of 1100: a postponement of decision. What did not happen in Henry I's reign, in: Journal of Medieval History 4/1 (1978), pp. 135–144.\n\nDalton, Paul, The Accession of King Henry I. August 1100, in: Viator 43/2 (2012), pp. 79–109.\n\nOn Henry I in general still:\n\nHollister, Charles Warren, Henry I (Yale English Monarchs), New Haven 2001.\n\nOn Magna Carta:\n\nHolt, J. C., Magna Carta, 3rd ed., Cambridge 2015.\n\nCarpenter, David, Magna Carta, London 2015.\n\nedit: English is not my mother tongue, so please be kind.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253",
"title": "Constitution",
"section": "Section::::History and development.:Pre-modern constitutions.:Middle ages after 1000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign \"Magna Carta\" in 1215. The most important single article of the \"Magna Carta\", related to \"\"habeas corpus\"\", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim – there must be due process of law first. This article, Article 39, of the \"Magna Carta\" read:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "430063",
"title": "Charter of Liberties",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The Charter of Liberties, also called the Coronation Charter, was a written proclamation by Henry I of England, issued upon his accession to the throne in 1100. It sought to bind the King to certain laws regarding the treatment of nobles, church officials, and individuals. The nineteenth-century historians Frederick Maitland and Frederick Pollock considered it a landmark document in English legal history and a forerunner of Magna Carta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958",
"title": "Magna Carta",
"section": "Section::::History.:17th–18th centuries.:Political tensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 204,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 204,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "In 1621, a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta; although this bill failed, lawyer John Selden argued during Darnell's Case in 1627 that the right of \"habeas corpus\" was backed by Magna Carta. Coke supported the Petition of Right in 1628, which cited Magna Carta in its preamble, attempting to extend the provisions, and to make them binding on the judiciary. The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear-cut than was being claimed, restricted the activities of antiquarians, arrested Coke for treason, and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta. Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right, and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "430063",
"title": "Charter of Liberties",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Charter of Liberties was generally ignored by monarchs, until in 1213 Archbishop Langton reminded the nobles that their liberties had been guaranteed over a century prior in Henry I's Charter of Liberties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376815",
"title": "Bailiwick of Guernsey",
"section": "Section::::Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "A unique constitutional position has arisen as successive British monarchs have confirmed the liberties and privileges of the Bailiwick, often referring to the so-called \"Constitutions of King John\", a legendary document supposed to have been granted by King John in the aftermath of 1204. Governments of the Bailiwick have generally tried to avoid testing the limits of the unwritten constitution by avoiding conflict with British governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33614842",
"title": "Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "The Statute of Proclamations of 1539 gave the King wide powers to legislate without reference to, or approval from, Parliament. At the same, it recognised the common law, existing statutory provisions, and excluded the breach of royal proclamations from the death penalty. It was repealed in 1547, but Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth both relied on royal proclamations. A review by Chief Justice Edward Coke in 1610, the \"Case of Proclamations\", established that Parliament had the sole right to legislate, but the Crown could enforce it. The concept of parliamentary sovereignty was central to the English Civil War: Royalists argued that power held by the King, and delegated to Parliament, challenged by the Parliamentarians. The issue of taxation was a significant power struggle between Parliament and the King during the Stuart period. If Parliament had the ability to withhold funds from the monarch, then it could prevail. Direct taxation had been a matter for Parliament from the reign of Edward I, but indirect taxation continued to be a matter for the King.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958",
"title": "Magna Carta",
"section": "Section::::History.:17th–18th centuries.:Political tensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 202,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 202,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as \"the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
2fceq9
|
For those who know a bit about the Arthurian legends..
|
[
{
"answer": "The Arthurian stories have been retold and recycled for centuries (if not over a thousand years - it depends on how we date the Welsh Arthurian stories). Thus they have amalgamated into a mish-mash of features. Any tatoo or image of Excalibur will not be historical but only representative of one particular tradition or one particular story (*Le Morte Darthur* is by no means archetypal in its treatment of the Arthurian story).\n\nUltimately you might want to ask yourself what kind of Arthur you want depicted. The Post-Roman Arthur, the knightly Arthur, a modern Arthur. They're all equally valid and equally flawed. Accuracy is an illusion in this kind of endeavour.\n\n1) Excalibur\n\nI had a look at Kenneth Hodges's *Forging Chivalric Communities* because I remembered he noted something odd about Excalibur. Apparently there are two of them in *Le Morte*. The first is taken from the stone, the second is bartered away from the Lady of the Lake:\n\n > The first Excalibur, the sword in the stone, appears after a consultation of Merlin and the Archbishop of Canterbury, but it appears outside of the church instead of on the high altar and Arthur draws it one his own, alone, without receiving it from the bishops. After it breaks, he receives a new one, not by purchasing it from the church, but by bartering for it with the Lady of the Lake. Finally, after Morgan steals the sword, he reclaims it in combat with the assistance of Nyneve.The multiple providers of the sword reflect the multiple sources of authority: personal prowess, supernatural worthiness,women’s good will.\n\n > Hodges, K., *Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory's* Le Morte Darthur, (Basingstoke, 2005), p.36. \n\nOf the second Excalibur, the scabbard is more important than the sword in Malory's *Le Morte Darthur*: \n\n > Sir, said Merlin, look ye keep well the scabbard of Excalibur, for ye shall lose no blood while ye have the scabbard upon you, though ye have as many wounds upon you as ye may have. So after, for great trust, Arthur betook the scabbard to Morgan le Fay his sister, and she loved another knight better than her husband King Uriens or King Arthur, and she would have had Arthur her brother slain, and therefore she let make another scabbard like it by enchantment, and gave the scabbard Excalibur to her love; and the knight's name was called Accolon, that after had near slain King Arthur.\n\n > [Source](_URL_1_), Ch. XI.\n\n2) Seats: Virtues\n\nNo, they are not. You may be mixing this up with the 'Perilous Seat' which would only be sat by the most virtuous and worshipful of Arthur's knights. This was, of course, Galahad. \n\nI haven't investigated (and honestly have no desire to!) how many knights constituted the Round Table, so I offer [this](_URL_0_) with the warning that it might be wrong. At any rate, there are a few too many to fit on a hilt.\n\n3) Inscription\n\nLike I've said, it doesn't really matter. Find one, pick one, and be happy with it. Neither of those phrases appear in Malory's *Le Morte Darthur* verbatim but if you scrawl through the source I've provided you might be able to find one.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "419489",
"title": "Le Morte d'Arthur",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Most of the events in the book take place in Britain and France at an unspecified time (the historical events on which the Arthurian legend is based took place in the late 5th century, but the story contains many anachronisms and makes no effort at historical accuracy). In some parts, the plot ventures farther afield, to Rome and Sarras, and recalls Biblical tales from the ancient Near East. Malory modernized the legend by conflating the Celtic Britain with his contemporary Kingdom of England (for example identifying Logres as England, Camelot as Winchester, and Astolat as Guildford) and replacing the Saxons with the Saracens as foreign invaders. Although Malory hearkens back to an age of idealized knighthood, jousting tournaments, and grand castles to suggest a medieval world, his stories lack any agricultural life or commerce, which makes the story feel as if it were an era of its own. Malory's eight (originally nine) main books are:\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5370686",
"title": "King Arthur (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The series tells the story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, featuring 'Arthurian' characters such as Lancelot, Guinevere, Tristan, Percival, Merlin, Uther Pendragon, and Igraine and other familiar elements of Arthurian lore, including the castle Camelot and Arthurian relics such as Excalibur. The series is not entirely faithful to the original legends since it adds new characters and stories which make the plot less brutal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1019672",
"title": "The Pendragon Cycle",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The series is a work of fiction that takes place in the 5th and 6th centuries and attempts to present the Arthurian legends in a historical setting while presenting the story with a reality the reader can connect with. Lawhead bases his stories on the \"Mabinogion\", the \"History of the Kings of Britain\" and other works of Geoffrey of Monmouth, the writings of Taliesin, Gildas, and Nennius, and several other legends that he manages to interweave into the Arthurian legend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9316",
"title": "England",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Folklore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth. These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources, featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's \"Historia Regum Britanniae\" (\"History of the Kings of Britain\"). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16808",
"title": "King Arthur",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 996,
"text": "Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey's version of events often served as the starting point for later stories. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established a vast empire. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's \"Historia\", including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, the magician Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur, Arthur's conception at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann, and final rest in Avalon. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "46742401",
"title": "Arthurian Literature (book series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "As originally published, the series included long articles on the literary, historic, and artistic aspects of Arthurian legend in Europe in the medieval and early modern periods. It now also includes shorter pieces of up to 5000 words that are published in a \"Notes\" section. \"Notes and Queries\" described it as \"An indispensable component of any historical or Arthurian library\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19402351",
"title": "The Dragon's Call",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Conception and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1863,
"text": "As the Arthurian legends do not reflect genuine historical events, not being set in any one singular period in time, the show's creators were more interested in conveying a world that felt \"real\". Not constrained by historical accuracy, they had many opportunities to build the world in which they set their series; for example, tomatoes were included despite being absent from Europe in the Medieval era, and there was never a dragon in the earliest texts involving Merlin. The series was intended to have an \"epic scale\" that would have a wide \"cross-generational\" appeal; films such as \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\" were cited as inspiration. Despite this, the creators strived to have smaller moments that the audience could relate to and comedy to lighten the darker tone. A fairy-tale aspect was also incorporated - highlighted in \"The Dragon's Call\" with the singing and cobwebs - to set the programme apart from others. \"Beauty and the Beast\" was an inspiration in this respect. \"Merlin\" was also influenced by the US show \"Smallville\", about the early years of Superman; Murphy and Capps said that \"Smallville\" helped provide the idea of a \"Camelot that existed before its golden age\". The creators wanted to show Merlin, Arthur, Gwen and Morgana in their youth, \"before they were famous\". Murphy and Capps intended for the four young characters and situations to be relatable to young viewers. They also put the characters in unusual positions with respect to their later, well-known roles to make the audience wonder how they would reach those roles; for example, Guinevere, the future Queen of Camelot and wife of Arthur, is a servant with a romantic interest in Merlin. Looking back at \"The Dragon's Call\", Murphy and Capps felt that it had so much to introduce in terms of world and characters that there was not enough of the main plot of the episode.\n",
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] | null |
8ta7gw
|
What is the biochemical origin of caffeine dependence?
|
[
{
"answer": "Caffeine is a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist, acting at A1, A2a, A2b, and A3 receptors (it also binds to a few other receptors, but we’ll ignore those for simplicity’s sake). From knockout studies in mice, it appears A2a is critical for the stimulating effect of caffeine. In the brain, Adenosine levels fluctuate as the day passes with the highest levels at night. Higher levels of adenosine produce a drowsiness effect. When you consistently apply an antagonist to a cell, a common response is the cell will upregulate the particular receptor that is being antagonized. As such, consistent caffeine intake can result in an upregulation of adenosine receptors [1]. When you do not intake caffeine, you thus experience a heightened response, or a sensitization, to adenosine, and thus feel an increase in drowsiness. \n \n1. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 1993 Jun; 13(3): 247–261.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[NCBI publication ](_URL_0_) \n\nCaffeine acts as an antagonist at adenosine receptors, thereby blocking endogenous adenosine.25,26 Functionally, caffeine produces a range of effects opposite those of adenosine, including the behavioral stimulant effects associated with the drug.27 Importantly, caffeine has been shown to stimulate dopaminergic activity by removing the negative modulatory effects of adenosine at dopamine receptors.28 Studies suggest that dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell may be a specific neuropharmacological mechanism underlying the addictive potential of caffeine.29–32 Notably, dopamine release in this brain region is also caused by other drugs of dependence, including amphetamines and cocaine.33,34 In addition to the direct effects of caffeine on adenosine receptors, a recent study has shown that paraxanthine, the primary metabolite of caffeine in humans, produces increased locomotor activity, as well as increases in extracellular levels of dopamine through a phosphodiesterase inhibitory mechanism.35\n\nUp-regulation of the adenosine system after chronic caffeine administration appears to be a neurochemical mechanism underlying caffeine withdrawal syndrome.36 This mechanism results in increased functional sensitivity to adenosine during caffeine abstinence, and it likely plays an important role in the behavioral and physiological effects produced by caffeine withdrawal.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact: it's the same mechanism that leads to tolerance and dependence on other addictive psychoactive drugs like nicotine, cocaine, heroine, etc. \n\nYour brain synapses adapt to the presence of the drug, so the brain's baseline ”normal” state requires the drug to be present. And when the drug is removed you get essentially the opposite of the drug's effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist. Adenosine makes you feel tired and antagonists block receptors. It doesn't actually give you energy by stimulating excitatory receptors like an amphetamine. However, both changes cause the brain to counter-regulate the effects of the substance and result in long-lasting physiological accommodations. This causes withdrawals when you take the chemical away and they can potentially last YEARS depending on your personal genes and lifestyle. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There are several components in your question, which, require a minimal scientific understanding in order to understand the answer. Your title question asks about & ldquo;*the biochemical origin of caffeine dependence* & rdquo;, but your clarifying text actually focuses on just one component, namely, increased tolerance to a given dose of caffeine.\n\nFor the sake of simplicity, let's consider two related, but somewhat orthogonal concepts and an oversimplification of what they really mean.\n\n1. Pharmacology: What does a drug do to the body?\n\n1. Pharmacokinetics: What does the body do to a drug?\n\nPharmacologists and pharmacokineticists often work together, but they are focused on different problems. While pharmacologists want to understand how a drug imparts a particular effect on the body, pharmacokineticists want to understand the answers to two primary questions:\n\n1. What quantity of a drug needs to be administered to achieve a certain pharmacological effect?\n\n1. How often does that quantity need to be administered?\n\nOther people ITT have focused on the pharmacological aspect of caffeine (*i.e.* **WHY** does it make you feel the way it does?), but they haven't focused on the tolerance aspect, wherein you need successively larger doses to achieve a certain effect. For this question, we turn to pharmacokinetics.\n\nCaffeine is eliminated from the body via several mechanisms. However, for most people, approximately 70% of caffeine is eliminated from the body via metabolism by one particular family of enzymes in the liver called CYP1A2. ^1 Within the liver, there are different families of enzymes responsible for metabolism. These families have different specificities/affinities for different compounds in our body (AKA *substrates*). As the affinity between a substrate and an enzyme increases, the ability of the enzyme to transform that substrate increases.\n\nAs mentioned above, in the case of caffeine, CYP1A2 is the primary enzyme responsible for transforming caffeine as part of the process for eliminating it from the body. The interesting thing about many (but not all) liver enzymes is that they can be *inducible*, meaning that there are feedback loops in your body's biochemistry that instruct the body to *upregulate* (increase) or *downregulate* (decrease) the levels of these enzymes in response to a stimulus.\n\nIn the case of caffeine, CYP1A2 happens to be inducible.^2 As you consume more caffeine, various regulatory mechanisms sense this increased load and tell the body to increase the amount of CYP1A2 metabolising enzymes. Therefore, when you consume 10 mg of caffeine daily (*ie* the dose) for several weeks, the amount available in your bloodstream (*ie* the exposure ) is decreased for a given dose because your body is clearing the caffeine more quickly than it did originally (*ie* your baseline). If you stop consuming caffeine (and any other compounds that could induce CYP1A2), your body will sense the decrease and levels of CYP1A2 will be decreased.\n\n1. Thorn CF, Aklillu E, McDonagh EM, Klein TE, Altman RB. PharmGKB summary: caffeine pathway. Pharmacogenet Genomics [Internet]. 2012 May [cited 2018 Jun 23];22(5):389–95. Available from: _URL_1_\n\n1. David A. Flockhart, Zeruesenay Desta. Chapter 21: Pharmacogenetics of Drug Metabolism. In: Robertson D, Williams GH, editors. Clinical and Translational Science: Principles of Human Research [Internet]. 1st Ed. Amsterdam: Acad. Press; 2009. p. 301–17. Available from: _URL_0_\n\n\n---\n\n**TL;DR:** OP's question requires a minimal understanding of *pharmacology* and *pharmacokinetics* in order to understand the answer to the question.\n\n---",
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{
"answer": "Most dependencies on substances start by a phenomenon known as receptor up/downregulations; which is when a substance that is known to bind to a specific receptor to cause it's intended effect is abused to the point that the body has to make more receptors. In caffeine, the receptor in question is adenosine, and caffeine will bind to it in a manner that will render it inactive. Adenosine receptors that are active will send out the signal that the body is starting to feel tired, so blocking said receptor will bypass that signal, and you will be more alert. The body doesn't like you bypassing this, though, so it makes more receptors to return to baseline function, aka upregulation. This is normal and expected in tolerance. Dependence occurs when the dosage of caffeine continues to increase and the receptor upregulation is pushed so far up that the person in question cannot function without caffeine.\n\nThere are also other drugs that work through the same sort of pathway. Opioid are one which works along opioid receptors, albeit the difference is opioid activate said receptor rather than block it, and food is actually another; obese people are likely to have lower sensitivity to insulin (downregulation) compared to people at a more appropriate bmi.\n\nEdit: some auto-correct ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question conflates coffee with caffeine.\n\nCoffee is not just caffeine; it also contains substances that greatly increase the potency and addictiveness of various other psychoactive substances, including caffeine.\n\nThese so-called ß-carboline alkaloids are inhibitors for human monoamine oxidase enzymes, MAOs.\n\nThere are two types of MAOs, MAO-A and MAO-B. Both are very important in breaking down brain neurotransmitters, and inhibiting their activity causes brain neurotransmitter levels to rise.\n\nSince these compounds inhibit both types of MAO, MAO-A and MAO-B, they increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline. They do so by binding to the MAO enzymes, making them unable to bind to the neurotransmitters to break them down like they normally do.\n\nThis means that any other drugs that work by releasing these neurotransmitters, or inhibiting their reuptake into neurons, are going to have a more substantial neurological effect. This essentially means that almost every mind-altering substance known to man will have its reinforcing effects potentiated by coffee – and tobacco smoke, malt beverages, barbecued foods, basically everything that contains protein and is heated for long periods. Soy sauce is *loaded*.\n\nThese chemicals are called heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs for short), a subgroup of which beta-carbolines are. The typical beta-carboline is called norharman; some others are called harman, harmalol, harmaline, harmine, tetrahydroharmine, et cetera. As a group, they also called Harmala alkaloids.\n\nYou may recognize the name; it comes from the plant *Penganum harmala*, an ingredient of the psychedelic brew Ayahuasca used traditionally as a sort of psychiatric medicine by South American shamans.\n\nWhat's so interesting about these so-called Harmala alkaloids is that they all tend to inhibit the activity of MAOs. Some of them are biologically active at nanogram dosages per kilogram body weight. Coffee and tobacco smoke are the two most significant sources of these alkaloids in the human diet. \n\nSince they directly increase the effects and addictiveness of all kinds of drugs – even common, \"mild\" ones like nicotine and caffeine – they are very reinforcing in themselves when administered regularly.\n\nSome people have an increased susceptibility to tobacco and coffee addiction due to genetic differences in MAO activity; there are several genetic variants of both MAO-A and MAO-B, which cause all of us to have very different rates of metabolism for the key neurotransmitters detailed above.\n\n-----\n\nHuman monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibition by coffee and ß-carbolines norharman and harman isolated from coffee \n_URL_4_\n\nNorharman and harman in instant coffee and coffee substitutes \n_URL_11_\n\nIdentification and occurrence of the bioactive ß-carbolines norharman and harman in coffee brews \n_URL_2_\n\nContribution of Monoamine Oxidase Inhibition to Tobacco Dependence: A Review of the Evidence \n_URL_12_\n\nHuman monoamine oxidase is inhibited by tobacco smoke: beta-carboline alkaloids act as potent and reversible inhibitors. \n_URL_7_\n\nMonoamine Oxidase Inhibition Dramatically Increases the Motivation to Self-Administer Nicotine in Rats \n_URL_6_ \n\nTransient behavioral sensitization to nicotine becomes long-lasting with monoamine oxidases inhibitors. \n_URL_0_\n\nSmoking Induces Long-Lasting Effects through a Monoamine-Oxidase Epigenetic Regulation \n_URL_8_\n\nMonoamine oxidase A knockout mice exhibit impaired nicotine preference but normal responses to novel stimuli \n_URL_5_\n\nHarman in Alcoholic Beverages: Pharmacological and Toxicological Implications \n_URL_13_ \n \nHarman and norharman in alcoholism: correlations with psychopathology and long-term changes. \n_URL_10_\n\nThe role of beta-carbolines (harman/norharman) in heroin addicts \n_URL_9_\n\nRegarding MAOA and MAOB genetic variability:\n_URL_1_\n_URL_3_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38434293",
"title": "Caffeine dehydrogenase",
"section": "Section::::Industrial significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine), the substrate in the above reaction, is a purine alkaloid found in a variety of plant species, such as coffee, cacao, cola, and tea leaves. Caffeine has also been used as a cardiac, neurological, and respiratory stimulant. Because of its prevalence in the modern world in the form of beverages, food, and medicine, caffeine has become one of the world's major agro-industrial wastes. Thus, caffeine has become more noticeable in surface water, groundwater, and waste water effluents all over the world. In addition to being an addictive substance, it has also been shown to lead to adverse health effects, such as irregular sleeping patterns, increase in blood pressure, palpitations, and anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1987383",
"title": "Caffeine dependence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Caffeine is a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature as part of the coffee, tea, yerba mate and other plants. It is also an additive in many consumer products, most notably beverages advertised as energy drinks and colas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America, and helps to protect them against predator insects and to prevent germination of nearby seeds. The most well-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, a misnomer for the seed of \"Coffea\" plants. Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are very popular; as of 2014, 85% of American adults consumed some form of caffeine daily, consuming 164 mg on average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767304",
"title": "Camellia sinensis",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis of caffeine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Caffeine is a molecule produced in \"Camellia sinensis\" which functions as a secondary metabolite. Caffeine is a purine alkaloid and its biosynthesis occurs in young tea leaves and is regulated by several enzymes. The biosynthetic pathway in \"C. sinensis\" differs from other caffeine producing plants such as coffee or guayusa. Analysis of the pathway was carried out by harvesting young leaves and using reverse transcription PCR to analyze the genes encoding the major enzymes involved in synthesizing caffeine. The gene TCS1 encodes caffeine synthase. Younger leaves feature high concentrations of TCS1 transcripts, allowing more caffeine to be synthesized during this time. Dephosphorylation of xanthosine-5'-monophosphate into xanthosine is the committed step for the xanthosines entering the beginning of the most common pathway. A sequence of reactions turns xanthosine into 7-methylxanthosine, then 7-methylxanthine, then theobromine, and finally into caffeine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57092035",
"title": "Pre-workout",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients/ Supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- Caffeine is the most common type of ingredient/supplement. It has a neural effect that goes to the central nervous system and activates beta-endorphins and hormones that increase alertness, mental concentration, and energy. Caffeine can cause anxiety, insomnia, dizziness, and arrhythmia's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26639763",
"title": "Weight management",
"section": "Section::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Increasing caffeine intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Caffeine and black coffee have been associated with increased energy expenditure and subsequent weight loss. Caffeine belongs to a class of compounds called methylxanthines, and is present in coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate and some cola drinks. Caffeine induces a thermogenic effect in the body by increasing sympathetic nervous system activity, which is an important regulator of energy expenditure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vfx6i
|
Is there more oxygen in water or air?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am not sure of the question, but if you mean whether an equivalent volume of air or water holds more oxygen, the answer is (under typical conditions assuming the dissolved oxygen is at equilibrium with the air) the air. Oxygen only dissolves to the extent of a few milligrams per liter of water (around 8mg/L at 20C). On the other hand, the density of air is around 1200mg per liter. Since the air is about 23% oxygen by mass, this means there is approximately 276mg of oxygen per liter of air. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you mean like...if you somehow split the H2O and got all the oxygen out of it, would there be more from that than there is in the air?\n\nYes. Much more. Pure water has a molarity of roughly 55, so if you somehow split that all up you would end up with roughly 55 moles of O per liter. Oxygen is about 16 g/mole, so this gives you 55 * 16 == 880 grams of Oxygen per liter of water.\n\nu/High-Curious already provided us with the amount of oxygen in air, about 276 mg oxygen per liter of air. 880 g/liter is much more than 276 mg/liter, so yes, there is a greater total weight of oxygen atoms in water than in air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40579",
"title": "Gill",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "A high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms, as water contains only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does. A cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than in air and it diffuses more slowly. In fresh water, the dissolved oxygen content is approximately 8 cm/L compared to that of air which is 210 cm/L. Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous. Oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than using lungs, \"[g]aseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is what happens when a fish is taken out of water.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23096495",
"title": "Air separation",
"section": "Section::::Non-cryogenic processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Oxygen-enriched air can be obtained exploiting the different solubility of oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen is more soluble than nitrogen in water, so if air is degassed from water, a stream of 35% oxygen can be obtained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22166495",
"title": "Freshwater environmental quality parameters",
"section": "Section::::Atmospheric inputs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "Oxygen is probably the most important chemical constituent of surface water chemistry, as all aerobic organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen’s solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water’s surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring such as following Autumn leaf-fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66723",
"title": "Respiratory system",
"section": "Section::::Fish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 1167,
"text": "Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. Fully aerated fresh water therefore contains only 8–10 ml O/liter compared to the O concentration of 210 ml/liter in the air at sea level. Furthermore, the coefficient of diffusion (i.e. the rate at which a substances diffuses from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration, under standard conditions) of the respiratory gases is typically 10,000 faster in air than in water. Thus oxygen, for instance, has a diffusion coefficient of 17.6 mm/s in air, but only 0.0021 mm/s in water. The corresponding values for carbon dioxide are 16 mm/s in air and 0.0016 mm/s in water. This means that when oxygen is taken up from the water in contact with a gas exchanger, it is replaced considerably more slowly by the oxygen from the oxygen-rich regions small distances away from the exchanger than would have occurred in air. Fish have developed gills deal with these problems. Gills are specialized organs containing filaments, which further divide into lamellae. The lamellae contain a dense thin walled capillary network that exposes a large gas exchange surface area to the very large volumes of water passing over them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14317956",
"title": "Apparent oxygen utilisation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "In freshwater or marine systems apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) is the difference between oxygen gas solubility (i.e. the concentration at saturation) and the measured oxygen concentration in water with the same physical and chemical properties. Such differences typically occur when biological activity acts to change the ambient concentration of oxygen. For example, primary production liberates oxygen and increases its concentration, while respiration consumes it and decreases its concentration. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216928",
"title": "Wastewater",
"section": "Section::::Pollutants.:Quality indicators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4189127",
"title": "River ecosystem",
"section": "Section::::Abiotic factors.:Chemistry.:Dissolved gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "In terms of dissolved gases, oxygen is likely the most important chemical constituent of lotic systems, as all aerobic organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen’s solubility in water decreases as water pH and temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water’s surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of lotic animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d68i1f
|
A couple universe related questions from a layman - can you explain any of these things?
|
[
{
"answer": "Couple corrections that weren't made.\n\nThe universe does not create new dark matter as it expands. It appears you are confusing dark matter and dark energy, two largely unrelated concepts. Overall dark energy increases because the energy density of empty space is constant. New space has as much energy density as old space and does not \"dilute\" with expansion.\n\nThe universe's energy appears to be net zero from observations of town curvature",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53866273",
"title": "Why there is anything at all",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The question is posed comprehensively, rather than concerning the existence of anything specific such as the universe or multiverse, the Big Bang, mathematical laws, physical laws, time, consciousness or God. It can be seen as an open metaphysical question. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2792",
"title": "Anthropic principle",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "One reason this is plausible is that there are many other places and times in which we can imagine finding ourselves. But when applying the strong principle, we only have one universe, with one set of fundamental parameters, so what exactly is the point being made? Carter offers two possibilities: First, we can use our own existence to make \"predictions\" about the parameters. But second, \"as a last resort\", we can convert these predictions into \"explanations\" by assuming that there \"is\" more than one universe, in fact a large and possibly infinite collection of universes, something that is now called the multiverse (\"world ensemble\" was Carter's term), in which the parameters (and perhaps the laws of physics) vary across universes. The strong principle then becomes an example of a selection effect, exactly analogous to the weak principle. Postulating a multiverse is certainly a radical step, but taking it could provide at least a partial answer to a question which had seemed to be out of the reach of normal science: \"why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781068",
"title": "Edward Tryon",
"section": "Section::::Is the universe a vacuum fluctuation?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Even though this paper gives the impression that the mystery of where our universe originated is solved, it is not. In his paper Tryon mentions how there is this \"larger space in which our Universe is embedded,\" but this place is given only a very vague and short description. Additionally, while Tryon says our universe came into being from an accident of the laws of physics, he does not say what created the laws of physics, leaving the mystery incompletely solved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26193",
"title": "Roger Penrose",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Religious views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "In the film \"A Brief History of Time\", he said, \"I think I would say that the universe has a purpose, it's not somehow just there by chance ... some people, I think, take the view that the universe is just there and it runs along – it's a bit like it just sort of computes, and we happen somehow by accident to find ourselves in this thing. But I don't think that's a very fruitful or helpful way of looking at the universe, I think that there is something much deeper about it.\" He went on to explain that he believed our universe would end in a Big Crunch, a scenario cosmology has since found to be unlikely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55479685",
"title": "You Are the Universe (book)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "\"You Are the Universe\" is a philosophical work which attempts to give answers to questions pertaining to the origin of the universe, time, space, matter and the origin and meaning of consciousness and the marrying of science and spirituality in daily lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36591921",
"title": "Cook Islands mythology",
"section": "Section::::Creation myth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "In Cook Islands creation myth, the universe was conceived of as being like the hollow of a vast coconut shell, the interior of this imaginary shell being Avaiki, the under world, and the outer side of the shell as the upper world of mortals. At various depths there are floors of different levels, or lands, which communicate with each other. At the very bottom of this coconut is a thick stem tapering to a point, which represents the beginning of all things. This point is the dwelling of a spirit without human form called Te aka ia Roe (The root of all existence). The entire fabric of the universe is constantly sustained by this primary being. Above this extreme point is Te tangaengae (Breathing) or Te vaerua (Life) this being is stout and stronger than the former one. The thickest part of the stem is Te manava roa (The long lived) the third and last of the primary, ever-stationary, sentient spirits, who together form the foundation, permanence, and well-being of the rest of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3905278",
"title": "The All",
"section": "Section::::The universe understood in relation to the All.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "According to The Kybalion, The All is a bit more complicated than simply being the sum total of the universe. Rather than The All being simply the physical universe, it is more correct to say that everything in the universe is within the mind of The All, since the ALL can be looked at as Mind itself. In effect, the universe is partially existent on the Mental plane, and we may in fact all be parts of The All's psychological makeup, representing parts of The All in its dream or meditation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
drto7p
|
how can a single pixel on a tv screen change to so many different colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "You remember mixing paint colours when you were a kid? A single pixel is made up of a tiny blue light, a tiny red light, and a tiny green light. It can be any colour just by controlling how strong each of these colours shines inside it. More modern screens (e.g., Liquid Crystal Display) have fancier technology but let’s stick to ELI5.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your eye have 3 types of cone cell that detect light color. One type is most sensitive to blue light, one to green light and one to red light . So any color you can see is a combination of signal from the three types of cones.\n\nA monitor have red green and blue sub pixel where each primary stimulate only on cone type. By changing the amount light each sub pixel emit can use get any response from the eye and see any possible color. So by exploiting how the human eye work you can produce any color with light on only 3 colors.\n\n It is a bit simplified explanation and a RGB monitor can't show all colors you can see with you naked eye. I suggest looking at [Technology Connections - The Weird World in RGB](_URL_0_) for entertaining explanation of color vision and RGB work and the limitations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23665",
"title": "Pixel",
"section": "Section::::Technical.:Subpixels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Many display and image-acquisition systems are not capable of displaying or sensing the different color channels at the same site. Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-color regions that contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance. In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these single-color regions are separately addressable elements, which have come to be known as subpixels. For example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each subpixel is necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology, subpixels are often referred to as \"pixels\", as they are the basic addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and hence \"pixel circuits\" rather than \"subpixel circuits\" is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593708",
"title": "Subpixel rendering",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "A single pixel on a color subpixelated display is made of several color primaries, typically three colored elements—ordered (on various displays) either as blue, green, and red (), or as red, green, and blue (). Some displays have more than three primaries, often called MultiPrimary, such as the combination of red, green, blue, and yellow (), or red, green, blue and white (W), or even red, green, blue, yellow, and cyan ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7681",
"title": "ClearType",
"section": "Section::::How ClearType works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243526",
"title": "Dither",
"section": "Section::::Digital photography and image processing.:Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Some LCDs may use temporal dithering to achieve a similar effect. By alternating each pixel's color value rapidly between two approximate colors in the panel's color space (also known as Frame Rate Control), a display panel which natively supports only 18-bit color (6 bits per channel) can represent a 24-bit \"true\" color image (8 bits per channel).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593708",
"title": "Subpixel rendering",
"section": "Section::::PenTile.:Example with the common stripes layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Some LCDs compensate the inter-pixel color mix effect by having borders between pixels slightly larger than borders between subpixels. Then, in the example above, a viewer of such an LCD would see a blue line appearing adjacent to a red line instead of a single magenta line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7681",
"title": "ClearType",
"section": "Section::::How ClearType works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer’s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible pixels, each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent \"subpixels,\" each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16027304",
"title": "Interferometric modulator display",
"section": "Section::::Working principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Multiple color displays are created by using subpixels, each designed to reflect a specific different color. Multiple elements of each color are generally used to both give more combinations of displayable color (by mixing the reflected colors) and to balance the overall brightness of the pixel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mh538
|
if insects and arachnids don't have feelings, than what would trigger them to act if in danger?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because reflexes and involuntary reactions often have little to do with emotion. Just like when a doctor hits you in the knee with the rubber mallet or when you stub your toe in the dark. Your reaction is to make a jerking motion but it doesn't necessarily trigger any significant emotions. Except maybe you'll get pissed off after stubbing your toe.\n\nAlso, studies suggest insects do in fact feel emotions such as fear and pain.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insects and arachnids do have at least some feelings such as fear and pain. What they don't have is the self awareness and intelligence needed to contemplate what those feelings mean.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188416",
"title": "Xenophobe (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1615,
"text": "The hostile aliens (known as \"Xenos\") come in different forms. There are \"Eggs\" (similar to the eggs in \"Alien\"). If an Egg hatches, it creates a \"Critter\" which can attach itself to the player and drain health. If a Critter is not killed, it eventually matures into a \"Roller\" (a cross between a lizard, caterpillar, and armadillo). Rollers are one of the tougher enemies, as they can ball themselves up and roll around while impervious to the players' guns. Rollers sometimes grow into the \"Warrior\" Xeno form, which attacks by leaping and requires multiple hits to kill from most weapons. Warriors are able to spit damaging acid across rooms (and sometimes into adjacent rooms). This acid also drips from the ceiling in some rooms. They also have a devastating leap attack that will knock down and disarm. One of the more insidious attacks in a Warrior's arsenal is its ability to disarm a player. Simply walking past a Warrior can cause the player's gun to drop to the floor (destroying it if still in a doorway). Other Xenos include \"Tentacles\" that randomly appear from the deck or ceiling, and trap or strangle the player respectively, and the arguably toughest enemy is a Xeno \"Queen\" which appears either in doorways or behind certain backgrounds and throws proto-eggs at the players and shoots hypnotic eye beams which trap players and drain their health. If the proto-egg lands on a screen with a player, it grows into another Egg, which eventually hatches into a Critter as usual. There are much larger alien carcasses the player can walk past or through but they only appear as part of the background.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8425111",
"title": "Fear of bees",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Ordinary (non-phobic) fear of bees in adults is generally associated with lack of knowledge. The general public is not aware that bees attack in defense of their hive, or when accidentally squashed, and an occasional bee in a field presents no danger. Moreover, the majority of insect stings in the United States are attributed to yellowjacket wasps, which are often mistaken for a honeybee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29728037",
"title": "Body odour and sexual attraction",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Insects make use of two classes of pheromone signals; the pheromones that induce immediate or releaser effects (for example, aggression or mating behaviours) and those that elicit long-lasting or ‘primer’ effects, such as physiological and hormonal changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3731756",
"title": "Hazards of outdoor recreation",
"section": "Section::::Specific accidents and ailments.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Venomous animals, including snakes, scorpions, spiders and bees, may cause harm either directly or through anaphylactic shock. Overall, the greatest danger is often from insects, such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas, which carry communicable diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74240",
"title": "Anaphylaxis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Venom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Venom from stinging or biting insects such as Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) or Triatominae (kissing bugs) may cause anaphylaxis in susceptible people. Previous reactions, that are anything more than a local reaction around the site of the sting, are a risk factor for future anaphylaxis; however, half of fatalities have had no previous systemic reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31304687",
"title": "Defense in insects",
"section": "Section::::Collective defenses in social insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1133,
"text": "Alarm pheromones warn members of a species of approaching danger. Because of their altruistic nature, they follow the rules of kin selection. They can elicit both aggregational and dispersive responses in social insects depending on the alarm caller's location relative to the nest. Closer to the nest, it causes social insects to aggregate and may subsequently produce an attack against the threat. The \"Polistes canadensis\", a primitively eusocial wasp, will emit a chemical alarm substance at the approach of a predator, which will lower their nestmates' thresholds for attack, and even attract more nestmates to the alarm. The colony is thus able to rise quickly with its sting chambers open to defend its nest against predators. In nonsocial insects, these compounds typically stimulate dispersal regardless of location. Chemical alarm systems are best developed in aphids and treehoppers (family Membracidae) among the nonsocial groups. Alarm pheromones take on a variety of compositions, ranging from terpenoids in aphids and termites to acetates, an alcohol, and a ketone in honey bees to formic acid and terpenoids in ants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192225",
"title": "Opiliones",
"section": "Section::::Antipredator defenses.:Secondary defenses.:Thanatosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Some animals respond to attacks by simulating an apparent death to avoid either detection or further attacks. Arachnids such as spiders practice this mechanism when threatened or even to avoid being eaten by female spiders after mating. Thanatosis is used as a second line of defense when detected by a potential predator and is commonly observed within the Dyspnoi and Laniatores suborders, with individuals becoming rigid with legs either retracted or stretched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
139ef8
|
the us and why israel is important to the us.
|
[
{
"answer": "After the Holocaust in the 1930s-40s, it became clear that the Jewish people needed a homeland that could protect their culture and their people in the event that another group decided to attempt to exterminate them. Many began returning to their ancestral homelands near Jerusalem, which was part of a British colony known as Palestine. Because many of them began an armed revolt against the British control of the land, the US and Great Britain, under the auspices of the United Nations, carved out a piece of Palestine and set it aside as the Jewish homeland. Since it is a piece of land that was disputed for over a millennium, and was at the time occupied by Muslims, Israel has needed the military muscle of the US to back it in order to ensure it's existence. While the US has never officially become militarily involved in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, we have been supplying the Israelis with armaments and other support for decades, at the same time attempting to broker peace between the two factions, with little success. \n\nSo one could say that the reason Israel is important to the US is because we created it. It's existence was intended to protect the Jewish people and culture and allow them the freedom to practice their religion which many other countries had denied them. Some Americans view Israel as part of the Christian faith, believing that the prophesied return of Jesus Christ will begin when all 12 tribes return to the holy land. Others simply believe that such a place needs to exist to protect the Jews. Still others believe that we need Israel to ensure that there is at least one friendly government in the region, since most of the others don't like America very much. Overall, it's an extremely complex issue that will probably never be solved to everyone's satisfaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Israel is our one friend who lives in the ghetto neighbor hood. were always being nice to them because when we visit them they are the only thing that keeps the rest of the ghetto from shooting us and leaving us in the ditch without our jordans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6710883",
"title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Debates.:Israel and U.S. interests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In 2011, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy (a think tank founded by \"a small group of visionary Americans committed to advancing U.S. interests in the Middle East\") argued that the U.S.-Israel relationship is \"A Strategic Asset for the United States.\" In discussing their report, Walter B. Slocombe said that while in the popular imagination, the U.S.-Israel relationship is only good for Israel, Israel provides enormous assistance to the United States, including military expertise which has saved American lives in Iraq and Afghanistan. Robert D. Blackwill countered the claim that the U.S.-Israel relationship significantly damages the relationship between the United States and the Arab world. He asked rhetorically:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6710883",
"title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Debates.:Israel and U.S. interests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Friendly relations between Israel and the U.S. has been and continues to be a tenet of both American and Israeli foreign policy. Israel receives bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress. The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that U.S. and Israel share common \"economic, political, strategic, and diplomatic concerns\" and that the countries exchange \"intelligence and military information\" and cooperate in an effort to halt international terrorism and illegal drug trade. Furthermore, a majority of American citizens view Israel favorably.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74581",
"title": "Foreign relations of Israel",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 365,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 365,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The relations between Israel and the United States have evolved from an initial United States policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish state in 1948 (It was the first country to recognize the establishment of the State) to an unusual partnership that links Israel with the United States trying to balance competing interests in the Middle East region. The United States has been considered Israel's most powerful and supportive ally and hosts the annual Salute to Israel Parade in New York City. From 1948 to 2012, the United States has provided Israel with $233.7 billion in aid (after adjusting for inflation). In addition, the US has provided Israel with $19 billion in loan guarantees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3449549",
"title": "Israel–United States relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Israel–United States relations refers to the bilateral relationship between Israel and the United States. Since the 1960s the United States has been very strong supporter of Israel, and promoted good relations between Israel and Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt, while holding off the hostility from other Arab nations, especially Syria and Iran. The relations are a very important factor in the United States government's overall policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3449549",
"title": "Israel–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Foreign policy of US government.:Obama administration (2009–2017).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Bar Ilan's Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies conducted a study in November 2014 which showed that 96% of the Israeli public feels that the country's relations with the United States are important or very important. It was also felt that Washington is a loyal ally and that America will come to Israel's aid against existential threats. On the other hand, only 37% believe that President Obama has a positive attitude towards Israel (with 24% saying that his attitude is neutral).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6710883",
"title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Debates.:Israel and U.S. interests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "In a 2008 editorial, Israeli-American historian and author Michael B. Oren wrote that Israel and the United States are natural allies, despite what the opposition from \"much of American academia and influential segments of the media.\" Oren claimed this was because Israel and the United States shared similar values such as \"respect for civic rights and the rule of law\" and democracy. Israel and the United States share military intelligence in order to fight terrorism. Oren also noted that \"more than 70% of [Americans], according to recent polls, favor robust ties with the Jewish state.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39426071",
"title": "Ali Abunimah",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Views on Israel and Palestine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Abunimah has given two theories about the strong relationship between the U.S. and Israel: first, he said Israel plays an important role in U.S. Imperialism by allowing it to control the Middle East and their resources; second, he believes \"there are powerful organizations and networks that consider support for Israel very important and they influence the politics of the United States through elections and contributions to political campaigns to make candidates adopt to Israel's position.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g6euo
|
Which (living) professor or scientist do you find most inspiring?
|
[
{
"answer": "Robert Langer: _URL_0_\nOne of the most productive engineers in history.\n\nBrian Cox: _URL_1_\nAll around awesome guy who invokes the same kind of wonder about the universe as Carl Sagan did. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've got to respect Richard Lenski both for his amazing experiment and the way he dealt with the troglodytes who couldn't accept it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "RobotRollCall. Seriously.\n\nAs far as public personalities, a number of people inspired me to go back to school: Dean Kamen, Tyson, and Sagan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "E. O. Wilson.\n\nI've never met a man who can visualize ecological systems in such completeness and elegance. His work with ants goes beyond Ecology into the realm of philosophy, cognitive science, and even spirituality. To him, every study is an adventure into an uncharted world, and if you've ever heard him speak or even seen him in documentaries, you can see the wonder in his eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stephen Hawking, Neil de Grasse Tyson, and Brian Cox",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll have to say Bill Gosper. He has a certain air of informality in his work, mixed with a little humor. Yet none of his results are \"smallest publishable units\". He's done groundbreaking work, and has a knack for finding beauty using often times little more than calculus -- much like Ramanujan.\n\nI'll also have to say Feynman (deceased). He also had an air of informality and humor, but also rocked the world of science. He smiled a lot too. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Richard Dawkins. He has an obvious passion for the truth, but maintains an appreciation for the beauty of the real world. I highly recommend Unweaving the Rainbow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah, Ramachandran is pretty cool.\n\nOthers... Hawking, Michio Kaku, Brian Cox...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dr. Frink... blavin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "sir david attenborough devoted an entire career to bringing it to the people. Has done more to raising the scientific bar for nature programs than anyone I can think of. Promotes other peoples research incessantly. humble, hard-working and doesnt hype the way newer hosts do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stephen Hawking easily. Overcoming what he has while contributing so much is absolutely amazing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For me it's definitely Neil deGrasse Tyson. His childlike exuberance about science is really appealing and it doesn't hurt that he has a great sense of humor. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No mention of [Lawrence Krauss](_URL_0_) yet?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Clifford Stoll!](_URL_0_) What a dork!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you genuinely want to know what inspired me, as a kid, to go the science way.. then probably Commander Data and Captain Picard. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So many good ones already, but nobody mentioned Hans Rosling. I love his TED talks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Bill Nye the Science Guy!](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oliver Sachs and Robert Sapolsky were really inspiring for me. They've written a lot of books which are accessible to non-neuro people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Donald Knuth](_URL_0_). While a graduate student in the 60s he started writing a [book](_URL_1_) about algorithms, and after the second volume came out he was not satisfied with how it looked. So he took 8 years and developed TeX, a typsetting program that revolutionized mathematical publications. He then resumed writing the book, which is not yet finished... \n\nAnother hero of mine is Prof. Chomsky, not only because of his political action, but also because part of his early [work](_URL_2_) is used every single day in computer science.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll second Paul Bloom actually, I've listened to the whole introductory course of his on academicearth and many of the things he mentioned and the way he explained them made me look further into the subject out of joyful curiosity, which is something the professors at my own uni don't happen to provoke all that often.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "E.O. Wilson, Steven Pinker, Dawkins, James Kasting, Irene Pepperberg, Murray Gell-Mann, Francis Crick, Christof Koch, Razib Khan",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[John B Goodenough](_URL_0_) \n\nhe will have a nobel prize. silly that he doesn't yet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No-one else love [Dan Dennett](_URL_0_)?\n\n[Consciousness Explained](_URL_1_) was a watershed in my school education. Literally inspired me into mathematical/computational neuroscience. Thanks Dan!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53803672",
"title": "Michael Elad",
"section": "Section::::Professional Roles and Honors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Prof. Elad appeared in the for the years 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018, published by Clarivate Analytics (formerly Thompson-Reuters). These lists include the ~3500 world’s most influential minds in science, covering various disciplines, from Immunology and Agriculture, through Chemistry and Physics, all the way to Computer Sciences and Engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159999",
"title": "University of Tehran",
"section": "Section::::Notable people.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Academics include Lotfi A. Zadeh the inventor of fuzzy logic, Fields Medal winner Caucher Birkar, Ali Javan who invented the gas laser and is ranked number 12 on the list of the top 100 living geniuses, intellectual and former Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan and biophysicist Mohammad-Nabi Sarbolouki.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53722894",
"title": "P. N. Suganthan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "He is a computer science academic at the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He was selected as one of the highly cited researchers by Thomson Reuters in 2015 and 2016 in computer science, also known as the World's Most Influential Scientists-2015. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38438575",
"title": "William F. Laurance",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "He is among the most highly cited scientists globally in the fields of ecology and environmental science. His works have been cited over 51,000 times, and his Hirsch's h index of 116 (as per May 2019) is among the highest of any environmental scientist in the world. He has published more than three dozen papers to date in Science and Nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5648968",
"title": "Luis von Ahn",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "As a professor, his research includes CAPTCHAs and human computation, which has earned him international recognition and numerous honors. He was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2006, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation Fellowship in 2009, a Sloan Fellowship in 2009, and a Microsoft New Faculty Fellowship in 2007, and the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers in 2012. He has also been named one of the 50 Best Brains in Science by \"Discover\", and has made it to many recognition lists that include \"Popular Science\"'s Brilliant 10, Silicon.com's 50 Most Influential People in Technology, \"MIT Technology Review\"'s TR35: Young Innovators Under 35, and \"Fast Company'\"s 100 Most Innovative People in Business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343292",
"title": "William Small",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "a man profound in most of the useful branches of science, with a happy talent of communication, correct and gentlemanly manners, and a large and liberal mind... from his conversation I got my first views of the expansion of science and of the system of things in which we are placed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44067641",
"title": "UH Physics Department",
"section": "Section::::In the press.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Prof. Oomman Varghese and Maggie Paulose are listed on Thomson Reuters 2014 list of highly cited researchers in materials science, and also included on the list of the \"World’s Most Influential Scientific Minds\" as the UH's president Renu Khator pointed out in her Fall Address 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2u548b
|
how is tesla able to improve the efficiency or performance of their cars with over-the-air updates?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the future, man. Nowadays, computers control every aspect of cars from running the engine to turning on the interior lights when you open the door. Electric motors are controlled by changing the voltage and current running to them. More voltage means more torque (twisting force) and more current means faster speed (less current is less speed). Engineers use complex equations to decide *when* to change the current and voltage that go to the motors, both of which combine to form the 'power' of the engine or battery. For example, there may be a lot of voltage when accelerating from a stop, but much less of it at a constant speed--these things are controlled by the computer. What Tesla has done is tweaked various variables inside the computer program that relate to how and when electricity is distributed to the wheel motors. The computer program(s) that control these things are updated over the air, just like your phone. By constantly modifying the programs that run on the Model S, the engineers can figure out what combinations of voltages and currents work best in different scenarios. Sometimes they completely change the program itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5760445",
"title": "Tesla Roadster (2008)",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "In February 2008, Tesla reported improved plug-to-wheel efficiency after testing a validation prototype car at an EPA-certified location. Those tests yielded a range of and a plug-to-wheel efficiency of 199 Wh/km (32.1 kW·h /100 mi).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57169",
"title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and has more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. Additionally, improvements to the HVAC system efficiency can also help increase occupant health and productivity. In the US, the EPA has imposed tighter restrictions over the years. There are several methods for making HVAC systems more efficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30869",
"title": "Tesla turbine",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency and calculations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "In Tesla's time, the efficiency of conventional turbines was low because turbines used a direct drive system that severely limited the potential speed of a turbine to whatever it was driving. At the time of introduction, modern ship turbines were massive and included dozens, or even hundreds of stages of turbines, yet produced extremely low efficiency due to their low speed. For example, the turbine on the Titanic weighed over 400 tons, ran at just 165rpm, and used steam at a pressure of only 6 PSI. This limited it to harvesting waste steam from the main power plants, a pair of reciprocating steam engines. The Tesla turbine also had the ability to run on higher temperature gasses than bladed turbines of the time contributed to its greater efficiency. Eventually axial turbines were given gearing to allow them to operate at higher speeds, but efficiency of axial turbines remained very low in comparison to the Tesla Turbine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1567474",
"title": "Airbus A220",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Program launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The new Pratt & Whitney engine should yield 12 percent better fuel economy than existing jets while being quieter, with further efficiency stemming from enhanced aerodynamics and lightweight materials. Together, the engines and high use of composite materials, like the wide-body Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A350 XWB contribute to the aforementioned 12-15% better cash operating costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30869",
"title": "Tesla turbine",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency and calculations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1851,
"text": "Tesla's design attempted to sidestep the key drawbacks of the bladed axial turbines, and even the lowest estimates for efficiency still dramatically outperformed the efficiency of axial steam turbines of the day. However, in testing against more modern engines, the Tesla Turbine had expansion efficiencies far below contemporary steam turbines and far below contemporary reciprocating steam engines. It does suffer from other problems such as shear losses and flow restrictions, but this is partially offset by the relatively massive reduction in weight and volume. Some of Tesla turbine's advantages lie in relatively low flow rate applications or when small applications are called for. The disks need to be as thin as possible at the edges in order not to introduce turbulence as the fluid leaves the disks. This translates to needing to increase the number of disks as the flow rate increases. Maximum efficiency comes in this system when the inter-disk spacing approximates the thickness of the boundary layer, and since boundary layer thickness is dependent on viscosity and pressure, the claim that a single design can be used efficiently for a variety of fuels and fluids is incorrect. A Tesla turbine differs from a conventional turbine only in the mechanism used for transferring energy to the shaft. Various analyses demonstrate the flow rate between the disks must be kept relatively low to maintain efficiency. Reportedly, the efficiency of the Tesla turbine drops with increased load. Under light load, the spiral taken by the fluid moving from the intake to the exhaust is a tight spiral, undergoing many rotations. Under load, the number of rotations drops and the spiral becomes progressively shorter. This will increase the shear losses and also reduce the efficiency because the gas is in contact with the discs for less distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53064092",
"title": "EcoBlue",
"section": "Section::::Claimed improvements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "An all-new engine architecture is claimed to deliver reduced friction and a clean-burning combustion system. The engines will meet Euro 6 emissions standards. Ford says that a 13 percent improvement in fuel efficiency is obtained through friction reduction enhancements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40400151",
"title": "Alternator (automotive)",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "Efficiency of automotive alternators is limited by fan cooling loss, bearing loss, iron loss, copper loss, and the voltage drop in the diode bridges. Efficiency reduces dramatically at high speeds mainly due to fan resistance. At medium speeds efficiency of today's alternators is 70-80%. This betters very small high-performance permanent magnet alternators, such as those used for bicycle lighting systems, which achieve an efficiency around 60%. Larger permanent magnet electric machines (that can operate as motors or alternators) can achieve today much higher efficiencies. Pellegrino et al., for instance, propose not particularly expensive designs that show ample regions in which efficiency is above 96%. Large AC generators used in power stations run at carefully controlled speeds and have no constraints on size or weight. They have very high efficiencies as high as 98%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34kjnh
|
I'm looking for video footage of 1919-1946 Germany, Can anyone help?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may want to look into ripping DVDs of classic german art films? \n\nedit: HA! I found it!\n\n I present to you, \"[Berlin: Symphony of a Great City](_URL_0_)\". It's basically just a sort of documentary of a generic day in Weimar-era Berlin (with some pro-socialist/communist imagery thrown in for good measure.) \n\nBut you want to know the best part? It's in the public domain and you can download it right now. Resoution kind of sucks, but it at least gives you a place to start?\n\nEdit 2: Something I should probably warn you about: this isn't an easy film to watch. It has almost no plot, no real characters, and this version does not include the score that is supposed to accompany the film.\n\nThat said, it's not just a collection of \"stuff happening.\" When Berlin was filmed, the idea of a montage--creating meaning by juxtoposing two scenes together--was very new, and the filmmakers use it quite a bit. The classic example is when a bunch of men going to work are juxtaposed with cattle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9306991",
"title": "Bundeswehr Military History Museum",
"section": "Section::::Inside the museum.:Image archive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The image archive houses a collection of preserved paper photographs, pictures, photo postcards, photo albums, picture negatives, and slides of German and international military history. Nearly one million artifacts are housed in this section which focuses on everyday life of the German armed forces. The images archive the formation, equipment and training of armed forces past and present. While professional images are showcased, so are amateur photographers from both World War. Particularly noteworthy in this section are photographs of Dresden by Willy Rossner and Soviet war photographer G. Samsonov.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24871531",
"title": "Soldiers of Freedom",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "The film reflects the following events of World War II: the capitulation of Friedrich Paulus's Sixth Army as a result of the failed assault on Stalingrad during Operation Blue in 1942; the preparation for revolt in Slovakia; negotiations of the Polish communists with Władysław Sikorski's government over their joint struggle against fascism; the creation of a National Committee of the Domestic Front in Bulgaria and preparation by underground workers-communists for armed revolt; expansion of the guerrilla (partisan) movement; the failure of a German attempt to destroy People's Liberation Army of Josip Broz Tito; one of the largest military operations, Bagration; the beginning of the liberation of Poland; creation of the Polish National Government in Lublin; the Warsaw Uprising; the capitulation of Bór-Komorowski and defeat of the Polish patriots; the entry of Soviet and Polish armies into Warsaw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7621618",
"title": "Know Your Enemy: Japan",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The film itself was a compilation of footage obtained from newsreels, the UN, enemy film, fictional Japanese movies for historical background, and re-enactments supervised by the war department. This footage was narrated by Walter Huston and Dana Andrews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49061196",
"title": "March of the Living Digital Archive Project",
"section": "Section::::Achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "In addition to the over 30 films produced thus far, several March of the Living Digital Archive videos figure prominently in and the related exhibit (which appeared at the United Nations and the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.) The book and exhibit have incorporated an interactive aspect where the featured survivors, World War II liberators, and Righteous Among the Nations, include an invisible link embedded on their image. When their image is accessed with a smart phone or other device, the viewer is taken to an excerpt of their video testimony on the March of the Living Digital Archives websites or the USC Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual History and Education (created by Steven Spielberg)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25936055",
"title": "Price v. United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::- a photographic archive compiled by Hoffmann and his son, including many iconic images of Nazi Germany, which had been ceded to the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) after its seizure by U.S. forces in occupied Germany;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7782549",
"title": "The McKenzie Break",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The plot of the film loosely reflects real-life events at the PoW camp in Grizedale Hall, Cumbria and Bowmanville, Ontario; in particular, the interception of German attempts to communicate in code with the captured U-boat ace Otto Kretschmer, and the \"trial\" of Captain Rahmlow and his second-in-command, Bernhard Berndt from , which was surrendered in September 1941, and recommissioned as . Kretschmer was also the subject of Operation Kiebitz, an attempt to liberate several U-boat commanders by submarine, from Bowmanville POW camp in Ontario, Canada, which was foiled by the Royal Canadian Navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2974554",
"title": "Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The film depicts a mock battle staged by German troops during the ceremonies at Nuremberg on German Armed Forces Day 1935. The camera follows the soldiers from their early-morning preparations in their tent city as they march singing to the vast parade grounds where a miniature war involving infantry, cavalry, aircraft, flak guns and the first public appearance of Germany's new forbidden tank is presented before Hitler and thousands of spectators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aaz8s6
|
If Romans relied upon local forces as auxiliaries, what language would be used on the battlefield? Were front-line soldiers required to learn Latin or were orders relayed through translators (and at what point in the chain)?
|
[
{
"answer": "In “The Middle East Under Rome,” Maurice Sartre discusses the concept of lingua-franca in the Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Although all high ranking Roman officials were asked to learn Latin, the majority of the known-world spoke Greek due to the Hellenization that occurred during the conquest of Alexander the Great and the Seleucid-Ptolemy war. So high ranking officials spoke Greek and Latin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5021645",
"title": "Auxilia",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Background: Roman Republic (to 30 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "By the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans were remedying the legions' other deficiencies by using non-Italian specialised troops. Livy reports Hiero of Syracuse offering to supply Rome with archers and slingers in 217 BC. From 200 BC onwards, specialist troops were hired as mercenaries on a regular basis: \"sagittarii\" (archers) from Crete, and \"funditores\" (slingers) from the Balearic Isles almost always accompanied Roman legions in campaigns all over the Mediterranean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39995742",
"title": "Languages of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Regional languages.:Germanic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Bilingualism in a Germanic language and Latin was especially important in the military for officers in command of units recruited from Germanic-speaking areas. Tacitus observes that Arminius, the Cheruscan officer who later led a disastrously successful rebellion against the Romans, was bilingual. The emperor Julian employed a bilingual Germanic military tribune as a spy. The officers and secretaries who kept the records preserved in the Vindolanda tablets were Batavian, but their Latin contains no hint; the common soldiers of their units, however, may have retained their Germanic speech. Less commonly, Latin-speaking officers learned a Germanic language through their service and acted as interpreters. Acquiring Germanic might be regarded as a dubious achievement inducing anxieties of \"barbarism\": in 5th-century Gaul, Sidonius thinks it funny that his learned friend Syagrius has become fluent in Germanic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26235030",
"title": "Roman army of the late Republic",
"section": "Section::::Army structure and organization.:Auxiliaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "The disappearance of the Roman cavalry and light infantry was paralleled by the increasing use of auxiliary units. The use of non-Roman and non-Italian troops had been a common practice in the mid-Republic, but significantly increased in scale during the late Republic. While the legionaries were now recruited from the Italian communities south of the Po River, Rome had to rely on its non-Roman allies and clients to provide cavalry and light infantry. Despite problems with loyalty and desertion, this practice may have offered many benefits as some possessed over specialized skills or native traditions that the Romans lacked. Auxiliary groups, such as the Numidians, Spanish, and Gauls were famed by the Romans for the strength of their cavalry. Numidian javelineers, Cretan archers, and Balearic slingers were notorious for their effectiveness as light infantry. In most circumstances, these units were only raised for specific campaigns and disbanded as soon as their services were no longer required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415870",
"title": "Iberians",
"section": "Section::::Iberian culture.:Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the Punic wars was made up of Iberians and Celtiberians. Iberian warfare was endemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termed \"concursare\" by the Romans. The Iberians were particularly fond of ambushes and guerrilla tactics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "691301",
"title": "Skirmisher",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient and Post-classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In the Punic Wars, despite the Roman and Carthaginian armies' different organisations, skimishers had the same role in both: to screen the main armies. The Roman legions of this period had a specialised infantry class called Velites that acted as skirmish troops, engaging the enemy before the Roman heavy infantry made contact, while the Carthaginians recruited their skirmishers from native peoples across the Carthaginian Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7948631",
"title": "Structural history of the Roman military",
"section": "Section::::Imperial legions and reformation of the auxilia (27 BC – 117 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The vitality of the empire at this point was such that the use of native \"auxilia\" in the Roman army did not apparently barbarise the military as some scholars claim was to happen in the late empire. On the contrary, those serving in the \"auxilia\" during this period frequently strove to Romanise themselves. They were granted Roman citizenship on retirement, granting them several social advantages, and their sons became eligible for service in the legions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288612",
"title": "Legionary",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as \"centurion\" required a knowledge of writing. During the Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan, there were 4-5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5w2q23
|
what is a social construct?
|
[
{
"answer": "Something that only exists solely because a bunch of humans agree it exists. Consider the value of cash, for example. A couple of sheets of cotton and some mostly zinc coins you have in your pocket aren't of much practical use to anyone. However, because we all agree they have value, they do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "411590",
"title": "Science and technology studies",
"section": "Section::::Important concepts.:STS social construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Social constructions are human created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203510",
"title": "Social constructionism",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "A social construct or construction concerns the meaning, notion, or connotation placed on an object or event by a society, and adopted by the inhabitants of that society with respect to how they view or deal with the object or event. In that respect, a social construct as an idea would be widely accepted as natural by the society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46335840",
"title": "Discourse of power",
"section": "Section::::Power of media versus reality.:Socially constructed reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1994,
"text": "Social construct examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world. It assumes that understanding, significance, and meaning are developed not separately within the individual, but in coordination among other human beings. To say something that it is socially constructed is to emphasize its dependence on contingent aspects of an individuals social selves. It can say this thing could not have existed had we not built it. Had someone been brought up in a different kind of society, had different needs, values, or interests, an individual might have built a different kind of thing, or built this social construct differently. It is important to be aware that the values we hold, the beliefs we harbor and the decisions we make are based on our assumptions, our experiences, our education and what we know for a fact. Social construct allows us rely on mass media for the current news and facts about what is important and what we should be aware of. We trust the media as an authority for news, information, education and entertainment. Considering that powerful influence, then, we should know how it really works. The degree of influence depends on the availability and pervasiveness of media. Traditional mass media still has a great influence within society today. Books once were supremely influential because they came first before newspapers, magazines, radio or television. Newspapers and magazines became large influencers after they were developed. Sound recordings and film were and still are influential. Radio and then television were very influential. As the 20th century closed, TV exposed us to a number of new examples advertising and marketing, suffering and relief, sexuality and violence, celebrity entertainment, and much more. New and influential media-distribution channels have appeared in the 21st century. We are currently being influenced through the internet by daily by blogs, popular culture websites and various social media outlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29529070",
"title": "Social construction of gender",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Social constructionism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Social constructionism, briefly, is the concept that there are many things that people \"know\" or take to be \"reality\" that are at least partially, if not completely, socially situated. For example, Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker writes that \"some categories really are social constructions: they exist only because people tacitly agree to act as if they exist. Examples include money, tenure, citizenship, decorations for bravery, and the presidency of the United States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203510",
"title": "Social constructionism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Social constructionism questions what is defined by humans and society to be reality. Therefore, social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the time period in which they exist. An example of a social construct is money or the concept of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/value. Another example of a social construction is the concept of self/self-identity. Charles Cooley stated based on his Looking-Glass-Self theory: \"I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think you think I am.\" This demonstrates how people in society construct ideas or concepts that may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93545",
"title": "Structure",
"section": "Section::::Social.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "A social structure is a pattern of relationships. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group. Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context, \"agency\" refers to the individual human capacity to act independently and make free choices. \"Structure\" here refers to factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs, etc. that seem to limit or influence individual opportunities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1722775",
"title": "Pure sociology",
"section": "Section::::Epistemology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Pure sociology explains social life with its social geometry. Social life refers to any instance of human behavior—such as law, suicide, gossip, or art — while the social geometry of a behavior, also called its social structure, refers to the social characteristics of those involved—such as their degree of past interaction or their level of wealth. To some extent this approach draws from aspects of earlier sociological work, ranging from Durkheim's emphasis on social explanations for individual behavior to later work in the variation of police (and other legal) behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ixq8p
|
how can lonely cloud survive in a crystal clear sky?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the absence of winds in the atmosphere, the \"lonely cloud\" would certainly dissipate. However, the rotation of the Earth and the different gradients of heating (of the soil and water) that the Sun causes, result in the atmosphere having currents of wind, and areas of higher and lower pressure and temperature. \n\nWater molecules stay in the air based on pressure and temperature. They condense to the fog droplets that you see as \"a cloud\" based on pressure and temperature. And rain condenses out of a cloud based on pressure and temperature.\n\nSo, basically, the \"lonely cloud\" is in a \"pocket\" of different pressure or temperature, bordered by winds (that you can't see) that keep it in that shape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2108187",
"title": "The Black Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The cloud unexpectedly decelerates as it approaches and comes to rest around the Sun, causing disastrous climatic changes on Earth and immense mortality and suffering for the human race. As the behaviour of the cloud proves to be impossible to predict scientifically, the team at Nortonstowe eventually come to the conclusion that it might be a life-form with a degree of intelligence. The scientists try to communicate with the cloud, and succeed. The cloud is revealed to be an alien gaseous superorganism, many times more intelligent than humans, which is surprised to find intelligent life-forms on a solid planet. It reconfigures itself to allow sunlight to return to the Earth and humanity is saved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58903",
"title": "Cloud forest",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "An important feature of cloud forests is the tree crowns can intercept the wind-driven cloud moisture, part of which drips to the ground. This fog drip occurs when water droplets from the fog adhere to the needles or leaves of trees or other objects, coalesce into larger drops and then drop to the ground. It can be an important contribution to the hydrologic cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58903",
"title": "Cloud forest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "A cloud forest, also called a water forest and primas forest, is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover, usually at the canopy level, formally described in the International Cloud Atlas (2017) as silvagenitus. Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation, in which case they are also referred to as mossy forests. Mossy forests usually develop on the saddles of mountains, where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3796677",
"title": "Gardens by the Bay",
"section": "Section::::Bay South Garden.:Conservatories.:Cloud Forest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The Cloud Forest is higher but slightly smaller at . It replicates the cool moist conditions found in tropical mountain regions between and above sea level, found in South-East Asia, Middle- and South America. It features a \"Cloud Mountain\", accessible by an elevator, and visitors will be able to descend the mountain via a circular path where a waterfall provides visitors with refreshing cool air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35600992",
"title": "Desarrollo Forestal Montreal",
"section": "Section::::Significance of cloud forests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Cloud forests, also known as fog forests, have unique characteristics and biodiversity due to their frequent cloudy/foggy conditions. In 1970, the original extent of cloud forests on the Earth was around 50 million hectares. Population growth, poverty and uncontrolled land use have contributed to the loss of cloud forests. The 1990 Global Forest Survey found that 1.1% of tropical mountain and highland forests were lost each year, which was higher than in any other tropical forests. For example, in Colombia, one of the countries with the largest area of cloud forests, only 10-20% of the initial cloud forest cover remains. Significant areas have been converted to plantations, or for use in agriculture and pasture. Significant crops in montane forest zones include tea and coffee, and the logging of unique species causes changes to the forest structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2608513",
"title": "Green Mountain",
"section": "Section::::History and vegetation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The resulting cloud forest, is a mosaic of plants from a variety of habitats including woodland, grassland, and shrubland. The ecosystem that has emerged is interesting for its almost entirely artificial nature as a result of the interactions between the introduced species from a variety of disparate climates and locations. The resulting ecosystem created by the British introductions has threatened several of the few endemic Ascension island species. Because of this, Green Mountain is now a national park where endemic species are actively conserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174823",
"title": "Dark nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles, coated with frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen, which effectively block the passage of light at visible wavelengths. Also present are molecular hydrogen, atomic helium, CO (CO with oxygen as the O isotope), CS, NH (ammonia), HCO (formaldehyde), c-CH (cyclopropenylidene) and a molecular ion NH (diazenylium), all of which are relatively transparent. These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets, and understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n5k42
|
when holding hands, why does it feel so much better to be the "under" hand than the "over" hand (since neither position is actually ~~physically~~ uncomfortable)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Supposedly has to do with left and right brained. Which may or may not be a thing. For me the left thumb has to be over the right when I clasp my hands and its same for holding hands. There's a thing with preference in crossing your arms and a couple others. I'm a bad example b/c I'm evenly split on which side is dominant which is actually accurate b/c I'm analytical + creative\n. decent writer, good at math, play piano.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35323875",
"title": "Etiquette in Indonesia",
"section": "Section::::Everyday Manners.:Using hands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Both the Muslim and Hindu faiths somewhat abhor the use of the left hand. It is considered 'unclean'; the left hand is traditionally perceived as the hand used to clean yourself in the toilet. So when shaking hands, offering a gift, handing or receiving something, eating, pointing or generally touching another person, it is considered proper etiquette to always use your right hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46741447",
"title": "Hand clasping",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Although some people do not exhibit a preference for one type of hand clasping, most do. Once adopted, the method of hand clasping tends to be consistent throughout life. When an individual attempts to clasp the hands in the opposite configuration from the usual one, that person may feel a sense that something is out of the ordinary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35939113",
"title": "Maniac (2012 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Wood told another viewer, however, that they did use a body double's hands in some scenes: \"I also had a counterpart who could 'be' my left or my right hand because I couldn't always use both hands in a natural way, depending on where the camera was. So we literally held things together and handed things off as if it were the same person. It was a lot of choreography!... Most of the time I couldn't get both of my hands on either side of the camera, because the rig was too big. So there'd be times when I'd be on one side with my right hand, and then my double would be on the left side with his left hand, so we'd have to work together a lot, like moving an object from one hand to another. And if you're trying to do that with two different hands, it's pretty challenging to make that look pretty natural.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8119123",
"title": "Etiquette in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Specific regions.:Haiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- People holding hands is an ordinary display of friendship though women and men, but seldom show public affection toward the opposite sex but are affectionate in private. It is also common for people of the same sexes to hold hands, and is often mistakenly viewed as homosexuality to outsiders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165458",
"title": "Handshake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Using the right hand is generally considered proper etiquette. Customs surrounding handshakes are specific to cultures. Different cultures may be more or less likely to shake hands, or there may be different customs about how or when to shake hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19166474",
"title": "Hand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings in the body, and are the richest source of tactile feedback. They also have the greatest positioning capability of the body; thus, the sense of touch is intimately associated with hands. Like other paired organs (eyes, feet, legs) each hand is dominantly controlled by the opposing brain hemisphere, so that handedness—the preferred hand choice for single-handed activities such as writing with a pencil, reflects individual brain functioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10171550",
"title": "Two-hander",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "A two-hander is a term for a play, film, or television programme with only two main characters. The two characters in question often display differences in social standing or experiences, differences that are explored and possibly overcome as the story unfolds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qbrc7
|
how can uranium be used for "peaceful" purposes (as iran wants to do)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Uranium can be used to generate nuclear energy, which can be used as an alternative for fossil fuels to provide buildings with electricity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757165",
"title": "Iran and weapons of mass destruction",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons.:Iranian stance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "Iran states it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it \"has constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\". Twelve other countries are known to operate uranium enrichment facilities. Iran states that \"the failure of certain Nuclear- Weapon States to fulfill their international obligations continue to be a source of threat for the international community\". Iran also states that \"the only country that has ever used nuclear weapons still maintains a sizable arsenal of thousands of nuclear warheads\" and calls for a stop to the transfer of technology to non-NPT states. Iran has called for the development of a follow-up committee to ensure compliance with global nuclear disarmanent. Iran and many other nations without nuclear weapons have said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is \"highly discriminatory\", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17161651",
"title": "CIA activities in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "\"Previous comments by Iranian officials, including Iran's Supreme Leader and its Foreign Minister, indicated that Iran would not give up its ability to enrich uranium. Certainly, they can use it to produce fuel for power reactors. We are more concerned about the dual-use nature of the technology that could also be used to achieve a nuclear weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22107",
"title": "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons",
"section": "Section::::History.:Iran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Iran states it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it \"has constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\". Iran also states that its enrichment program is part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA, and has called for a peaceful resolution to the issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34928360",
"title": "Views on the nuclear program of Iran",
"section": "Section::::The Iranian viewpoint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Iran also believes it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), a right which in 2005 the U.S. and the EU-3 began to assert had been forfeited by a clandestine nuclear program that came to light in 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10340960",
"title": "Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran",
"section": "Section::::2002–2004.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "July 31, 2004: Iran states that it has resumed building nuclear centrifuges to enrich uranium, reversing a voluntary October 2003 pledge to Britain, France, and Germany to suspend all uranium enrichment-related activities. The United States contends that the purpose is to produce weapons-grade uranium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "957730",
"title": "Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration",
"section": "Section::::Middle East and central Asia.:Iran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "There has been much controversy surrounding Iran and its nuclear program in the past few years. The controversy centers on the Iranian enrichment of uranium. Iran officials have stated that they are enriching the uranium to fuel civilian reactors as permitted under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and other international agreements, but the processes that Iran has been developing to reprocess and enrich uranium are also critical components for the development of a nuclear weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "721807",
"title": "Nuclear program of Iran",
"section": "Section::::History.:2002–2013.:2007–2013.:International Atomic Energy Agency.:February 2009 report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In a February 2009 press interview, IAEA Director Mohamed ElBaradei said Iran has low enriched uranium, but \"that doesn't mean that they are going tomorrow to have nuclear weapons, because as long as they are under IAEA verification, as long as they are not weaponizing, you know.\" ElBaradei continued that there is a confidence deficit with Iran, but that the concern should not be hyped and that \"many other countries are enriching uranium without the world making any fuss about it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4yfkp7
|
why do people become traumatized
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain is a processing center that takes various stimuli and decides what to do with it. Say you're sorting toys into various bins and every time you pick a certain one up it gives you an electric shock and you drop it. It bothers you to leave it lying there when it should be sorted, but you can't get it into the right bin without getting shocked. Touching the toy causes trauma, and eventually even the thought of touching the toy will cause distress. That's what's going on in the head of someone with PTSD. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The good guy always wins. The bad guy always loses. That's what we are taught by the United States Empire while they slaughter children in primal villages. \n\nI think people get traumatized because they figure \"this would never happen to me\" and take things like peace for granted. What would your reaction be if in 5 seconds somebody bursted in your house with a machete? That would never happen right? Just try to feel the energy from that possibility right now... it's weird even simulating it. \n\nWhen Aaron Schwartz killed himself I remember people saying it was because he \"never thought something like this would happen to someone like him\". When you look at the pure evil prosecutor involved in that case and the psychotic tendencies of our lettered organizations, I feel they exploited what they knew about Aaron to try to get him to crack which eventually resulted in his death, but either way part of him was in that \"how could this happen to me\" mindset. \n\nI have PTSD and honestly what really helped me was completely falling out of my comfort zone, going through a complete mental breakdown, then realizing that even though things go to shit they can come back together. I spent the last couple years almost homeless and barely eating, but eventually I humbled myself and changed a lot of bad habits. \n\nTLDR, people, including me, are sensitive pussies. There is nothing wrong with that. There are many things that I am bad ass at and it's not like I'm afraid of people, but when it comes to things like love I'm a sensitive pussy bitch. There are kids even today fighting wars at like 6 years old. They aren't as traumatized because they don't know what things like takeout or 401k's are.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34814043",
"title": "Transgenerational trauma",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Instances of transgenerational trauma where the trauma affects a large population of people and their role in society can be identified as cultural trauma. This form of trauma results in a greater loss of identity and meaning, which in turn affects generations upon generations as the trauma is ingrained into society. This passing of psychological and emotional trauma from slavery has also been identified as Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome (PTSS). According to Dr. Joy DeGruy Leary, PTSS is when a population experiences intergenerational trauma from centuries of psychological and emotional enslavement and continues to face institutionalized oppression and racism. Black Americans who are descendants of former slaves when faced with racism and oppression have reactions that mirror that of PTSD. DeGruy theorizes that PTSS is directly responsible for other dangers and origins of harm in the Black community. The internalized harm caused by PTSS becomes external, allowing the rest of society to use the effects and symptoms of PTSS as stereotypes against Black people, thus exacerbating the racial-trauma and moving forward the cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Trauma can be caused by a wide variety of events, but there are a few common aspects. There is frequently a violation of the person's core assumptions about the world and their human rights, putting the person in a state of extreme confusion and insecurity. This is seen when institutions depended upon for survival violate, humiliate, betray, or cause major losses or separations instead of evoking aspects like positive self worth, safe boundaries and personal freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "Psychologically traumatic experiences often involve physical trauma that threatens one's survival and sense of security. Typical causes and dangers of psychological trauma include harassment, embarrassment, abandonment, abusive relationships, rejection, co-dependence, physical assault, sexual abuse, partner battery, employment discrimination, police brutality, judicial corruption and misconduct, bullying, paternalism, domestic violence, indoctrination, being the victim of an alcoholic parent, the threat or the witnessing of violence (particularly in childhood), life-threatening medical conditions, and medication-induced trauma. Catastrophic natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, large scale transportation accidents, house or domestic fire, motor vehicle accident, mass interpersonal violence like war, terrorist attacks or other mass victimization like sex trafficking, being taken as a hostage or being kidnapped can also cause psychological trauma. Long-term exposure to situations such as extreme poverty or other forms of abuse, such as verbal abuse, exist independently of physical trauma but still generate psychological trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Some traumatized people may feel permanently damaged when trauma symptoms do not go away and they do not believe their situation will improve. This can lead to feelings of despair, transient paranoid ideation, loss of self-esteem, profound emptiness, suicidality, and frequently, depression. If important aspects of the person's self and world understanding have been violated, the person may call their own identity into question. Often despite their best efforts, traumatized parents may have difficulty assisting their child with emotion regulation, attribution of meaning, and containment of post-traumatic fear in the wake of the child's traumatization, leading to adverse consequences for the child. In such instances, seeking counselling in appropriate mental health services is in the best interests of both the child and the parent(s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Psychological trauma is a type of damage to the mind that occurs as a result of a distressing event. Trauma is often the result of an overwhelming amount of stress that exceeds one's ability to cope, or integrate the emotions involved with that experience. Trauma may result from a single distressing experience or recurring events of being overwhelmed that can be precipitated in weeks, years, or even decades as the person struggles to cope with the immediate circumstances, eventually leading to serious, long-term negative consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748985",
"title": "Limbic imprint",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Trauma is a form of damage to either the mind or body that results from a distressing event. Traumatic experiences can occur in utero, during birth, and/or after birth. Trauma experienced in utero includes maternal smoking, alcohol or drug use during pregnancy; exposure to toxins such as methylmercury; and even exposure to maternal psycho-social stress. Trauma in utero increases the risk of neurodevelopmental delays and disorders causing a long-term effect on limbic imprinting such as difficulty regulating and processing emotions. Trauma experienced during birth includes the use of interventions during labor such as obstetrical forceps or vacuum extraction, cesarean section, or exposure to medicines used to relieve maternal pain or induce labor. These experiences can cause both physical and psychological harm to the baby that also affects the limbic imprinting process. Finally, trauma experienced after birth can include malnutrition; neglect, physical, emotional, or sexual abuse; and lack of a safe or healthy environment. Traumatic experiences after birth also have long-term effects on limbic imprinting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26975661",
"title": "Symptoms of victimization",
"section": "Section::::Categories of outcomes.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "The experience of being victimized may cause an individual to feel vulnerable or helpless, as well as changing their view of the world and/or their self-perception; the psychological distress this causes may manifest in a number of ways. Diagnosable psychological disorders that are associated with victimization experiences include depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Psychological symptoms that are disruptive to a person's life may be present in some form even if they do not meet diagnostic criteria for a specific disorder. A variety of symptoms such as withdrawal, avoidance, and nightmares, may be part of one of these diagnosable disorders or may occur in milder or more isolated form; diagnoses of particular disorders require that these symptoms have a particular degree of severity or frequency, or that an individual exhibits a certain number of them in order to be formally diagnosed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2u4z3c
|
How big of a problem was alcohol abuse/alcoholism in the Red Army during WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "The atrocious conduct of the Red Army following their conquest of Eastern Europe and East Germany was largely influenced by their blatant abuse of alcohol. In fact the NKVD allegedly reported back to Moscow complaining that 'mass poisoning from captured alcohol is taking place in occupied Germany' as it was seriously limiting their combat capabilities. Additionally, \"It seems as if Soviet soldiers needed alcoholic courage to attack women\". They were often so drunk they could not finish rapes, and in some cases used the bottle which caused devastating injuries (Antony Beevor, *Berlin*, 2007).\n\n\nIt should also be noted, compared to the other armies of World War Two, the Red Army's excessive drinking was linked to Russian culture:\n\n\n > [i]t was not the amount that Soviet soldiers drank that proved so disastrous for women - in comparion, for example to how much American soldiers drank - but rather the way they drank. As scholars of Russian drinking habits have repeatedly noted, Russians drink in binges, reaching a stage of intense intoxication over a period of several days, and they are quite sober before the next binge. The availability and high quality of alcohol available in Germany did not help the situation. One SDP informant recorded a hard and fast rule for dealing with Soviet troops: 'So long as he [the Russian soldier] is sober, one has almost nothing to fear Only under the influence of alcohol and also when several are drunk do the excesses begin' (Norman Naimark, *The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949*, 1995).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38423483",
"title": "Drug policy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Drug policy and use within the Wehrmacht.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1448,
"text": "At the start of World War II, alcohol consumption was widespread among members of the Wehrmacht. At first, high-ranking officials encouraged its use as a means of relaxation and a crude method of mitigating the psychological effects of combat, in the latter case through what later scientific developments would describe as blocking the consolidation of traumatic memories. After the Fall of France, however, Wehrmacht commanders observed that their soldiers' behavior was deteriorating, with \"fights, accidents, mistreatment of subordinates, violence against superior officers and 'crimes involving unnatural sexual acts'\" becoming more frequent. The Commander-in-Chief of the German military, General Walther von Brauchitsch, concluded that his troops were committing \"most serious infractions\" of morality and discipline, and that the culprit was alcohol abuse. In response, Hitler attempted to curb the reckless use of alcohol in the military, promising severe punishment for soldiers who exhibited public drunkenness or otherwise \"allow[ed] themselves to be tempted to engage in criminal acts as a result of alcohol abuse.\" Serious offenders could expect \"a humiliating death.\" This revised policy accompanied an increase in Nazi Party disapproval of alcohol use in the civilian sector, reflecting an extension to alcohol of the longstanding Nazi condemnation of tobacco consumption as diminishing the strength and purity of the \"Aryan race.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7412797",
"title": "Transitional living",
"section": "Section::::Progress not perfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Going back to the post World War II era, the returning military personnel from Europe and Asia were faced with many problems and unemployment was one of the major issues. With social readjustment and dramatic technology changes many of the G.I.'s could not adjust and many found relief through alcohol consumption that lead to abuse. However, with the gratitude and appreciation of society for the service provided to protect the nation there was the development of a \"different view\" on alcoholism as many employers found their best workers had \"drinking problems.\" The provisions for \"employee care\" increased, mainly through the manufacturing industry and union efforts, for better insurance coverage and medical care for the employees and their families.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12686484",
"title": "Drug policy",
"section": "Section::::Drug policy by country.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Drugs became popular in Russia among soldiers and the homeless, particularly due to the First World War. This included morphine-based drugs and cocaine, which were readily available. The government under Tsar Nicholas II of Russia had outlawed alcohol in 1914 (including vodka) as a temporary measure until the conclusion of the War. Following the Russian Revolution and in particular the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks emerged victorious as the new political power in Russia. The Soviet Union inherited a population with widespread drug addiction, and in the 1920s, tried to tackle it by introducing a 10-year prison sentence for drug-dealers. The Bolsheviks also decided in August 1924 to re-introduce the sale of vodka, which, being more readily available, led to a drop in drug-use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1503984",
"title": "Lapinjärvi Educational Center",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In 1937, the facility became a rehabilitation center for alcoholics. This continued until 1939, when the Winter War forced it to become a base for a military mobile infantry group. After the war ended in 1940, the facility was restored as an alcoholism rehabilitation center, which continued until 1986.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14185155",
"title": "History of Alcoholics Anonymous",
"section": "Section::::Alcoholism in the 1930s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "In post-Prohibition 1930s America, it was common to perceive alcoholism as a moral failing, and the medical profession standards of the time treated it as a condition that was likely incurable and lethal. Those without financial resources found help through state hospitals, the Salvation Army, or other charitable and religious groups. Those who could afford psychiatrists or hospitals were subjected to a treatment with Barbiturate and Belladonna known as \"purge and puke\" or were left in long-term asylum treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21619085",
"title": "Soviet Union in World War II",
"section": "Section::::The \"Frontoviki\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1347,
"text": "Rottmann describes medical care as \"marginal\". A shortage of doctors, medical equipment and drugs meant those wounded often died, usually in immense pain. Morphine was unknown in the Red Army. Most Red Army soldiers had not received preventive inoculations, and diseases became major problems - with malaria, pneumonia, diphtheria, tuberculosis, typhus, dysentery, and meningitis in particular regularly sickening Red-Army men. In the winter frostbite often sent soldiers to the medical system, while in the spring and fall rains made trench foot a common ailment. The \"frontoviki\" had a pay day once every month, but often did not receive their wages. All soldiers were exempt from taxes. In 1943 a private was paid 600 roubles per month, a corporal 1,000 roubles, a junior sergeant 2,000 roubles and a sergeant 3,000 roubles. Special pay accrued to those serving in guards units, tanks, and anti-tank units, to paratroopers and to those decorated for bravery in combat. Those units that greatly distinguished themselves in combat had the prefix \"Guards\" () prefixed to their unit title, a title of great respect and honor that brought better pay and rations. (In the Imperial Russian Army, the elite had always been the Imperial Guards regiments, and the title \"Guards\" when applied to a military unit in Russia still has elitist connotations.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20979",
"title": "Mikhail Gorbachev",
"section": "Section::::General Secretary of the CPSU.:Early years: 1985–1986.:Domestic policies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "In the Soviet Union, alcohol consumption had risen steadily between 1950 and 1985. By the 1980s, drunkenness was a major social problem and Andropov had planned a major campaign to limit alcohol consumption. Encouraged by his wife, Gorbachev—who believed the campaign would improve health and work efficiency—oversaw its implementation. Alcohol production was reduced by around 40 percent, the legal drinking age rose from 18 to 21, alcohol prices were increased, stores were banned from selling it before 2pm, and tougher penalties were introduced for workplace or public drunkenness and home production of alcohol. The All-Union Voluntary Society for the Struggle for Temperance was formed to promote sobriety; it had over 14 million members within three years. As a result, crime rates fell and life expectancy grew slightly between 1986 and 1987. However, moonshine production rose considerably, and the reform had significant costs to the Soviet economy, resulting in losses of up to US$100 billion between 1985 and 1990. Gorbachev later considered the campaign to have been an error, and it was terminated in October 1988. After it ended, it took several years for production to return to previous levels, after which alcohol consumption soared in Russia between 1990 and 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
i4thm
|
What are the bones that fuse together as we become adults?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is kind of a misconception. It's not as if babies have more bones when they're born, it's just that bones aren't completely ossified at birth, so if you took an xray (for example) you'd see some areas where there were \"transparent\" areas in bones that aren't there as an adult. If we don't count each little island of ossification separately, and instead count the entire bony structure, including parts made of cartilage, infants and adults have the same number of bones (more or less).\n\nThat being said, major centers of ossification that often look like separate bones at birth are the skull, elbows, knees, hips, sacrum, coccyx, possibly some levels of the spine. You could really throw in any long bone as well, so you'd include some bones of the hands and feet, shoulders, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33112993",
"title": "Pelvis",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Pelvic bone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Each hip bone consists of 3 sections, ilium, ischium, and pubis. During childhood, these sections are separate bones, joined by the triradiate cartilage. During puberty, they fuse together to form a single bone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6330851",
"title": "Osselet",
"section": "Section::::Causes and progression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Eventually, the bones of the joint will become involved, causing arthritis, pain, stiffness, and periostitis (new bone growth). The fibers of the joint capsule will also increase in size. The long pastern bone may also eventually chip at its front edge, which will leave bone fragments in the joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26965608",
"title": "Hip bone",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The hip bone is formed by three parts: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. At birth, these three components are separated by hyaline cartilage. They join each other in a Y-shaped portion of cartilage in the acetabulum. By the end of puberty the three regions will have fused together, and by the age 25 they will have ossified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2833970",
"title": "Synarthrosis",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Synostosis\" is where two bones that are initially separated eventually fuse together, essentially becoming one bone. In humans, as in other animals, the plates of the cranium fuse together with dense fibrous connective tissue as a child approaches adulthood. Children whose cranial plates fuse too early may suffer deformities and brain damage as the skull does not expand properly to accommodate the growing brain, a condition known as craniostenosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242621",
"title": "List of bones of the human skeleton",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "As a human ages, some of its bones fuse, a process which typically lasts until sometime within the third decade of life. Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout their life. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux sesamoids, are not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45599",
"title": "Surgery",
"section": "Section::::Description of surgical procedure.:Surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- arthrodesis – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected allowing them to grow together into one piece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30681089",
"title": "Mandible",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The bone is formed in the fetus from a fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, but this articulation fuses together in early childhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
chhiii
|
Did America's founding father's engage in acts that would be considered to be terrorist actions?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would like to point out a quick note that things can get messy with terminology: as it was a ‘civil’ conflict at first, terms like ‘partisan group’ comes to mind. Then, after independence, anachronistic requisites would have it be that they were at war; I’d check out the letters between Germaine and Howe(authorized peace commissioner) to get a better idea of how the ‘rebels were viewed AT THAT TIME, both by the government and military of Britain. \n\nTerrorism is in many ways a very modern concept, even if the ideas behind it are old. Its a hard term to match to 18th century ideals, where rebellion and Nationalism was fomenting all across the world. \n\nWe can stretch it, especially with the Boston Tea Party; the patriots would tar and feather loyalists, which is certainly a ‘fear’ tactic. But at no point did the British consider them to be anything more than ‘rebels’ - again, check correspondence between parliament and colonial military government, and between the king. They thought of them as upstarts, a few scruffly backwoods rebels out to seize power for themselves. \n\nAs for the patriots? They saw their actions as justified(as did many in Britain). While their techniques could be brutal - vandalizing Tory homes, ostracizing families who didn’t support the cause, aforementioned tar and feather - they had a specific goal in mind: freedom. Today, ‘terrorist groups’ and ‘freedom fighters’ are often mixed in as one. Furthermore, in some sense, terrorism has been enabled by the proliferation of a globalized world. Terrorists know and exploit that. So it’s really difficult to ascribe a term so laden with modern connotation to something from the 18th century, though it’s not impossible to see the similarities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999780",
"title": "History of terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Emergence of modern terrorism.:Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "One of the earliest groups to utilize modern terrorist techniques was arguably the Fenian Brotherhood and its offshoot the Irish Republican Brotherhood. They were both founded in 1858 as revolutionary, militant nationalist and Catholic groups, both in Ireland and amongst the emigre community in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25705975",
"title": "Reformed Church on Staten Island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "In 1776 America's Founding Fathers embedded these beliefs into the Declaration of Independence as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Our Congregants fought for both sides -- on Staten Island the American Revolution was a vicious civil war. Our Patriots played pivotal roles, especially Joshua Mersereau, personally recruited by George Washington to spy, who is recognized on the Central Intelligence Agency website, as a founder of American intelligence. In 1783 our Patriot and Loyalist Congregants reconciled and set to work rebuilding our destroyed 1717 Church, and fashioning their new nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60277968",
"title": "Economics of terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Poverty, Education and Terrorism.:Poverty as cause of terrorism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "For many years, the common wisdom was that poverty and ignorance (i.e. lack of education) was the root cause of terrorist activity. This opinion was once held by politicians across both sides of the aisle in the United States and leading international officials, including George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, Tony Blair, Shimon Peres, James Wolfensohn, Elie Wiesel, and terrorism expert Jessica Stern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533352",
"title": "Culture of Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Religious Demography.:Islamic Rituals in the Community.:The Used Calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "\"Fierce religious resistance\" had to be overcome to permit such innovations as paper money (in 1951), female education (1964), and television (1965) and the abolition of slavery (1962). There were a number of terrorist attacks targeting foreigners between 2001 and 2004, but these have been brought under control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30636",
"title": "Terrorism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Arguably the first organization to utilize modern terrorist techniques was the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group that carried out attacks in England. The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns. Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2055454",
"title": "Cuban exile",
"section": "Section::::Cuba - United States relations.:Political activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Acts have occurred in U.S. regions and at least sixteen other countries, carried out by groups such as Alpha 66, Omega 7, and the Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations. A series of bombings in Miami in the mid-1970s led to hearings before a U.S. Subcommittee to investigate internal security. Notable cases of violence targeting individuals include that of Luciano Nieves, who was murdered after advocating peaceful coexistence with Cuba, and WQBA-AM news director Emilio Milian who survived a car bomb but lost his legs after he publicly condemned Cuban exile violence. In 1992 Human Rights Watch released a report stating that hard-line Miami exiles have created an environment in which \"moderation can be a dangerous position.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7591065",
"title": "Olga Lyubatovich",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Revolutionary life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In 1880, there was internal dispute within the movement, on the purpose of terrorism. One side believing that terrorism's objective should be to force the government into granting democratic rights to the people, while others led by Lev Tikhomirov who was influenced by Sergei Nechayev argued that it was possible for terrorism to be used for a small group or revolutionaries to snatch power and then hand it over to the people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2k7ijc
|
why don't any of the american ebola patients have privacy dealing with their sickness? aren't patients supposed to have medical privacy?
|
[
{
"answer": "The medical staff protect their privacy, news teams have no such inhibitions",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The patients gave permission for the information to be released.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suspect its more to do with mass panicking and people losing their shit.\n\nIts ok folks they been quarantines blah blah blah\n\nBlah",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some diseases, in the interest of public health, have to be disclosed to appointed governmental institutions. They usually are rare, dangerous and/or very contagious diseases. In Quebec they are called Maladies à déclaration obligatoire (\"mandatory disclosure diseases\" is the closest translation on top of my head). It is a legal obligation for physicians to advise the Health Ministry everytime they diagnose one of these diseases (I'm guessing the CDC would have the responsibility to keep records in the US...). The records are usually available to the public.\n\nI believe patient's confidentiality is still strictly protected. If a name is made public, then a consent must have been obtained.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What makes you think they don't? How do you know about the ones you don't know about?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[There is/was one patient who remained anonymous.](_URL_0_) So it's up to the patient to decide whether or not to give information to the media. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53368676",
"title": "Gynecologic cancer disparities in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Vaginal cancer disparities.:Differences in screening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Patients who are uninsured or with Medicaid are more likely to be diagnosed with advanced stage vaginal cancer than those with private insurance. Patients diagnosed at more advanced stages of vaginal cancer tend to have poorer survival outcomes. Studies have revealed that African Americans have a higher likelihood of being diagnosed with advanced stage vaginal cancer and are less likely to survive than their white counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35985945",
"title": "Health status of Asian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to health care access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Cultural barriers also prevent proper health care access. Many Asian Americans only visit the doctor if there are visible symptoms. In other words, preventive care is not a cultural norm. Also, Asian Americans were more likely than white respondents to say that their doctor did not understand their background and values. White respondents were more likely to agree that doctors listened to everything they had to say, compared with Asian American patients. Lastly, many beliefs bar access to proper medical care. For example, many believe that blood is not replenished, and are therefore reluctant to have their blood drawn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35985945",
"title": "Health status of Asian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to health care access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Asian Americans tend to avoid visiting the hospital unless absolutely necessary, so many infections remain unnoticed until they develop serious symptoms, and by then the infection may have led to cancer. Of all the racial/ ethnic groups, Asian Americans are the least likely to have visited a physician within the past 12 months. Without routine checkups and the prompting of their physicians, Asian Americans are unlikely to receive their regular round of vaccinations, mammograms, and screenings. Asian American women over the age of 40 are the least likely racial/ethnic group to receive mammograms, and those who are diagnosed have more advanced stages of cancer compared to Caucasian women diagnosed. Many of these cancer burdens on the Asian American population are unnecessary and preventable with increased screening and vaccinations, especially because many cancers associated with this category are of infectious origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382082",
"title": "Medical privacy",
"section": "Section::::Medical privacy standards and laws by country.:United States.:Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Additionally, doctors are not required to keep patients information confidential because in many cases patient consent is now optional. Patients are often unaware of the lack of privacy they have as medical processes and forms do not explicitly state the extent of how protected they are. Physicians believe that overall, HIPAA will cause unethical and non-professional mandates that can affect a person’s privacy and therefore, they in response have to provide warnings about their privacy concerns. Because physicians are not able to ensure a person’s privacy, there is a higher chance that patients will be less likely to get treatment and share what their medical concerns are. Individuals have asked for better consent requirements by asking if physicians can warn them prior to the sharing of any personal information. Patients want to be able to share medical information with their physicians, yet they worry about potential breaches that can release financial information and other confidential information and with that fear, they are wary of who may have access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553159",
"title": "Health care in the United States",
"section": "Section::::System efficiency and equity.:Efficiency.:Delays in seeking care and increased use of emergency care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "In 2008 researchers with the American Cancer Society found that individuals who lacked private insurance (including those covered by Medicaid) were more likely to be diagnosed with late-stage cancer than those who had such insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382082",
"title": "Medical privacy",
"section": "Section::::History of Medical Privacy.:Electronic Medical Records (EMR).:Health screening cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1364,
"text": "Although privacy issues with the health screening is a great concern among individuals and organizations, there has been little focus on the amount of work being done within the law to maintain the privacy expectation that people desire. Many of these issues lie within the abstractness of the term “privacy” as there are many different interpretations of the term, especially in the context of the law. Prior to 1994, there had been no cases regarding screening practices and the implications towards an individual’s medical privacy, unless it was regarding HIV and drug testing. Within \"Glover v Eastern Nebraska Community Office of Retardation\", an employee sued her employer against violating her 4th amendment rights because of unnecessary HIV testing. The court ruled in favor of the employer and argued that it was unreasonable search to have it tested. However, this was only one of the few precedents that people have to use. With more precedents, the relationships between employees and employers will be better defined. Yet with more requirements, testing among patients will lead to additional standards for meeting health care standards. Screening has become a large indicator for diagnostic tools, yet there are concerns with the information that can be gained and subsequently shared with other people other than the patient and healthcare provider\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170945",
"title": "Racial discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Effects on health.:Racism in healthcare system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Although the Medicaid program was passed to ensure African Americans and other minorities received the healthcare treatment they deserved and to limit discrimination in hospital facilities, there still seems to be an underlying cause for the low number of black patients admitted to hospitals, like not receiving the proper dosage of medication. Infant mortality rates and life expectancies of minorities are much lower than that of white people in the United States. Illnesses like cancer and heart diseases are more prevalent in minorities, which is one of the factors for the high mortality rate in the group. however are not treated accordingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9571t6
|
how can hackers have more power in gta online than the makers of the game (rockstar)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's eather two things. One is that there is so much traffic that they can't find the hackers or they don't care enough to fix it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5964911",
"title": "Hacker II: The Doomsday Papers",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "\"Hacker II\" is more difficult and involved than the first game. In \"Hacker II\", the player is actually recruited based upon his (assumed) success with the activities in the original game. Once again, they are tasked with controlling a robot, this time to infiltrate a secure facility in order to retrieve documents known only as \"The Doomsday Papers\" from a well guarded vault to ensure the security of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4668387",
"title": "Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"section": "Section::::Cultural aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Some of the best large-scale hacks (e.g. the Caltech cannon heist) have involved multiple teams of hackers working on coordinated but diverse subtasks such as fund-raising, \"social engineering\", rigging, transportation logistics, gold electroplating, and precision numerical controlled machining, calling on a wide range of technical and management skills. Not surprisingly, some hacker teams have gone on to found start-up business ventures, though they may be reluctant to reveal their earlier exploits until many years have passed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5920768",
"title": "Attack surface",
"section": "Section::::Understanding an attack surface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Due to the increase in the countless potential vulnerable points each enterprise has, there has been increasing advantage for hackers and attackers as they only need to find one vulnerable point to succeed in their attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51778096",
"title": "Hackers (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Hackers is an independent strategy game developed by Trickster Arts for Android and iOS. \"Hackers\" is a cyberwarfare strategy game, and has been likened to the video game \"Uplink\". On iOS the game has an added suffix: \"Hackers - Join the Cyberwar\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163729",
"title": "ROM hacking",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Data editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "A core component of many hacks (especially of role-playing video games) is editing data such as character, item, and enemy properties. This is usually done either \"by hand\" (with a hex editor) if the location and structure of the data is known, or with a game-specific editor that has this functionality. Through this, a hacker can alter how weapons work, how strong enemies are or how they act, etc. This can be done to make the game easier or harder, or to create new scenarios for the player to face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16279770",
"title": "Paradise Cracked",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The game offers the option to play solo or to join with other characters or groups (such as the mob). Hacker is constantly hunted by the law making teaming up with someone in the best interest of the player's survival. Teaming up will also add new missions to Hacker's journal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5667021",
"title": "Metal Gear Online",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Cheating and distributed denial of service attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "\"Metal Gear Online\" has been plagued by several methods of cheating, including lag-switching and exploiting glitches. It has also been the target of frequent DDoS attacks, starting from 2011 and lasting until service termination. When the attacks first started, the targets were primarily the players of the opposing team in a competitive match. Attackers disconnected these players either to win the match by default or to gain an advantage. Konami silently addressed this by masking IPs of players in official modes. However, attackers instead targeted the servers themselves. These attacks typically resulted in higher-than-average lag while navigating the in-game menus, and/or the disconnection of players who were online. Because of the nature of these attacks, it is difficult to effectively report the perpetrators. On August 31, Konami issued a statement assuring players that any persons violating the codes of conduct will be banned from service. Although banning perpetrators kept them off the game, the server attacks could still be carried out. Up until its shutdown, these attacks had not ceased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
l0x7y
|
Given what we know about the human genome, how many genetically unique offspring is one pair of parents capable of producing?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, each parent has two copies of each chromosome they can give you. So already we are at \n\n 2^46, or 7 x 10^13\n\nNow let's add in crossing-over: \n\n[This paper](_URL_0_) states that oocytes have, on average, 70 crossovers, and spermatocytes have, on average, 50 crossovers\n\nSo let's simplify and say all humans have 120 crossovers in the gametes that go on to form them.\n\nHow many unique combinations can 120 crossovers produce?\n\nWe have to make another simplification here. Let's say that crossovers can occur at any place on the genome. That means there are 3 billion potential places for crossover to occur. The number of unique crossovers is therefore the ways you can pick 3 billion things, choosing 120 at a time, or:\n\n 3,000,000,000 C 120\n\nWhich is 2.6 x 10^938.\n\nAdding in our 23 chromosomes from earlier, we get **1.9 x 10^952 ** . Which is a really big number.\n\nNOTE: Many of these unique genotypes will be phenotypically identical. Much of the genome is for non-coding regions, etc.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, each parent has two copies of each chromosome they can give you. So already we are at \n\n 2^46, or 7 x 10^13\n\nNow let's add in crossing-over: \n\n[This paper](_URL_0_) states that oocytes have, on average, 70 crossovers, and spermatocytes have, on average, 50 crossovers\n\nSo let's simplify and say all humans have 120 crossovers in the gametes that go on to form them.\n\nHow many unique combinations can 120 crossovers produce?\n\nWe have to make another simplification here. Let's say that crossovers can occur at any place on the genome. That means there are 3 billion potential places for crossover to occur. The number of unique crossovers is therefore the ways you can pick 3 billion things, choosing 120 at a time, or:\n\n 3,000,000,000 C 120\n\nWhich is 2.6 x 10^938.\n\nAdding in our 23 chromosomes from earlier, we get **1.9 x 10^952 ** . Which is a really big number.\n\nNOTE: Many of these unique genotypes will be phenotypically identical. Much of the genome is for non-coding regions, etc.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7972817",
"title": "White Brazilians",
"section": "Section::::Genetic research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 211,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 211,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The genes can reveal from what part of the world the oldest ancestors of the paternal and maternal line of a person came from. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is present in all human beings and passed down through the maternal line, i.e. the mother of a mother of a mother etc. The Y chromosome is present only in males and passed down through the paternal line, i.e., the father of a father of a father etc. The mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome suffer only minor mutations through centuries, thus can be used to establish the paternal line in males (because only males have the Y chromosome) and the maternal line in both males and females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18856281",
"title": "HLA A1-B8-DR3-DQ2",
"section": "Section::::Recombination dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Each person has unique chromosomes, unless they are identical twins. These unique chromosomes are produced by recombination of each unique chromosome passed by each grandparent to each parent. These chromosome chimerize within the reproductive cells of each parent which are then passed to the developing person during fertilization. The recombination that creates these blended chromosomes occurs almost randomly along the length, 1 Morgan per generation. Within 100 generations in humans (about 2100 years in ancient times) one expects a few hundred of these 'blending' events to have occurred across a single chromosome, the average size is 1 centiMorgan (or 1 cM). The average length of these 'haplotypes' are about 1 million nucleotides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "795071",
"title": "Afro-Brazilians",
"section": "Section::::Genetic studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The research analysed the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), that is present in all human beings and passed down with only minor mutations through the maternal line. The other is the Y chromosome, that is present only in males and passed down with only minor mutations through the paternal line. Both can show from what part of the world a matrilineal or patrilineal ancestor of a person came from, but one can have in mind that they are only a fraction of the human genome, and reading ancestry from Y chromosome and mtDNA only tells 1/23rd the story, since humans have 23 chromosome pairs in the cellular DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3373433",
"title": "Test cross",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The genotype that an offspring has for each of its genes is determined by the alleles inherited from its parents. The combination of alleles is a result of the maternal and paternal chromosomes contributed from each gamete at fertilization of that offspring. During meiosis in gametes, homologous chromosomes experience genetic recombination and segregate randomly into haploid daughter cells, each with a unique combination of maternally and paternally coded genes. Dominant alleles will override the expression of recessive alleles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2018913",
"title": "Small supernumerary marker chromosome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Humans typically have 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes in their cells, and a pair of sex chromosomes. About 2.7 million individuals have an extra, 47th autosomal chromosome called a small supernumerary marker chromosome (sSMC). These small supernumerary marker chromosomes can originate from any of the 24 different human chromosomes. About 70% of the cases with sSMC are de novo (new mutations), 30% are inherited within a family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60139",
"title": "Time Enough for Love",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:\"The Tale of the Twins Who Weren't\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "The two were the result of an experiment in genetic recombination in which two parent cells were separated into complementary haploid gametes, and recombined into two embryos. The resulting zygotes were implanted in a woman and gestated by her, with the result that although both have the same surrogate mother and genetic parents, they are no more closely related genetically than any two people taken at random. They have been prevented from sexual relations by a chastity belt; but having confirmed that there is no risk of genetic disease in their offspring (described as the only valid reason against incest), Lazarus solemnizes their marriage and later establishes them as the owners and operators of a thriving business. At the end of the story, he reveals that the twins looked the same age decades later, and expresses his belief that they were his own descendants, from an earlier period when he had been a slave on the same planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "813041",
"title": "International HapMap Project",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Although any two unrelated people share about 99.5% of their DNA sequence, their genomes differ at specific nucleotide locations. Such sites are known as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and each of the possible resulting gene forms is called an allele. The HapMap project focuses only on common SNPs, those where each allele occurs in at least 1% of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ns8vc
|
what exactly makes sunlight hot on a nice sunny day? is it the temperature of the sun itself radiating through space or some form of refraction of the light itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sunlight hitting the atmosphere is always the same.\n\nIt's local weather conditions that change. Warm dry conditions, open sky, the sun is going to continue to warm up the already warm air. Warmth (or lack of) from previous days is stored in the ground and water and moves across the area in pressure systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Solar ultraviolet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m in vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47625",
"title": "Yarkovsky effect",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "BULLET::::- Diurnal effect: On a rotating body illuminated by the Sun (e.g. an asteroid or the Earth), the surface is warmed by solar radiation during the day, and cools at night. Due to the thermal properties of the surface, there is a lag between the absorption of radiation from the Sun, and the emission of that same radiation as heat, so the warmest point on a rotating body occurs around the \"2 PM\" site on the surface, or slightly after noon. This results in a difference between the directions of absorption and re-emission of radiation, which yields a net force along the direction of motion of the orbit. If the object is a prograde rotator, the force is in the direction of motion of the orbit, and causes the semi-major axis of the orbit to increase steadily; the object spirals away from the Sun. A retrograde rotator spirals inward. The diurnal effect is the dominant component for bodies with diameter greater than about 100 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2234819",
"title": "Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Observations and notable experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 1719, De Mairan discussed the varying obliquity of light that causes cold in winter and heat in summer. He postulated that the sun's heating effect was related to the square of the sine of its elevation. He neglected the effects of atmosphere, admitting that he did not know how much the sun's heat would be absorbed by it. Two and a half years later, he presented a paper to the Academie Royale des Sciences in Paris: \"Problem: the ratio of two degrees or quantities of sunlight seen through the atmosphere at two different known angular elevations being given, to find what part of the absolute light of the sun is intercepted by the atmosphere at any desired elevation.\" In this paper, de Mairan made a hypothesis based on mere observations, supposing that the ratio had been measured, even though it had not. The significance of de Mairan's work, although incorrect, led his protégé, Pierre Bouguer, to invent the photometer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4968799",
"title": "Sky brightness",
"section": "Section::::Indirect scattering of sunlight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Indirectly scattered sunlight comes from two directions. From the atmosphere itself, and from outer space. In the first case, the sun has just set but still illuminates the upper atmosphere directly. Because the amount of scattered sunlight is proportional to the number of scatterers (i.e. air molecules) in the line of sight, the intensity of this light decreases rapidly as the sun drops further below the horizon and illuminates less of the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "Section::::Natural infrared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. However, black body or thermal radiation is continuous: it gives off radiation at all wavelengths. Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20680975",
"title": "Idealized greenhouse model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1275,
"text": "The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 °C. The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the infrared range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including carbon dioxide and water vapour, are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let \"in\", but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to \"leave\". Rather than get hotter and hotter, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15301286",
"title": "Flame detector",
"section": "Section::::Sunlight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "The sun emits an enormous amount of energy, which would be harmful to human beings if not for the vapours and gases in the atmosphere, like water (clouds), ozone, and others, through which the sunlight is filtered. In the figure it can clearly be seen that \"cold\" CO filters the solar radiation around 4.3 µm. An Infrared detector which uses this frequency is therefore solar blind. Not all manufacturers of flame detectors use sharp filters for the 4.3 µm radiation and thus still pick up quite an amount of sunlight. These cheap flame detectors are hardly usable for outdoor applications. Between 0.7 µm and approx. 3 µm there is relatively large absorption of sunlight. Hence, this frequency range is used for flame detection by a few flame detector manufacturers (in combination with other sensors like ultraviolet, visible light, or near infrared). The big economical advantage is that detector windows can be made of quartz instead of expensive sapphire. These electro-optical sensor combinations also enable the detection of non-hydrocarbons like hydrogen fires without the risk of false alarms caused by artificial light or electrical welding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ao7hy
|
Is it possible to explain magnetic fields in terms of electric fields?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way I understood it from my E & M class was that magnetic fields are Lorentz transformed electric fields. There was a cool illustration in the book showing how the spherical electric field gets squashed into an ellipsoidal shape when a charge moves, and somehow this exposes the electric field to other moving charges in such a way as they behave as if being influenced by magnetic fields.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but it requires a pretty solid understanding of relativity. Imagine two long string of charges, one with charge per unit length +Q/L, one with charge per unit length -Q/L. Lets say that these string of charges are right on top of one another and moving in opposite directions with velocities +v and -v. Because they move in opposite directions, there is a net current (remember, current is defined as positive flow, so negative charges moving in the -v direction constitutes a current in the +v direction).\nThere is a charged particle moving in the vicinity of this wire with speed u.\n\n To a stationary observer, there is no electric force on the moving charged particle because the electric fields due to the two strings of charges at this point are equal and opposite. Let's look at things from the perspective of the charged particle. Using the [velocity addition formula] (_URL_0_), we find that the -Q line is now moving *faster* than the +Q line. \n\n-Q: v = u - v / (1 - uv/c^2 )\n\n+Q: v = u + v / (1 + uv/c^2 )\n\nBecause the speed of the negative line charge is greater, the spacing between the charges will decrease due to greater Lorentz contraction. Because the spacing between the charges is less, the charge per unit length increases, which means that in the frame of the moving charge, the \"wire\" has a *net negative charge*, and will feel an electric force. There's a bunch of algebra I'm too lazy do to prove that this electric force is equal to the magnetic force exerted on the charge in the rest frame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9735",
"title": "Electromagnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "There are different mathematical ways of representing the electromagnetic field. The first one views the electric and magnetic fields as three-dimensional vector fields. These vector fields each have a value defined at every point of space and time and are thus often regarded as functions of the space and time coordinates. As such, they are often written as E(x, y, z, t) (electric field) and B(x, y, z, t) (magnetic field).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41092",
"title": "Electric field",
"section": "Section::::Electrodynamic fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The electric field cannot be described independently of the magnetic field in that case. If A is the magnetic vector potential, defined so that formula_60, one can still define an electric potential formula_61 such that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Definitions, units, and measurement.:The B-field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. Experiments in electrostatics show that a particle of charge in an electric field experiences a force . Other experiments show that a charged particle experiences a force proportional to its relative velocity to a current-carrying wire. The velocity dependent portion can be separated such that the force on the particle satisfies the \"Lorentz force law\",\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin. Magnetic fields and electric fields are interrelated, and are both components of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9532",
"title": "Electromagnetism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "There are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential and electric current. In Faraday's law, magnetic fields are associated with electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18631",
"title": "Lorentz force",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "The modern concept of electric and magnetic fields first arose in the theories of Michael Faraday, particularly his idea of lines of force, later to be given full mathematical description by Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell. From a modern perspective it is possible to identify in Maxwell's 1865 formulation of his field equations a form of the Lorentz force equation in relation to electric currents, however, in the time of Maxwell it was not evident how his equations related to the forces on moving charged objects. J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from Maxwell's field equations the electromagnetic forces on a moving charged object in terms of the object's properties and external fields. Interested in determining the electromagnetic behavior of the charged particles in cathode rays, Thomson published a paper in 1881 wherein he gave the force on the particles due to an external magnetic field as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41092",
"title": "Electric field",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Causes and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Electric fields are caused by electric charges, described by Gauss's law, or varying magnetic fields, described by Faraday's law of induction. Together, these laws are enough to define the behavior of the electric field as a function of and magnetic field. However, since the magnetic field is described as a function of electric field, the equations of both fields are coupled and together form Maxwell's equations that describe both fields as a function of charges and currents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kawc7
|
If you have a cold container (soda, water, etc.) and you place it in front of a fan, is it being cooled more/kept the same temperature by the fan or is it being warmed up faster?
|
[
{
"answer": "A fan moves air, and heats it up slightly because the fan itself is hot. More air passes over the container due to being the target of the fan, so the container will become the temperature of the air more quickly. If the air is a lower temperature than the container, the container will cool down. If the air is a higher temperature than the container, the container will heat up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on a lot of variables. Fans don't cool the air, you feel cooler often via evaporation (look up \"swamp cooler\" for more on this) so if the item is wet and the humidity/pressure is right, and the temp of the item is high enough in relation to the surroundings, it will continue to cool till dry...ish. lol. A lot of variables come into play. \n\nIf it's dry and the ambient air temp is higher than the item and the air is going at a rate that increases contact/air friction and doesn't create a slip stream situation, it will increase the rate at which it warms compared to being left in the same environment with no significant air movement. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25208535",
"title": "Instrumentation in petrochemical industries",
"section": "Section::::Temperature instrumentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Fin fan coolers use air to cool gases and liquids. The temperature of fluid is controlled (TIC) by opening or closing dampers on the cooler or adjusting the speed of the fan or the pitch angle of the fan blades thereby increasing or decreasing the flow of air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20851848",
"title": "Internal fan-cooled electric motor",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Attaching an internal fan to a motor is a fairly simple way to cool it. Since a fan cooled motor always provides airflow over itself regardless of whether it is stationary or partially enclosed, it is more effective than using a heat sink in applications with poor airflow because heat sinks usually require air to be flowing over them for maximum effectiveness. Internal fan cooling also takes up far less space than external fan cooling or water cooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Other techniques.:Liquid cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Besides active liquid cooling systems, passive liquid cooling systems are also sometimes used. These systems often discard a fan or a water pump, hence theoretically increasing the reliability of the system, and/or making it quieter than active systems. Downsides of these systems however are that they are much less efficient in discarding the heat and thus also need to have much more coolant -and thus a much bigger coolant reservoir- (giving more time to the coolant to cool down).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1166646",
"title": "Storage heater",
"section": "Section::::Using storage heaters.:Fan-assisted storage heaters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Fan-assisted storage heaters employ an electric fan to drive air through the heater rather than relying on convection. The fan is usually controlled by a thermostat which allows the user to set the desired room temperature. The use of the fan means these heaters can be insulated more than other models, and therefore lose less heat due to heat transfer at times when heat is not required (such as when the room is not occupied, or at night).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3731512",
"title": "Fan heater",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Electric fan heaters are unsealed appliances with live electric parts inside, so they are not safe to use in wet environments because of the risk of electrical injury if moisture provides a conductive path to electrically-live parts. Electric fan heaters usually have a thermal fuse close to the heating element(s) to prevent overheating damage in the event of fan failure or air intakes becoming blocked, and a tip-over switch to shut the heater off when the fan outlet is not in the required orientation. Metal-cased heaters may perform better in the case of possible fire-causing faults than plastic-cased ones, since the case will stay intact and is not flammable, but the metal case presents a higher risk of electric shock if a heater malfunctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12877572",
"title": "Fan (machine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "While fans are often used to cool people, they do not actually cool air (electric fans may warm it slightly due to the warming of their motors), but work by evaporative cooling of sweat and increased heat convection into the surrounding air due to the airflow from the fans. Thus, fans may become ineffective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and contains high humidity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5224564",
"title": "Space heater",
"section": "Section::::Convective heaters.:Without a fan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In convective heaters without a fan, the heating element is surrounded by oil or water. These heaters warm a room more slowly, because the liquid must be heated before the heat can reach the surrounding air. They produce more heat after being turned off, however, because of the hot liquid inside the heater. The risk of fire (and burns) is sometimes less with oil-filled heaters than those with fans, but some fan-assisted heaters have a lower risk of fire (and burns) than other oil-filled heaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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