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53sqz1
|
what would happen if the world were to hit the reset button on the global economy?
|
[
{
"answer": "If everyone agreed to this, it would be very bad going forward. It would mean all the bonds issued by all countries would have a value of zero, which would destroy retirements, investments, pensions, etc.\n\nA countries currency and bonds are tied to their credit rating. If we can just \"reset\" whenever we want, then what is it's value? As we can see from above, the reset causes a lose of value that is felt by everyone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nations don't owe each other. If they did the debts would just cancel each other out as logic dictates.\n\nIt's the people the governments take loans from. Suddenly saying \"lol no, you're not getting your money back\" would be a reset button for economics just like a nuke is a reset button for a city, when suddenly millions of investors are left high and dry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone would die. One person's debt (a liability) is another person's income (an asset). If they were all wiped out economy would cease to function. That would mean that businesses wouldn't be able to get what they need.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you SEEN Mr. Robot?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30229174",
"title": "Beyond the Crash",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Beyond the Crash: Overcoming the first crisis of globalisation is a 2010 book by former UK prime minister Gordon Brown. The work argues that the only way to fully overcome the financial crisis of 2007–2010 is with further coordinated global action. Brown states that a shared \"global compact\" on jobs and growth should be central to effective action, with different regions called on in different ways to contribute to rebalancing the global economy while boosting growth. The book includes first-hand accounts of events leading to previous successful cases of international collaboration on economic affairs. There are specific suggestions about the different ways in which the world's nations and regions can help secure global growth, jobs and poverty reduction. A secondary theme of the work is that better global oversight is needed for the international financial system. Brown suggests that to function at their best, banks and markets need shared morals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18524065",
"title": "Sudden stop (economics)",
"section": "Section::::Empirical issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "A comparison of the stylized facts observed during sudden stop episodes in emerging market economies and developed countries on the financial crises of the 1990s relate sudden stops in emerging market and advanced economies with the presence of contagion effects. Most sudden stop episodes for emerging markets occur around the Tequila (1994), East Asian (1997) and Russian (1998) crises. In the case of developed economies, sudden stop episodes occur around the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) (1992–1993) crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26267797",
"title": "St. Petersburg International Economic Forum",
"section": "Section::::SPIEF timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The 2009 St. Petersburg International Economic Forum was dedicated to pressing issues of the current stage of world development. As the crisis had shown, in recent years the economies of the countries of the world had not become less (as was believed a year beforehand) but more dependent on each other; however, the crisis revealed itself in different ways in various regions of the world. On the other hand, it had now become obvious that national and international institutions formed in the post-war period were inadequate for the level of development of the global economy and the financial system, and could not allow the necessary level of trust in the economic system to be maintained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2150997",
"title": "Government shutdowns in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal government.:Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Because of the size of the government workforce, the effects of a shutdown can be seen in macroeconomic data. For example, with payment delayed to 1.3 million workers, and 800,000 employees locked out, confidence in the job market decreased but recovered within a month of the 2013 shutdown, and GDP growth slowed 0.1–0.2%. Still, the loss of GDP from a shutdown is a bigger sum than it would cost to keep the government open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60096067",
"title": "Janet Henry (economist)",
"section": "Section::::Publications and appearances.:HSBC Insights video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "On March 25, 2019, Henry appeared in a HSBC Insights video \"The world slows down—Central banks pivot on interest rates in case downturn worsens\". In the video, Henry discusses the reasons behind the central bank pivots due to a slowdown in global economic growth and inflation. She forecasts that by the midyear of 2019, China will stabilize and the United States growth will revive after the recent government shutdown. She mentions that two sectors are particularly impactful to the economic downturn, the auto and electronic industries, both of which account for a majority of production in countries like South Korea and Germany. Henry predicts that economic growth will not rapidly grow globally solely from a US-China trade deal because of rising tensions arising between US and European countries. She concludes that federal interest rate setters will cut in 2020, but that will be dependent on the expectations of the effects of a rising inflation rate to prevent the dollar from rising. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18524065",
"title": "Sudden stop (economics)",
"section": "Section::::Empirical issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Other studies focus on the relationship between current account reversals and sudden stops in both emerging markets and advanced economies. Using cross-country data for a sample of 157 countries during the 1970-2001 period, the results indicate that 46.1% of countries that suffered a sudden stop also faced a current account reversal, while 22.9% of countries that faced current account reversals also faced a sudden stop episode. The less-than-one relationship could be related to an effective use of international reserves to offset capital outflows during sudden stops, while during current account reversals, there are some countries that were not receiving large capital inflows, so their deficits were financed through a loss of international reserves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59474007",
"title": "2018–19 United States federal government shutdown",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Economic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "By mid-January 2019, the White House Council of Economic Advisors estimated that each week of the shutdown reduced GDP growth by 0.1 percentage points, the equivalent of 1.2 points per quarter. CEA chairman Kevin Hassett later acknowledged that GDP growth could decline to zero in the first quarter of 2019 if the shutdown lasted the entire quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mupmd
|
Did other nations have a similar "Manifest Destiny" period where huge numbers of settlers expanded the frontiers of the country?
|
[
{
"answer": "Japan comes to mind with their expansion into the Northern region of Hokkaido. That period of history in Japan has many parallels to Western expansion in the states. Right down to the subjugation of the native people who lived in the region. In Japan's case the native people were the Ainu instead of Native Americans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15045243",
"title": "American pioneer",
"section": "Section::::Historic details and episodes.:History of settlement efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The first westward migrations occurred as representatives of the Thirteen Colonies sought to open up new lands for their respective colonies westward. Those whose original royal charters did not specify a western limit simply extended their lands directly and indefinitely westward. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7351463",
"title": "History of colonialism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "There were conflicts between colonizing states and revolutions from colonized areas shaping areas of control and establishing independent nations. During the 20th century, the colonies of the defeated central powers in World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49070171",
"title": "Pass system (Canadian history)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1713,
"text": "However, the greatest impact for the policy for restricting movement for First Nations people would be the incoming Liberal Government of Wilfrid Laurier in 1886. Laurier put in place Clifford Sifton as Minister of the Interior. From that point on the settlement of the West took a turning point. During this time the world was experiencing a surge in the economy and this gave Sifton greater reason to bring Canadian and American farmers to the Prairies. He felt that these farmers were best suited and more desirable as the new settlers. Europeans he felt were not suitable because they did not like the hard work and they were likely to give up on farming. Further, Sifton had little simply for First Nations as he made plans to settle the West. Sifton \"left Indian policy in the hands of an \"Indians Affairs\" bureaucracy with little sympathy for the aspirations of First Nations\". The major concern for Sifton was the settlement of the West. The Laurier Government and Cabinet told Sifton that a railroad to the West was not possible. The Liberal Government of the day told him \"No money, no Railways, no settlement of the West\". Sifton saw that the only way the settlement of West was possible was through the building of the railway. He knew that the construction of the rail system had to be paid by the Canadian government. But the Liberal government said this was not possible, they had accepted the railway was out of the question. But Sifton would not give up and he saw his chance when the Americans said they would attempt to build a railroad into British Columbia. With the Liberals not wanting the Americans to come into B.C. the government agreed to build a railroad through the Crow's Nest Pass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65433",
"title": "Patagonia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Chilean and Argentine colonisation (1843–1902).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In the mid-19th century, the newly independent nations of Argentina and Chile began an aggressive phase of expansion into the south, increasing confrontation with the Indians of the region. In 1860, French adventurer Orelie-Antoine de Tounens proclaimed himself king of the Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia of the Mapuche.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11369356",
"title": "Daniel J. Elazar",
"section": "Section::::Political theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "BULLET::::- Volume 3: \"Covenant and Constitutionalism: The Great Frontier and the Matrix of Federal Democracy\": \"The great frontier\" that began at the end of the 15th century, whereby Europe embarked on an expansion that made Europeans and their descendants the rulers of the world for 500 years, was seen as a great opportunity for beginning again, launching an unprecedented movement of migration and colonization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391190",
"title": "Right of conquest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The completion of colonial conquest of much of the world (see the Scramble for Africa), the devastation of World War I and World War II, and the alignment of both the United States and the Soviet Union with the principle of self-determination led to the abandonment of the right of conquest in formal international law. The 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, the post-1945 Nuremberg Trials, the UN Charter, and the UN role in decolonization saw the progressive dismantling of this principle. Simultaneously, the UN Charter's guarantee of the \"territorial integrity\" of member states effectively froze out claims against prior conquests from this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12473706",
"title": "Kingdom of Cusco",
"section": "Section::::History.:Brief overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca (paramount leader) \"Pachacuti\" (world-shaker), the Incas began a far-reaching expansion. The land which Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the Thirteen Colonies at the outbreak of the American Revolution of 1776, and consisted of nearly the entire territory of the Andes mountain range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
85759g
|
if your neurones make a new connection when you learn something new, would it be possible to run out of space in your brain for new connections to form.
|
[
{
"answer": "No, basically a neuron is capable of thousands of potential connection to other neurons, your brain is formed of trillions of these neural pathways (synapses) and they do strengthen and weaken over time. Your brain cleans out old or unused pathways as it develops more. The potential for creating new pathways is always extremely high in our brain and we don't really know the upper limit capacity, but even if you could prolong human life by a significant factor, your brain would never reach full capacity as it would be losing connections as well as creating new ones.\n\nSometimes when you try to remember something and can't do it right away, then it comes back to you later, it's in essence your brain found a new pathway to old information because the old pathway to it was lost. This is an example of how you lose connections, but because there's trillions of connections there is almost always a backdoor to certain information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Applaud the above. \n\nAnother way to visualize it:\n\nTack 2doz pins spaced out on a board. \nTie a string to one and wrap it around a second pin. Then a third. \nTake another string and do the same. \nYou can continue to add connections (strings) without changing the number of pins or space on the board. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15978180",
"title": "Connectome",
"section": "Section::::Plasticity of the connectome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "At the beginning of the connectome project, it was thought that the connections between neurons were unchangeable once established and that only individual synapses could be altered. However, recent evidence suggests that connectivity is also subject to change, termed neuroplasticity. There are two ways that the brain can rewire: formation and removal of synapses in an established connection or formation or removal of entire connections between neurons. Both mechanisms of rewiring are useful for learning completely novel tasks that may require entirely new connections between regions of the brain. However, the ability of the brain to gain or lose entire connections poses an issue for mapping a universal species connectome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1018113",
"title": "Jerzy Konorski",
"section": "Section::::Neural plasticity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Konorski asked how pre-existing connections between neurons in the brain could be changed by conditioning. He suggested an idea similar to Hebb in which coincidental activation in time causes the potential connections to be transformed into actual excitatory connections. Inhibitory connections arise when the excitation of one input coincides in time with a decease in its associated connection. He described the process: \"The plastic changes would be related to the formation and multiplication of new synaptic junctions between the axon terminals of one nerve cell and the soma (i.e. the body and the dendrites) of the other\" This idea that synapses strengthen with use was also proposed in the West in the theory of Hebbian synapses by Donald Hebb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1706332",
"title": "Feedforward neural network",
"section": "Section::::Multi-layer perceptron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "One also can use a series of independent neural networks moderated by some intermediary, a similar behavior that happens in brain. These neurons can perform separably and handle a large task, and the results can be finally combined. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36558703",
"title": "Brain connectivity estimators",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Neuroanatomical connectivity is inherently difficult to define given the fact that at the microscopic scale of neurons, new synaptic connections or elimination of existing ones are formed dynamically and are largely dependent on the function executed, but may be considered as pathways extending over regions of the brain, which are in accordance with general anatomical knowledge. DTI can be used to provide such information. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10839226",
"title": "Cultured neuronal network",
"section": "Section::::Growing a neuronal network.:Microelectrode arrays (MEAs).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Ideally it would be possible to record and stimulate from a single or a few neurons at a time. Indeed, companies such as Axion Biosystems are working to provide MEAs with much higher spatial resolution to this end (a maximum of 768 input/output electrodes). Another study investigates establishing a stable one-to-one connection between neurons and electrodes. The goal was to meet the ideal interface situation by establishing a correspondence with every neuron in the network. They do so by caging individual neurons while still allowing the axons and dendrites to extend and make connections. Neurons are contained within \"neurocages\" or other sorts of containers, and the device itself could be referred to as the caged neuron MEA or neurochip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21245",
"title": "Neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::Modern neuroscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous \"system\" emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8886367",
"title": "Population spike",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "In some areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus, neurons are arranged in such a way that they all receive synaptic inputs in the same area. Because these neurons are in the same orientation, the extracellular signals from the generation of action potentials don't cancel out, but rather add up to give a signal that can easily be recorded with a field electrode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
i8ej7
|
Is racism due to society or biology? -Social/Psychology-
|
[
{
"answer": "Inclusivity (ie, the feeling to exclude those you consider outsiders) comes from our inherent psychology (and by extension biology). That this can result in exclusion of other races comes from our history, I think (after all, other races for the majority of history were considered outsiders).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would argue that racism is a psychosocial phenomenon, and not an inherent biological one. Here's why:\n\nIn an effort to reduce the inherent uncertainty in the world around us, humans take mental shortcuts (called heuristics) to simplify things. I suppose that this process is biological. The world has a bevy of complex information that we are motivated to make sense of. Stay with me, I do have a point to make...\n\nOkay, so how do we reduce this uncertainty? What shortcuts do we take? A big one is to group things into categories. Not only do we group ourselves into categories (roles and identities that we play in life: parent, worker, and specific social groups), we also group others into categories. The important thing about racism is that surface-level characteristics tend to be recognized first. Surface characteristics include readily visible things like one's gender, skin tone, and beauty. In contrast, deep-level characteristics include things like personality, values, beliefs, and ability. We cant infer deep-level characteristics without getting to know them. \n\nNow, I say it's a social-psychological phenomenon because society perpetuates stereotypical behaviors of certain race groups to possess certain qualities: at least in the U.S., supposedly Asians are smart, Jewish people are rich, Black people are violent, and Italians have greasy hair. An important point is that ANY GIVEN person who belongs to that surface-level category may not behave in alignment with these stereotypes, but ON AVERAGE, the media portrays these groups as such. So racism comes into play when we necessarily invoke surface-level categorizations (Asian) to stereotypical associations (smart). \n\nIt isn't just the media though. Other influences, such as our upbringing serve to make salient different associations with different races, or to make none at all (hooray for diversity). The key is that racism is surface-level characteristics driving broadbrush-stroke evaluations of groups. Indeed, research shows that in work teams, while surface characteristics dominate early assessments of diversity, over time, this tends to change towards evaluations based on deep-level traits (see Harrison, Price, & Bell, 1998; and Harrison et al. 2002).\n\nSo by definition, racism is a (generally negative, though not necessarily) subjective evaluation of an individual, based on a perpetuated categorization and subsequent association of surface-based characteristics group-level behavior.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The three most common classifications of people are age, gender, and race. Evolutionary psychologists have provided some evolutionary reasons for thinking that the first two ways of classifying are more \"innate\" but that race is not. This is because in what evolutionary psychologists call \"The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness\" (EEA), i.e. the Pleistocene, everyone would've been the same race. They predicted that race is actually used as a proxy for coalition membership. [This](_URL_0_) study confirms the prediction. At least according to evo-psych, racism can be overcome, sexism is harder. From the abstract: \"More importantly, when cues of coalitional affiliation no longer track or correspond to race, subjects markedly reduce the extent to which they categorize others by race, and indeed may cease doing so entirely.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25613",
"title": "Racism",
"section": "Section::::Theories about the origins of racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Despite support for evolutionary theories relating to an innate origin of racism, various studies have suggested racism is associated with lower intelligence and less diverse peer groups during childhood. A neuroimaging study on amygdala activity during racial matching activities found increased activity to be associated with adolescent age as well as less racially diverse peer groups, which the author conclude suggest a learned aspect of racism. A meta analysis of neuroimaging studies found amygdala activity correlated to increased scores on implicit measures of racial bias. It was also argued amygdala activity in response to racial stimuli represents increased threat perception rather than the traditional theory of the amygdala activity represented ingroup-outgroup processing. Racism has also been associated with lower childhood IQ in an analysis of 15,000 people in the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46613990",
"title": "Cultural racism",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Cultural prejudices as racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Theorists have put forward three main arguments as to why they deem the term \"racism\" appropriate for hostility and prejudice on the basis of cultural differences. The first is the argument that a belief in fundamental cultural differences between human groups can lead to the same harmful acts as a belief in fundamental biological differences, namely exploitation and oppression or exclusion and extermination. As the academics Hans Siebers and Marjolein H. J Dennissen noted, this claim has yet to be empirically demonstrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15752931",
"title": "Aversive racism",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Because of the subtle and varied nature of these biases, aversive racism not only systematically influences decision making but can also fundamentally impact everyday social relations in ways that contribute substantially to misunderstandings and mistrust in intergroup relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25613",
"title": "Racism",
"section": "Section::::Etymology, definition and usage.:Social and behavioral sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Sociologists, in general, recognize \"race\" as a social construct. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15752931",
"title": "Aversive racism",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1339,
"text": "Dovidio and Gaertner introduced three psychological supports for aversive racism. As humans, people are predisposed to cognitive categorization. By categorizing people into different groups, it allows us to see the differences that exist between other groups compared to the groups we've put ourselves in. By recognizing these differences, we are then motivated to control our environment around us when we interact with outgroups. This motivation is desirable because we want our interactions to be positive, especially when interacting with minorities. The most influential psychological support is the socialization of two sets of incompatible values. Americans, as children, are brought up being taught to have an egalitarian belief system. They want justice and equality for all minorities. They are also taught about the racial traditions that symbolize American history. These two sets of incompatible values conflict with one another, resulting in inconsistent behavior towards members of outgroups. They feel the internal negative affect based on these two sets of values and it comes out in their behaviors and attitudes on other people. Prejudice has been a wide phenomenon while racism is a broader topic that connects individual beliefs and behavior to broader social norms and practices that disadvantage particular groups. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39316582",
"title": "Societal racism",
"section": "Section::::Health inequities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 4838,
"text": "The cycle of poverty that structural racism imposes on minorities has adverse effects on their overall health, among other things. Health inequities can manifest as disparities in several aspects of health such as obesity, heart disease, life span, infant mortality, sexual education, exercise, drug use, and cancer. Furthermore, racism itself is thought to have a negative impact on both mental and physical health. According to a paper that analyzed published research, on PubMed from the years 2005-2007, on the connection between discrimination and health there is an inverse relationship between the two; furthermore, the pattern is becoming more apparent across a greater variety of issues and data. The fact that a pattern has emerged from the study of this published research data shows that these health inequities are being maintained and reinforced by structural racism. Although this study relies on data from 2005-2007 to support it and show the pattern,this pattern was noticed as far back as 1985 and since then healthcare has come an even longer way. According to the 1985 Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Black and Minority Health by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in general Americans were getting healthier and had increased longevity but there is a persisting inequality between Blacks and other minority groups in the rate of death and illness contrasting to the overall population; furthermore, the report notes that this inequality has been around for more than a generation at this point or since better, more factual federal records have been kept. This is definitive proof that the federal government noticed these racial inequalities in health long before the 2005-2007 study of research data that revealed a pattern. More importantly it shows structural racism has maintained these health inequalities across decades even though the in general Americans have become more healthy and have increased lifespans. Based on the studies they reviewed it became apparent that regardless of socioeconomic status there are racial inequalities in health were present between minority groups for several health issues such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and obesity. This shows the health inequities caused by structural racism can be alleviated by increasing socioeconomic status but they still persist at all levels, showing the overarching power and cycle that structural racism submits minorities too. In addition, there is data that supports the fact that as health care has advanced worldwide overall there are more increases in health inequalities between races. One such study that supports this is The Progress Toward the Healthy People 2010 Goals and Objectives which is a review, done by members of the National Center for Health Statistics of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Center of Excellence on Health Disparities, Morehouse School of Medicine, that explores progress towards improving the overall health quality and longevity of Americans and the health disparities between ethnic groups. To accomplish this they used a system of 31 measures to analyze the progress and disparities; which consisted of 10 leading health indicators (LHI), created by the Department of Health and Human Services, with a few objectives each for twenty two total and the remaining measures were formulated by the group who did the review. The ten leading health indicators are: Physical activity, overweight and obesity, tobacco use, substance abuse, responsible sexual behavior, mental health, injury and violence, environmental quality, immunization, and access to healthcare; the group who did the review supplemented the leading health indicators with 7 more objectives and 2 more measures, infant mortality and life expectancy to give 31 in total. They used these measures to track the disparities be tween Asians, Hispanic or Latino, Black Non-Hispanics, white non-Hispanic, American Indian or Alaskan Natives, and Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders; However it is important to note that data is not available for every ethnic group for all 31 measures. However using the available data for the objectives they have more than one time period on they found 6 objectives showed a decrease in disparity between ethnic groups and the national average while they found 18 disparity increases across 11 objectives. This confirms that even as healthcare is advancing and new scientific discoveries are being made overall the disparities between ethnic groups are increasing. This is a trend that was noticed in the 1985 report and has continued through the time worsening its effects and contributing to greater health inequalities. Therefore it can be said that structural racism acts in such a way that it actively hinders the health and longevity of minorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1182927",
"title": "Social stratification",
"section": "Section::::Variables in theory and research.:Social.:Race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1542,
"text": "Racism consists of both prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of observable biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in positions of social power, i.e., they become a minority category in that society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including assimilation, exclusion, oppression, expulsion, and extermination. Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned a slave status, a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic rights to a minority that are granted to other members of the society. More covert racism, such as that which many scholars posit is practiced in more contemporary societies, is socially hidden and less easily detectable. Covert racism often feeds into stratification systems as an intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities, and housing. Both overt and covert racism can take the form of structural inequality in a society in which racism has become institutionalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
altxn8
|
What is used as nutrition to cultivated cell meat? And how much antibiotics is used?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can avoid antibiotics, but most tissue culture uses some. It is really difficult to do industry-sized cell culture without antibiotics.\n\nAlso, they use fetal bovine serum as a nutrient, which is essentially baby cow blood, so it isn’t vegan and isn’t very sustainable at this point. Maybe someday they can avoid this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50409095",
"title": "Feed manufacturing",
"section": "Section::::Feed formulation for swine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The basic nutrients required are crude protein, metabolizable energy, minerals, vitamins and water. The formulation procedure has both fixed and variable portions. Swine rations are generally based on a ground cereal grain as a carbohydrate source, soybean meal as a protein source, minerals like calcium and phosphorus are added, and vitamins. The feed can be fortified with byproducts of milk, meat by-products, cereal grains; and \"specialty products.\" Antibiotics may also be added to fortify the feed and help the animal’s health and growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26998458",
"title": "Manure",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Livestock antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In 2007, a University of Minnesota study indicated that foods such as corn, lettuce, and potatoes have been found to accumulate antibiotics from soils spread with animal manure that contains these drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40364158",
"title": "Antibiotic use in livestock",
"section": "Section::::Antibiotic resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The use of antibiotics in livestock can bring antibiotic-resistant bacteria to humans via consumption of meat and ingestion through airborne bacteria. Manure from food-producing animals can also contain antibiotic-resistant bacteria and is sometimes stored in lagoons. This waste is often sprayed as fertilizer and can thus contaminate crops and water with the bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20318",
"title": "Macrobiotic diet",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, edible seaweed, fermented soy products and fruit, combined into meals according to the ancient Chinese principle of balance known as yin and yang. Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea and fruit are recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33532401",
"title": "Subtherapeutic antibiotic use in swine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "Antibiotics are commonly used in commercial swine production in the United States and around the world. They are used for disease treatment, disease prevention and control, and growth promotion. When used for growth promoting purposes, antibiotics are given at low concentrations for long periods of time. Low concentration of antibiotics, also referred to as subtherapeutic (STA), are given as feed and water additives which improve daily weight gain and feed efficiency through alterations in digestion and disease suppression. Additionally, the use of STA in swine results in healthier animals and reduces the “microbial load” on meat resulting in an assumed decrease in potential Foodborne illness risk. While the benefits of subtherapeutic antibiotic administration are well-documented, there is much concern and debate regarding the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance associated with their use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26998458",
"title": "Manure",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Livestock antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Organic foods may be much more or much less likely to contain antibiotics, depending on their sources and treatment of manure. For instance, by Soil Association Standard 4.7.38, most organic arable farmers either have their own supply of manure (which would, therefore, not normally contain drug residues) or else rely on green manure crops for the extra fertility (if any nonorganic manure is used by organic farmers, then it usually has to be rotted or composted to degrade any residues of drugs and eliminate any pathogenic bacteria—Standard 4.7.38, Soil Association organic farming standards). On the other hand, as found in the University of Minnesota study, the non-usage of artificial fertilizers, and resulting exclusive use of manure as fertilizer, by organic farmers can result in significantly greater accumulations of antibiotics in organic foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263487",
"title": "Trans fat",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have been an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years (in particular, since the later half of the 20th century and where more processed foods are consumed), and some deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted, forming the basis of the health guidelines discussed above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
72v1wd
|
why do some sites require credit card ccv numbers, and others (like amazon) do not?
|
[
{
"answer": "The CVV2 number isn't *required* to charge the card, but it reduces the risk of fraud. If the transaction is fraudulent, the merchant might end up having to pay fees or fines to their payment processor, so merchants have an incentive to check CVV2s. But if they don't want to and are willing to risk more chargebacks, they can decide not to require it (which is what Amazon's done).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "416982",
"title": "Operation Avalanche (child pornography investigation)",
"section": "Section::::Landslide Productions, Inc..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The AVS system was meant to legally protect the companies from laws against disseminating pornography to minors, as the credit card was used to verify that the user attempting to access a particular website was of legal age to view the website's content. Users could sign up with their credit cards to access affiliated sites, which received 65% of the sign-up fee, while Landslide took the remainder and handled the transactions with the credit card companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1245014",
"title": "Prepaid telephone call",
"section": "Section::::Types of prepaid calling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "BULLET::::- Web sites offer prepaid Personal identification numbers (PINs) for calling; thus there is no physical phone card. Prepaid online calling cards are more convenient to use, because most of the companies provide the option of registering the phone and avoiding using PINs at all. Rates vary from provider to provider, but the customer should be aware that cards with cheaper rates usually have hidden maintenance and/or connection fees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "536717",
"title": "Information Technology Association of America",
"section": "Section::::Real ID.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Some have asserted that Real ID will turn state driver’s licenses into a national identity card and impose numerous new burdens on taxpayers, citizens, immigrants, and state governments – while doing nothing to protect against terrorism. As a result, it is stirring intense opposition from many groups across the political spectrum. Critics have claimed that ITAA supports the national ID card because its member companies would benefit from financially from implementing the card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "549212",
"title": "Department of Motor Vehicles",
"section": "Section::::Areas of responsibility.:Driver's licenses and identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "In countries with no national identification card (like the United States), driver's licenses have often become the \"de facto\" identification card for many purposes, and DMV agencies have effectively become the agency responsible for verifying identity in their respective states, even the identity of non-drivers. The REAL ID Act of 2005 is an attempt to provide a national standard for identification cards in the United States as identification cards are commonly used in everyday life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47471388",
"title": "Carding (fraud)",
"section": "Section::::Related services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Other account types like PayPal, Uber, Netflix and loyalty card points may be sold alongside card details. Logins to many sites may also be sold such a site backdoor access apparently for major institutions such as banks, universities and even industrial control systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905419",
"title": "Credit card fraud",
"section": "Section::::Compromised accounts.:Card not present transaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The mail and the Internet are major routes for fraud against merchants who sell and ship products and affect legitimate mail-order and Internet merchants. If the card is not physically present (called CNP, card not present) the merchant must rely on the holder (or someone purporting to be so) presenting the information indirectly, whether by mail, telephone or over the Internet. The credit card holder can be tracked by mail or phone. While there are safeguards to this, it is still more risky than presenting in person, and indeed card issuers tend to charge a greater transaction rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32214130",
"title": "Expense and cost recovery system",
"section": "Section::::Identifying employees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Multiple user identifiers – Employees can be recorded in an ECRS so that they may have an unlimited number of identifiers that are used with third-party systems to associate them with transactions and/or types of transactions. Identifiers may include telephone extensions, photocopy IDs, cell phone numbers, calling card codes, service account codes, login IDs, and credit card numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ayta7
|
Why are the Planck Length, Time and Temperature so unbelievably minuscule or enormous while the Planck Mass is close to being on our scale, being the mass of a flea's egg or an eyelash?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's an interesting misconception that seems to be rather common. Not everything with the name \"Planck\" behind is unbelievably small. \n\nWe physicists are lazy, and we don't like keep tracking of dimensions, so we use a system of units in which there is only one to measure things: in length and inverse length. (or inverse energy and energy). So time is a length. And also, mass is energy, temperature is energy, momentum is energy. And these quantities have their corresponding length scale, which is just the inverse of them. \n\nIn these units, Newton's constant has dimension of inverse mass squared, and this mass - the Planck mass - is HUGE. When I say huge, I mean huge in particle physicist's sense, as in 10^16 times bigger than the Higgs. The Planck temperature is actually also very very big, even in the scale of a non-particle-physicist, around 10^32 K. \n\nDo you remember the uncertainty principle? It says that dx*dp is bigger than a number. What this tells you is that in order to probe very short length scales, you need very big momenta. So when you build an accelerator that can probe energy scales at the order of the Planck mass, effectively you are probing an enormously short length: the Planck length.\n\nSo yes, you have a huge energy scale - and this energy scale corresponds to very short length and time scales.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "Section::::Physical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Physical definition.:Quantized time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33710707",
"title": "Planck units",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The Planck time (also known as Planck second) was first suggested by Max Planck in 1899. He suggested that there existed some fundamental natural units for length, mass, time and energy. Planck derived these using dimensional analysis only using what he considered the most fundamental universal constants: the speed of light, the Newton gravitational constant and the Planck constant. The Planck time is considered by many physicists to be the shortest possible measurable time interval; however, this is still a matter of debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43537463",
"title": "Size",
"section": "Section::::Conceptualization and generalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length, equal to . It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant. According to the generalized uncertainty principle (a concept from speculative models of quantum gravity), the Planck length is, in principle, within a factor of 10, the shortest measurable length – and no theoretically known improvement in measurement instruments could change that. By contrast, the largest measurable thing is the observable universe. The proper distance – the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present – between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is , making the diameter of the observable universe about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "748908",
"title": "Planck length",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Planck length is the scale at which quantum gravitational effects are believed to begin to be apparent, where interactions require a working theory of quantum gravity to be analyzed. The Planck area is the area by which the surface of a spherical black hole increases when the black hole swallows one bit of information. To measure anything the size of Planck length, the photon momentum needs to be very large due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and so much energy in such a small space would create a tiny black hole with the diameter of its event horizon equal to a Planck length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9i0vyh
|
AM modulation - What are sidebands?
|
[
{
"answer": "Say you have a finite bandwidth baseband signal, with upper cutoff of Fmax Hz. When you modulate a carrier of Fc, the baseband frequency response is shifted to the interval (Fc, Fc + Fmax] called the *upper* sideaband. This is mirrored across Fc, creating the *lower* sideband on the interval [Fc-Fmax, Fc). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sidebands are just your actual signal, before modulation. They are the exact identical signal to what you transmited, represented in frequency domain obviously, just located in a new spot. \n\n\nSay we have sound, music or voice. It will have frequencies, tones, anywhere from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. At any given instance in time, each frequency in here is at some amplitude. And as the sound changes over time, the amplitude of each of these changes. There may be frequencies present below or above this, but we can't hear them so they don't matter. \n\n\nNext we use a microphone to turn the sound an electrical signal, but the excatly same frequencies are preserved. \n\n\nNext, we modulate that on a carrier frequency. Assuming AM, all that happens is we shift them upward. Say our carrier is 1000 kHz. If we had 20 Hz sound in our signal, we know have amplitude in the sideband at 1000.02 kHz. If we had sound at 1 kHz, we now have amplitude in the sideband at 1001 kHz. If we had 15 kHz sound, we have amplitude in the side band 1015 kHz. All that happened is rather than our sound being based on DC/0 Hz, we now just shifted it to 1000 kHz, our carrier frequency. Sidebands *are* your signal. The carrier itself contains nothing, it's just there as a reference point rather than 0. \n\n\nSo if that's the upper side band, what about the lower? Well, in regular sound in 0 to 20 kHz, we could technically also say there is a mirror of it about 0 Hz to -20 Hz. Has no meaning normally, as it's bandwidth just mirror the real half and doesn't matter. If we now shift it from being about 1000 kHz rather than 0 Hz, that negative mirror is now occupying real positive frequencies. There's still another mirror of both sidebands around -1000 kHz technically, but again it doesn't matter. Any frequency there is, always has its negative mirror doing nothing. AM modulation just reveals the original negative half right below DC now right below the carrier. \n\n\nDo we need the lower sideband? No, it's just duplicate mirrored information. It's only 50% bandwidth efficient. We can use a filter to chop off the lower, or upper, sideband and still transmit the signal with half the bandwidth usage. \n\n\n\nOr we can use quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and transmit two different signals, both complete with both sidebands, at the same carrier frequency. So long as one signal is transmitted on a carrier delayed by quarter cycle (aka one on a cosine and one on a sine wave), they can be kept seperate from each other. They each have duplicate sidebands still, but the double stacking gets us back to 100% bandwidth efficiency, in a easier way than filtering a sideband out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sidebands do indeed exist at difference frequencies from the carrier in AM. They are determined by the frequency content of the modulating signal. That spectrum (with sidebands) is what amplitude modulation is in frequency-domain. It's just a mathematical thing. For example from trigonometric product formulas you see that sinusoidal modulation of another sinusoidal is equivalent to sum of two sinusoidals at difference frequencies: sin(c)\\*sin(m) = cos(c-m)/2 - cos(c+m)/2. To understand how time-domain signals and frequency-domain signals in general relate to each other, one needs to understand how Fourier transform pairs behave (there is a kind of uncertainty principle between them which always makes modulation in time-domain spread the signal in frequency and vice versa).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41701",
"title": "Sideband",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In radio communications, a sideband is a band of frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier frequency, that are the result of the modulation process. The sidebands carry the information transmitted by the radio signal. The sidebands consist of all the spectral components of the modulated signal except the carrier. All forms of modulation produce sidebands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29048",
"title": "Single-sideband modulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "In radio communications, single-sideband modulation (SSB) or single-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation (SSB-SC) is a type of modulation, used to transmit information, such as an audio signal, by radio waves. A refinement of amplitude modulation, it uses transmitter power and bandwidth more efficiently. Amplitude modulation produces an output signal the bandwidth of which is twice the maximum frequency of the original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth increase, and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased device complexity and more difficult tuning at the receiver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40931",
"title": "Compatible sideband transmission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "A Compatible sideband transmission, also known as amplitude modulation equivalent (AME) or Single sideband-reduced carrier (SSB-RC), is a type of single sideband RF modulation in which the carrier is deliberately reinserted at a lower level after its normal suppression to permit reception by conventional AM receivers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586611",
"title": "Amplitude-companded single-sideband modulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Amplitude-companded single-sideband (ACSSB) is a narrowband modulation method using a single-sideband with a pilot tone, allowing an expander in the receiver to restore the amplitude that was severely compressed by the transmitter. It offers improved effective range over standard SSB modulation while simultaneously retaining backwards compatibility with standard SSB radios. ACSSB also offers reduced bandwidth and improved range for a given power level compared with narrow band FM modulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40773",
"title": "Baseband",
"section": "Section::::Modulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "A signal at baseband is often used to modulate a higher frequency carrier signal in order that it may be transmitted via radio. Modulation results in shifting the signal up to much higher frequencies (radio frequencies, or RF) than it originally spanned. A key consequence of the usual double-sideband amplitude modulation (AM) is that the range of frequencies the signal spans (its spectral bandwidth) is doubled. Thus, the RF bandwidth of a signal (measured from the lowest frequency as opposed to 0 Hz) is twice its baseband bandwidth. Steps may be taken to reduce this effect, such as single-sideband modulation. Some transmission schemes such as frequency modulation use even more bandwidth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29048",
"title": "Single-sideband modulation",
"section": "Section::::Amplitude-companded single-sideband modulation (ACSSB).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Amplitude-companded single sideband (ACSSB) is a narrowband modulation method using a single sideband with a pilot tone, allowing an expander in the receiver to restore the amplitude that was severely compressed by the transmitter. It offers improved effective range over standard SSB modulation while simultaneously retaining backwards compatibility with standard SSB radios. ACSSB also offers reduced bandwidth and improved range for a given power level compared with narrow band FM modulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436728",
"title": "Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Limitations and means of improvements.:Modulation techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "In FMS, the light is modulated at a much higher frequency but with a lower modulation index. As a result, a pair of sidebands separated from the carrier by the modulation frequency appears, giving rise to a so-called FM-triplet. The signal at the modulation frequency is a sum of the beat signals of the carrier with each of the two sidebands. Since these two sidebands are fully out of phase with each other, the two beat signals cancel in the absence of absorbers. However, an alteration of any of the sidebands, either by absorption or dispersion, or a phase shift of the carrier, will give rise to an unbalance between the two beat signals, and therefore a net-signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fhu5ht
|
how do viral test kits work?
|
[
{
"answer": "A technique called qPCR. You use an enzyme called Reverse transcriptase to convert viral RNA into DNA. Then followed by another enzyme called DNA polymerase to clone it multiple times.\n\nMix that with fluorescent DNA primers (short glowing chunks) that are used by the enzyme to build the target DNA, and you can count how much viral DNA there is based on how much fluorescence is given off under UV light.\n\nThere are other techniques but this is the easiest and most common.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15842342",
"title": "Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections",
"section": "Section::::Host antibody detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Antibody testing has become widely available. It can be done for individual viruses (e.g. using an ELISA assay) but inautomated panels that can screen for many viruses at once are becoming increasingly common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50646737",
"title": "Viral load monitoring for HIV",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Various viral load tests might be used. One way to classify tests is by whether it is a nucleic acid test or non-nucleic acid test. Variation in cost and the time it takes to get a result may be factors in selecting the type of test used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:HIV antibody testing is unreliable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Progress in testing methodology has enabled detection of viral genetic material, antigens, and the virus itself in bodily fluids and cells. While not widely used for routine testing due to high cost and requirements in laboratory equipment, these direct testing techniques have confirmed the validity of the antibody tests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41405319",
"title": "OraQuick",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Unlike other HIV tests that measures HIV virus or HIV antigens from blood, OraQuick measures the HIV antibodies in saliva. The test kit contains an oral swab attached to the reader, and a fluid-filled test tube. The test results can either be invalid, positive, or negative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15925628",
"title": "Hepatitis B",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The tests, called assays, for detection of virus infection involve serum or blood tests that detect either viral antigens (proteins produced by the virus) or antibodies produced by the host. Interpretation of these assays is complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2206783",
"title": "Direct fluorescent antibody",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Commercial DFA testing kits are available, which contain fluorescently labelled antibodies, designed to specifically target unique antigens present in the bacteria or virus, but not present in mammals (Eukaryotes). This technique can be used to quickly determine if a subject has a specific viral or bacterial infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861",
"title": "Advertising",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Advertising research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5pp8b2
|
how did ancient people find/define constellations when there was no light pollution?
|
[
{
"answer": "The pictures you see are long exposure photos, which don't accurately represent what you see when you look at the night sky without any light pollution. [This photo](_URL_0_) much more accurately represents what you see with your own eyes than [this photo](_URL_1_). As you can see, it's very easy to discern specific stars in the first photo.\n\nI suggest going out on an actual stargazing tour, it can be mind blowing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "997476",
"title": "Night sky",
"section": "Section::::Visual presentation.:Constellations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "There are no markings on the night sky, though there exist many sky maps to aid stargazers in identifying constellations and other celestial objects. Constellations are prominent because their stars tend to be brighter than other nearby stars in the sky. Different cultures have created different groupings of constellations based on differing interpretations of the more-or-less random patterns of dots in the sky. Constellations were identified without regard to distance to each star, but instead as if they were all dots on a dome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Designations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period. Ancient sky watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns, and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths. Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology. Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names, particularly with Arabic or Latin designations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2776501",
"title": "Visible-light astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Commonly observed objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Constellations and stars are also often observed, and have been used in the past for navigation, especially by ships at sea. One of the most recognizable constellations is the Big Dipper, which is part of the constellation Ursa Major. Constellations also serve to help describe the location of other objects in the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028265",
"title": "Asterism (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Background of asterisms and constellations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In many early civilizations, it was already common to associate groups of stars in connect-the-dots stick-figure patterns; some of the earliest records are those of the Babylonians. This process was essentially arbitrary, and different cultures have identified different constellations, although a few of the more obvious patterns tend to appear in the constellations of multiple cultures, such as those of Orion and Scorpius. As anyone could arrange and name a grouping of stars there was no distinct difference between a \"constellation\" and an \"asterism\". e.g. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his book Naturalis Historia refers and mentions 72 asterisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22190276",
"title": "Babylonian star catalogues",
"section": "Section::::MUL.APIN.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "A few of the constellation names in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the Middle Bronze Age, i.e.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267",
"title": "Constellation",
"section": "Section::::Early modern astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Some of the early constellations were never universally adopted. Stars were often grouped into constellations differently by different observers, and the arbitrary constellation boundaries often led to confusion as to which constellation a celestial object belonged. Before astronomers delineated precise boundaries (starting in the 19th century), constellations generally appeared as ill-defined regions of the sky. Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of Right Ascension and Declination based on those defined by Benjamin Gould in epoch 1875.0 in his star catalogue \"Uranometria Argentina\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267",
"title": "Constellation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4pv0i8
|
are vegetables alive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes they are alive. The carrot you have in your refrigerator may not sprout given the best care possible. The top was taken off. It was washed repeatedly, and is at the end of its life cycle.\n\nThe sweet potato I bought last Thanksgiving and left on the counter sprouted a week ago. I threw it out today. It was probably still good to eat.\n\nMost potatoes can be coaxed to grow if they have not been peeled. Watch The Martian.\n\nYour canned vegetables are not alive anymore.\n\nThe more processed your vegetables are the less likely they are to sprout. \n\nApple seeds will probably sprout. Maybe orange seeds. Everyone is always growing avocado seeds.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes and no. Some vegetables like onions and potatoes will often sprout if left long enough, but other times they will rot. Rotting is the breaking down of organic matter. Putting something in the fridge will slow down the growth of bacteria, but eventually it will rot unless it sprouts. Many plants can survive outside of the ground, but without water, they tend to die. This is one of the reasons stores spray your produce with water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "Section::::Domestic food storage.:Dry storage of foods.:Vegetables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Many cultures have developed innovative ways of preserving vegetables so that they can be stored for several months between harvest seasons. Techniques include pickling, home canning, food dehydration, or storage in a root cellar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4613509",
"title": "Root cellar",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The ability of some vegetables and fruit to keep for months in favorable cellar conditions stems in part from the fact that they are not entirely inanimate even after picking. Although they may no longer qualify as living, the plant cells continue to respire in some impaired but nonzero way, resisting bacterial decomposition for a time. The effect can be compared to the way that cut flowers in a vase of water last much longer than cut flowers lying on a table: the flowers in the vase are not entirely dead yet and continue to respire. The analogy is not exact, but the high humidity that supports many cellared crops is involved in this residual respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167189",
"title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods.:Vegetables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself. Vegetables also are not mentioned often in the written record, and when the Bible does mention them, the attitude is mixed: sometimes they are regarded as a delicacy, but more often, they were held in low esteem (for example, (, ). Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Food sources.:Plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), (bamboo shoots and asparagus), and (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29119009",
"title": "World Vegetable Center",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The use of vegetables as crops that are of high worth is important in the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations Development Program and the World Vegetable Center. The vegetables bred by the Center can be used in poorer areas, where they can serve as an important source of income and can help fight micronutrient deficiencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15374",
"title": "Food irradiation",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Immediate effects.:Food quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "There has been low level gamma irradiation that has been attempted on arugula, spinach, cauliflower, ash gourd, bamboo shoots, coriander, parsley, and watercress. There has been limited information, however, regarding the physical, chemical and/or bioactive properties and the shelf life on these minimally processed vegetables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32405",
"title": "Vegetable farming",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1iecmg
|
why do i always wake up from a dream immediately before i suffer some kind of fatal physical harm (ex. someone shoots me, stabs me, hits me etc.)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's because your brain is reacting to the fear of the situation. It's like \"Oh! Bad situation. Done!\" so you wake up. Your mind doesn't want to go through that, and you've never experienced it, so you also don't know how to react. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You don't. \nDeath in dreams is a leading cause for lucid dreams. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that was the kick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have actually been shot in two separate dreams. It hurt like hell and I felt the warmth of the blood leaving my body. I even felt the shock and disbelief afterwards too. One time in the dream I felt I was dying and thought I did until I was revived later in the dream. I have never been shot in real life so I guess my brain was imitating what it imagined being shot would be like.\n\nEdit: Added a bit",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dreaming is just your mind filling in the next event in a story with your own expectations. When you are awake, You see, react, and anticipate what comes next. in a dream, whatever you anticipate, just happens. So, any time you're unable to anticipate what comes next, your dream falls apart and you notice, and wake up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Important question: How would you know if you *didn't* wake up? I mean, you dream a significant portion of the night, but very few people remember any significant portion of that time. What if you're getting killed in your dreams on a regular basis, but only remember the times when you wake up?\n\nI think your \"every time\" is an example of [selection bias](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read somewhere that dreaming is the mind's way of testing situations to find an outcome. If you get into a situation where you're about to die clearly it wasn't a good out come so your mind ends the simulation",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain knows you have just a single life, impending death creates a hyper awareness in your body that the brain is unable to ignore. It takes no chances between real death and an unreal one as the tiniest misjudgment can result in a Game Over. Essentially, it is telling itself better awake than sorry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In two of my dreams, I have been shot, the dream kept going; when I woke up though...I could still feel the gun shot pain.\nNow some people wake up just before the bad thing happen because the brain cannot input more information into the scenario; the expected pain, result after death, etc.\nSome people will keep on going because they have experienced the pain or something close to it or the brain will simply forgo it to keep on going for what ever reason it deems. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reading all your answers makes me wonder why sometimes I DON'T wake up when I suffer some kind of fatal physical harm.\n\nI've had a few dreams where I've been drowning. I'm panicking. Holding my breath for as long as I can. Until finally I can't any longer. So I breathe in. I feel water filling my lungs. And it's freaking me out. But, that's it. After I notice I'm still alive and breathing the water, I just go about the dream.\n\nSame thing happens when I get shot or stabbed. Should I just make a separate post on ELI5?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This definitely isn't universal though. I've had horrible nightmares most nights since I was 10. In the dreams, I will be violently killed in one awful way or another, die, then spend the rest of the dream looking at my corpse until I eventually wake up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always believed that it was because you're mind couldn't imagine what it would be like to go through that kind of pain. Like a dream malfunction",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I distinctly remember being stabbed in the chest by a rapier and dying in a dream\nAlso having my head run over by a train\n\nEnded up going to some zen garden after death. It was pretty chill",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No offense to any of the contributors, but does anyone have a detailed, scientific/psychological explanation? I'd be interested to read a little in-depth about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The human body has it's fight or flight response in case of dangerous situations. When you perceive a dangerous situation in a dream, whether it be slender man chasing you through a forest, or someone shooting you, the cognitive part of your brain believes it to be real, and starts pumping adrenaline and non-epinephrine to get your body ready to deal with pain and either haul ass or fight. When you feel pain in a dream, it's either psychosomatic or a result from you muscles tensing in a particular area to deal with expected pain. However, these chemicals that you're pumping out are stimulants, and will rapidly wake you up because your body is going \"oh fuck, a lion is creeping on us while we sleep, WAKE UP DUMBASS! We need to start running!\" So you are launched out of sleep. You expect bodily harm, and your body activates your fight or flight response.\n\nSource: Lab Assistant Human Physiology Major",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4639498",
"title": "24 Hours (album)",
"section": "Section::::Track listing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 214,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 214,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"I'm starting to think that I'm dead. | Doesn't it make sense that death too would be wrapped in dream? That after death, your conscious life would continue in what might be called a dream body? It would be the same dream body you experience in your everyday dream life. Except that in the post-mortal state, you could never again wake up.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439244",
"title": "Incubus",
"section": "Section::::Scientific explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result in somnambulism (sleepwalking) or, conversely, sleep paralysis—where one remains partially or wholly paralysed for a short time after waking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13773716",
"title": "Michael Katz (psychologist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The lucid dream experience, which may arise as a by-product of Rigpa awareness or spontaneously due to karmic causes, assists in understanding the unreality of phenomena, which otherwise, during dream or the death experience, might be overwhelming. In the same way, we believe a nightmare to be real, but if we were to watch a similar scene within a movie, we would not necessarily be frightened.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3429796",
"title": "Tagalog people",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Belief on dreams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Additionally, a person may sometimes encounter nightmares in dreams. There are two reasons why nightmares occur, the first is when the \"kakambal\" soul encounters a terrifying event while travelling from the body, or when a \"bangungot\" creature sits on top of the sleeping person in a bid of vengeance due to the cutting of her tree home. Majority of the nightmares are said to be due to the \"kakambal\" soul encountering terrifying events while travelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54307546",
"title": "Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people",
"section": "Section::::Dream beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Additionally, a person may sometimes encounter nightmares in dreams. There are two reasons why nightmares occur, the first is when the \"kakambal\" soul encounters a terrifying event while travelling from the body, or when a \"bangungot\" creature sits on top of the sleeping person in a bid of vengeance due to the cutting of her tree home. Majority of the nightmares are said to be due to the \"kakambal\" soul encountering terrifying events while travelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "689982",
"title": "Nightmare disorder",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "During the nightmare, the sleeper may scream and yell out things. The nightmare sufferer is often awakened by these threatening, frightening dreams and can often vividly remember their experience. Upon awakening, the sleeper is usually alert and oriented within their surroundings, but may have an increased heart rate and symptoms of anxiety, like sweating. They may have trouble falling back to sleep for fear they will experience another nightmare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "During sleep, especially REM sleep, people tend to have dreams: elusive first-person experiences which seem realistic while in progress, despite their frequently bizarre qualities. Dreams can seamlessly incorporate elements within a person's mind that would not normally go together. They can include apparent sensations of all types, especially vision and movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9sl4rx
|
Do we have any evidence that the Azores were inhabited by humans at any point prior to their discovery by the Portuguese?
|
[
{
"answer": "We might! \n\nIt's very possible that sharp-eyed observers could have gained clues that the Azores were out there long before their official discovery; many migratory bird species stop there, and anyone watching birds moving northeast from the Azores could have deduced they were coming from islands to the southwest. \n\nThere is a tale from the 18th century that a hoard of Carthaginian coins displayed in Portugal was discovered in the Azores, but the supposed site was never charted and the coins themselves lost. \n\nMice in the Azores are largely descended from ancestors in Iberia; however, [mice on some islands have DNA from ancestors in Scandinavia](_URL_1_). This hints that Norse explorers may have visited the islands centuries before the Portuguese. \n\nMany medieval maps contain [islands in the general vicinity of the Azores](_URL_0_), but there is very little consensus on whether this reflects actual knowledge (passed down from Norse explorations or Iberian fishermen who guarded the location of their most lucrative fishing spots and secluded beaches) or inflated legends which happened to match up with the location. \n\nMost intriguingly, there may be a series of *hypogea*, or underground tombs, on the islands. A team led by Nuno Ribiero excavated there about ten years back and claimed they'd found several sites in natural caves, including Paleolithic rock art. As far as I can tell, though, these claims either haven't stood up to closer examination or are at the very least too preliminary to confirm the findings.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "38744946",
"title": "List of mammals of the Azores",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "This is a list of the mammal species recorded in the Azores Islands, Portugal. Except for marine mammals and two species of bats, the Azores were completely devoid of mammals prior to their discovery in the early 15th century. All other mammals in the islands are therefore introduced species.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "10685576",
"title": "History of the Azores",
"section": "Section::::Exploration.:Early appearance on charts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "One (unproven) hypothesis is that the Azores were discovered in the course of a mapping expedition in 1341 to the Canary Islands, sponsored by King Afonso IV of Portugal, and commanded by the Florentine Angiolino del Tegghia de Corbizzi and the Genoese Nicoloso da Recco. Although not quite described in the 1341 report, Madeira and the Azores might nonetheless have been seen from a distance on the expedition's return via a long sailing arc (\"volta do mar\") from the Canary islands. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3226",
"title": "Azores",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
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"text": "The Azores were uninhabited when Portuguese navigators arrived in the early 15th century; settlement began in 1439 with migrants from several regions of mainland Portugal and from Madeira. The islands were populated mainly by Portuguese immigrants from the Algarve, Alentejo, and Minho; in an effort to escape the dangers of the Portuguese inquisition on mainland Portugal, however, many Portuguese Sephardic Jews settled on the islands in large numbers. Azorean Jews had surnames such as: Rodrigues, Pacheco, Oliveira, Pereira, Pimentel, Nunes, Mendes, Pinto, Álvares, Henriques, Cardozo, Teixeira, Vasconcelos etc. The islands were also settled by Moorish prisoners, and African slaves from Guinea, Cape Verde and São Tomé; Flemish, French and Galicians also contributed to the initial settlement. Thus the Azorean population received a significant contribution from people with genetic backgrounds other than Portuguese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "396443",
"title": "Savage Islands",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Diogo Gomes de Sintra discovered the islands by chance in 1438. Although the Canary Islands had been inhabited by the Guanches, humans are not known to ever have set foot on the Madeira archipelago or the Savage Islands before the Portuguese discoveries and expansion. Consequently, this island group presented itself to Portuguese navigators uninhabited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10685576",
"title": "History of the Azores",
"section": "Section::::Myth and legend.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In \"A History of the Azores\", written by Thomas Ashe in 1813, the author talks of the discovery of the islands by Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges, who landed there during a storm on his way to Lisbon. This claim is generally discredited among academics today. As were local stories of a mysterious equestrian statue and coins with Carthaginian writing that were purportedly discovered on island of Corvo, or the strange inscriptions found along the coast of Quatro Ribeiras (on Terceira): all unsubstantiated stories that supported the claims of human visitation to the islands before the official record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "32102005",
"title": "Medici-Laurentian Atlas",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Atlantic islands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "None of the Azores islands will be officially discovered until nearly a century later, in the 1430s and 1440s. They could simply be purely legendary, possibly of Andalusian Arab origin (e.g. al-Idrisi speaks of an Atlantic island of wild goats (the Cabras) and another of \"cormorants\", a scavenger bird, possibly the \"sea crows\" of Corvis Marinis?). But outside their erroneous axis tilt, the Azores do seem clustered with reasonable accuracy on the Medici atlas. One (unproven) possibility is that the Azores were indeed discovered, or at least seen from a distance, quite by accident, by the aforementioned 1341 mapping expedition on their return via a long sailing arc (\"volta do mar\") from the Canary islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1143079",
"title": "Vila do Corvo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The history of the Azores is linked to non-official exploration during the period of the late 13th century in maps, such as the Genoese Atlas Medici (1351). Although it did not specify an island of Corvo, the Medici Atlas did refer to an \"Insula Corvi Marini\" (\"Island of the Marine Crow\"), in a seven-island archipelago. A later \"Mapa Catalão\" (\"Catalan Map\"), from Spain, referred to two islands of Corvo and Flores in 1375.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
ixhio
|
If a mosquito bites my eye, would it be able to suck up any blood? Would it itch?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a great question (because there may not be a complete answer)!\n\n.\n\nFirst, an aside: When using PubMed to search for another unpleasant insect-eye interaction\n\n > [bee sting, eye](_URL_3_)\n\nThere are quite a few results... case studies of bees stinging people's cornea (the transparent part of the globe of the eye, through which you can appreciate someone's iris and pupil) and sclera (the white of the eye)([see this drawing](_URL_11_)). So far, we haven't learned much, except (1) bees are jerks, (2) this is the sort of thing that doctors would publish ... i.e. there should be case-studies for something common like mosquito bites.\n\n.\n\n > mosquito bite, eye\n\nDoesn't give anything useful. Weird. \n\n > mosquito bite, cornea\n\nNada.\n\n > mosquito bite, sclera\n\nZilch.\n\nMaybe the search is a bit too narrow. Removing the word \"bite\" from the above searches just gives a bunch of results for eye symptoms of mosquito-born illnesses. But, maybe people report bee stings because you can identify the stinger, but a mosquito bite leaves no definitive trace... let's try\n\n > insect bite, eye\n\n...well, we're back to a bunch of bee/[hymenoptera](_URL_4_) stuff. Scrolling through, I see examples of [ticks latching onto the inside of the eyelid](_URL_13_)... [huh, didn't even know walkingsticks *had* venom](_URL_1_)... [fire ants](_URL_12_) biting the eye of a child with \"neurological compromise\".\n\n.\n\nOK. \n\nThis gives an interesting thought: Maybe bees are commonly reported because they're *fast*. Mosquitoes are quite slow... if one landed on your eye, you'd blink, rub your eye, etc., etc. It wouldn't get a chance to bite your eye unless something unusual is already happening (e.g. being unconscious with an open eye). Another result from \"insect bite, eye\" was [this one](_URL_10_) about eye injuries in motorcyclists, caused by colliding with beetles at speed.\n\n.\n\nSo far, I've come up with no results. This is very odd, since we have results for ticks, beetles, walkingsticks, and tons of stinging insects. Now I start wondering what the mosquito would actually do if it got a chance to bite your eye. The sclera is *very* tough tissue. Not sure if a mosquito's proboscis could penetrate very deep. [Most of the blood vessels are superficial](_URL_14_), too... which leads me [here](_URL_0_):\n\n > A vascular plexus is found between the conjunctiva and the sclera\n\n**Part 1a of my answer: There's a nice, superficial set of blood vessels below the [conjunctiva](_URL_7_). I'm betting a mosquito could penetrate that small distance, and from there could feed on the blood.**\n\n\n**Part 1b: A healthy cornea is [avascular](_URL_15_). So, if the mosquito bites you there, it couldn't withdraw blood.**\n\n.\n\nBut, anyways, I'm thinking about conjunctiva... back to PubMed!\n\n > [mosquito, conjunctiva](_URL_16_)\n\n...and we get results referring to [filariasis](_URL_8_) and [dirofilariasis](_URL_2_), in particular. \n\nUnfortunately, most of these case reports are written in a foreign language, and/or are behind a paywall. But, there's [this](_URL_9_)([google translate version](_URL_5_)):\n\n > An 81-year-old woman living in the north of France had a history of sudden pain and swelling of the left orbit. On slit lamp examination, a white worm was seen under the superior [bulbar conjuntiva](_URL_17_). Excision of the subconjunctival worm was adequate treatment and was important for parasite identification.\n\n**Important** this *doesn't* mean that the woman was bitten on the eye. Instead, the nematode probably migrated there.\n\n.\n\nI'm really surprised by this. I can plenty of examples of eye symptoms caused by insect bites elsewhere on the body. I can find examples of motorcyclists hitting their eyes into beetles. I can even find examples of eye disease caused by insects that don't bite, but just feed off of eye secretions:\n\n[Thelaziasis](_URL_6_), which wikipedia says can be found in the eyeball itself... and unlike the filariasis example above, is apparently from direct exposure of the eye tissues to the parasite, as described here \n\nFrom a 'critical comment' by Shen et al., 2006, J. Parasitol., 92(4), \"Human Thelaziosis—A Neglected Parasitic Disease of the Eye\"\n\n > The transmission of eyeworms occurs when the species of flies (acting as intermediate hosts and vectors) feed on lachrymal secretions from animal and/or human and ingest Thelazia spp. first-stage larvae (L1s) produced by adult female nematodes (living together with males) in the conjunctival sac of the definitive host. After ingestion by flies, the larvae of T. callipaeda encapsulate in different parts of the vector’s body, that is, testes of the male and abdominal fat tissue of the female, and undergo development from the L1 to the infective, third-stage larvae (L3) (~14–21 days after infection). After a migration through the body cavity of the vector, the L3s of Thelazia emerge from the labella of infected flies, **after which they feed on the lachrymal secretions from infected hosts and develop into the adult stage in the conjuctival sac and prebulbar tear film within ~35 days** (Otranto, Lia, Cantacessi et al., 2005).\n\n.\n\n...anyways, **I am stumped by your question, (esp. the \"will it itch\" part) because I can't find any literature examples of someone being** *bit* **by a** *mosquito* **on the eye**. I know that the cornea's immune responses (e.g. to infection) are different than in other tissues, because (1) it's avascular, and (2) retaining transparency is a priority, so e.g. swelling would be very maladaptive. I suppose this means that a mosquito bite would be different, *somehow*, if it were on some part of the eye than elsewhere, but we don't know until it happens. The stunning lack of anything in the literature makes me think that mosquitoes are either too slow to bite the eye itself, or don't cause a reaction when a bite happens (hence, no reports). So, when you say,\n\n > but I've always been afraid to get bitten there\n\nI wouldn't worry about it. ...bee stings on the other hand...",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV infection.:HIV is transmitted by mosquitoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Feeding by adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
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"text": "Prior to and during blood feeding, blood-sucking mosquitoes inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. This saliva serves as an anticoagulant; without it the female mosquito's proboscis might become clogged with blood clots. The saliva also is the main route by which mosquito physiology offers passenger pathogens access to the hosts' bloodstream. The salivary glands are a major target to most pathogens, whence they find their way into the host via the saliva.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "544177",
"title": "Plasmodium falciparum",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
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"text": "The infective stage called sporozoites released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito enter the bloodstream during feeding. The mosquito saliva contains antihemostatic and anti-inflammatory enzymes that disrupt blood clotting and inhibit the pain reaction. Typically, each infected bite contains 20-200 sporozoites. The immune system clears the sporozoites from the circulation within 30 minutes. But a few escape and quickly invade liver cells (hepatocytes). The sporozoites move in the blood stream by gliding, which is driven by motor made up of proteins actin and myosin beneath their plasma membrane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "59441924",
"title": "Mosquito bite allergy",
"section": "Section::::Systemic allergic reactions.:Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
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"text": "Individuals with systemic mosquito bite allergies respond to mosquito bites with intense local skin reactions (e.g. blisters, ulcers, necrosis, scarring) and concurrent or subsequent systemic symptoms (high-grade fever and/or malaise; less commonly, muscle cramps, bloody diarrhea, bloody urine, proteinuria, and/or wheezing; or very rarely, symptoms of overt anaphylaxis such as hives, angioedema (i.e. skin swelling in non-mosquito bite areas), shortness of breath, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure]]. There are very rare reports of death due to anaphylaxis following mosquito bites. Individual with an increased risk of developing severe mosquito bite reactions include those experiencing a particularly large number of mosquito bites, those with no previous exposure to the species of mosquito causing the bites, and those with a not fully developed immune system such as infants and young children. Individuals with certain Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative, non-Epstein-Barr virus malignant lymphoid, or other predisposing disease also have an increased rate of systemic mosquito bite reactions but are considered in a separate category (see below).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Bites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
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"text": "Mosquito bites lead to a variety of mild, serious, and, rarely, life-threatening allergic reactions. These include ordinary wheal and flare reactions and mosquito bite allergies (MBA). The MBA, also termed hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB), are excessive reactions to mosquito bites that are not caused by any toxin or pathogen in the saliva injected by a mosquito at the time it takes its blood-meal. Rather, they are allergic hypersensitivity reactions caused by the non-toxic allergenic proteins contained in the mosquito's saliva. Studies have shown or suggest that numerous species of mosquitoes can trigger ordinary reactions as well as MBA. These include \"Aedes aegypti, Aedes vexans, Aedes albopictus, Anopheles sinensis, Culex pipiens\", \"Aedes communis, Anopheles stephensi\", \"Culex quinquefasciatus, Ochlerotatus triseriatus\", and \"Culex tritaeniorhynchus\". Furthermore, there is considerable cross-reactivity between the salivary proteins of mosquitoes in the same family and, to a lesser extent, different families. It is therefore assumed that these allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species (or other biting insect). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Feeding by adults.:Hosts of blood-feeding mosquito species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
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"text": "Some species of blood-sucking flies, such as many of the Ceratopogonidae, will attack large, live insects and suck their haemolymph and others, such as the so-called \"jackal flies\" (Milichiidae), will attack the recently dead prey of say, crab spiders (Thomisidae). In 1969 it was reported that some species of anautogenous mosquitoes would feed on the haemolymph of caterpillars. Other observations include mosquitoes feeding on cicadas and mantids. In 2014 it was shown that malaria-transmitting mosquitoes actively seek out some species of caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, and do so to the caterpillar's apparent physical detriment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2105335",
"title": "Eastern equine encephalitis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Lifecycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Humans, horses, and most other infected mammals do not circulate enough virus in their blood to infect additional mosquitoes. There have been some cases where EEEV has been contracted through lab exposures or from exposure of the eyes, lungs or skin wounds to brain or spinal cord matter from infected animals.\n",
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] | null |
1bwbuu
|
How does deionized water stay deionized?
|
[
{
"answer": "Deionized water still autodisassociates just like all other water. The 'deionized' part refers to the fact that the protons and hydroxides are (nominally) the only ions in solution.\n\nA deionizer works by passing normal water (from the tap, usually) through a series of filters and ion exchangers. All of the cations in the tap water are exchanged with protons. All of the anions are exchanged with hydroxides. The net changes yield a solution of nothing but protons, hydroxides, and water molecules. The autodissociation equilibrium will have the proton and hydroxide concentrations at 10^-7 M at 298 K. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1268562",
"title": "Purified water",
"section": "Section::::Purification methods.:Deionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
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"end_character": 694,
"text": "Deionized water (\"DI water\", \"DIW\" or \"de-ionized water\"), often synonymous with \"demineralized water / DM water\", is water that has had almost all of its mineral ions removed, such as cations like sodium, calcium, iron, and copper, and anions such as chloride and sulfate. Deionization is a chemical process that uses specially manufactured ion-exchange resins, which exchange hydrogen and hydroxide ions for dissolved minerals, and then recombine to form water. Because most non-particulate water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces highly pure water that is generally similar to distilled water, with the advantage that the process is quicker and does not build up scale. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "25044940",
"title": "Capacitive deionization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a technology to deionize water by applying an electrical potential difference over two electrodes, which are often made of porous carbon. Anions, ions with a negative charge, are removed from the water and are stored in the positively polarized electrode. Likewise, cations (positive charge) are stored in the cathode, which is the negatively polarized electrode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268562",
"title": "Purified water",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Using deionised or distilled water in appliances that evaporate water, such as steam irons and humidifiers, can reduce the build-up of mineral scale, which shortens appliance life. Some appliance manufacturers say that deionised water is no longer necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1268562",
"title": "Purified water",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 212,
"text": "Deionised and Distilled water are used in lead-acid batteries to prevent erosion of the cells, although Deionised water is the better choice as more impurities are removed from the water in the creation process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "620957",
"title": "Water dispenser",
"section": "Section::::Purification.:Filtration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Deionizers or demineralizers use resins exchange to remove ions from the stream of water and are most commonly twin-bed or mixed-bed deionizers. It is often used in sterile manufacturing environments such as computer chips, where deionized water is a poor conductor of electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1268562",
"title": "Purified water",
"section": "Section::::Purification methods.:Demineralization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Demineralization is often a term used interchangeably with deionization. Demineralization is essentially removing all the minerals that can be found in natural water. This process is usually done when the water will be used for chemical processes and the minerals present may interfere with the other chemicals. All chemistic and beauty products have to be made with demineralized water for this reason. With the demineralization process, the water is \"softened\" replacing the undesired minerals with different salts. Demineralized water has a higher conductivity than deionized water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1042917",
"title": "Water ionizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "A water ionizer (also known as an alkaline ionizer) is a home appliance which claims to raise the pH of drinking water by using electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and alkaline components. The alkaline stream of the treated water is called alkaline water. Proponents claim that consumption of alkaline water results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims violate basic principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no medical evidence for any health benefits of alkaline water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8oskfv
|
Did any of the ancient civilizations know they were one of the first human civilizations or have any understanding of the significance of that?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey all,\n\nIf you frequent the sub, you know the drill. If you're here from /r/all, or browse only occasionally, please be aware we have strict rules here intended to enforce the very high bar we expect from comments, so before posting, please read our [rules](/r/AskHistorians/wiki/rules). We remove comments which don't comply, and consider everyone forewarned. If you have feedback or commentary about how things are run here, please don't post it in this thread. We'll just remove it. We love to hear thoughtful, constructive feedback via [modmail](_URL_0_) however.\n\nIt can take time for [an answer to show up](/_URL_2_), so we thank you for your patience. We know you're here because the question sounds interesting, and we eagerly await an answer just like you! While you wait though, there is tons of great content already written, which you can find through our [Twitter](_URL_1_), the [Sunday Digest](_URL_4_), the [Monthly \"Best Of\"](_URL_6_) feature, and [Facebook](_URL_3_). If you don't want to forget to check back late, consider a [Private Message](_URL_5_) to the [Remind-Me bot](_URL_7_) (cc /u/Str0nzo)\n\nAgain though, please remember the rules, and keep them in mind while you browse. If you don't like how this subreddit is run, keep in mind that this method has seen us continue to succeed and grow for years, and isn't going to change, so at least try and make your complaint original. /r/AskHistory exists, so complaining about the rules to us is like going into a fancy restaurant to complain they don't sell chicken nuggets, even though Chick-fil-A is nextdoor.",
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},
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"answer": "I answered almost this exact question a couple months back, [in this thread here](_URL_0_). Which includes links to a number of sources, but the short answer is that cities arose gradually and people didn't stop being nomadic hunter gatherers all at once. It was a slow transition that often looked like a hybrid between settled urban agricultural life and hunting and gathering. The evidence we have can't tell us what exactly they thought about the change but the safest assumption is that the transition was gradual enough that it wasn't seen as too drastic of a departure at the time.",
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"answer": "Follow up/related question: Are there any 'meta' early writings, acknowledging the fact they're an early writing (in any capacity)? ",
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"answer": "In the case of ancient Egypt, the answer is yes. Their mythology and history expressly stated that they were the first civilization. They believed that the universe was created on a \"mound of creation\" (as it's called by Egyptologists), which rose out of the receding flood waters of the Nile. There are various versions of the creation story, but in the most exciting one [Atum or Re-Atum](_URL_2_) created the first pantheon of deities by masturbating them into existence: \"Atum is the one who came into being as one who came [(with penis) extended](_URL_1_) in Heliopolis. He put his penis in his fist so that he might make orgasm with it, and the two twins were born, Shu and Tefnut.\"^1 This mound of creation is called Benben by Egyptologists (Egyptian 𓃀𓈖𓃀𓈖𓉴), and it was a common feature of temples for millennia of Egyptian history, demonstrating the incredible longevity of this idea.^2\n\nMost cultures have a creation myth that puts them at the center, so that doesn't completely answer your question. In Egypt, however, they kept written records of their history, which referenced their understanding of creation. There are frequent allusions to the \"original time\" (𓅮𓏏𓏖) in Egyptian texts, including the Pyramid Texts, and a glimpse of what they understood this to mean is found in the [Turin Royal Canon](_URL_4_).^3 That document records the reigns of kings from the New Kingdom back to the reigns of well-known Egyptian deities, including Seth, Horus, and Thoth. The tomb of the First Dynasty king [Djer](_URL_0_) (also in the Turin Canon, II.13 in the facsimile) was later venerated as the tomb of the god Osiris. \n\nSo not only did they believe that they were the first civilization, created ex nihilo by the gods, they had places where they could go and see those gods' tombs in person. Their official history recorded the descent of their living kings from ancient deities, and they continually referred to these deities in contemporary texts. When they found old things, they knew that those things belonged to their civilization, and that they were directly descended from the people who made them.\n\n\nSources:\n\n1. Translation from: Allen, James P. 2015. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts*. See the original texts [here](_URL_3_). This quote is in *PT IV (422-538)*, p. 279. \n\n2. Obviously there is more to be said here. Representations of the mound of creation changed over time, but the central idea was always present. There's a great deal on this in: Kemp, Barry J. 2005. *Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization*. \n\n3. The Wikipedia page is actually a great source for this. It has the original text, a transcription, and translation.\n\nEdit: Thanks for the 𓋞!",
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"answer": "This is an answer I gave to a similar question a few years ago.\n\nSo I'm only gonna be talking about the Sumerians here. The only way that we are going to have any knowledge of what the first civilizations knew of their past is through written records. Writing first appears in Sumer in around 3000 BC, this is during the Uruk period (4000-3001 BC). At this time it was very much proto-writing and did not develop into a full written language until the Early Dynastic Period (2800-2500 BC)\n\nIt is not until the end of the Early Dynastic Period (2300 BC) that we see the emergence of the Sumerian King List which documents the kings of Sumer and gives us an insight into what the Sumerians may have believed about their past.\n\nThe King List, a collection of several sources, details the rulers of the cities of Sumer from the first antediluvian rulers to the last dynasty of Isin. The first king was Alulim, first king of Eridu. He ruled for 28,800 years. Now at first glance that may seem an unreasonably long rule and that is because it is. Alulim, the first king after the kingship descended from heaven created by the god Enki is clearly almost entirely mythical. This list of antediluvian kings ends with Ubara-tutu and the coming of the great flood that wipes the world clean.\n\nThe list resumes with Jushur the first of the dynasty of Kish. He ruled for 1200 years. 20 kings and 15255 years later we have En-me-barage-si who is the first king we have archaeological evidence for. He is dated from around 2600 BC from two pieces of alabaster vases found at Nippur which bear his name. Though he ruled for 900 years, a rather long time, it can be surmised that he is indeed real. He is mentioned also in the Epic of Gilgamesh alongside Gilgamesh himself giving credence to the thought that Gilgamesh is a historical figure. The King List continues into the time of rulers that can easily be verified such as Sargon of Akkad who ruled for 40 years and founded the Akkadian Empire. Thus we see the transition of the mythical into the semi-mythical and then verifiable history. But more on that later.\n\nThe Sumerian creation myth is important to note in this discussion. It recounts that the gods Enki among them created the first “black-headed people” (the Sumerians) and settled them in the land giving them the kingship and thus the first cities were created. A large part of the story is missing but at some point the gods decide not to save mankind from a flood which strikes destroying man and cites. Later the world is presumably repopulated.\n\nIn addition there is the “Debate between Summer and Winter” a creation myth from the mid 3nd millennium. This details the creation of the land and seasons by Enlil. In it he is seen to irrigate the land “guaranteeing the spring floods at the quay” and to begin the agricultural tradition of the land “making flax grow and barley proliferate.”\n\nFinally and most interestingly for this topic is the “Debate between Sheep and Grain” another creation myth written in the mid-3rd millennium . The myth details a time in which sheep and grain were unknown to the land. The people “went about with naked limbs in the Land. Like sheep they ate grass with their mouths and drank water from the ditches.” The myth ends with the virtues of grain being extolled “from sunrise to sunset may the name of Grain be praised. People should submit to the yoke of grain.”\n\nTherefore we can see that early history of Mesopotamia, the Ubaid period and before, is in Sumerian text seen in a divine light. The land was created by the gods as were the people and they were given cities and kingship. Enlil gave the people the summer and the winter, he gave them wheat and irrigation as Enki gave them kingship. Only in the “Debate between Sheep and Grain” is there indicated any knowledge of a time before sedentary agriculture. This myth clashes with that of the “Debate between Summer and Winter” though it is part of the same tradition indicating the lack of a unified view of their past. It seems that the Sumerians saw their past as part of a very real mythical tradition. Their kings begin as mythical figures and progress towards the non-mythical. The mythical and the non-mythical are closely linked in the Sumerian view of themselves and their past\n\nI would conclude that the Sumerians did believe themselves to be not just the first civilization but the first people, it is part of their creation myth. In addition there was no knowledge in the way we would think of a hunter-gatherer life preceding their urban civilization. If there is any hint it exists as another facet of the extensive and contradictory creation myth of the peoples of Sumer.\n\n[_URL_0_](http://_URL_0_/)\n\n[_URL_2_](https://_URL_2_/)\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446282",
"title": "Mardin Province",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The first known civilization were the Subarian-Hurrians who were then succeeded in 3000 BCE by the Hurrians. The Elamites gained control around 2230 BCE and were followed by the Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Romans and Byzantines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21566765",
"title": "South Asia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The earliest prehistoric culture have roots in the mesolithic sites as evidenced by the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times. According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for South Asian religions, but these links from the Indus religion to later-day South Asian traditions are subject to scholarly dispute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1757,
"text": "Sumerians were the first people to develop complex systems as to be called \"Civilization\", starting as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onwards, the Iranian Medes followed by Achaemenid Persia and other subsequent Iranian states empires dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd up to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and Sassanid Persia. From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2181792",
"title": "Bicameralism (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Issues with Jaynes' proposal.:Recent cultural ancestor-worship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "While he said ancient societies engaged in ancestor worship before this date, non-ancient societies also engaged in it after that date; very advanced societies like the Aztecs and Egyptians mummified and deified rulers (see Pyramids and the philosopher Nezahualcoyotl). The Aztecs and Incans did so all the way up to their conquest by the Spanish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::History by region.:Americas.:Andean civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Ancient Andean Civilization began with the rise or organized fishing communities from 3,500 BC onwards. Along with a sophisticated maritime society came the construction of large monuments, which likely existed as community centers.. The large ceremonial structures predated the Measoamerican Olmecs by 2,000 years making Norte Chico the first civilization in the western hemisphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8258191",
"title": "Cultural transformation theory",
"section": "Section::::Partnership Model in Prehistoric Civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "The last known major civilization to have a partnership society, the Minoan civilization of Crete, flourished during the Bronze Age over 3500 years ago. Having existed even before Archaic Greece, it is one of the earliest known civilizations in Europe and is vital to recreating the timeline of Europe’s history. First discovered by Sir Arthur Evans, numerous artifacts have since been uncovered documenting the way of life of this ancient civilization. The Minoans had constructed enormous courts at four different palace sites which are believed to be centers for trade and other large social, political and religious activities. The Minoans also built religious tombs and cemeteries, staircases and extensive store areas showing a highly sophisticated standard of living most impressive for their time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14098",
"title": "History of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Pre-colonization.:Classic stage (800 BCE – 1533 CE).:South America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2aimrm
|
how can we show child sexuality in movies, books, and other media formats, but not in pornography?
|
[
{
"answer": " > In movies, like The Virgin Suicides and White Oleander, we're allowed to hear about children having sex. We even see a fourteen-year-old girl (in TVS), played by a minor, \"grab\" a boy.\n\nAnd none of that is pornography. It's not sexually exploiting children.\n\n > Books can get even more explicit.\n\nBecause they're fictional, and don't involve any actual children.\n\n > Yet child pornography is illegal\n\nBecause child pornography often involves **actual sexual abuse of actual children.**\n\nIt's the same reason that you can have a movie or book about a murderer, but you can't murder people in real life.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23871404",
"title": "Child pornography laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Definition of child pornography under federal law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Child pornography under federal law is defined as any visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct involving a minor (someone under 18 years of age). Visual depictions include photographs, videos, digital or computer generated images indistinguishable from an actual minor, and images created, adapted, or modified, but appear to depict an identifiable, actual minor. Undeveloped film, undeveloped videotape, and electronically stored data that can be converted into a visual image of child pornography are also deemed illegal visual depictions under federal law. The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit has held that images created by superimposing the face of a child on sexually explicit photographs of legal adults is not protected speech under the First Amendment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347867",
"title": "Legal status of drawn pornography depicting minors",
"section": "Section::::Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Any images or videos that depict children in a pornographic context are to be considered child pornography in Sweden, even if they are drawings. A \"child\" is defined as a “person” who is either under the age of 18 or who has not passed puberty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173634",
"title": "Sexual slavery",
"section": "Section::::Type.:Commercial sexual exploitation of children.:Child pornography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Child pornography, sometimes referred to as 'child abuse images', refers to images or films depicting sexually explicit activities involving a child. As such, child pornography is often a visual record of child sexual abuse. Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts which are photographed in the production of child pornography, and the effects of the abuse on the child (and continuing into maturity) are compounded by the wide distribution and lasting availability of the photographs of the abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1903987",
"title": "Commercial sexual exploitation of children",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Pornography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Child pornography is prevalent on the international, national, regional, and local levels. The differences of production, distribution, producers, evasion techniques, and status are explained in figure one. Child pornography is a multibillion-dollar enterprise that includes photographs, books, audiotapes, videos and more. These images depict children performing sexual acts with other children, adults, and other objects. The children are subjected to exploitation, rape, pedophilia, and in extreme cases, murder. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23908559",
"title": "Child pornography laws in Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Manga artists and anime directors have argued that it is dangerous to try to define child pornography when it comes to artwork, drawings, and animation when regarding hentai due to it being highly ambiguous, and have cited freedom of expression to prevent it from being abused. For example, they argued that even in the anime and manga series \"Doraemon\", the scene of the schoolgirl Shizuka Minamoto taking a bath might be mis-construed as \"child pornography\". Arts depicting underage characters (lolicon and shotacon) and photography of underage models (junior idol) remain controversial in Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1966558",
"title": "Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography",
"section": "Section::::Signatories and reservations.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Sweden has clarified its interpretation of child pornography as applying only to the visual representation of sexual acts with a child or minor persons, and not applying to adults acting, posing, or dressing, as a child.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25211885",
"title": "Child pornography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Child pornography is pornography that exploits children for sexual stimulation. It may be produced with the direct involvement or sexual assault of a child (also known as child sexual abuse images) or it may be simulated child pornography. Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts or lascivious exhibitions of genitals or pubic areas which are recorded in the production of child pornography. Child pornography may use a variety of media, including writings, magazines, photos, sculpture, drawing, cartoon, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video, and video games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15vmg8
|
Has a wholly or mainly guerrilla opposition ever driven out a large conventional force, without the aid of another country?
|
[
{
"answer": "There might be a few anti-colonial conflicts worth looking at here. The FNLA in Algeria didn't (AFAIK) receive any substantive aid from other countries, nor did the major revolutionary movements in Rhodesia/Zimbabwe. \n\nI'm pretty sure FRELIMO in Mozambique drove out the Portuguese without assistance, whilst the MPLA in Angola only received limited support from Cuba.\n\nFinally, a case might be made for the RPF in Rwanda, although I don't think they could easily be categorised as guerillas in the way the other groups could, as they were largely composed of deserting Rwandan units from the Ugandan army.\n\nOf course, guerilla tactics are ideal for combating colonialism precisely because they stall - by making colonialism economically untenable, they could make granting independence a more attractive choice than staying in control.",
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{
"answer": "Shivaji who was king of the State of Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh (all these states are in India, and geographically these would be bigger than say France and the low countries+Western Germany put together) sucessfully fought Guerilla campaign against the Mughals of Aurangazeb's empire.\n\nIt was classic assymetrical warfare as we know it now. Shivaji and the Maratha's used the thickly forested areas as a base, and struck at Mughal supply lines, tax collectors, vulnerable villages, cities. They even hit mughal garrison's....He used speed, location of attack and most importantly surprise to balance the force equation which was heavily in the side of the conventionally larger and better equiped Mughal force.\n\nHe even used the idea of scorched earth warfare to deny resources to the Mughal army...\n\nA good starting point would be \n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "While not necessarily fitting your criteria of winning with guerrilla tactics, the Finnish Army made great use of guerrilla warfare to block the Soviets from completing their objectives for the initial months of the war. The Finns defence made the Soviets do a complete restructuring of their operations in this war, including a change in command. Under new leadership, they switched from the maneuver warfare of their four-pronged assault into Finland (minimal gains for heavy casualties) to a war of attrition, when they concentrated their forces on the Mannerheim Line following a shift in command.\n\nUntil the concentration of forces, the Finns had effectively halted the Soviets in what to me is an interesting case of (at least) partial unconventional warfare between two conventional armies. \n\nHopefully this is at least sort of what you were hoping for. ",
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"answer": "Define \"without the aid of another country\"? If you mean physical presence within the country then the War of Independence was a largely guerrilla war fought without the aid of another country that ended in the creation of the Irish Free State.\n\nThe Irish Volunteers did however receive their initial arms and ammunition from Germany. After that I believe most arms were taken from storming RIC barracks and military installations.",
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"answer": "I think there is confusion between Guerilla tactics and Guerilla Warfare. But to how about Cuba? I think Castro got some small donations before the war from many different supporters like CIA(if I recall correctly) they were not big or significant to the actual guerilla war. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22634688",
"title": "Strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Foreign and native regimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "There are many unsuccessful examples of guerrilla warfare against local or native regimes. These include Portuguese Africa (Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau), Malaysia (then Malaya) during the Malayan Emergency, Bolivia, Argentina, and the Philippines. It was even able to use these tactics effectively against the Indian Peace Keeping Force sent by India in the mid-1980s, which were later withdrawn for varied reasons, primarily political. The Tigers are fighting to create a separate homeland for Sri Lankan Tamils, many of whom complain of marginalisation by successive governments led by the Sinhalese majority since independence from Britain in 1948.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22634688",
"title": "Strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Foreign and native regimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Examples of successful guerrilla warfare against a native regime include the Cuban Revolution and the Chinese Civil War, as well as the Sandinista Revolution which overthrew a military dictatorship in Nicaragua. The many coups and rebellions of Africa often reflect guerrilla warfare, with various groups having clear political objectives and using guerrilla tactics. Examples include the overthrow of regimes in Uganda, Liberia and other places. In Asia, native or local regimes have been overthrown by guerrilla warfare, most notably in Vietnam, China and Cambodia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634730",
"title": "History of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Cold War Era (1945–1990).:Latin American insurgence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "While these movements did destabilize governments, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Peru to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several atrocities among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7888526",
"title": "Military history of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Ajuran-Portuguese wars.:Independence struggles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "These national liberation movements were informed by the successful guerrilla warfare doctrine used in the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1949) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The insurgents' goal was thus not to win the war — and no colonial army was ever defeated — but simply not to lose, thus making the conduct of the war unbearable for the colonial power over the long term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12720",
"title": "Guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Strategy, tactics and methods.:Unconventional methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "In addition to traditional military methods, guerrilla groups may rely also on destroying infrastructure, using improvised explosive devices, for example. They typically also rely on logistical and political support from the local population and foreign backers, are often embedded within it (thereby using the population as a human shield), and many guerrilla groups are adept at public persuasion through propaganda. Many guerrilla movements today also rely heavily on children as combatants, scouts, porters, spies, informants, and in other roles, which has drawn international condemnation (although many states also recruit children into their armed forces).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7888526",
"title": "Military history of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Military history of Africa by regions.:Military history of East Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In the 20th century, a number of groups engaged in guerrilla warfare in their fight to gain independence from the colonial powers, such as the Maji Maji Rebellion (1905–1907) against the Germans in Tanganyika (later Tanzania), and the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960) against the British in Kenya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357590",
"title": "Communist Party of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::The Araguaia Guerrilla (1969-1976).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "In 1971, Army units discovered the location of the guerrilla nucleus and were deployed to cordon off the area, preventing it from spreading its operations to the north of the Amazon. The repression of guerrilla operations began in 1972, with three military expeditions that mobilized 25,000 soldiers. While the first two were repelled, the third expedition defeated the last pockets of resistance. Most of the guerillas died in clash with Army forces, including Osvaldão Grabois and Maurice, who died in confrontation with the Army on December 25, 1973. In the 3rd campaign of annihilation, the Army used \"dirty tactics\", including torture of civilians, and execution and beheading of prisoners, hiding the bodies where they would remain unknown for decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25oco0
|
is sleeping in a fetal position (curled-up back) as bad for your posture as slouching for 8 hrs a day?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would assume that it is *not as bad* simply because you don't have the same downward pressure on the arch when you are lying down as when you are slouching in a seated position. That said, it probably isn't great for your posture to sleep in a fetal position (I do the same thing, and slouch, and have horrible posture myself).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. Slouching is bad because gravity is tugging the spine all day. Sleeping in any comfortable, neutral position is just fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "im no scientist, but it seemed clear to me that the problem with slouching is that gravity is weighing down on you",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are right about the gravity and pressure on your back being bad.\n\nBut there's also the matter of muscle tightness that is important to be aware of. Most people in modern society sit often, so our bodies (mainly our musculoskeletal system) have adapted to a seated position. \n\nSo when you sleep in a fetal position, it is comfortable because your muscles are not being stretched, and are just going to their naturally tight position. \n\nBut the problem is that since most people don't stretch their muscles to even/balance them, your muscles will get progressively tighter and tighter. And if you sleep in the fetal position, your muscles won't be stretched during the night to counteract the tightness. If you had slept on your back, your tight muscles would be given a chance to loosen a little for a long period (hours while you sleep).\n\nTL;DR - It's not directly bad for your back, but its bad in the sense that it doesn't help prevent muscle tightening as much as sleeping on your back. The best bet is to sleep in whatever way you feel most comfortable (because sleeping well is super important) but to also do stretches and move around during the day so your muscles are stretched evenly and not tight!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My girlfriend is gone for the summer, I honestly have not left our bed for the last 3 weeks, gone so far to even pee in a bottle, and put the microwave and mini fridge on the nightstand. It's amazing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I instantly sat up straight while reading this thread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "996317",
"title": "Fetal position",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "A study by Professor Chris Idzikowski, director of the Sleep Assessment and Advisory Service found that people who consistently sleep in the fetal position tend to have a shy and sensitive personality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286191",
"title": "Torticollis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Physical therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- Encouraging prone playtime (tummy time). Although the Back to Sleep campaign promotes infants sleeping on their backs to avoid sudden infant death syndrome during sleep, parents should still ensure that their infants spend some waking hours on their stomachs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65344",
"title": "Sudden infant death syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Sleeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Placing an infant to sleep while lying on the stomach or the side increases the risk. This increased risk is greatest at two to three months of age. Elevated or reduced room temperature also increases the risk, as does excessive bedding, clothing, soft sleep surfaces, and stuffed animals. Bumper pads may increase the risk of SIDS due to the risk of suffocation. They are not recommended for children under one year of age as this risk of suffocation greatly outweighs the risk of head bumping or limbs getting stuck in the bars of the crib.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11891685",
"title": "Tummy time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In 1992, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended babies sleep on their backs to prevent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Although the rate of SIDS decreased by 50% since the Safe to Sleep campaign started in 1994, an unintended consequence was that babies missed out on the twelve or so hours they used to spend in the prone position and there was a sharp increase in skull deformations in infants. Along with tummy time, rotating the direction infants lie in their crib as well as avoiding too much time in car seats, carriers, and bouncers are behaviors recommended to alleviate the associated risks of infants sleeping in a supine position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569846",
"title": "Co-sleeping",
"section": "Section::::Safety and health.:Opposing arguments and precautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Co-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also the risk of the baby falling to a hard floor, or getting wedged between the bed and the wall or headboard. A proposed solution to these problems is the bedside bassinet, in which, rather than bed-sharing, the baby's bed is placed next to the parent's bed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::Other influences on infant sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Lastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11891685",
"title": "Tummy time",
"section": "Section::::Scientific research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Since 1998 there have been several studies published which report that infants placed to sleep in the supine position lag in motor skills, social skills, and cognitive ability development when compared to infants who sleep in the prone position. In a 1998 article entitled \"Effects of Sleep Position on Infant Motor Development\" by Davis, Moon, Sachs, and Ottolini, the authors state \"We found that sleep position significantly impacts early motor development.\" The prone (stomach) sleeping infants in this study slept an average of 225.2 hours (8.3%) more in their first 6 months of life than the supine (back) sleeping infants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
314w9p
|
Good Holocaust books dealing with holocaust denial?
|
[
{
"answer": "Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman's *Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It?* is a survey of deniers. \n\nGood luck engaging Deniers though, it's equivalent to yelling at a brick wall. Denialism thrives off of ahistorical arguments and although many deniers style themselves as historians or skeptics, they are not playing by the evidentiary rules of either. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "360128",
"title": "List of conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Ethnicity, race and religion.:Antisemitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Holocaust denial is also considered an antisemitic conspiracy theory because of its position that the Holocaust is a hoax designed to advance the interests of Jews and justify the creation of the State of Israel. Notable Holocaust deniers include former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmedinejad, the convicted chemist Germar Rudolf and the discredited author David Irving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65651",
"title": "Holocaust denial",
"section": "Section::::Reactions to Holocaust denial.:Public figures and scholars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "A number of public figures and scholars have spoken out against Holocaust denial, with some – such as literary theorist Jean Baudrillard – likening Holocaust denial to \"part of the extermination itself\". The American Historical Association, the oldest and largest society of historians and teachers of history in the United States, states that Holocaust denial is \"at best, a form of academic fraud\". In 2006, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan said: \"Remembering is a necessary rebuke to those who say the Holocaust never happened or has been exaggerated. Holocaust denial is the work of bigots; we must reject their false claims whenever, wherever and by whomever they are made.\" Holocaust survivor and Nobel Prize winner Elie Wiesel, during a 1999 discussion at the White House in Washington D.C., called the Holocaust \"the most documented tragedy in recorded history. Never before has a tragedy elicited so much witness from the killers, from the victims and even from the bystanders—millions of pieces here in the museum what you have, all other museums, archives in the thousands, in the millions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65651",
"title": "Holocaust denial",
"section": "Section::::Reactions to Holocaust denial.:Types of reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Scholarly response to Holocaust denial can be roughly divided into three categories. Some academics refuse to engage Holocaust deniers or their arguments at all, on grounds that doing so lends them unwarranted legitimacy. A second group of scholars, typified by the American historian Deborah Lipstadt, have tried to raise awareness of the methods and motivations of Holocaust denial without legitimizing the deniers themselves. \"We need not waste time or effort answering the deniers' contentions,\" Lipstadt wrote. \"It would be never-ending... Their commitment is to an ideology and their 'findings' are shaped to support it.\" A third group, typified by the Nizkor Project, responds to arguments and claims made by Holocaust denial groups by pointing out inaccuracies and errors in their evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909991",
"title": "Criticism of Holocaust denial",
"section": "Section::::Denial as antisemitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "Holocaust denial is generally viewed as antisemitic. Walter Reich, professor of international affairs at George Washington University and former director of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, stated, \"The primary motivation for most deniers is anti-Semitism.\" The \"Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity\" describes Holocaust denial as \"a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs.\" According to the Anti-Defamation League, \"Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy.\" French historian Valérie Igounet wrote, \"Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism.\" In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia published a working definition of antisemitism that included \"denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4594093",
"title": "Ron Unz",
"section": "Section::::\"The Unz Review\" and other activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In August 2018, Unz made use of Holocaust denial arguments, writing \"I think it far more likely than not that the standard Holocaust narrative is at least substantially false, and quite possibly, almost entirely so.\" That same year, \"The Unz Review\" published material by the Holocaust deniers Kevin Barrett and David Irving, and Unz himself implied Mossad was involved in the murders of President John F. Kennedy and his brother Robert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65651",
"title": "Holocaust denial",
"section": "Section::::Reactions to Holocaust denial.:Holocaust denial and antisemitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The \"Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity\" defines Holocaust denial as \"a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs\". The Anti-Defamation League has stated that \"Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy\" and French historian Valérie Igounet has written that \"Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65651",
"title": "Holocaust denial",
"section": "Section::::Examination of claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Holocaust denial is widely viewed as failing to adhere to principles for the treatment of evidence that mainstream historians (as well as scholars in other fields) regard as basic to rational inquiry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2frhvr
|
why are people hiding ebola victims?
|
[
{
"answer": "Africa is a different place, with a very different culture than most people in the west are used to. There is a lot of distrust of hospitals there, and Ebola wards in particular. Most people there still believe in medicine men and traditional healing. So, people who are sick with Ebola or anything else, tend to seek help from traditional healers rather than real hospitals. These traditional healers treat people in their homes, aided by their families, and not take people to hospitals. Thus 'harboring' victims. The problem with this approach of course, is that people can;t isolate victims effectively in their homes, and this promotes the spread of the disease.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Africa has a long history of westerners showing up with some claim or other then screwing everyone over. \n\nEbola is real, we know that, but it sounds like just another scam to fuck with Africa. \n\nLike imagine if north koreans showed up in America and were all 'hey we need to take these people, they have a disease, TRUST US\". A lot of Americans would be all 'uhhh, no?\" too, even if it turned out in the end it was real. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A person you've never met before, dressed in a spacesuit, walks into your home and tells you that your sick child must go with them. You have to walk miles to the hospital where they've taken her. They tell you she died. They won't let you see her. They won't let you have a funeral. They bury her in a plastic bag.\n\nAnd if you do go to a hospital this is what you find:\n\n > **There was blood on the walls, starving patients and hygienists using water that was “brown like mud.” Health workers moved from high-risk to low-risk areas without changing clothes;** “you never knew who was next to you,” Chenard says. “It could be a patient, suspected or confirmed … it could be hospital personnel.”\n\nThe President of Doctors Without Borders, Joanne Liu, said:\n\n > **“Ebola treatment centres are reduced to places where people go to die alone, ...\"**\n\nIt's a desperate situation and I guess they would rather die at home.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As crazy as it sounds a lot of people there do not even believe its a real thing. Monkey Meat and the Ebola Outbreak in Liberia: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason people hide zombie bites in moves",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing is stopping me getting treatment for depression...but I don't. People are stupid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19147895",
"title": "Conservation refugee",
"section": "Section::::Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "African conservation refugees, some sources numbering them somewhere around 14 million, have long been displaced due to transnational efforts to preserve select areas of biota that are believed to be critical from a historical and environmental perspective. What purpose do protected areas serve and why are they established? According to the article \"Parks and Peoples: the social impact of protected areas\" protected areas are a way of \"seeing, understanding, and reproducing the world around us\" as well as serving as a place of social interaction and production. In short protected areas are established to preserve an area in its natural state in an increasingly globalized world. Although the traditional residential grounds of millions of native peoples have existed for hundreds of years, conservation efforts continually encroach upon these areas in an effort to preserve biological diversity in both flora and fauna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44016208",
"title": "Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic",
"section": "Section::::National responses.:Measures to protect national security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Many governments across the world have put measures in place which are aimed at preventing the possible spread of Ebola into their countries, and to prepare an appropriate response in order to protect their populations from Ebola. These include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58011203",
"title": "2018–19 Kivu Ebola epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In terms of prognosis, aside from the possible effects of post-Ebola syndrome, there is also the reality of survivors returning to communities where they might be shunned due to the fear many have in the respective areas of the Ebola virus, hence psychosocial assistance is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50465",
"title": "Democratic Republic of Afghanistan",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Refugees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Afgan refugees are Afghanistan nationals who have fled their country as a result of the ongoing Afghan conflict. About six million people have fled the country, most to neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, making it the largest producer of refugees in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44358983",
"title": "Cultural effects of the Ebola crisis",
"section": "Section::::West African cultural traditions and norms.:Resistance to Western medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1486,
"text": "Resistance to Western medicine is considered to be a significant barrier to battling the Ebola virus. The Wesley Medical Center claims that the interference with West African burial rituals caused by Western medical practices has prohibited them from properly honoring their loved ones. They believe that this may have been a reason for heightened distrust in medical professionals, and that the mistrust enhances each time family members of infected persons are prohibited from participating in the funeral or seeing the dead body in person. Due to the mistrust, Ebola-stricken communities in Liberia reportedly hid family members with Ebola from health care providers and held secret burials. In Sierra Leone, health workers made more progress because health measures were implemented according to WHO guidance, which advises health workers to heed the traditions of the threatened communities when attending to the dead. Therefore, funerals were held in agreement with the wishes of the families, but also gave health workers an opportunity to disinfect the bodies. In many of the Ebola infected areas in Africa, Western medicine is also believed either to be ineffective or to be the actual origin of the virus. In other words, there is a belief among the African community that Western doctors are intentionally killing their patients with their treatments. A conspiracy theory also says that the medical professionals are planning to harvest the organs of those dying from Ebola.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45547",
"title": "Refugee",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Medical problems.:Malaria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Refugees are often more susceptible to illness for several reasons, including a lack of immunity to local strains of malaria and other diseases. Displacement of a people can create favorable conditions for disease transmission. Refugee camps are typically heavily populated with poor sanitary conditions. The removal of vegetation for space, building materials or firewood also deprives mosquitoes of their natural habitats, leading them to more closely interact with humans. In the 1970s, Afghani refugees that were relocated to Pakistan were going from a country with an effective malaria control strategy, to a country with a less effective system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198813",
"title": "Slum",
"section": "Section::::Problems.:Infectious Diseases and Epidemics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Slums have been historically linked to epidemics, and this trend has continued in modern times. For example, the slums of West African nations such as Liberia were crippled by as well as contributed to the outbreak and spread of Ebola in 2014. Slums are considered a major public health concern and potential breeding grounds of drug resistant diseases for the entire city, the nation, as well as the global community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35tmik
|
what are the main differences between hydraulics and pneumatics?
|
[
{
"answer": "Air can move far more quickly than hydraulics. If you want something to move fast, air is the answer.\n\nAir is also compressible, if you want shock absorption (like air ride suspension in cars and trucks), again, air is the answer.\n\nHydraulics use an oil instead of air, but the way they work is almost identical. Hydraulic fluid moves slower, but can be compressed to far higher pressures. When you need to move big and heavy loads, and don't have to do it fast, hydraulic is the answer. This is why you see it on all those big machines (dump trucks, bull dozers, front loaders).\n\nSince fluid doesn't compress, there is no shock absorption, but that also means there is no \"bounce\". When something needs to be held steady (like an electric company bucket, or a fork lift balancing a load), again, hydraulic is the answer.\n\nThanks to these two properties, hydraulic is also more precise than pnumatic. When high accuracy is needed, you're probably going to see hydraulic. Believe it or not, even with a huge excavator, a good operator can pick up a coin or fold a napkin thanks to the incredibly accuracy a hydraulic system can provide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Air is highly compressible, and so unsuitable for power transmission or operation at any appreciable pressure. It is cheap and clean though. Typical uses are low power actuators, valves, etc. Pneumatic systems are frequently employed in factory automation and automotive systems.\n\nHydraulics offer functionality at extreme forces and pressures, as well as superior cooling and lubrication, better position control and repeatability, corrosion control and power transmission ability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "195891",
"title": "Pneumatics",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to hydraulics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about . Hydraulics applications commonly use from , but specialized applications may exceed . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65424",
"title": "Hydraulics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concerns gases. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2100884",
"title": "Linear actuator",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Pneumatic actuators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Pneumatic actuators, or pneumatic cylinders, are similar to hydraulic actuators except they use compressed gas to generate force instead of a liquid. They work similarly to a piston in which air is pumped inside a chamber and pushed out of the other side of the chamber. Air actuators are not necessarily used for heavy duty machinery and instances where large amounts of weight are present. One of the reasons pneumatic linear actuators are preferred to other types is the fact that the power source is simply an air compressor. Because air is the input source, pneumatic actuators are able to be used in many places of mechanical activity. The downside is, most air compressors are large, bulky, and loud. They are hard to transport to other areas once installed. Pneumatic linear actuators are likely to leak and this makes them less efficient than mechanical linear actuators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372353",
"title": "Hydraulic machinery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Hydraulic systems, like pneumatic systems, are based on Pascal’s law which states that any pressure applied to a fluid inside a closed system will transmit that pressure equally everywhere and in all directions. A hydraulic system uses an incompressible liquid as its fluid, rather than a compressible gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43021100",
"title": "Electrostatic–pneumatic activation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Moreover, mechanical advantage is possible by use of electrostatic-pneumatic actuation. Since the cavity is filled with air, mechanical amplification is lower than hydraulic machinery with a non-compressible fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3232420",
"title": "Hydraulic cylinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "A hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment (engineering vehicles), manufacturing machinery, and civil engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3546095",
"title": "Pneumatic cylinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fdlzqo
|
why are non-real ids still available in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "State governments just refusing to implement the new documentation requirements in a timely manner. Plus the process also involves some individuals having to physically visit an office to present documents before their current IDs expire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1861994",
"title": "Real ID Act",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of the law.:Other provisions.:Miscellaneous provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "On December 17, 2018, H.R. 3398 amended the Real ID Act of 2005 to clarify that a citizen of the Freely Associated States (FAS) when admitted in the US on a non-immigrant basis is eligible for a driver's license or ID card. This was in order to resolve an outdated term in the original REAL ID Act. The Freely Associated States includes the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, or the Republic of Palau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "536717",
"title": "Information Technology Association of America",
"section": "Section::::Real ID.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Some have asserted that Real ID will turn state driver’s licenses into a national identity card and impose numerous new burdens on taxpayers, citizens, immigrants, and state governments – while doing nothing to protect against terrorism. As a result, it is stirring intense opposition from many groups across the political spectrum. Critics have claimed that ITAA supports the national ID card because its member companies would benefit from financially from implementing the card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1861994",
"title": "Real ID Act",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and opposition.:National ID card controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Many advocacy groups and individual opponents of the Real ID Act believe that having a Real ID-compliant license may become a requirement for various basic tasks. Thus a January 2008 statement by ACLU of Maryland says: \"The law places no limits on potential required uses for Real IDs. In time, Real IDs could be required to vote, collect a Social Security check, access Medicaid, open a bank account, go to an Orioles game, or buy a gun. The private sector could begin mandating a Real ID to perform countless commercial and financial activities, such as renting a DVD or buying car insurance. Real ID cards would become a necessity, making them de facto national IDs\". However, in order to perform some tasks, government-issued identification is already required (e.g., two forms of ID – usually a driver's license, passport, or Social Security card – are required by the Patriot Act in order to open a bank account).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19754078",
"title": "5-11 Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Real ID and immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Organizations on both sides of the immigration issue have found fault with Real ID's immigration policy. No strategy introduced by the Real ID Act has been found to create relevant changes in illegal human trafficking, pecuniary employment of undocumented aliens, or their establishing residence in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::Adoption.:Arguments against.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rather than relying on government-issued ID cards, US federal policy has the alternative to encourage the variety of identification systems that already exist, such as driver's or firearms licences or private cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19754078",
"title": "5-11 Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Identity security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The Real ID will be vulnerable to insider and outsider fraud because The Real ID Act requires States to connect their drivers license data to the data of all 55 other states and territories. Thousands of false driver's licenses are already being issued by bribed state employees, and the Federal Government has exposed the personal information of as many as 40 million Americans to potential theft. The Real ID database will certainly be a target for identity thieves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::Adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Law enforcement officials claim that identity cards make surveillance and the search for criminals easier and therefore support the universal adoption of identity cards. In countries that don't have a national identity card, there is, however, concern about the projected large costs and potential abuse of high-tech smartcards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dp0uy
|
What was the average number of children a Christian family had around 0 - 100 A.D.?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an interesting, but extremely difficult question to answer. The reason for this is that the question transcends more than just a religious group. We have evidence that by 50 to 60 AD, Christianity had spread (although it was incredibly small at this time) to cities all over the Levant, ancient Greece and all the way to Rome itself. We also know, by the quality of the writing, especially in the seven letters of Paul that we know are authentic, and by the style of the Gospels, that the writers were all fairly well-educated. This is significant because it shows that By the time Paul started writing his letters (around 50-55 c.e.) until the time the Gospels started being written (70-90 ce) Christianity had gone from being a small Jewish sect of peasants to having a diverse demographical make up. (For more on this I recommend reading, Ramsay MacMullen's (a Roman Social Historian) book [Christianizing the Roman Empire: A.D. 100-400](_URL_0_) which explains this in quite a bit more detail. \n\nThat said, numbers mean a lot and Christianity needed to spread an awful lot and quickly to go from between 20-30 people (which I recently discovered is the mainstream belief for Early Christianity Historians) at around the time of Jesus' death (around 30 ce, plus/minus 5 years) to being 5% of the population by the early fourth century, which would have been 3 million people. Rodney Stark's book [The Rise of Christianity](_URL_1_) although incredibly controversial and disputed by many scholars, did make one assertion that many scholars either agreed with or didn't oppose. That is, that he believed that, on average, Christianity needed to gain about 40% more followers per decade until the year 300. \n\nSo why do I mention all these numbers? Well, because it shows that A: Christianity started out incredibly small and remained small for quite some time. But B) it did get more progressively popular over the course of the first three centuries CE and that it wasn't limited to just the area around the Levant so again, we aren't just dealing with a specific group of people -- we are talking about different cultures from all over the Mediterranean, most of which had different practices for bearing children.\n\nHowever, it's safe to say a few things demographics wise. On average, typical Jewish peasant who lived an agrarian type of life-style could typically have up to 4-8 children, of course not all would live to be adults. Those who lived in cities or were more wealthy probably had fewer children, but again, we have no exact numbers on this. I am not qualified to answer how many children people in Ancient Greece or Rome would have had, so I digress from answering that aspect of the question. \n\nTLDR: Ancient Hebrew peasant families typically had 4-8 children, yet Christianity had spread to multiple cities and states over those first few decades, so individual studies would be needed to answer the question in more detail.\n\nSorry if this wasn't the exact answer you were hoping for.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "463114",
"title": "1920 in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Rest of 1920.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Various statistics of population were published during the year. Among other significant features, it was stated that the number of children under five years of age, in the whole of the territories of the former Hohenzollern empire, had sunk from 8,000,000 in 1911 to 5,000,000 in 1919.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7809444",
"title": "Growth of religion",
"section": "Section::::Growth of religious groups.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "By 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. Christians have 2.7 children per woman, which is above replacement level (2.1). According to Pew Research Center study, by 2050 the number of Christians in absolute number is expected to grow to more than double in the next few decades, from 517 million to 1.1 billion in Sub Saharan Africa, from 531 million to 665 million in Latin America and Caribbean, from 287 million to 381 million in Asia, and from 266 million to 287 million in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24163464",
"title": "Christianization of Goa",
"section": "Section::::Decline of Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "As per the data available, Christians constituted 63.83% (232,189 individuals), whereas Hindus comprised just 35.42% (128,824 individuals) in the 1851 census. The next census was carried out in 1881, according to which Christians were 58%, while Hindus were 42% of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27463",
"title": "Demographics of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::Religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "(100%: 6,981,381, registered resident population age 15 years and older). From the same 2016 survey, of 15 to 24 year olds 65.4% were Christian (36.3% Roman Catholic, 22.6% Reformed, 6.6% other), 23.0% unaffiliated, 0.3% Jewish, 8.3% Muslim, 1.7% other religions. Those aged 25 to 44 were 58.4% Christian (33.1% Roman Catholic, 18.7% Reformed, 6.7% other), 31.0% unaffiliated, 0.2% Jewish, 7.5% Muslim, 1.7% other religions. Older adults (45 to 64 years old) were 67.0% Christian (37.7% Roman Catholic, 23.9% Reformed, 5.5% other), 25.9% unaffiliated, 0.2% Jewish, 4.2% Muslim, 1.5% other religions. Senior citizens (over 65) were 81.3% Christian (40.3% Roman Catholic, 36.2% Reformed, 4.8% other), 14.9% unaffiliated, 0.3% Jewish, 1.1% Muslim, 0.5% other religions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28137918",
"title": "Christian population growth",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Christian fertility rate is 2.7 children per woman, which is higher than the global average fertility rate of 2.5. Globally, Christians were only slightly older (median age of 30) than the global average median age of 28 in 2010. According to Pew Research religious switching is projected to have a modest impact on changes in the Christian population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68935",
"title": "Demographics of Barbados",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The next largest group are Seventh-day Adventists, 5.9% of the population, followed by Methodists (4.2%). 3.8% of the population are Roman Catholics. Other Christians include Wesleyans (3.4%), Nazarenes (3.2%), Church of God (2.4%), Jehovah's Witnesses (2.0%), Baptists (1.8), Moravians (1.2%), Brethren Christian (0.5%), the Salvationists (0.4%) and Latter-day Saints ( 0.1%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17774",
"title": "Demographics of Lebanon",
"section": "Section::::Religious groups.:Religious population statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The 1932 census stated that Christians made up 50% of the resident population. Maronites, largest among the Christian denomination and then largely in control of the state apparatus, accounted for 29% of the total resident population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3620lh
|
Is it possible to create a sonic boom by waving a stick really fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually, I wouldn't be surprised if this was totally possible. In fact, this is basically the mechanism for making a whip crack - it's just a sonic boom - [these guys have a good high speed video and discuss the exact physics at play in a whip](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Turboprop design actually needs to take mach number into account since the tips of the propeller can go supersonic. The Russian TU-95 actually uses props that go supersonic at the tips, making it one of the loudest aircraft ever built.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Professional baseball players can swing a bat at about 90-100mph at the end of the bat. If you made a thin, long, and rigid rod with the same moment of inertia (about 15,000oz-in^2), a professional baseball player could break the sound barrier if the rod was about 20 feet long. You would run into aerodynamic (drag) issues as you approach Mach 0.9-1.0 though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "183824",
"title": "Sonic boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "A sonic boom does not occur only at the moment an object crosses the speed of sound; and neither is it heard in all directions emanating from the speeding object. Rather the boom is a continuous effect that occurs while the object is travelling at supersonic speeds. But it affects only observers that are positioned at a point that intersects a region in the shape of a geometrical cone behind the object. As the object moves, this conical region also moves behind it and when the cone passes over the observer, they will briefly experience the \"boom\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61273",
"title": "Supersonic speed",
"section": "Section::::Supersonic objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The tip of a bullwhip is thought to be the first man-made object to break the sound barrier, resulting in the telltale \"crack\" (actually a small sonic boom). The wave motion traveling through the bullwhip is what makes it capable of achieving supersonic speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183824",
"title": "Sonic boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created whenever an object travelling through the air travels faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2454160",
"title": "Supersonic aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Design principles.:Sonic boom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created whenever an object traveling through the air travels faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate significant amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12194807",
"title": "Boom Blox",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "\"Boom Blox\" has been described as Jenga meets \"Tetris Blast\", \"Breakout\", \"Duck Hunt\", and Lego. Gameplay emphasises reflexes, dexterity, and problem-solving skills. It features a physics model that ensures the blocks collapse realistically, and also measures the velocity at which an object is thrown, recognising four distinct speeds. In the game, players use the Wii Remote to manipulate bowling balls, baseballs, laser guns, and water hoses in order to knock over structures made of blocks. Alternately, they use the Wii Remote to grab blocks in Jenga-style gameplay, taking care to remove a maximum number of blocks without toppling the precariously stacked tower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46956100",
"title": "Sonic Boom: Rise of Lyric",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "\"Sonic Boom\" is an action-adventure game with a stronger emphasis on exploration and combat compared to previous \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" installments, featuring four main characters whom players control: Sonic, Tails, Knuckles, and Amy. Each character has their own unique abilities and gameplay mechanics: Sonic can use his speed and homing attacks, Tails can fly and use various gadgets, Knuckles can burrow underground and climb on walls, and Amy can use her hammer to swing on poles. Each character also possesses a whip-like weapon called the Enerbeam, which allows them to perform various actions such as hanging from speeding rails, removing enemy shields, and solving puzzles. There is also a focus on collaboration, with player's switching control between multiple characters and using their abilities to progress. The game will support local co-operative multiplayer for two players, with additional modes for up to four players locally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52624015",
"title": "List of unofficial Sonic media",
"section": "Section::::Mods and ROM hacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sonic 1 Boomed is a hack of \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" that implements Sonic's redesign from the \"Sonic Boom\" animated series, and additionally gives Sonic voice clips that play when the player simply jumps or collects rings. The hack was created as a joke to respond to the poor reception of \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6abqcx
|
Did the early-modern developers of the physical/chemical atomic theory explicitly credit ancient philosophical Atomism?
|
[
{
"answer": "By the late-18th/early-19th century the idea of Atomism had been hashed over for literally centuries. They weren't going back to the Ancients at that point. Dalton's own discussions of Atomism were rooted more in the work of Newton (who made various corpuscular assumptions in his work) than they were in Democritus or Epicurus. \n\nIf you go back to the earlier discussions, e.g. Robert Boyle, you get a much more complicated picture. Boyle's Atomism was certainly done with knowledge of the Ancient philosophers on the subject, but his more immediate inspiration were discussions within alchemical theory about the nature of matter (which are more Aristotelian than Democritus/Epicurus; e.g. \"what is matter made of that allows it to be X sometimes and Y another?\"). \n\nThe sort of place where I've seen explicit invocations of Democritus and Epicurus has been in discussions about the vacuum and Plenism (Atomism's antagonist philosophy, which argues for a continuum of matter, and lack of vacuum). The line between the philosophical and the empirical in this discussion, in the 17th century anyway (again, over a century before Dalton), is completely fuzzy. Hence one of the biggest arguments was between Boyle (a \"chemist\" in a modern framing) and Thomas Hobbes (a \"philosopher\"), who both saw themselves as doing semi-empirical, semi-philosophical work. Hobbes deployed Democritus and Epicurus to argue _against_ Boyle's conception of the vacuum, and thus against Boyle's interpretation of his late 17th-century air-pump experiments. Which is just to say: everyone in that time would have recognized that these figures were involved in putting out philosophies of Atomism, but even by the 17th century it wasn't required to go back to them to get the ideas, there were plenty of other sources.\n\nDalton's accomplishment was not in re-inventing or even re-invoking Atomism. It was in trying to give it a strong physical basis and tie that into its possible chemical implications. It is very much the project of someone who has already stopped caring about what the Ancients said about such a matter, which itself is a very late-Enlightenment, post-chemical revolution sort of move. An earlier figure, like Boyle, cared a bit about the Ancients — not so much because he thought everything they said was accurate, but because they formed sort of a bedrock of understanding that he could push back against or build off of. And because he did think that ultimately what he was doing was a form of philosophy, even if he made an argument that new machines (like the air-pump) could serve as a run-around to philosophical quandaries. And the influence of alchemical theorizing on Boyle cannot be overstated — it was core to his understanding of what might have been going on in _all_ of his experimental work. \n\nThis is a big topic and I don't claim to know every in and out of it (I am not an early modernist in the slightest, though I dip a toe into these readings sometimes for teaching purposes, and find the Boyle stuff pretty interesting for its strangeness). On Boyle v. Hobbes, Shapin and Schaffer's _Leviathan and the Air-Pump_ (1985) is the classic text. On Dalton's Atomism, I found this article very useful a little while back: Alan J. Rocke, \"In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory,\" _Social Research_ 72, no. 1 (Spring 2005), 125-158. Rocke does a great job of situating Dalton's Newtonism and what exactly he was trying to accomplish. On Boyle's (and others') alchemical atomism (and various other Atomisms at the time), see esp. William R. Newman, \"The Significance of 'Chymical Atomism,'\" _Early Science and Medicine_ 14, no. 1/3 (2009), 248-264. Newman is one of the great scholars of Boyle and alchemy. It is a difficult world to translate into modern physical/chemical terms on the whole — that is just not how they saw it working, and you sort of have to dive in on their own terms.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Of discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book \"De rerum natura\" (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7071490",
"title": "History of molecular theory",
"section": "Section::::17th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "With the rise of scholasticism and the decline of the Roman Empire, the atomic theory was abandoned for many ages in favor of the various four element theories and later alchemical theories. The 17th century, however, saw a resurgence in the atomic theory primarily through the works of Gassendi, and Newton. Among other scientists of that time Gassendi deeply studied ancient history, wrote major works about Epicurus natural philosophy and was a persuasive propagandist of it. He reasoned that to account for the size and shape of atoms moving in a void could account for the properties of matter. Heat was due to small, round atoms; cold, to pyramidal atoms with sharp points, which accounted for the pricking sensation of severe cold; and solids were held together by interlacing hooks. Newton, though he acknowledged the various atom attachment theories in vogue at the time, i.e. \"hooked atoms\", \"glued atoms\" (bodies at rest), and the \"stick together by conspiring motions\" theory, rather believed, as famously stated in \"Query 31\" of his 1704 \"Opticks\", that particles attract one another by some force, which \"in immediate contact is extremely strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from particles with any sensible effect.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281782",
"title": "History of thermodynamics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contributions from antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17924",
"title": "Leucippus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "\"Aristotle and Theophrastos certainly made him [Leucippus] the originator of the atomic theory, and they can hardly have been mistaken on such a point.\" An authoritative quote by Burnet in the fourth edition of \"Early Greek Philosophy\" (1930), Chapter IX 'Leuikippos of Miletos', pg. 330.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756554",
"title": "Atomism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "References to the concept of atomism and its atoms appeared in both ancient Greek and ancient Indian philosophical traditions. The ancient Greek atomists theorized that nature consists of two fundamental principles: \"atom\" and \"void\". Unlike their modern scientific namesake in atomic theory, philosophical atoms come in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, each indestructible, immutable and surrounded by a void where they collide with the others or hook together forming a cluster. Clusters of different shapes, arrangements, and positions give rise to the various macroscopic substances in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756554",
"title": "Atomism",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Medieval Christendom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "While Aristotelian philosophy eclipsed the importance of the atomists in late Roman and medieval Europe, their work was still preserved and exposited through commentaries on the works of Aristotle. In the 2nd century, Galen (AD 129–216) presented extensive discussions of the Greek atomists, especially Epicurus, in his Aristotle commentaries. According to historian of atomism Joshua Gregory, there was no serious work done with atomism from the time of Galen until Gassendi and Descartes resurrected it in the 17th century; \"the gap between these two 'modern naturalists' and the ancient Atomists marked \"the exile of the atom\" and \"it is universally admitted that the Middle Ages had abandoned Atomism, and virtually lost it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolving definitions.:Classical definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These \"elements\" originally referred to \"earth\", \"water\", \"air\" and \"fire\" rather than the chemical elements of modern science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ovb8y
|
Why didn't slaves in ancient times just run away? and how were they distinguished from free men?
|
[
{
"answer": "Piggyback question: In the show Spartacus they paid the slave gladiators an allowance that increased with good performance. This was portrayed as making the slaves more loyal and eager to fight in the arena.\n\nWas the practice of paying slaves/gladiators a thing? How common was it? \n\nIf a slave was paid an allowance how would they be able to spend it? It's not like a branded slave can just waltz into town, or could they?",
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"answer": "First off, many slaves in the ancient world *did* run away and the possibility was always there. There were also numerous large-scale slave revolts, most famously the one led by Spartacus that had to be put down by a Roman army. To prevent mass escapes, Roman slave owners used either the carrot or the stick. Branding, shackling, abuse, and torture were used to keep many slaves in check, while others in more favored positions were given a stipend (Lat. *peculium*) and much more independence. The most-favored slaves were those belonging to the emperor, who, along with his freedmen, had a hand in administering the empire.\n\nHarper, Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425 is excellent recent study on the subject. [Here](_URL_2_) he discusses different types of incentives offered to slaves.\n\nTo give just one example of a fugitive slave from a documentary source, [P.Cair.Preis. 1](_URL_1_) (148 CE) ([image](_URL_0_)) is a report of judicial proceedings from the province of Egypt concerning an enslaved woman named Eutychia, who was purchased for 1,160 drachmas (a hefty sum, enough to employ some 40 men for a month). According to the report, \"after she stayed with him (the new owner) for a short time, she ran away taking with her the sale contracts and much of his belongings.\"",
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"answer": "Put yourself in their shoes: you are a slave, let's say the child of two Gauls captured by Caesar. Your Latin is imperfect at best, you know very few people outside of the household and those you do know you are a slave. Where do you run to? You have no property or connections and your speech immediately marks you out. To top if off, there is a reward on your return, and the shepherd you run across may have heard of it as he sees this scraggily desperate looking figure dressed in rags.\n\nOn the other hand, instances of civil strife, such as the wars of Sextus Pompey, Spartacus and provincial rebellions, seem to have been a magnet for escaped slaves. Now they have a place to run away *to*, and it seems those brave or desperate enough did. What is lacking in ordinary times is a destination.\n\nFor your other question, while patterns in slave owning varied enormously, it is difficult to recover actual slave conditions. It is almost certain that the status of slaves varied regionally, but we can't really say how.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965077",
"title": "Slavery in antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 2142,
"text": "In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly obtained through prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents. One could also become a slave on account of his inability to pay his debts. Slavery was the direct result of poverty. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants. Slaves only attempted escape when their treatment was unusually harsh. For many, being a slave in Egypt made them better off than a freeman elsewhere. Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt. However, there was barely any worldwide trade. Rather, the individual dealers seem to have approached their customers personally. Only slaves with special traits were traded worldwide. Prices of slaves changed with time. Slaves with a special skill were more valuable than those without one. Slaves had plenty of jobs that they could be assigned to. Some had domestic jobs, like taking care of children, cooking, brewing, or cleaning. Some were gardeners or field hands in stables. They could be craftsmen or even get a higher status. For example, if they could write, they could become a manager of the master's estate. Captive slaves were mostly assigned to the temples or a king, and they had to do manual labor. The worst thing that could happen to a slave was being assigned to the quarries and mines. Private ownership of slaves, captured in war and given by the king to their captor, certainly occurred at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550–1295 BCE). Sales of slaves occurred in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (732–656 BCE), and contracts of servitude survive from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 672 – 525 BCE) and from the reign of Darius: apparently such a contract then required the consent of the slave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "133263",
"title": "Manumission",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "\"A History of Ancient Greece\" explains that in the context of Ancient Greece, affranchisement came in many forms. A master choosing to free his slave would most likely do so only \"at his death, specifying his desire in his will\". In rare cases, slaves who were able to earn enough money in their labour were able to buy their own freedom and were known as \"choris oikointes\". Two 4th-century bankers, Pasion and Phormio, had been slaves before they bought their freedom. A slave could also be sold fictitiously to a sanctuary from where a god could enfranchise him. In very rare circumstances, the city could affranchise a slave. A notable example is that Athens liberated everyone who was present at the Battle of Arginusae (406 BCE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46767667",
"title": "Slavery in ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Bonded laborers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Ancient Egyptians were able to sell themselves and children into slavery in a form of bonded labor. Self-sale into servitude was not always a choice made by the individuals’ free will, but rather a result of individuals who were unable to pay off their debts. The creditor would wipe the debt by acquiring the individual who was in debt as a slave, along with his children and wife. The debtor would also have to give up all that was owned. Peasants were also able to sell themselves into slavery for food or shelter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66540",
"title": "Ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Politics and society.:Social structure.:Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of \"metics\", which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5339004",
"title": "Slavery in ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "A major source of slaves had been Roman military expansion during the Republic. The use of former soldiers as slaves led perhaps inevitably to a series of \"en masse\" armed rebellions, the Servile Wars, the last of which was led by Spartacus. During the \"Pax Romana\" of the early Roman Empire (1st–2nd centuries AD), emphasis was placed on maintaining stability, and the lack of new territorial conquests dried up this supply line of human trafficking. To maintain an enslaved work force, increased legal restrictions on freeing slaves were put into place. Escaped slaves would be hunted down and returned (often for a reward). There were also many cases of poor people selling their children to richer neighbors as slaves in times of hardship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25816",
"title": "Roman Republic",
"section": "Section::::Social structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "Slaves were simultaneously family members and family property. They could be bought, sold, acquired through warfare, or born and raised within their master's household. They could also buy their freedom with money saved or the offer of future services as a freedman or woman, and their sons could be eligible for citizenship; this degree of social mobility was unusual in the ancient world. Freed slaves and the master who freed them retained certain legal and moral mutual obligations. This was the bottom rung of one of Rome's fundamental social and economic institutions, the client-patron relationship. At the top rung were the senatorial families of the landowning nobility, both patrician and plebeian, bound by shifting allegiances and mutual competition. A plebiscite of 218 forbade senators and their sons to engage in substantial trade or money-lending. A wealthy equestrian class emerged, not subject to the same trading constraints as the senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3952114",
"title": "Sexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Sex, marriage, and society.:Master-slave relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 189,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 189,
"end_character": 1499,
"text": "Freeborn Romans who fell into slavery were supposed to be protected from sexual exploitation, as indicated by two different stories recorded by ancient historians. Before the abolition of debt bondage in the 4th century BC, free Romans were sometimes driven to sell themselves or their children into slavery when they were overwhelmed by debt. According to Livy, debt slavery (\"nexum\") was abolished as a direct result of the attempted sexual abuse of a freeborn youth who served as surety for his father's debt with the usurer Lucius Papirius. The boy, Gaius Publilius, was notably beautiful, and Papirius insisted that as a bond slave he was required to provide sexual services. When Publilius refused, Papirius had him stripped and whipped. The youth then took to the streets to display his injuries, and an outcry among the people led the consuls to convene the senate. The political process eventually led to the \"Lex Poetelia Papiria\", which prohibited holding debtors in bondage for their debt and required instead that the debtor’s property be used as collateral. The law thus established that the integrity of a Roman citizen's body was fundamental to the concept of \"libertas\", political liberty, in contrast to the uses to which a slave's body was subject. In this and a similar incident reported by Valerius Maximus, corporal punishment and sexual abuse are seen as similar violations of the citizen's freedom from physical compulsion, in contrast to the slave's physical vulnerability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hcl8o
|
how did obamacre kill jobs, if it really did?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe that arguments comes from one of the articles of the bill that requires employers that have a staff of certain size must provide insurance for their employees. If an employer might have trouble affording this cost, they might have to lay off workers or cut back hours in order to compensate.\n\nOf course, the counter-argument to this is that one of the main goals of Obamacare is to push down rising health care costs, so that offering it to your employees won't hit the bottom line so hard. As well there are tax breaks and incentives to help ease the costs. Other arguments for it include the cost savings of having a work force that is healthy. With health insurance, small health problems can be taken care of before they become large health problems. A person who comes down with influenza without health care may have to just tough it out, costing them weeks of missed work shifts or the chance of infecting their coworkers. With health insurance, he'd be more likely to see a doctor and get treatment, turning a long sick leave into a relatively shorter one. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "235890",
"title": "Outsourcing",
"section": "Section::::By location.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "A Zogby International August 2004 poll found that 71% of American voters believed \"outsourcing jobs overseas\" hurt the economy while another 62% believed that the U.S. government should impose some legislative action against these companies, possibly in the form of increased taxes. President Obama promoted the 'Bring Jobs Home Act' to help reshore jobs by using tax cuts and credits for moving operations back to the USA. The same bill was reintroduced in the 113th United States Congress as the Bring Jobs Home Act (S. 2569; 113th Congress).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28688759",
"title": "Unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political debates.:2010–present debates.:American Jobs Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011, which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation. The White House provided a fact sheet which summarized the key provisions of the $447 billion bill. However, neither the House nor the Senate has passed the legislation as of December 2012. President Obama stated in October 2011: \"In the coming days, members of Congress will have to take a stand on whether they believe we should put teachers, construction workers, police officers and firefighters back on the job...They'll get a vote on whether they believe we should protect tax breaks for small business owners and middle-class Americans, or whether we should protect tax breaks for millionaires and billionaires.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44674082",
"title": "Christopher Robbins (artist)",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In 2010, he founded WPA 2010 as a response to the US Government’s failure in the face of the 2008 economic crisis. WPA 2010 was a functional but illegitimate Work Projects Administration, in which US citizens took over the US Government’s WPA brand to pay unemployed people to complete public works projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27586834",
"title": "Mo Brooks",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "While at a monthly breakfast meeting of the Madison County Republican Men's Club, Brooks referred to the jobs bill proposed by President Obama as the \"Obama 'kill jobs' bill.\" He told the crowd that it adds to the debt, promotes \"frivolous lawsuits,\" and creates new government agencies. He challenged the president's promotion of the bill saying, \"If Barack Obama is serious about jobs, how about repealing Obamacare, dealing with illegal immigration and urging the Democratic-controlled Senate to pass pro-jobs bills that have already cleared in the House.\" At the same meeting, Brooks compared the recession of 2008 (and its after effects) with the Great Depression, saying that the problems associated with the Great Depression are \"a cakewalk compared to what can happen to our country if we don't start acting responsibly in Washington, D.C., to try to get this deficit under control.\" Brooks believes that if the national debt of the United States continues to grow, the damage done to the nation will be catastrophic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30198503",
"title": "American Jobs Creation Act of 2004",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 () was a federal tax act that repealed the export tax incentive (ETI), which had been declared illegal by the World Trade Organization several times and sparked retaliatory tariffs by the European Union. It also contained numerous tax credits for agricultural and business institutions as well as the repeal of excise taxes on both fuel and alcohol and the creation of tax credits for biofuels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935732",
"title": "Associated Press",
"section": "Section::::Litigation and controversies.:Hoax tweet and flash crash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "On April 23, 2013, the AP's Twitter account was hacked to release a hoax tweet about fictional attacks in the White House that left President Obama injured. This erroneous tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, removal of $136 billion from S&P 500 index, and the temporary suspension of their Twitter account. Although all executed trades were considered final, the Dow Jones later restored its session gains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14300289",
"title": "Green job",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.:Under Obama Administration 2009-2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "President Obama campaigned under the promise of creating 5 million new green jobs in the United States. President Obamas plan included the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) proposed a cap and trade system which would bring in revenue that would used to invest in clean energy technology creating 5 million new jobs The bill was passed through the house but never made it to the senate floor and therefore was never written into law. Secondly, due to the 2013 Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act the federal government \"discontinued measuring all green jobs\" which makes tracking job growth extremely difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mbhrh
|
How will Climate Change affect the the level of the Caspian Sea?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Caspian Sea is in it's own drainage basin (also known as a [endorheic basin](_URL_1_)) so it is isolated from the rest of the worlds' oceans. As global sea levels rise, they won't directly effect the Caspian since it is not connected. The water levels in the Caspian vary based on the balance of rainfall and evaporation over the basin. So it's fate depends on how climate change alters the precipitation patterns in the region and predictions of how climate change will alter precipitation are still not all that well known - there are so many factors in the freshwater budget. There are other important human impacts, specifically dams on the Volga River (a major tributary) and diversion of water for agriculture. The nearby Aral Sea has mostly disappeared due to water diversion projects.\n\nMore information at [This article in Natural History Magazine](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60035244",
"title": "Wildlife of Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Climate change is likely to have an effect on the country's biodiversity, with the treeline moving further north and to higher altitudes, and forests replacing tundra. The melting of ice will increase runoff, affecting wetlands. With a rise in sea level, the Baltic Sea will receive greater inflow of saline water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846000",
"title": "Environmental degradation",
"section": "Section::::Water degradation.:Climate change and temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level. This can affect the fresh water supply to coastal areas as well. As river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater, as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits, but a global decrease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for, which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "598434",
"title": "Post-glacial rebound",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Recent global warming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon). As well as the addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it is one of the leading factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19653787",
"title": "Caspian Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Hydrology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic, thousands of miles to the northwest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16644",
"title": "Geography of Kazakhstan",
"section": "Section::::Environmental problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully. At the northern end of the sea, more than 10,000 square kilometres of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded. Experts estimate that if current rates of increase persist, the coastal city of Atyrau, eighty-eight other population centers, and many of Kazakhstan's Caspian oil fields could be submerged by 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24684259",
"title": "Climate change in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Future climate in Sweden.:Baltic Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The surface temperature of the Baltic Sea will increase as the air temperature increases. Some models predict up to 4 °C increases in surface water temperature. Sea ice cover is expected to decrease and be localized to the northern Gulf of Bothnia by the end on the century. The salinity of the Baltic Sea is predicted to fall in some climate models as a result of increased influx of freshwater from the mainland, though other models differ significantly with some even showing an increase in salinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5042951",
"title": "Global warming",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Physical environmental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Arctic sea ice decline, sea level rise, retreat of glaciers: global warming has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice, making it vulnerable to atmospheric anomalies. Projections of declines in Arctic sea ice vary. Recent projections suggest that Arctic summers could be ice-free (defined as an ice extent of less than 1 million square km) as early as 2025–2030. Between 1993 and 2017, sea level rose on average with 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well. Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects (for a high emissions scenario) that global mean sea level could rise by 52–98 cm. The rate of ice loss from glaciers and ice sheets in the Antarctic is a key area of uncertainty since Antarctica contains 90% of potential sea level rise. Polar amplification and increased ocean warmth are undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier outlets, potentially resulting in more rapid sea level rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ufmte
|
how does type i diabetes develop so quickly in a seemingly healthy person, and how does this differ to the development of type ii?
|
[
{
"answer": "Type 1A diabetes is an autoimmune disorder. It occurs when you have a genetic predisposition for the condition and then something triggers the onset (most likely suspect is a virus). So you can have the genetic predisposition but never be exposed to the triggering event, and therefore never develop the condition. \n\nGenerally speaking, the average age of onset is 8, but you can be diagnosed with T1 diabetes at any age. If your father has T1, you have a 1 in 17 chance of developing T1 yourself. If a sibling has it, you have a 1 in 10 chance of developing it. Interestingly, it does not always occur concurrently in identical twins, which indicates that it’s partially an environmental issue. \n\nAs for the onset, it’s not believed to be as rapid as people think. TrialNet is a longitudinal study looking at people who have an immediate family member with T1 and are therefore at risk of developing the disease themselves. One thing that has been found through this study is that people who eventually go on to develop T1 diabetes have signs of it starting for upwards of several years (increases in their A1C, poor response to glucose tolerance testing, fluctuations in insulin production). Symptoms will only appear when blood sugar reach very high levels. \n\nThe term “diabetes mellitus” actually encompasses a number of distinct medical conditions, each with their own etiology. T2 diabetes is a completely different condition, one that has nothing to do with T1 other than increases in blood glucose levels. While T1 diabetes results in a complete inability to produce insulin (and the condition is imminently fatal if the missing insulin is not replaced), T2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder wherein people make insulin but are resistant to it (so their blood sugar rises). While there are lifestyle factors that increase one’s risk of developing T2 diabetes (being overweight, poor diet, lack of exercise), it also has a significant genetic component. This is why there are many T2s who are not overweight and why there are plenty of overweight people who never develop T2. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the simplest way I can describe it, with Type 1 diabetes, your pancreas isn't working right and not producing the insulin needed to lower your blood sugar. In Type 2 diabetes, you are almost constantly in a state of high blood sugar, so the pancreas is constantly churning out insulin. Because of all this insulin, your body develops a tolerance to it so insulin doesn't work as efficiently as before. Conceptually, it's similar to how drug addicts need higher doses to achieve the same high.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40017873",
"title": "Diabetes",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Type 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age, and a significant proportion is diagnosed during adulthood. Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) is the diagnostic term applied when type 1 diabetes develops in adults; it has a slower onset than the same condition in children. Given this difference, some use the unofficial term \"type 1.5 diabetes\" for this condition. Adults with LADA are frequently initially misdiagnosed as having type 2 diabetes, based on age rather than cause\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154502",
"title": "Type 2 diabetes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity. As of 2015 there were approximately 392 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985. Typically it begins in middle or older age, although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people. Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy. Diabetes was one of the first diseases described. The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22575081",
"title": "MODY 5",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The degree of insulin deficiency is variable. Diabetes can develop from infancy through middle adult life, and some family members who carry the gene remain free of diabetes into later adult life. Most of those who develop diabetes show atrophy of the entire pancreas, with mild or subclincal deficiency of exocrine as well as endocrine function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1344337",
"title": "Joslin Diabetes Center",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1980s: Basic research at Joslin shows that type 1 diabetes evolves over a period of years, presenting hope that a means may be found to prevent autoimmune destruction of the pancreas’ beta cells before they stop producing insulin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28396698",
"title": "List of people with type 1 diabetes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Type 1 diabetes, also known as juvenile diabetes, is a condition in which the body does not produce insulin, resulting in high levels of sugar in the bloodstream. Whereas type 2 diabetes is typically diagnosed in middle age and treated via diet, oral medication and/or insulin therapy, type 1 diabetes tends to be diagnosed earlier in life, and people with type 1 diabetes require insulin therapy for survival. It is significantly less common than type 2 diabetes, accounting for 5 percent of all diabetes diagnoses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2812725",
"title": "Type 1 diabetes",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 5–10% of all diabetes cases or 11–22 million worldwide. In 2006 it affected 440,000 children under 14 years of age and was the primary cause of diabetes in those less than 10 years of age. The incidence of type 1 diabetes has been increasing by about 3% per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24191084",
"title": "Type 1 Diabetes Association",
"section": "Section::::Type 1 Diabetes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Type 1 diabetes is a disease which strikes in childhood, adolescence, or adulthood, but lasts a lifetime. It requires multiple injections of insulin daily or a continuous infusion of insulin through a pump. Insulin, however, is not a cure for diabetes, nor does it prevent its eventual and devastating complications which may include kidney failure, blindness, heart disease, stroke, and amputation. Ten percent of diabetics are type 1, the rest are type 2 (90%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
3y30ob
|
What did Germany hope to achieve strategically with the invasion of Russia in WWII and how was this war sold to the public?
|
[
{
"answer": "Initially, one of the main reasons for the German invasion of Russia was food. The Nazi regime wanted to Germany to be able to support itself agriculturally, without having to rely on imports from the Soviet Union. The German administration had perceived the vast plains of Ukraine and southern Russia as the perfect solution to Germany's food issues. The ground was fertile and full of minerals, so crops could be brought back in surplus to the German people (obviously with the sacrifice of the rest of the Russian people, who would be seen as a deficit.) In fact, Hitler envisioned the invading German forces as being able to supply their own food from the lands they captured, meaning less supplies were needed to be sent to the eastern front. Of course Operation Barbarossa was a failure, and the crop yields of the captured lands supplied one third of the food that Germany needed, let alone hoped for.\n\nFrom what I know, the German government sold the idea of an invasion of the Soviet Union through the notion of a 'self-sufficient Germany.' Hitler stated that there would be no food shortages like in the first world war, and some day in the future, people could travel to the new German frontiers in their 'people's cars' (Volkswagons) and spend holidays in the new lands.\n\nSource: The Silk Roads: A New History of the World by Peter Frankopan.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "3176025",
"title": "Reichskommissariat Moskowien",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The plans were never fulfilled as the German military's plans to capture Moscow and central Russia in the Operation Typhoon failed. The transfer of conquered territories to Nazi civilian rule was therefore never completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303727",
"title": "Mitteleuropa",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual history.:The Prussian Plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "exploitation of conquered countries for the material benefit of Germany. Partial realization of these plans was reflected in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where guarantees of economic and military domination over Ukraine by Germany were laid out. The plan was viewed as a threat by the British Empire, which concluded it would destroy British continental trade, and, as a consequence, the source of its military power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28243166",
"title": "Greater Germanic Reich",
"section": "Section::::Role of Britain.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "One of Hitler's sub-goals for the invasion of Russia was to win over Britain to the German side. He believed that after the military collapse of the USSR, \"within a few weeks\" Britain would be forced either into a surrender or else come to join Germany as a \"junior partner\" in the Axis. Britain's role in this alliance was reserved to support German naval and aerial military actions against the USA in a fight for world supremacy conducted from the Axis power bases of Europe, Africa and the Atlantic. On August 8, 1941, Hitler stated that he looked forward to the eventual day when \"England and Germany [march] together against America\" and on January 7, 1942, he daydreamed that it was \"not impossible\" for Britain to quit the war and join the Axis side, leading to a situation where \"it will be a German-British army that will chase the Americans from Iceland\". National Socialist ideologist Alfred Rosenberg hoped that after the victorious conclusion of the war against the USSR, Englishmen, along with other Germanic nationalities, would join the German settlers in colonizing the conquered eastern territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20140518",
"title": "Bait and bleed",
"section": "Section::::Bloodletting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "This strategy is exemplified in then-U. S. Senator Harry Truman's statement in 1941 regarding the invasion of Nazi-Germany and its Allies, Italy, Hungary, Finland, Romania of Russia, \"If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible, I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16354915",
"title": "Economy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Wartime policies: 1939–1945.:Use of conquered territories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "During the war, as Germany acquired new territories (either by direct annexation or by installing puppet governments in defeated countries), these new territories were forced to sell raw materials and agricultural products to German buyers at extremely low prices. Hitler's policy of lebensraum strongly emphasized the conquest of new lands in the East, and the exploitation of these lands to provide cheap goods to Germany. In practice, however, the intensity of the fighting on the Eastern Front and the Soviet scorched earth policy meant that the Germans found little they could use, and, on the other hand, a large quantity of goods flowed into Germany from conquered lands in the West. For example, two-thirds of all French trains in 1941 were used to carry goods to Germany. Norway lost 20% of its national income in 1940 and 40% in 1943.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1234612",
"title": "Southern Victory",
"section": "Section::::\"Settling Accounts\".:1941–1942: \"Return Engagement\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The war in Europe spawns early triumphs for the Entente. In Ukraine, the local soldiers and population welcome the arriving Russians as liberators, ensuring that most of the German satellite nation is lost. Elsewhere, the manpower-swarming tactics of the Russians, unchanged from the last war, ensure that they suffer heavy losses for small gains. The Kaiser's army, particularly its panzers and 88mm flak cannons, prove instrumental in preventing the loss of East Prussia and the satellite kingdom of Poland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21333013",
"title": "German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The German war effort against the Soviet Union was supported by raw materials that Germany had obtained from the Soviets through the 1940 agreement. In particular, the German stocks of rubber and grain would have been insufficient to support the invasion of the USSR if the Soviets had not already exported these products to Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7buzbs
|
what are neural networks? specifically rnns.
|
[
{
"answer": "The little league team you coach just won the big game, and you ask them if they want to go out for pizza or for burgers. Each kid starts screaming their preference, and you go with whatever was the loudest.\n\nThis is basically how a neural net works but on multiple levels. The top-level nodes get some input, each detects a certain property and screams when it sees it...the more intense the property, the louder they scream.\n\nNow you have a bunch of nodes screaming \"it's dark!\", \"it's has red!\", \"it's roundish!\" as various volumes. The next level listens and based on what they hear they start screaming about more complex features. \"It has a face!\", \"It has fur\", until finally get to a level where it is screaming \"It's a kitty!\".\n\nThe magic part is no one tells them when to scream, it is based on feedback. Your little league team went for burgers, and some of them got sick. Next week, they might not scream for burgers, or might not scream as loudly. They have collectively learned that burgers might not have been a great choice, and are more likely to lean away from the option.\n\nA neural net gets training in much the same way. You feed it a bunch of kitty and non-kitty pictures. If the net gets it right, the nodes are reinforced so they are more likely to do the same thing in similar situations. If it is wrong, they get disincentivized. Initially, its results will be near random, but if you have designed it correctly, it will get better and better as the nodes adjust. You often have neural nets that work without any human understanding exactly how.\n\n",
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"answer": "I'll try and start from a real simple overview-explanation and work my way down to more and more specifics.\nBasically, a Neural Network is a system that is able to learn a complex function from a large set of examples. Let's say you have a couple of thousand pictures of cats and another couple thousand pictures of dogs. Each image has a label, e.g. 'cat' or 'dog', although that would be represented by a number, so cats are -1 and dogs are 1 or whatever. You feed these pictures through the network, which for now is just a black box for us, and it gives you an estimate of what the picture shows. (It spits out a number between -1 and 1, in this simple case.) In the beginning of the training process, the result is going to be random. But the network is punished every time it gives a wrong answer and changes some of its parameters, and gradually, over time, the accuracy improves. After a couple of thousand training iterations (that is, feeding an image in, receiving an answer, punishing/rewarding the network, adjusting parameters) the network has learned to distinguish between images of cats and dogs. \nNow, how does that work?\n\nThe smallest part of a network is a neuron. A neuron is a really basic thing, it takes in a couple of inputs, sums over them and pushes that sum through a nice little function, a sigmoid for example or a ReLU. (You might wanna google these to look at a graph, a sigmoid is just a function that is shaped like an S. It squishes inputs from the real numbers to the interval between 0 and 1, for example) So, for example, five numbers go in and one number comes out. The simplest network you could construct contains only one neuron. This is where the magic happens: before the inputs are summed up, they are weighted, that is, multiplied with some real number. So, for example, our network receives the inputs 4, 5 and 6. Those might be the values of pixels in an image. They might be the height and length of the animal we are trying to classify. They might be < insert other example here > , doesn't matter, its just data. 4 is multiplied by -1.3, 5 is multiplied by 2.1, 6 is multiplied by 0.4. (You might be asking where those weights come from, I'll get to that in a minute) Now, we sum over those weighted inputs and push that through a sigmoid, out comes another number. In a really simple network with only one neuron, that number would already be the networks output: something close to 1 for a dog, something close to -1 for a cat. In more complex networks, the output of this neuron would be the input to the next neuron, in the next layer. There can be millions of neurons in large, complex state-of-the-art networks.\n\nThe important point to take home is: numbers are multiplied and summed up, the result is squished and then fed forward to the next layer. This is why this process is called feed forward. \n\nBut I promised to explain where the weights come from. Truth is: In the beginning, those are random numbers. Which explains why the output of those networks in the early stages is pure garbage. The interesting thing is how those weights are adapted, and for that we use an algorithm that is called backpropagation. What basically happens is that the output of the network is compared to the actual label of the image (or data point, to be more general). So, we calculate the error that the system made. That error is propagated back through the layers, and those weights that are responsible for the error are adjusted. (To be even more specific, ELIlikemath or so: The weights span a vector space called the weight surface. We can use calculus to relate the error that the system makes to the constellation of weights. There is a combination of weights that leads to the smallest possible error, and that combination of weights corresponds to a valley in the high dimensional vector space. We can calculate the gradient of the network function to walk downhill in that vector space)\n\nDepending on how the neurons are connected in the network, we give it a different name. What I just described is just a Multilayer Perceptron, MLP for short, the vanilla version. More complex version are Convolutional Neural Networks, CNNs, and Recurrent Neural Networks, RNNs. I am no expert on RNNs, the basic idea is that it is possible for information to flow through the network backwards as well, I think.\n\nEdit: added paragraphs, was not aware of the fact that you have to add a blank line",
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"answer": "Let me give this a try.\n\nNeural networks are a computing architecture inspired by biological brains, although they are not an exact replica.\n\nThe brain is a network of connected cells called neurons. Each neuron takes input from other neurons. If the signal from all of the input neurons is strong enough, then it fires and sends its own signal to downstream neurons. Brains learn by creating and destroying connections between neurons, and altering the strength of existing connections.\n\nNeural networks are simpler than biological neurons, but they are inspired by the same principle. A neural network takes input in the form of numerical data. It passes that input through multiple layers of neurons. Each neuron adds up the input from the layer above it, and sends its own output to the layer below. Eventually the last layer in the stack produces an output.\n\nThe network learns by a process called back-propagation. To train a network, you show it samples of input, and the matching samples of output. Back-propagation alters the strength of connections between individual neurons so as to reduce the error between the sample output (\"what the output should have been\") and the actual output that the network produced when it saw the sample input.\n\nAfter many, many such training iterations, the network may have configured its connections (or \"weights\") so that it is able to make meaningful correspondences between inputs and outputs.\n\nAs a simple example, a neural network might learn to recognize cows by looking at a series of pictures. Some of those pictures are cows and some are not. The pictures are turned into numbers (pixel by pixel) and passed into the top layer. The output from the bottom layer will have a signal strength that is interpreted as \"yes, cow\" or \"no, not cow\". If the network got it right or wrong, the connections that helped/hurt the conclusion are strengthened/weakened accordingly.\n\nA recurrent neural network (RNN) is the same concept, with one extension. The neurons don't just process the input coming from the layer above, but also connect back to themselves so that they have a way to \"remember\" their prior states and prior input. There are various specialized neurons such as long short-term memories (LSTMs), gated recurrent units (GRUs), etc that accomplish this in fairly sophisticated ways. \n\nHope this helps? Happy to explain in vastly more detail any part that you like. I realize this answer isn't literally meant for a five year old but I hope it's accessible to most non-technical adults.\n",
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"answer": "The current top analogy is so unrelated to neural networks that it doesn't help, so let me try expand on it:\n\nImagine someone is looking at an object, like a cat. They write down lots of traits that the object has - for example, \"four legs\", \"furry\", \"brown\", \"has whiskers\", etc. Now let's say you want to make a machine that, when given that list, will figure out what the object is. \n\nThe simplest way to make that machine is obvious: make a list of qualities for every object in the world, and then have the machine check which of those lists matches the one you just wrote for that cat. It'd work, but obviously this is far too much work to do. So you think \"Hey, a lot of these objects have a lot in common - why do I need to make separate lists for each one?\"\n\nSo instead, you have lots of smaller machines that only asks one question. For example, a machine that checks \"Is this an animal?\", and it'll see if \"is breathing\" or \"has a heartbeat\" or such are on the list, and say \"Yes, this is an animal\". And then there's another machine that checks \"Is this a mammal\", and that'll ask the animal-checking machine for if it's an animal and then check the list for \"has hair\". Some machines would only check the list, and some would ask many other machines for their answers, and some would do both. And eventually, just from machines-asking-machines-asking-machines, you have a final machine that answers with \"Yes, this is a cat\".\n\n...Of course, even making those smaller machines is still too much work for categorising every object in the world, so instead you try have it build itself - using random guesses for what the categories should be - until you end up with a working system. This can result in crazy smaller machines, like one that might ask \"Does it have two legs, two arms, and nose hair longer than 3.5cm?\", but it should overall work fairly similar to the cat-detecting model I just talked about.\n\nRight, now as for Recurrent Neural Networks, it's pretty simple: it's exactly the same as what I just said, but where smaller machines can also ask questions from the *previous* list's answers. For example, in voice recognition, one machine might go the \"It is/isn't an 'ow' sound\" machine and instead ask \"Was the *previous* thing he said an 'ow' sound?\".\n\n(The one thing I didn't mention is that most small machines would actually have answers in a probability rather than yes/no, but that's not true for all neural networks.)",
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"answer": "The insight behind neural networks is that if you take a bunch of simple equations that each do a tiny little bit of processing (like adding up the results of other equations and tweaking the value based on its size), and you stack enough of them together, they can do pretty much anything you want. You just need to find the right \"settings\" or \"weights\" for them so they do the specific thing you want instead of something else.\n\nWe've discovered special rules that let us take the output values we want and the input values we want and adjust the math in between to make the whole network more likely to produce the desired output when it's fed the desired input. Repeating this over many input-output examples eventually leads the network to \"generalize\" - i.e. to capture the structure of the information so well that it can work on inputs it hasn't seen before. \n\nA \"neural network\" is just a big stack of these simple equations that have been tuned using one of these special rules to map a particular set of input and output examples together. Once it's \"trained\" in this manner, it can be used on new examples to do useful work without needing human judgement. \n\nAn RNN (or recurrent neural network) is simply an extension of this, where the network is solving a problem that takes place over many steps, so many copies of the network are initialized in sequence, each being fed some information from the past copy like a colossal game of telephone, letting it preserve some \"memories\" from the past and make multiple outputs before stopping. \n\nAs an example, you can use an RNN to generate text. If you feed it text one letter at a time, and train it to predict the next letter of the text, it'll eventually get pretty good at it: it'll \"remember\" some information about the letters that came before, and use that context to make a guess at the next letter. Once it's trained, you can feed it its own output as input (basically telling it \"you were right\" after each guess) and it'll happily spit out line after line of text that structurally resembles the text it was trained on. \n\n",
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"answer": "A neural network is a set of mathematical operations that maps a set of inputs to a set of outputs. They are useful because they can map _any_ set of inputs to _any_ set of outputs. The really interesting thing is that the \"weights\" of the network, which define how the inputs get transformed as they move through the set of computations, are adjustable. This means that you can take the outputs predicted by a network with one set of weights, compare them to the outputs it _should_ have given you, and then intelligently adjust the weights to get closer to the right answer next time. With enough repetitions of that process, you can \"train\" a neural network to do pretty incredible things, simply by showing it enough of the right data.\n\nAn RNN is a special type of neural network called a \"Recurrent Neural Network.\" A regular neural network can map one set of inputs to one set of outputs, and then it is done. An RNN takes the outputs from one \"time step,\" or one prediction, and feeds it back into the network along with the data for the next prediction. This gives it the ability to \"remember\" things it has seen recently in the context of new inputs. In other words, a regular neural network might be able to look at a picture and tell you whether there is a cat in it or not. An RNN could look at a series of pictures from a movie and tell you what the cat is doing in them.",
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"answer": "ill try and eli5 this.\n\nbasically neural networks are ways to solve problems by recognizing patterns.\n\nso suppose i want to solve an addition problem.\n\n i can write a series of steps like you may you have learned. write the numbers one on top of each other. start at the right and add down. carry 1s if the result is more than 10... that is a definite way to solve it and you get the exact answer.\n\nnow some problems are really hard to write down such an exact method. things like identifying things in pictures.\n\nso you can use a neural network to figure out a pattern which can give you an answer. it maybe not be correct. but it tries. so you train the neural net with a bunch of inputs and correct outputs and it tries to learn the pattern.\n\ngoing back to the addition example. youd feed it data like.\n1+1 = 2\n3+4 =7\n100 + 200 = 300\n...\n\n\nthe more samples you give it to learn the better chance it has of a good answer. also the bigger the neural net (nodes) the better chance of a good answer\n\nsuppose i just gave it the 3 values above to train on.\nthen i asked it what is 50 + 10\n\nit might come up with the answer 100. its not correct, but its not a bad estimate.\n\n\n\n\n",
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"answer": "I'm going to try for an actual ELI5-level answer... artificial neural networks (or ANNs) are magic boxes that are full of magic numbers. These boxes have the following properties:\n\n1.) They take some numerical inputs and give some numerical outputs\n\n2.) They know how wrong their output is (\"error\")\n\n3.) Based on their error, they know roughly which direction each of their magic numbers should be adjusted to be less wrong\n\nAlthough these properties are actually the result of fairly straightforward algebra and calculus, neural networks can be surprisingly powerful for certain problems, especially when a bunch of them are stacked on top of one another (this is a \"deep\" neural network and does \"deep learning\"). \n\nRNNs (recurrent neural networks) are the same as vanilla ANNs, except that they care about the order and context of their inputs. This makes them good for things like text processing (a regular ANN wouldn't care about the difference between \"the quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog\" and \"the quick brown dog jumped over the lazy fox\"). \n\nThe name and \"biologically-inspired\" label are sort of misleading... ANNs used to be called weighted matrices (and a lot of other things) a long time before they were associated with anything biological. It was only after we found out that they were particularly good at many of the same kinds of problems brains are (particularly vision and speech-related tasks) that we started calling them \"neural networks\". Also because it sounds cool.",
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"answer": "Imagine you needed to write a program that would model the relationship between a temperature in Celsius and a temperature in Fahrenheit given a set of example conversions. Well that's easy because the relationship between the two is linear, you can just find where it intercepts 0 and what rate at which one increases with the other and plug it into y = mx +c. You can in fact model any linear relationship with that equation, as can you model parabolic relationship with y = ax^2 + bx +c, and as you go to further degrees you can model more and more complex relationships, but it gets harder and harder to intuitively find the values a, b, and c, etc etc for however many variables you want to introduce.\n\nThis is where learning algorithms come in; using enough data points and maths, you can model extremely complex systems with just one massive equation and thousands of dollars in hardware, electricity, and time to compute the constant values.\n\nFirst things first, we need to solve the problem that the y = ax^1 + bx^2 + cx^3 ... form of equations only have one input and output, X and Y. And complex systems might need many inputs and outputs, so we use matrices!, if we allow the input values to be matrices, you also allow the output values to be matrices, and therefor give many values out, matrix multiplication allowing you to multiply two matrices together and get a different shaped matrix, taking you from as many inputs as you like, to as many outputs as you like.\n\nNeural networks use a different form of equations, based, incredibly loosely, on neurons in the brain, but let's completely ignore that right now, basically the form is & delta;(A * W + B), which is Activations times Weights plus Bias, then you get the result, and call the function again with the output of the last call as the new Activations.\n\nSo our formula looks like this & delta;( & delta;( & delta;( & delta;(A) * W1 + B1) * W2 + B2) * W3 + B3), and you can nest as far down as you like, I'm ignoring most of the maths, but what I will tell you is that if you have a large enough W matrix (w is a matrix remember) and you nest enough levels deep, this formula has been proven to be able to **approximate** *any* function, so if you can find the values for every element inside matrices W_1 to W_n, and the biases, you can essentially do anything. But of course, as we mentioned earlier, the more values you have to find, the harder finding those values becomes. Luckily we have now have a learning algorithm, known as backpropogation that will find these values for you, using calculus.\n\nI hope that helped, and if it helped, there might be something wrong with you.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "**Actual ELI5:** You know those stupid captchas? They have you select boxes--which ones have signs, which ones have trees, etc. By looking at them, you know which ones to select. Even if you could only see what's in each box individually, you would be able to figure out pretty well whether or not there's a tree there because we've seen trees before (training data). So, let's say we have an image and we know what trees look like, even when we can only see a little box of the image. Now, we have a new picture. We start off with a teeny tiny box--not sure, but we've learned something. Then, we get bigger boxes over the entire image--we've learned a little more. There's something that looks textured like bark, something that could be a leaf. Even a larger box now--okay, we can tell that those are clusters of leaves and here's an entire branch. Now we know it's a tree.\n\nLet's say that now, we have a video. We figured out that the picture is of a tree, but now we want to know if the next frame also has a tree. If you're smart, you think \"of course!\" not that much can change from frame to frame. So we look at the next picture in the video and do the process over again, except this time, we know, \"hey, this box said it had bark texture or a leaf shape last time\" and we can figure out if it's the same this time.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nIf you want the tedious explanation: \n\n**Neural Nets:** an input (images, a sentence, etc.) goes into a series of nodes in hidden layers, which output what you want (yes/no, things that are discrete - classification, a regression - possibilities, various values, etc.). What happens in the hidden layers, broadly, is that in the first layers, features are made by some mathematical process. Further layers would generalize upon features, getting more and more abstract. A NN can be as small as 3 layers (input -- > hidden -- > output) or larger like what you see with CNNs.\n\nCNNs are a specific kind of NN that use convolutions of different sizes (matrix size) and strides (how far each convolution occurs from one another). Imagine a convolution as a box going over an image--it can be 5x5 pixels big or 25x25 pixels big or 2x2 pixels big and move over 1 pixel at a time or 20 pixels at a time. Each of these decisions end up affecting what features are output. There are other parameters to tune like learning rate (how fast things are learned--too fast and one bad training example can screw you up, too slow and it just takes forever to get a functioning CNN), momentum, weights, etc.\n\nIn networks, everything is initialized randomly. Then, as training data goes in, each layer of nodes gets their numbers changed by these mathematical processes. Epochs are how many times you run your training data through, you do it until you reach a plateau, which you can determine by the validation accuracy plateau-ing (95% would be good, but if you plateau at 30%, you know you need to fix something--you don't just keep training and hope it gets better).\n\n**Reccurent Neural Networks:** These are particularly useful for things like sentences and videos, where what comes before and after are important. This is a broad area, so I'm not going to explain each one. RNNs are basically just NNs where the input data is not only your training data, but also what the output of previous/posterior nodes has been. There's a feedback loop connecting it to past decisions so that those are carried forward. The issue with these are that there are so many operations--you know how 2^10 = 1024, but 2^20 = 1048576. Imagine that, but on a huge scale, where the values of these nodes can quickly explode to huge numbers or vanish to near-zero. The following is supposed to solve that issue.\n\nLSTMs are a specific RNN that can learn long-term dependencies. We have a list (cell): they figure out which information we want to throw away from the list (forget gate) and what we want to add based on input data (input gate), and then update the list. As you run through it, some old bullet points of the list still make it through and some new ones are there too. But, how much the new items influence your list depends on a parameter you set. The gates start to learn how much data is supposed to flow and what should flow the way CNNs learn feature detectors.\n\nHow does this solve numbers exploding or vanishing? It does so by adding functions instead of multiplying. So if one of your numbers is smaller or larger, it's no(t as big of a) biggie. \n\nSource: PhD student, this is my area. I can expand on more, but I figure things would get too long and I skipped over things like backpropagation and gradient because I figured the layperson wouldn't care. I got lazier and lazier...so the latter is a lot less specific, sorry!",
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{
"answer": "[These videos provide a decent introduction to neural nets in general](_URL_0_) (I'm not sure if the series is complete or if he'll go into further details in future videos)",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "1706303",
"title": "Recurrent neural network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "A recurrent neural network (RNN) is a class of artificial neural networks where connections between nodes form a directed graph along a temporal sequence. This allows it to exhibit temporal dynamic behavior. Unlike feedforward neural networks, RNNs can use their internal state (memory) to process sequences of inputs. This makes them applicable to tasks such as unsegmented, connected handwriting recognition or speech recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60951296",
"title": "Machine learning in video games",
"section": "Section::::Overview of relevant machine learning techniques.:Recurrent neural network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Recurrent neural networks are a type of ANN that are designed to process sequences of data in order, one part at a time rather than all at once. An RNN runs over each part of a sequence, using the current part of the sequence along with memory of previous parts of the current sequence to produce an output. These types of ANN are highly effective at tasks such as speech recognition and other problems that depend heavily on temporal order. There are several types of RNNs with different internal configurations; the basic implementation suffers from a lack of long term memory due to the vanishing gradient problem, thus it is rarely used over newer implementations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8278198",
"title": "Random neural network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "RNNs are also related to artificial neural networks, which (like the random neural network) have gradient-based learning algorithms. The learning algorithm for an n-node random neural network that includes feedback loops (it is also a recurrent neural network) is of computational complexity O(n^3) (the number of computations is proportional to the cube of n, the number of neurons). The random neural network can also be used with other learning algorithms such as reinforcement learning. The RNN has been shown to be a universal approximator for bounded and continuous functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8278198",
"title": "Random neural network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1300,
"text": "The random neural network (RNN) is a mathematical representation of an interconnected network of neurons or cells which exchange spiking signals. It was invented by Erol Gelenbe and is linked to the G-network model of queueing networks as well as to Gene Regulatory Network models. Each cell state is represented by an integer whose value rises when the cell receives an excitatory spike and drops when it receives an inhibitory spike. The spikes can originate outside the network itself, or they can come from other cells in the networks. Cells whose internal excitatory state has a positive value are allowed to send out spikes of either kind to other cells in the network according to specific cell-dependent spiking rates. The model has a mathematical solution in steady-state which provides the joint probability distribution of the network in terms of the individual probabilities that each cell is excited and able to send out spikes. Computing this solution is based on solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations whose parameters are related to the spiking rates of individual cells and their connectivity to other cells, as well as the arrival rates of spikes from outside the network. The RNN is a recurrent model, i.e. a neural network that is allowed to have complex feedback loops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10159567",
"title": "Spiking neural network",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "SNNs have proved useful in neuroscience, but not in engineering. While large neural networks have been designed that take advantage of pulse coding, they mostly rely on the principles of reservoir computing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32472154",
"title": "Deep learning",
"section": "Section::::Neural networks.:Deep neural networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "A deep neural network (DNN) is an artificial neural network (ANN) with multiple layers between the input and output layers. The DNN finds the correct mathematical manipulation to turn the input into the output, whether it be a linear relationship or a non-linear relationship. The network moves through the layers calculating the probability of each output. For example, a DNN that is trained to recognize dog breeds will go over the given image and calculate the probability that the dog in the image is a certain breed. The user can review the results and select which probabilities the network should display (above a certain threshold, etc.) and return the proposed label. Each mathematical manipulation as such is considered a layer, and complex DNN have many layers, hence the name \"deep\" networks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43705185",
"title": "Recursive neural network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "A recursive neural network is a kind of deep neural network created by applying the same set of weights recursively over a structured input, to produce a structured prediction over variable-size input structures, or a scalar prediction on it, by traversing a given structure in topological order. RNNs have been successful, for instance, in learning sequence and tree structures in natural language processing, mainly phrase and sentence continuous representations based on word embedding. RNNs have first been introduced to learn distributed representations of structure, such as logical terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
6kgwn0
|
Why has Linear B been deciphered but not Linear A?
|
[
{
"answer": "You must understand both the writing system and the language(s) in order to claim a decipherment. Most successful decipherments are based on bilingual or trilingual inscriptions (e.g. cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the Cypriot Syllabary) or knowledge of the underlying language(s) (e.g. Linear B and Maya hieroglyphs). In cases where one has neither, such as Linear A, Cypro-Minoan, and the Indus script, decipherment may prove impossible.\n\nLinear B has been deciphered successfully because the language was identified (Mycenaean Greek), and scholars were able to understand words based on their knowledge of Greek. For example, a-ku-ro corresponds to Greek ἄργυρος (\"silver\") and pa-te is instantly recognizable as Greek πατήρ (\"father\"). \n\nThe language of Linear A, however, has not yet been identified, and the grammar and lexicon therefore remains elusive. It's as if someone who speaks French picked up a book written in Hungarian. Since Hungarian uses a modified version of the Latin alphabet, the French speaker would understand the letters of each word and perhaps even be able to read them out loud more or less accurately. The meaning of the text, however, would be incomprehensible without learning Hungarian. ",
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},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989",
"title": "Linear A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "In the 1950s, Linear B was largely deciphered by Michael Ventris and found to encode an early form of Greek. Although the two systems share many symbols, this did not lead to a subsequent decipherment of Linear A. Using the values associated with Linear B in Linear A mainly produces unintelligible words. If Linear A uses the same or similar syllabic values as Linear B, then its associated language, dubbed \"Minoan\", appears unrelated to any known language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18551",
"title": "Linear B",
"section": "Section::::Discovery and decipherment.:Michael Ventris' identification as Greek.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Michael Ventris and John Chadwick performed the bulk of the decipherment of Linear B between 1951 and 1953. At first Ventris chose his own numbering method, but later switched to Bennett's system. His initial decipherment was achieved using Kober's classification tables, to which he applied his own theories. Some Linear B tablets had been discovered on the Greek mainland. Noticing that certain symbol combinations appeared only on the tablets found in Crete, he conjectured that these might be names of places on the island. This proved to be correct. Working with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B was in fact Greek. This contradicted general scientific views of the time, and indeed Ventris himself had previously agreed with Evans' hypothesis that Linear B was not Greek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989",
"title": "Linear A",
"section": "Section::::Theories regarding language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "It is difficult to evaluate a given analysis of Linear A as there is little point of reference for reading its inscriptions. The simplest approach to decipherment may be to presume that the values of Linear A match more or less the values given to the deciphered Linear B script, used for Mycenaean Greek. However, recently, Peter Z. Revesz identified the Cretan Hieroglyphs, Linear A, Linear B, the Cypriot syllabary, and the Greek, Old Hungarian, Phoenician, South Arabic and Tifinagh alphabets as members of an unknown writing system from western Anatolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44238",
"title": "Arthur Evans",
"section": "Section::::Major creative works.:Scripta Minoa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Evans had no better luck with Linear B, which turned out to be Greek. Despite decades of theories, Linear A has not been convincingly deciphered, nor even the language group identified. His classifications and careful transcriptions have been of great value to Mycenaean scholars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989",
"title": "Linear A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Linear A is a writing system used by the Minoans (Cretans) from 1800 to 1450 BCE. It belongs to an independent group of scripts that is distinct from Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems. During the second millennium BCE, there were four major branches: Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan and Cretan hieroglyphic. All but Linear B remain undeciphered. Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. It was discovered by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. It was succeeded by Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaean civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18551",
"title": "Linear B",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Linear B is a syllabic script that was used for writing Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1450 BC. It is descended from the older Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which also recorded Greek. Linear B, found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age collapse. The succeeding period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, provides no evidence of the use of writing. It is also the only one of the Bronze Age Aegean scripts to have been deciphered, by English architect and self-taught linguist Michael Ventris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989",
"title": "Linear A",
"section": "Section::::Linear A and Linear B comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "In 1945, E. Pugliese Carratelli first introduced the classification of Linear A and Linear B parallels. However, in 1961 W.C. Brice modified the Carratelli system that was based on a wider range of Linear A sources, but Brice did not suggest Linear B equivalents to the Linear A signs. Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier introduced in the 1985 \"Recueil des inscriptions en linéaire A (GORILA),\" based on E.L Bennett's standard numeration of the signs of Linear B, introduced a joint numeration of the Linear A and B signs. The Egyptian exercise in writing the names keftiu even informs us of another Minoan ethnic identity in the form of mÈd|d|m whose first element cannot be associated with the name Midas, since it was already labeled by a linearly inscribed Hagia Triada (or HT 41.4) dating to c. 1350 BC. This Egyptian evidence of Keftius' language essentially indicate that the words of the vocabulary are Semitic, but in the language predominantly of the Luwians. One might conclude from this that the Semitic in Minoan Crete is used as a lingua franca for a largely Luwian population. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
d5yqjy
|
In medieval Europe, how common would it have been for non-nobility to own weapons or have access to them?
|
[
{
"answer": "'Middle Ages' are generally understood as a period of almost 1000 years, so the subject is quite complex. In the following entry I'll limit myself to High and Late Middle Ages, focusing on Germany, Poland and England.\n\nIn general, weapon ownership was quite common. There were no rules preventing anyone from possessing any kind of weapon or armour and anyone could have commissioned any type of weapon at the local craftsman, provided the latter was able to make it (your average rural blacksmiths were usually able to make a spear tip, but not a high-quality sword) and the customer could have afforded the commission, what was not always a given, as peasants had relatively little money to spend, especially in earlier part of the Middle Ages when the weapons and armour were relatively more expensive than in 14th or 15th century. In short, every free man had an access to weapons, although some could not have afforded most of them. With the low social mobility and relatively small size of the settlements, people living in a city district or a village were usually forming a well-knit community, where people knew and often helped each other, as the well-being of community was directly tied to their self-interest.\n\nIn many cases such possession was actually required by law, though. For example, English Assizes of Arms require each free tenant to have a specified weapons and pieces of armour, depending on their wealth. The Assize of Arms of 1181 issued in the name of Henry II stipulates that '*every burgher and every freeman shall have a gambeson, an iron hat and a spear*' what was a bare minimum for all free people (although 'burgher or freeman' usually meant the head of the family), while 'those who have possessions or rents worth at least 16 marks shall have an armour, a helmet, a shield, and a lance'. Clergymen were generally exempt from all such considerations. Assize of Arms of 1242 issued in the name of Henry III stated that '*the citzens, burghers, free tenants, villeins and others aged 15 to 60 should convene and their be assessed what they should bear in accordance to their land and property, to wit: whoever possesses land worth 15 pounds - one armour, iron hat, sword, knife and horse* \\[...\\] *(who possesses) less than 10 marks but more than 40 shillings - falxes, knives, guisarmes and other small arms*' (this section contains ten different wealth classes, I included only first and last for brevity's sake). Given that 40 shillings was a relatively small amount of money when applied to personal wealth, it meant that even relatively poor people were expected to have some form of military weapon, with the wording giving assumption that it was supposed to mean 'any weapon one can afford', including common tools, such as axes or hammers. Enea Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, who had served as a pastor in several German states noted in 1444 that every 'respectable household', no matter whether rich or poor, was armed adequately to the means available and that Germans show high skill in using said weapons.\n\nIn medieval cities, the defense forces were primarily composed of the militia, and thus the edicts of the city councils often required the burghers to possess weapons. This was usually limited to people possessing a real estate withing the city walls, but the required equipment could have been quite costly (although not excessively so). For example, according to the edict issued by the city council of Wroclaw in 1290, every owner of a real estate within a city should possess 'bow or crossbow) while a Prussian land regulation of 1410 required all Prussian burghers to possess equipment composed at least of mail shirt, breastplate, kettle hat, plate gauntlets and a crossbow. Those who were found to not possess the required equipment were subject to a fine (although one could not borrow their weapons and armour under penalty of confiscation and additional fine). Control was usually conducted by the city councilmen and high-ranking craft representatives (owners of the real estate in a city were largely craftsmen or merchants united in craft organizations). An interesting thing is that some Polish cities required citizens to actively train in the art of shooting (e.g. prince Bolko of Świdnica issued such law in 1286) with shooting contests being a common occurrence, much like in contemporary England renowned for its archers. In 14th and 15th century, winners of such competitions often were either provided with new weapons and armours or were given a monetary equivalent if the already possessed them.\n\nNow, people were able to possess weapons, but in cities they were generally not allowed to carry. Specific regulations varied from place to place, but in German cities in 14th and 15th century councils usually forbade carrying of all 'swords and long knives'\\* either at all or only after dusk, usually under penalty of weapon confiscation on top of a relatively small monetary fine or a jail time of several days. Carrying any form of weapon (even a dagger or a knife) into a church or to any formal meeting (e.g. that of craftsmen in a guildhouse) was often strictly prohibited.\n\n\\*A city council edict issued in 1394 in Koenigsberg stated that no burgher is allowed to carry a knife longer than one ell within the city walls (we also need to remember that German word 'messer' could have meant either a common, table knife, or a large weapon, essentially a short sword).",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3353450",
"title": "Nobles of the Sword",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "In later centuries, a nobleman of the sword was not recognized as such unless his family had held this status for at least four generations. The Nobles of the Sword also provided non-military services to the king, holding positions in all branches of government. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2421500",
"title": "Viking sword",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1113,
"text": "Swords were very costly to make, and a sign of high status. Owning a sword was a matter of high honour. Persons of status might own ornately decorated swords with silver accents and inlays. Most Viking warriors would own a sword as one raid was usually enough to afford a good blade. Most freemen would own a sword with \"goðar\", \"jarls\" and sometimes richer freemen owning much more ornately decorated swords. The poor farmers would use an axe or spear instead but after a couple of raids they would then have enough to buy a sword. One sword mentioned in the \"Laxdæla saga\" was valued at half a crown, which would correspond to the value of 16 milk-cows. Constructing such weapons was a highly specialized endeavour and many sword-blades were imported from foreign lands, such as the Rhineland. Swords could take up to a month to forge and were of such high value that they were passed on from generation to generation. Often, the older the sword, the more valuable it became. Local craftsmen often added their own elaborately decorated hilts, and many swords were given names, such as Leg-biter and Gold-hilt. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1091379",
"title": "Viking Age arms and armour",
"section": "Section::::Weapons.:Sword.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Owning a sword was a matter of high honour. Persons of status might own ornately decorated swords with silver accents and inlays. Most Viking warriors would own a sword as one raid was usually enough to afford a good blade. Most freemen would own a sword with \"goðar\", \"jarls\" and sometimes richer freemen owning much more ornately decorated swords. The poor farmers would use an axe or spear instead but after a couple of raids they would then have enough to buy a sword. One sword mentioned in the \"Laxdæla saga\" was valued at half a crown, which would correspond to the value of 16 milk-cows. Constructing such weapons was a highly specialized endeavour and many sword-blades were imported from foreign lands, such as the Rhineland. Swords could take up to a month to forge and were of such high value that they were passed on from generation to generation. Often, the older the sword, the more valuable it became.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11545641",
"title": "Ciné si",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:La Sorcière.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "In northern Europe during the middle ages, a medieval king promises his daughter's hand in marriage to any man that can infiltrate the fortress of an evil sorceress, guarded by all manner of mechanical monsters. Is it possible that simple unarmed boy can succeed where knights and princes have failed?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "2421500",
"title": "Viking sword",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Swords were still comparatively costly weapons, although not as exclusive as during the Merovingian period, and in Charlemagne's capitularies, only members of the cavalry, who could afford to own and maintain a warhorse, were required to be equipped with swords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37781958",
"title": "Feudalism in the Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Roots of feudalism.:Germanic clan system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Even kings (see Richard the Lionheart - compulsory allegiance) and at least in the early Middle Ages, the clergy (see Ottonian-Salian imperial church system) could be vassals of a king or another king.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "Section::::Social importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "During the reign of Henry III the Assize of Arms of 1252 required that all \"citizens, burgesses, free tenants, villeins and others from 15 to 60 years of age\" should be armed. The poorest of them were expected to have a halberd and a knife, and a bow if they owned land worth more than £2. This made it easier for the King to raise an army, but also meant that the bow was a weapon commonly used by rebels during the Peasants' Revolt. From the time that the yeoman class of England became proficient with the longbow, the nobility in England had to be careful not to push them into open rebellion.\n",
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] | null |
6yi2we
|
how do people spend billions of dollars on water?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is incredibly cheap, $4 for a whole year of clean water. How could it be cheaper?\n\nThe costs are mainly for digging wells and installing pumps -- and then filters if the water isn't clean.\n\nIf you don't mind your water dirty and 50 feet underground, can have it for free.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Purifying packaging and transporting water is where the costs come from. Bottled water is popular here becauae its convenient and we can afford it. It's a necessity in places without potable sources and infrastrcture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water doesn't cost much. Potable water being clean of bacteria, viruses, harmful chemicals is expensive relatively. Take a bucket of water from a pond and drink it, you'll most likely get sick. Probably get some new work friends in your stomach as well.\n\nTreating a million gallons of water is no small engineering feat. You need to build a water treatment plant and keep it staffed and maintained. In established countries, this is paid by the government who is in term paid by the citizens. My water bill paid to my county is about $40 a month. There's almost a million people in my county. So that's a monthly operating budget of $40 mil for the public works department. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13941101",
"title": "Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Investment and financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "It has been estimated that between 1975 and 2000 a total of more than US$100bn has been invested in water supply and sanitation, and that a further US$130bn will be needed between 2002 and 2022, corresponding to US$6.5 billion per year or more than US$200 per capita and year. This level of investment in water per capita is among the highest in the world, higher than in the US, the UK or Germany, due to the high cost of desalination and the need to transport water over long distances. It corresponds to about 1.5% of GDP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10611984",
"title": "Water supply and sanitation in Peru",
"section": "Section::::Financial aspects.:Urban areas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "According to a 2008 national survey by Radio RPP, respondents indicated that, on average, they paid 44 Soles (close to US$ 15) per month and per household for water. 44% of respondents said that they paid \"much or too much\" for water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15380061",
"title": "Water scarcity",
"section": "Section::::Water stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The United Nations (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on Earth, just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent fresh water available for human consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21544668",
"title": "Water management in Greater Mexico City",
"section": "Section::::Water challenges.:Inefficient urban water use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Per capita water use figures are difficult to compare over time, because sources typically do not indicate if water losses are included in the figures or not. The National Statistical Institute gives water use in the Federal District at 223 liter/day in 1999 (probably after losses), including 164 liter of residential use and 59 liter for industrial and commercial uses. This is only about one third of average water use in the United States, which is 603 liter/capita/day. However, it is still one third higher than water use in France, which is only 165 liter/capita/day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28825213",
"title": "Water supply and sanitation in Turkey",
"section": "Section::::Water resources and water use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "In 2008, 4.56 billion m3 of water was abstracted by municipalities or bought by them in order to be distributed by them. Of this amount, 40% was abstracted from dams, 28% from wells, 23% from springs, 4% from rivers, and 5% from lakes. 111.4 billion m3 of drinking water was sold to 20 million subscribers, and 4.8 billion Turkish Lira revenue was obtained. This implies that the average level of non-revenue water – water produced that was not billed – was 48% ((4.56-2.4)x100/4.56) and that the average tariff was 2 Turkish Lira per cubic meter (1.10 Euro/m3). According to the results of the 2008 Municipal Water Statistics Survey, water abstraction per capita was 215 liters per day in 2008. Actual billed consumption taking into account non-revenue water was 52% of that level, or 112 liters per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16466001",
"title": "Irrigation in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Investment and financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The overall expenditure in the water sector approached US$3.9 billion in 2004, or 0.5% of the GDP. Of this amount, the public sector spent over US$3.5 billion, which is close to 2.5% of Mexico's budget, while the private sector accounted for the rest. A significant share of resources spent in the sector, including both investment and recurrent expenditures, comes directly or indirectly from water users. CONAGUA accounts for 30% of total expenditures in the water sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19339153",
"title": "Water supply and sanitation in Israel",
"section": "Section::::Water use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Water use in 2009 was 1.91 billion cubic meters of which fresh water use was 1.26 billion cubic meters. Water use was 100 million cubic meters (5.2%) to Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, 1016 million cubic meters for agriculture(53.2%), 684 million cubic meters (35.8%) for domestic and public uses and 110 million cubic meters (5.7%) for industrial use. According to one estimate, average domestic water consumption in Israel is 137 litres per person per day on average, about half of indoor water use in the United States. However, according to another estimate water use per person per year is 90 cubic meter, corresponding to 247 litres per day. The latter estimate includes losses and probably also water use by offices that may not have been included in the former figures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jyk9t
|
why do people who are going to be executed not put up a fight when they know they are going to die either way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless you've been captured by a terrorist group/drug cartel, most executions are made quick and painless out of respect. If you put up a big fight, your captor is more likely to make you regret it by torturing you and/or killing you slowly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you see the execution. you didn't see the entire month before when they'd be beaten senseless non stop, starved, humiliated, and tortured",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By the same logic, why would you fight? It's not going to change the outcome. Might as well make your own death quick and painless instead of making it a struggle by fighting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12081961",
"title": "Battle Circle",
"section": "Section::::Combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Despite the fact that the weapons are deadly, fights are rarely fatal. Combat ceases when one man is obviously defeated, either because he cannot defend himself or because he has left the circle, voluntarily or otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1126407",
"title": "Juan Negrín",
"section": "Section::::Prime minister.:Peace negotiations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "To fight on because there was no other choice, even if winning was not possible, then to salvage what we could – and at the very end our self respect... Why go on resisting? Quite simply because we knew what capitulation would mean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "959060",
"title": "Might and Magic Book One: The Secret of the Inner Sanctum",
"section": "Section::::Game mechanics.:Combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Combat ends when all combatants from one side or the other have either been rendered unconscious or dead (usually by having their hit points reduced to zero), or fled from combat. The player can also lose at combat by allowing all members of the party to succumb to sleep or paralysis effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1256180",
"title": "Akwasi Afrifa",
"section": "Section::::Execution.:Premonitions.:Execution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "That is ridiculous. It is a lie. I had nothing to do with the executions. For three weeks after the 4 June event, questions were constantly raised about executing people. I always stood against it. Surprisingly, the only person who also stood against it was Rawlings. The young boys wanted blood and I used to tell \"you cannot resurrect the man once you've killed him. If you have any case against people, try them. Let everybody hear what they have done wrong against the country.\" And that even, they could not do. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1972708",
"title": "Battle of annihilation",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to the battle of annihilation.:Fight to the death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "If a side in a war is willing enough, as through religious zeal, nationalism or ideological belief, defeat or surrender to the enemy can be seen as worse than death and thus being rejected. Humiliation and war honor are a common reason, but also fear of torture, pillaging, enslaving or other crimes might convince that fighting to the end is a better result than surrendering. Military forces fighting fanatically has also been documented moreso after reports of brutal treatment, such as murder and rape, against the civilians of that nation - so that they might have a better chance of escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11376465",
"title": "Foes of Ali",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Although there is the option to turn off TKO based stoppages, this option has no effect. If a fighter's face is beaten into enough of a bloody mess, fights will be stopped regardless of whether it is selected or not. However, regardless of whether the option is turned on or not, the game does not consider other factors when judging whether to stop a fight. As a result, it is possible for one boxer to pummel another for 15 rounds with no punches being thrown in response. Subsequently, unlike in real boxing matches, it is not uncommon to have rounds scored 10-6 or lower. By knocking an opponent down around 10 times, it is even possible to win rounds by a 10-0 margin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4283645",
"title": "Professional boxing",
"section": "Section::::Scoring.:10-Point system.:How the System Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "If a fight is stopped due to a cut resulting from a legal punch, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x1jdt
|
Did dinosaurs actually roar or is it just a construct of movies to make them scarier?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dr. David Weishampel did a study of lambeosaurine skulls includin CT scanning that seemed to indicate they made a deep bellowing, horn-like noise. I remember an undergraduate course I took where a video was played that used a computer simulation to produce the expected sound of various dinosaurs based on the acoustic properties of their skulls, necks and chest cavities that mirrored that result. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're on the right track in looking at living species to infer what extinct dinosaurs may have sounded like. We can explore traits that wouldn't preserve in the fossil record using [phylogenetic bracketing](_URL_12_). However, you're off on which species to look at.\n\nBasically, we look at related animals on [either side of the tree](_URL_0_) from the organism we're interested in, and if those animals possess a trait then it was probably present in the common ancestor of all those animals, so the organism we're interested in most likely does as well. This works pretty well for extinct dinosaurs, because [birds are living theropod dinosaurs](_URL_7_) and crocs are [archosaurs](_URL_3_) that fall outside of Dinosauria. Traits that both crocs and birds possess are likely ancestral to all archosaurs and therefore would be present in dinosaurs unless they were secondarily lost.\n\nCrocodylians are surprisingly [vocal](_URL_6_) - and social, in fact. Just like we've made assumptions about dinosaurs, we've made assumptions about crocs. They are more like birds than we give them credit for. But I digress! Crocs do roar and [bellow](_URL_11_) using their larynx. They also hiss, and their bellows actually have a subaudible component to them. The wavelength of these subaudible sounds corresponds to the distance between the keels on their scutes, creating the \"water dance\" they use in their mating ritual (and the dancing water is made up of [Faraday waves](_URL_1_)).\n\nMost of birds' unique vocal abilities are due to a [syrinx](_URL_10_), which is an organ that sits at the base of the trachea. It's not the same thing as a larynx; it's a different organ. Birds do have a larynx, but the degree to which they can vocalize with it is limited (and poorly understood). Not all birds have a syrinx. No New World vultures (like turkey vultures) do, so they're limited to grunts and hisses. \n\nThe syrinx of songbirds is extremely complex, allowing for the wide variety of sounds. Birds make [a ton of vocalizations](_URL_2_), from hisses to warbles to squawks. Some [can haz cheeseburger](_URL_4_).\n\nWe know that not all dinosaurs had a syrinx; it evolved at some point in theropods. It's present in all bird groups, so it was likely present in their common ancestor. It seems to rely on the [presence of an airsac in the clavicle or collarbone](_URL_5_) (sorry, paywall), which is part of a system of air sacs connected to the lungs of many reptiles. As far as we can tell that clavicular airsac first arises in [enantiornithines](_URL_8_), which are dinosaurs that are so birdlike that they're generally just called birds.\n\nEarlier non-avian dinosaurs probably vocalized more like crocs than birds, but of course their morphology was quite different. Some animals like *Parasaurolophus* had weird hollow chambers that might have [been used for vocalizations](_URL_9_). Given the amount of diversity we see in the sounds modern archosaurs can make, and the variation we have in extinct dinosaurs, there was probably a great variety in vocalizations. However, we have no way to test for that in most fossil species.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[How Jurassic Park's Dino SFX were made](_URL_0_)\n\n* Raptors = Hissing goose + Tortoise sex noises + horse\n* T-rex = Jack Russell terrier + baby elephant\n* Brachiosaurus = Pitch shifted donkey sounds\n* Triceratops = Cows",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is ample evidence that duck-bill dinosaurs at the least were able to make impressively loud honking noises. In addition, behavior is just as important (perhaps more so) than comparative anatomy. Flocking and herding species are generally more vocal (and with greater variety in vocalizations) than species which live more solitary lives. While in modern reptiles, grouping appears to be a very recent development (except denning in certain snake species) some groups of dinosaurs quite clearly herded. In such species vocalizations (to keep track of one another, to warn of danger, to call to young, etc.,) are most probably certain. T-rex however was a probably a solitary hunter, and as scent was its primary sense, had little reason to develop calls of any kind and aside from an intensely loud hiss, probably lived a mostly silent life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* [Alligator growl](_URL_5_)\n* [Chameleon hissing](_URL_1_)\n* [Gecko calling](_URL_3_)\n* [Monitor growling](_URL_2_)\n* [Budgett's frog screaming](_URL_4_)\n\nReptiles and amphibians make plenty of sounds. That said, dinosaurs are closer to modern day birds than reptiles.\n\nBut you're right that the sounds from Jurassic Park were specifically engineered to sound terrifying.\n\nIt's also worth pointing out that there's whole families of dinosaurs who have skulls that appear to be shaped to produce complex sounds. Hadrosaurids like the [parasaurolophus](_URL_0_) have skulls full of oddly shaped chambers that appear to work similar like the tubes of brass musical instruments. It's just a theory of course but an interesting one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some good answers here, to which I'd just add the following:\n\n1. Being vocal and \"roaring\" are not the same thing. Some people describe certain crocodylian sounds as \"roaring\" but you'd never confuse those noises with what mammals do when they're being loud. The sounds you hear the *T. rex* making in \"Jurassic Park\" are deeply improbable for a couple of reasons:\n - It's way too mammalian, for one thing. Mammals use their diaphragm to push air past their vocal folds and achieve very loud sounds in this way, but more to the point, the character of those sounds is distinctive. And not like what crocs do, even when they are being loud.\n - No animal roars in the situations in which you see the *T. rex* roaring in the movies. Predators do not yell at their prey, or announce their presence ahead of time, but that's typical for movie predators.\n\n2. The work on *Parasaurolophus* and other hollow-crested duckbills was speculative - it addressed the question of what it **might** sound like **if** they pushed sound through those chambers. But there's no real reason to think they did that. And there's good reason to think those chambers were for olfactory enhancement, because the olfactory nerves are actually exposed inside the chambers.\n\n3. If you spend any time in the wild, the one thing you notice is how *quiet* it usually is. In North America, birds are the noisiest things around. Even in Africa, most large mammals are quiet most of the time. So a world of dinosaurs would not have been filled with noise all the time. We like to imagine dramatic animals as having sounded dramatic to human ears, but that's not the point of animal vocalizations.\n\n4. Lastly, we have no idea whether a syrinx appeared at the same time as a clavicular air sac, only that such an air sac is needed for its use today. Conceivably the air sac could have preceded the syrinx by a long time. Pneumaticity in general seems to have evolved quite variably as well, and so any particular air sac (or rather, an air sac in a particular anatomical position) could have evolved more than once within theropods with a basic air-sac system.\n\nAll this to say that yes, dinosaurs were almost certainly vocal. It's quite reasonable to infer they could hiss, grunt, and perhaps bellow. But \"roaring\" like in \"Jurassic Park\" is unlikely, and in the sense it was portrayed perhaps impossible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58067750",
"title": "Julia Clarke",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "In 2016 she speculated that based on her research she felt it was unlikely that dinosaurs roared. She proposed that it was much more likely that they made noises that were similar to those made by a modern pigeon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1663525",
"title": "Jurassic Park (SNES video game)",
"section": "Section::::Development and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The dinosaurs' behavior was based on behavior that was featured in the film. Dinosaurs that were not featured in the film were added into the game for variety. A scene featured earlier in the game's development depicted Grant being eaten by a \"Tyrannosaurus rex\", accompanied by the sound of his bones being crushed. Nintendo requested that the bone-crushing sound effect be removed as it was considered too realistic. The game includes inspiration from the novel, including a mission objective to prevent dinosaurs from escaping to the mainland on a supply ship. The game was mastered in surround sound (Dolby Pro Logic), and its music was composed by Jon Dunn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139861",
"title": "Cultural depictions of dinosaurs",
"section": "Section::::History of depictions.:The 1930s to 1970s: Moribund dinosaurs to renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Films of the time typically used dinosaurs as monsters, with the added element of atomic fears in the early Cold War. Thus, \"The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms\" (1953) and \"Godzilla\" (1954; American release 1956) portray monstrous dinosaur-like prehistoric reptiles that go on rampages after being awakened by atomic bomb tests. An alternative appears in Disney's animated \"Fantasia\" (1940), in its \"The Rite of Spring\" sequence, which attempted to portray dinosaurs with some scientific accuracy (although it has the common error of showing prehistoric animals from many different time periods living at the same time) and also in Karel Zeman's \"Cesta do praveku\" (1955; \"Journey to the Beginning of Time\"), a Czechoslovakian children's science fiction movie inspired by Zdeněk Burian's work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8583165",
"title": "Stegosaurus in popular culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "As late as the 1970s, \"Stegosaurus\", along with other dinosaurs, was depicted in fiction as a slow-moving, dim-witted creature. The \"dinosaur renaissance\" changed the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold-blooded and this reevaluation has been reflected in popular media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30648190",
"title": "Jurassic Park: The Game",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The dinosaurs' behavior was based on the behavior of present-day animals, as well as dinosaur behavior featured in the \"Jurassic Park\" films. A paleontologist also advised the development team on possible dinosaur behavior. The gameplay was heavily influenced by the 2010 video game \"Heavy Rain\". It is the first game by Telltale in which the player's character can be killed. The first images from the game were released in January 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68485",
"title": "Jurassic Park (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The dinosaurs were created with groundbreaking computer-generated imagery by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and with life-sized animatronic dinosaurs built by Stan Winston's team. To showcase the film's sound design, which included a mixture of various animal noises for the dinosaur roars, Spielberg invested in the creation of DTS, a company specializing in digital surround sound formats. The film also underwent an extensive $65 million marketing campaign, which included licensing deals with over 100 companies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5508892",
"title": "Warpath: Jurassic Park",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "IGN criticized the game's dinosaurs for their lack of size disparity: \"The T-Rex is a dwarf, while raptors have become mega-raptors of roughly the same size as the beast who bit regular raptors in half in the film.\" IGN also criticized the game's AI, bad collision detection, and noted that each dinosaur played similarly to one another. However, IGN praised the game's graphics and levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lz32k
|
why is it socially acceptable to make as much noise as possible while riding a motorcycle?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not generally acceptable, if a bike is loud it's because the owner made it that way.\n\nSome m/c groups like to think its a safety device, but in reality it's because they think it sounds cool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cars can be loud and some are with performance exhaust but it can be expensive. Aftermarket exhaust for a motorcycle is relatively inexpensive and in many cases provides better aesthetics at the same time.\n\nEdit: thanks for pointing out my typo, pretty funny",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A guarantee that the reader opinion page of some daily newspaper somewhere in the world is covering this topic right now. Loud motorcycles aren't socially acceptable. They're actually socially controversial and they motivate noise bylaws in every city that has noise bylaws. I don't think I could find a more \"complaint from an elderly neighbor\" topic if I tried.\n\ntl,dr: like most ELI5, your premise is fundamentally flawed. Loud motorcycles aren't socially acceptable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't socially accepted. Most everyone bitches about it, except for those who own the same kind of motorcycle. People makes arguments that it's safer. But that is bullshit. Motorcycles get in accidents typically when someone pulls out in front of them. Or when someone switches lanes and the motorcycle is in their blind spot. Both of these scenarios being loud does nothing for the biker. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Social context plays a lot into the acceptance. Tearing down a suburban street on a Harley with straight pipes males you an asshole no matter what, most bike owners try to be as quiet as possible in situations like this but a few bad apples spoil the rest. As far as why, there is the benefit of being heard before you are seen, but the reality for most is its simply more thrilling. The sound of a v-twin or tuned 4 cylinder bike moter, feeling the motor through your body, the wind on your face and smell of the air, it's all part of the experience. Could you imagine silent fireworks? It would be cool but there is something inherently exhilarating about the feeling in your chest you get from the concussion. Loud motorcycles, cars, stereos, guns, they all follow along those same lines...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, what shitty responses.\n\nIt's not socially acceptable. There is a reason why South Park made a whole episodes calling Harley riders faggots. Also stock factory mufflers keep these bikes quiet. Even from a legal standpoint, you will get ticketed for noise pollution if your bike is too loud. Don't buy the whole thing about \"loud pipes save lives\" bullshit. The bikes aren't actually that loud when cruising. The issue is apparent when they are at WOT (wide open throttle).\n\nSo the question is, why is it so common? Because the crowd that enjoys bikes is not much different from the crowd that enjoys fast sport's cars with modified exhausts. However, it's a lot cheaper and practical to do it on your bike. It's not just the fact that bikes themselves are cheaper. They are also cheaper to modify. Not to mention they are primarily weekend \"toys\" where it makes more sense to make it obnoxious over your single daily car.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They CLAIM it's so that people in cars can hear them and avoid hitting them. They are typically the same people that, if they do own a car, it has a bumper sticker prominently featured that says, \"Look Twice Save A Life\" even though most of them don't even bother wearing helmets or any protective gear at all and demonstrate no interest whatsoever in taking precautionary steps to save their own lives, as they feel that responsibility belongs to everyone else on the road.\n\nIt's like how gun nuts say they own it for protection when they really own it because they like guns. These bikers don't have loud bikes to improve safety, they have it because they like being louder than everyone else and getting attention for it, even if it's negative attention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a long time motorcyclist I agree loud exhaust pipes as a safety measure is ridiculous. If the riders want to be really safe, they would wear brightly colored leather or high tech clothes, not dress in black and jeans, have bikes that are maneuverable rather than the heavy rolling death traps they ride. I live in the mountains with lots of sharp turns. Lots of those big heavy Harley's don't make the turns, not because of excessive speed, but because of poor handling characteristics. And if they want to be safe, how about not drinking and driving. Sorry, but really, why not enforce the noise ordnances. My Mom sold her home in Florida because of the incredible motorcycle exhaust noise as bikers accelerated to go over a bridge near her home. A BMW or Honda was barely noticeable. It is really annoying, but the folks that have those loud bikes know that and enjoy annoying people and animals -why else would they do it other than herd mentality. Rant officially ended-that is all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just want to know why a Harley can tear down a quiet subdivision at 3am but I get a ticket for excessive noise if the cop can hear my car stereo. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, really, you need this explained? The reason some motorcyclists make a lot of noise is *because* it isn't socially acceptable. That's the point: they're outlaws, misfits, anti-social, et cetera et cetera.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The police seem to look the other way for bikes, but if a car was that loud, you'd get a noise ordinance ticket. \n\nAnd what's up with Harley guys at stop lights? They just keep reving their engine like it will die if they don't. ... Will it die if they don't? Because it's really annoying and it makes their bike look like a piece of shit that has to work *really* hard just to stay running. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live on a hill, a block above an underpass, where people love to rev their bikes/cars as they pass under. It makes me so fucking ragey, especially at 1 in the morning. \n\nThis doesn't provide anything relevant to the topic. I just fucking hate it. That's all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I drive a motorcycle myself and don't understand this. My motorcycle has a nice sound to it, but I don't rev it more than I have to. This weekend there was a bike gathering that I did not know of outside the local harley shop and a multi bike brand shop. I passed the crowd and parked in the far end where you had to drive in to the parking lot. When I came out again, there was a Harley dude pulling out to the street and he reved the Harley all he could the couple of hundred feet there was to the roundabout. I can't understand how the person on the bike probably had a feeling of accomplishment after doing this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Right before I read this a motorcycle came tearing down my quiet side street spewing a deafening roar that could tear through the very fabric of reality. Sure, it got me really pissed off having to hear that while relaxing in my house, but at least the whole neighborhood stopped what they were doing to receive a nice ear raping! As he weaves in and out of traffic with a total disregard for other cars, he can rest assured that we are feeling a terrible twisting sensation in our stomach and fighting the urge to punch their stupid face in. He didn't stop at merely being audible, this fudge-tard felt that the crew of the ISS needed to be aware that he was coming through and outfitted his hog with a sustained Horn of Valere, so he could make sure he was even pissing off the dead heroes of ages past! \n\nI get that you want your bike to be loud enough that people are aware of you, especially when some bikers drive like douches through traffic the way they do. But it gets to the point of absolute absurdity with the level of sound some of these bikes put out and then drive by my house at any time; day or night. At this point they are just ignoring everyone around them and being self-centered scumbags who don't give any consideration to those around them in the least bit. Find some other way to get attention which doesn't involve forcing your presence on me and my family in the most abrasive audible manner possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The people who chose to forgo the customary steel cage when flying down the highway amongst similarly equipped travelers (some of whom are texting) would like you to pay special attention to them because the lack of a steel cage makes them especially killable and they choose to behave like obnoxious children to help with that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not. Most of us hate the guys that rip around like morons one gear too high or that obnoxious pipe. Harley riders are the worst. I choose not to associate with them.\n\n/crotchrocket rider",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Girl Harley rider here. I will say from experience, \"Loud pipes save lives\" is a legit thing. I have lived in three major cities and it's essential to be heard in dense traffic with a bunch of Priuses trying to kill you. I can't tell you how often I've thankfully been seen because I was heard first. \n\nHowever, you can get nice middle-ground sound without being an asshole. It also helps if you're not an asshole to begin with.... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are very few actual answers here, so I'll give it a shot. \n\nMotorcyclists are generally much more into their bikes than a car driver is into their car. Motorcyclists are more likely to modify their bikes because their bikes are a much larger aspect in their lives than a car drivers car, generally speaking. They like to have their own spin on whatever they do, like all people. \n\nMotorcycles generally come with quiet exhausts and because slip-ons are so easy to use and motorcycle exhaust systems aren't very complicated anyway, it is one of the first points of modification. There is a modicum of truth to \"Loud Pipes save Lives\" in that a person is more likely to hear something than see it as our hearing has a 360 degree range and our sight is near 180 degrees on the best of days, focused field of view is really much smaller than that but it is difficult to test at my desk. That being said, pretty much all motorcycles come with stock exhausts that are plenty loud enough to be heard by a motorist. Some 250's are very quiet and there is some argument to be made there, but even if you ran a 250 with no exhaust at all it wouldn't be too bad, like a lawn mower really. \n\nWhen you get down to it, if people are into vehicle modifications, specifically exhaust, they will have a loud vehicle. The fact that there is not a single rider in the United States that doesn't love riding coupled with the super duper ease of Exhaust mods on bikes makes for loud bikes most of the time. If you leave your bike alone it will be perfectly civilized 100 percent of the time. \n\nUnless it is a dual sport, those always sound like turds but I love them so. \n\n\nEdit: I forgot to mention, the noise limit is actually quite high, in PA it is 82 dB for motorcycles, which is the sound level you'd expect at a concert, a rowdy concert. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While lane splitting the louder bike gets noticed more. Or just at lights, intersections.\n\nNo one looks for bikes, but if they hear you, they may look out for you\n\nYou run the risk of startling people of it's too loud or scary.\n\nI have a Harley and it is a bit loud but I usually coast down my street in neutral to cut it off early and be respectful. I never rev it at intersections sitting still. Where I will give it some noise is when someone starts creeping into my lane or someone starts making a turn, someone cuts me off, someone opens their door etc. my horn doesn't make any noise. I hate guys who rev bikes at stop lights. Most are just trying to get attention. Some are doing it to keep their bike running because it has a low idle and will stall otherwise. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work at a Harley dealership. I hated it when some douche got new pipes and would sit outside revving it for 10 minutes. My bike is louder than most and I don't do that. \n \nI built my bike from the ground up. I have a big engine and straight pipes because who buys aftermarket pipes with mufflers? I don't even know if you can. I also noticed that nobody runs me off the road anymore. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most responses ITT miss OP's point entirely by simplistically joining the circle-jerk and saying \"it's not acceptable!\" \n\nBut it is acceptable... At least, *relative* to how acceptable it is for cars. So you asked quite a fair question, and are deserving of real answers. Here you go:\n\n~motorcyclists have a rebellious image, much like smokers. They know what they are doing is dangerous, and they don't care because they're so cool. Sort of like how smokers are mostly too cool to not litter their butts. Acting like you don't give a shit goes with the image, and society expects that from \"bikers.\"\n\n~due to the aforementioned danger, bikes tend to attract more youthful and less-responsible people. This means that on average, bikers are less likely to pressure each other to conform to the rules of polite society. I would absolutely ridicule an adult peer for modding out his car, but I don't think my teenage son would do the same.\n\n~bikes are much cheaper than cars. Cheaper things are usually owned by younger/poorer people, which correlates to nonconformism.\n\n~bikes are easier to customize. Switching a bike exhaust takes probably a quarter the work and equipment as a car.\n\n~bike exhaust and emissions systems are decades behind cars in terms of complexity, since they're a smaller target for smog control legislation. Cars have gotten VERY complex with computer controls, whereas by comparison, Ducati didn't even introduce *fuel injection* until after the year 2000. My point being, removing the emissions system from a new Volkswagon is waaaay more illegal than doing it to a Harley.\n\n~motorcycles are by design, far more powerful for their size than car engines. It's not unusual to get twice as much power per liter from a sport bike engine compared to a modern car. For that reason, bike engines are genuinely straining harder than your accord's, and making more noise is more natural for them.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I love the low iqs who rev their bikes over & over at red lights. We know you aren't cleaning. You are a loser begging for the little attention you can force others to barely give to you. No one is impressed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can only post from my experience. I'm a younger guy and ride a Suzuki SV650S with an aftermarket exhaust. One of the reasons I need a loud bike is so when I'm on the interstate, the dumbass on his phone texting/talking is able to hear me roar by as I'm revving and shifting up. Sure, at highway speeds with the windows down he might not be able to hear me, but it's better than the giant tin can I had on my bike previously.\n\nOther reasons are performance and reducing weight, as well as aesthetics. I'm in a college town so people are always on their phone talking/texting/listening to music. They might not hear my weak horn, but they'll hear my exhaust.\n\nIt also cut off probably 15-20lbs of weight off my bike by removing the factory muffler and I haven't had any issues with inspections or noise complaints. Most of the other guys I ride with that have crotch rockets also have some sort of aftermarket exhaust or another, and that's even the case with some cruisers we ride with. Thankfully, no obnoxious Harley riders to deafen me as I'm riding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16952455",
"title": "BugE",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Because the fairing is attached to the vehicle via the front axle, it is prone to clunky vibrations at low speeds and on turbulent surfaces. The nature and position of the motor produce a constant, loud mechanical sound much like a motorcycle. The weight limit for the vehicle, including the driver and all carried cargo, is 200 pounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8044387",
"title": "Electric motorcycles and scooters",
"section": "Section::::Electric vs. gasoline machines.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Electric vehicles are far quieter than gas powered ones, so silent they may sneak up on unwary pedestrians. Some are equipped to emit artificial noise. Popular Mechanics called the comparative quiet of electric motorcycles the greatest difference between them and their gas counterparts, and a safety bonus because the rider can hear danger approaching. Whether a loud motorcycle is more noticeable and thus more safe than a quiet one is contested. At high speed the whine of an electric motorcycle is said to sound \"like a spaceship.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4491258",
"title": "Roadway noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Traffic operations noise is affected significantly by vehicle speeds, since sound energy roughly doubles for each increment of ten miles an hour in vehicle velocity; an exception to this rule occurs at very low speeds where braking and acceleration noise dominate over aerodynamic noise. Small reductions in vehicle noise occurred in the 1970s as states and provinces enforced unmuffled vehicle ordinances. The vehicle fleet noise has not changed very much over the last three decades; however, if the trend in hybrid vehicle use continues, substantial noise reduction will occur, especially in the regime of traffic flow below 35 miles per hour. Hybrid vehicles are so quiet at low speeds that they create a pedestrian safety issue when reversing or maneuvering when parking etc. (but not when travelling forward), and so are typically fitted with electric vehicle warning sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "980192",
"title": "Bōsōzoku",
"section": "Section::::Traits and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The word \"bōsōzoku\" is also applied to motorcycle subculture with an interest in motorcycle customizing, often illegal, and making noise by removing the mufflers on their vehicles so that more noise is produced. These \"bōsōzoku\" groups sometimes ride without motorcycle helmets (which in Japan is illegal), also engage in dangerous or reckless driving, such as weaving in traffic, and running red lights. Another activity is speeding in city streets, not usually for street racing but more for thrills. With many bikes involved, the leading one is driven by the leader, who is responsible for the event and is not allowed to be overtaken. Japanese police call them \"Maru-Sō\" (police code マル走 or 丸走) and occasionally dispatch police vehicles to trail the groups of bikes for the reason of preventing possible incidents, which may include: riding very slowly through suburbs at speeds of 10-15 km/h, creating a loud disturbance while waving imperial Japanese flags, and starting fights that may include weapons (such as wooden swords, metal pipes, baseball bats and Molotov cocktails). These \"bōsōzoku\" gang members are generally between 16 and 19 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8166749",
"title": "Hybrid electric vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at idling and low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction, in comparison to conventional gasoline or diesel powered engine vehicles, resulting in beneficial noise health effects (although road noise from tires and wind, the loudest noises at highway speeds from the interior of most vehicles, are not affected by the hybrid design alone). Reduced noise may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard. Tests have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Vibration.:In motorcycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 266,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 266,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine mounts, and tire weights. The problems that vibration causes have also spawned an industry of after-market parts and systems designed to reduce it. Add-ons include handlebar weights, isolated foot pegs, and engine counterweights. At high speeds, motorcycles and their riders may also experience aerodynamic flutter or buffeting. This can be abated by changing the air flow over key parts, such as the windshield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19957558",
"title": "Mini E",
"section": "Section::::Field trial program.:Field test results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- When asked for suggestions to deal with the potential danger from the low noise at low speeds, more than half (56%) said that instead of an artificial noise, the driver should pay more attention. However just over a quarter (28%) said they’d like to have a warning noise below .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o92ed
|
how does renting a property with option to buy work? does your rent go towards the down payment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually these are case by case basis, whatever the renter/buyer and the landlord/seller agree to, there must be some legal contract with the terms spelled out and everybody signs or somebody is going to get screwed and it will probably be the renter. Normally it is the case though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "342324",
"title": "Renting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Renting, also known as hiring or letting, is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for all property charges regularly incurred by the ownership. An example of renting is equipment rental. Renting can be an example of the sharing economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3743931",
"title": "Rent-to-own",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A rent-to-own transaction differs from a traditional lease, in that the lessee can purchase the leased item at any time during the agreement (in a traditional lease the lessee has no such right), and from a hire purchase/installment plan, in that the lessee can terminate the agreement by simply returning the property (in a hire purchase the buyer has a limited time, if any, to cancel the agreement).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25164992",
"title": "Revenue model",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Rental or leasing model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Renting is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for all property charges regularly incurred by the ownership. Things that can be rented or leased include land, buildings, vehicles, tools, equipment, furniture, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3743931",
"title": "Rent-to-own",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Rent-to-own, also known as rental-purchase, is a type of legally documented transaction under which tangible property, such as furniture, consumer electronics, motor vehicles, home appliances, real property, and engagement rings, is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment, with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39372166",
"title": "South African law of lease",
"section": "Section::::Formalities and types.:Categories of leases of immovable property and effectiveness against third parties.:Short leases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 238,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 238,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Occupation is an outward sign to prospective purchasers that there is a lease. If the lessee does not take up occupation when he has an opportunity to do so, he has himself to blame if a purchaser is persuaded to pay the price appropriate for the property which he (the purchaser) thinks he will be able to occupy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4310188",
"title": "Lease-option",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for using a lease option.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "If the tenant does not exercise the option to purchase the property by the end of the lease, then generally any up front option money along with any monies that the tenant paid in addition to the market rental rate for this option may be retained by the owner depending on the agreement. This might occur if the tenant no longer wishes to purchase the property, or if the tenant wishes to purchase the property but is unable to obtain the financing required to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342324",
"title": "Renting",
"section": "Section::::Rent to own.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "A rental agreement may provide for the renter or lessee to become the owner of the asset at the end of the rental period, usually at the renter's option on payment of a nominal fee. Such arrangements may be known as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4brmo8
|
why do some speakers have "mini" speakers around the large ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those parts of the speaker are called cones. The little cones, known as tweeters, reproduce the high frequency parts of the music. \n\nThe larger cones, called woofers, reproduce the mid and low frequency parts of the music.\n\nThe size of the cone corresponds to range of frequencies it can reproduce. That's why sub-woofers that can produce the really low notes often have very large cones.\n\nThere is actually a little filter circuit called a crossover that is built into the speaker box that separates the incoming signal into the parts that go to each cone. If you open your speaker box up you'll see the little circuit board. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Loudspeakers (the whole box) often have several *drivers* in them...which are those parts that vibrate and make sound. The larger ones are called *woofers* and are used for low-range sounds, while the small (\"mini') are called *tweeters* and are used to make the higher frequency sounds. Inside the loudspeaker there is an electrical circuit called a *cross over* that takes the input signal and \"splits\" it into high and low frequencies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound engineer here, the smaller speakers are called \"tweeters\". They are responsible for producing sound frequencies on the high end, thus why they're called tweeters, as birds tweets are higher in pitch. Conversely, the larger speakers are called \"woofers\", they are responsible for your bass, which is why they're called woofers, after a dog's bark. If your tweeters are blown, you will notice a significant difference in audio quality and your music will sound like absolute shit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Big speakers play low pitch sounds, like the steps of a big monster coming to you. Small speakers play high pitch sounds, like the one a little mouse makes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two parts to a speaker, the tweeter (small) and the woofer (big). Inside the speaker is a crossover that decides which speaker will play which notes, with the tweeter playing the high notes and the woofer playing the low notes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Essentially, it's a matter of mass. The highest high pitch sound a human can hear is around 20,000 hertz, or cycles per second. The low end for most speakers is around 20 hertz. The smaller, lighter tweeter has to move a small amount of air really, really fast to produce 20,000 hertz. The larger, heaver woofer has to move a whole lot of air really slow. The tweeter just can't move enough air to do 20Hz very well, and the woofer is too large and heavy to vibrate at 20,000Hz.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you have a set of bells. You know how the smaller ones ring with a higher pitch than lower ones? Its similar with speaker drivers, smaller ones can resonate at higher frequency easier. Larger ones at lower frequency. Having multiple sizes of 'mini speakers' (drivers) means that the sounds that each is best at making can be sent to it. It ends up making a speaker that sounds clearer and has better response across all frequencies than ones that try and do it all with one driver.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The smaller ones play the same track at a lower frequency for dogs and other various pets to be able to also hear the audio being played, this way they won't be confused when they see their owners dance or in any other ways react to the musi... Wait a minute this isn't /r/shittyaskscience is it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The large speakers are like the Daddys, and can sing the low notes very well. The clusters of small speakers are like the kids, with higher voices. The kids are the only ones that can sing the highest notes, so they do. Together they are a musical family that lives in a box.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "654161",
"title": "Directional sound",
"section": "Section::::Speaker arrays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "While a large loudspeaker is naturally more directional because of its large size, a source with equivalent directivity can be made by utilizing an array of traditional small loudspeakers, all driven together in-phase. Acoustically equal to a large speaker, this creates a larger source size compared to wavelength, and the resulting sound field is narrowed compared to a single small speaker. Large speaker arrays have been used in hundreds of arena sound systems to mitigate noise that would ordinarily travel to adjoining neighborhoods, as well as limited applications in other applications where some degree of directivity is helpful, such as museums or similar display applications that can tolerate large speaker dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "654161",
"title": "Directional sound",
"section": "Section::::Speaker arrays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Other types of large speaker panels, such as electrostatic loudspeakers, tend to be more directional than small speakers, for the same reasons as above; they are somewhat more directional only because they tend to be physically larger than most common loudspeakers. Correspondingly, an electrostatic loudspeaker the size of a small traditional speaker would be non-directional. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6604281",
"title": "Excursion (audio)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Often, large speakers such as those used in clubs and in professional audio actually allow little cone excursion and/or they have fairly stiff surrounds which do not allow them to fluctuate greatly without high power. This is because they would otherwise overdrive and have a much shorter lifetime because it doesn't take much power at very low frequencies to cause even a large and \"powerful\" loudspeaker to overfluctuate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6364628",
"title": "Guitar speaker",
"section": "Section::::Cabinet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Cabinets with mixed-size speakers are less common, but they are used (e.g., a bass amplifier cabinet with a 15\" loudspeaker for lower frequencies and a smaller speaker for mid- to high-range frequencies. A cabinet is usually mono, but may have two inputs for a \"stereo\" amplifier. Two speakers in a cabinet may be wired in parallel (lowering the impedance) or in series (increasing the impedance). Larger multiples will usually be series/parallel to maintain an impedance of 4 to 8 ohms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "816290",
"title": "Horn loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Public address and concert use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Horn loudspeakers are used in many audio applications. The drivers in horn loudspeakers can be very small, even for bass frequencies where conventional loudspeakers would need to be very large for equivalent performance. Horn loudspeakers can be designed to reproduce a wide range of frequencies using a single, small driver; to some extent these can be designed without requiring a crossover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54633933",
"title": "K-array",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Slim Array Technology (SAT) was developed to confront issues using large line array elements by substituting the big enclosures with slim boxes. Whereas a big air volume inside a large speaker box in a standard line array is necessary to maximize the speaker efficiency in the mid-low frequency range, a slim box allows sound to exit instantaneously without resonance, generating a significant amount of sound pressure in the low and low-mid range with a fast transient response. Therefore, all sounds characterized by fast transients, like percussion instruments, are reproduced in a more natural way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24528183",
"title": "Coaxial loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Car audio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Coaxial speakers in automobiles are 2- or 3-way loudspeakers in which the tweeter, or the tweeter and a mid-range driver, are mounted in front of the woofer, partially obscuring it. The advantage of this design is the ability to use a smaller area, hence their popularity in car audio. The low frequency sound waves from the woofer are not reduced too much by the drivers in their path. Without time-alignment correction, the sound from the tweeter may arrive slightly before the sound from the woofer; this misalignment is not generally addressed in automobile sound systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3o8z3z
|
how do electronics spin in full circles without getting their wires tangled? (example in text)
|
[
{
"answer": "The rotating portion receives electricity through a device like a \"rotary electrical connector\" or a \"brush slip ring\". They allow current to pass through two concentric rings, one inside the other, separated by an insulator, and depending on how fast it's intended to rotate, possibly sealed and lubricated.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some use a metal wire brush that rubs against a metal ring, the current is passed through that way as it spina",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add onto what others have said, the lights on the fan are probably wired into a little chip in the center part of the fan. That chip will get power from the slip ring connector.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2786994",
"title": "Twist-on wire connector",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Twist-on wire connectors are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. While their exterior covering is typically made from insulating plastic, their means of connection is a tapered coiled metal insert, which threads onto the wires and holds them securely. When such a connector is twisted onto the stripped and twisted-together ends of wires, the wires are drawn into the connector's metal insert and squeezed together inside it. Electrical continuity is maintained by both the direct twisted wire-to-wire contact and by contact with the metal insert. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42418",
"title": "Electrical cable",
"section": "Section::::Modern applications.:Cables and electromagnetic fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other. This can be demonstrated by putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Where the interfering signal has a wavelength that is long compared to the pitch of the twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to cancel the effect of the interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258958",
"title": "Balanced audio",
"section": "Section::::Interference reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The wires are also twisted together, to reduce interference from electromagnetic induction. A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential amplifier. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it won't be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3966982",
"title": "Noise (electronics)",
"section": "Section::::Coupled noise.:Mitigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Twisted pair wiring – Twisting wires in a circuit will reduce electromagnetic noise. Twisting the wires decreases the loop size in which a magnetic field can run through to produce a current between the wires. Small loops may exist between wires twisted together, but the magnetic field going through these loops induces a current flowing in opposite directions in alternate loops on each wire and so there is no net noise current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230643",
"title": "Braid",
"section": "Section::::Industrial history and use.:Ropes and cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Flat braids made of many copper wires can also be used for flexible electrical connections between large components. The numerous smaller wires comprising the braid are much more resistant to breaking under repeated motion and vibration than is a cable of larger wires. A common example of this may be found connecting a car battery's negative terminal to the metal chassis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1917294",
"title": "Safety wire",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Witness wire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Typically the wire is threaded through existing holes in the associated equipment, using a single strand loop, and a single crossover, such that the closure is secured without impedance to the normal functioning of the equipment. The single crossover provides the appropriate friction such that the wire cannot fall completely free of the equipment when broken. The loose ends of the strand may be twisted in a pigtail fashion, or crimped with a lead seal, securing both strands as close to the closure as practical. In each case, the loose ends of the strands should be tucked neatly away from inadvertent impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25754378",
"title": "Ayrton-Perry winding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The winding is made of two separate wires wound in opposing directions along an insulating form and connected in parallel at the ends. Since there are the same number of turns of wire in either direction, the magnetic fields of the two wires cancel each other out, so the coil has little inductance; and since adjacent turns of the two wires are at approximately the same voltage, there is little parasitic capacitance between the turns. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y0tf2
|
whats going on with the racial motivated rape gangs going on in europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am Dutch and I like to think I keep up reasonably well with the news here and I've never heard of any racially motivated rape gangs. To be hones, this sounds like the same sort of bullshit as the Sharia triangle bullshit we had on the news here a while back. Basically fear mongering from people who can get an advantage from people being fearful. (aka politicians with certain policies and reporters that want the next big scoop)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Im guessing you mean Rotherham (UK), not Rotterdam. At least that's what it says in the article you linked. The stories are still floating about, but the main bulk of the interest from the public is more relating to how the police and child protective services made systematic failures, many resulting from not wanting to come off as racist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51161956",
"title": "Immigration and crime in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Criminal activity by immigrants since the 1990s.:Sexual offences.:Gang rape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The number of assault gang rapes were significantly higher in periods prior to 2015 and the European migrant crisis, with the exception of 2016 where the New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany nearly doubled the number of cases. In 2017 there were 122 cases, the fewest since the German reunification in 1990. The sexual assaults in Cologne on New Year's Eve 2016 nevertheless ended the atmosphere of euphoria earlier in the year when hundreds of thousands of migrants had arrived in Germay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51161956",
"title": "Immigration and crime in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Criminal activity by immigrants since the 1990s.:Sexual offences.:Gang rape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "After the gang rapes where immigrants were suspect in Freiburg, Munich and Velbert, an overview of police gang rape statistics in the 2010s was published by Tagesschau in 2018. The profile of the suspects and convicted fit that of sex crime in general as they were almost all male. Additionally foreign perpetrators were overrepresented compared to their share of the overall population in Germany. The absolute number of gang rapes were not increasing, but the proportion of foreign suspects rose and the proportion of Syrian, Afghan and Iraqi suspects rose. One reason cited for the increase was that these demographics have larger proportions of young males, which are inherently overrepresented for crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140320",
"title": "Sydney gang rapes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Sydney gang rapes were a series of gang rape attacks committed by a group of up to fourteen Lebanese Australian youths led by Bilal Skaf against Anglo-Celtic Australian women and teenage girls, as young as 14, in Sydney Australia in 2000. The crimes, described as ethnically motivated hate crimes by officials and commentators, were covered extensively by the news media, and prompted the passing of new laws. The nine men convicted of the gang rapes were sentenced to a total of more than 240 years in jail. According to court transcripts Judge Michael Finnane described the rapes as events that \"you hear about or read about only in the context of wartime atrocities\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1371871",
"title": "Gang rape",
"section": "Section::::Specific countries.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "In banlieues organised gang-rapes are referred to as , or \"pass-arounds\"). One of the first people to bring public attention to the culture of gang rape was Samira Bellil, who published a book called \"Dans l'enfer des tournantes\" (\"In Gang Rape Hell\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2904828",
"title": "Crime in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Image in media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "In February 2017, UKIP British politician Nigel Farage defined the Swedish city of Malmö as the \"rape capital of Europe\", and linked the high number of rapes in Sweden to the immigrants and asylum seekers from Africa and the Middle East; he was subsequently criticized by the BBC because, at the time, there were no data available on the ethnicity of the attackers. One year later, in August 2018 the BBC itself reported that rape statistics in Sweden show that 58% of men convicted of rape and attempted rape over the past five years were refugees and immigrants\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1371871",
"title": "Gang rape",
"section": "Section::::Specific countries.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "In October 2012, two girls in Fontenay-sous-Bois on the outskirts of Paris reported experiencing daily gang rapes in the high-rise tower blocks, sometimes by scores of boys. One witness described 50 boys \"queuing\" to rape her. 10 of the 14 defendants who were minors at the time of gang rape were acquitted, while the remaining 4 adults found guilty were given 0 to 12 months in prison. This case shocked the country. In 2014, the case of a Canadian tourist allegedly gang raped by four police officers in Paris received international attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140320",
"title": "Sydney gang rapes",
"section": "Section::::New laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The gang rapes led to the passage of new legislation through the Parliament of New South Wales, increasing the sentences for gang rapists by creating a new category of crime known as \"aggravated sexual assault in company\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3puxao
|
how to move out of my parents house (aka. downpayments, interest rates, credit)
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless you are in no hurry and already have a lucrative job you expect to keep for many years, I would not try to buy a place just to leave your parents house.\n\nSave up a few months worth of income and then rent something. If you rent small, close to work/school, avoid car ownership, and always - every month - spend less than you earn, you'll be fine. One day when you have that lucrative job you can look at buying if it makes sense. \n\nDon't get sucked into the myth that renting = poverty and buying = easy street.\n\nGood luck\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35801396",
"title": "How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life) is an American single-camera sitcom created by Claudia Lonow that aired on ABC from April 3 to June 26, 2013. The series was produced by 20th Century Fox Television and stars Sarah Chalke as Polly who—along with her daughter—ends up moving into her parents' house because of the financial crisis and her divorce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5655056",
"title": "Primary residence",
"section": "Section::::Definition in specific jurisdictions.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In the United States, a primary residence is understood to be a property that one has regular access to, as opposed to a property one owns but does not have access to due to it being rented out to others. This can affect eligibility for a mortgage or home equity loan, with requirements generally being looser for getting a loan for a property one lives in, it being believed that a homeowner will try harder to pay the loan if they risk losing their primary residence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25226624",
"title": "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.:Dependents' health insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Dependents were permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861253",
"title": "Boomerang Generation",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "This generation differs from previous ones in that many members expect to remain with their parents for some years while maintaining their own social and professional lives. Home-leaving remains a priority for most in the Boomerang Generation, though financial burden (and the comforts of financial stability in their parents' homes) often delays the fruition of that goal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12002208",
"title": "The van Paemel Family",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "As a result, the family is evicted from their home because they cannot pay the rent. Three of the children emigrate to the USA, one becomes a nun and one dies, until only the farmer and his wife remain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40426902",
"title": "Provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act",
"section": "Section::::Provisions by effective date.:Effective September 23, 2010.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dependents, mostly children, will be permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, and regulations implemented under the ACA include dependents that no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5655056",
"title": "Primary residence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "A person's primary residence, or main residence is the dwelling where they usually live, typically a house or an apartment. A person can only have one \"primary\" residence at any given time, though they may share the residence with other people. A primary residence is considered to be a legal residence for the purpose of income tax and/or acquiring a mortgage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fhv6l
|
Given that many insects are attracted to light sources at night, do spiders take advantage of this?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a few species of bat which have learned that a lot of insects can be found near light sources at night. The few species in Europe that have learned this behaviour are quite light-tolerant though, other bat species actively avoid light. So it might be possible that some spiders are more likely to build webs near lights. See _URL_0_\n\nI don't know if there's been research on spiders for this though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32802935",
"title": "Ecological light pollution",
"section": "Section::::Effects of light pollution on individual organisms.:Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The attraction of insects to artificial light is one of the most well known examples of the effect of light at night on organisms. When insects are attracted to lamps they can be killed by exhaustion or contact with the lamp itself, and they are also vulnerable to predators like bats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36448421",
"title": "Moth trap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The reason insects and especially particular families of insect (e.g. moths), are attracted to light is uncertain . The most accepted theory is that moth migrate using the moon and stars as navigational aids and that the placement of a closer than the moon light causes subtended angles of light at the insects eye to alter so rapidly that it has to fly in a spiral to reduce the angular change -- this resulting in the insect flying into the light. Yet the reason some diurnal insects visit is entirely unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32802935",
"title": "Ecological light pollution",
"section": "Section::::Effects of light pollution on individual organisms.:Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Insects are affected differently by the varying wavelengths of light, and many species can see ultraviolet and infrared light that is invisible to humans. Because of variances in perception, moths are more attracted to broad spectrum white and bluish light sources than they are to the yellow light emitted by low pressure sodium-vapor lamps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6229285",
"title": "Spider anatomy",
"section": "Section::::External anatomy.:Cephalothorax.:Eyes, vision, and sense organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "However, most spiders that lurk on flowers, webs, and other fixed locations waiting for prey tend to have very poor eyesight; instead they possess an extreme sensitivity to vibrations, which aids in prey capture. Vibration sensitive spiders can sense vibrations from such various mediums as the water surface, the soil or their silk threads. Changes in the air pressure can also be detected in search of prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9511612",
"title": "Meta menardi",
"section": "Section::::Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The adult spiders are photophobic and live in places free from light, frequently in caves and tunnels, though they can sometimes be seen outside of caves and mines as they will emerge around dusk to hunt, often using a single silk lasso line and swinging down upon their prey. They are often found in areas that are frequented by bats. The spiders are most often observed in railway tunnels and mines since these are more likely to be visited by humans. The young spiders are, after several instars (and in contrast to the adults), strongly attracted to light—probably an evolutionary adaptation which ensures the spread of the species to new areas (see Life cycle for further details).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4109690",
"title": "Formosa, Goiás",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:The Land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The most common insect is probably the leaf cutting ant, but common sights are the termites with their innumerable termite hills covering the landscape, several species of spiders, wild bees, dung beetles, especially around the cattle ranches, enormous night moths, and the fireflies with their eerie nocturnal lights. One species of black spider lives in a compact group like a large ball during the daylight hours, their thick as fish line web stretching between large trees. At dusk the spiders scurry out from their cluster to take up positions on the long web and catch the nocturnal insects as they fly blindly to their fate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6882090",
"title": "Insect migration",
"section": "Section::::Orientation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Most insects are capable of sensing polarized light and they are able to use the polarization of the sky when the sun is occluded by clouds. The orientation mechanisms of nocturnal moths and other insects that migrate have not been well studied, however magnetic cues have been suggested in short distance fliers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ogvmk
|
Why are there so many companies getting hacked?
|
[
{
"answer": "Major companies operate networks that are absolutely massive. It's simply not possible for them to operate them in a way that is impervious to attack. Anyone who tells you they can operate such a network is lying. With computer systems it isn't a matter of *if* they will be hacked but of *when*.\n\nMoreover operating a server is a very dangerous thing to do if you aren't careful. Case in point, I run my own internet-facing server that I use for various tasks. Since midnight (~11 hours ago) it has seen:\n\n* 70 attempts to log in over SSH (basically log in as administrator)\n* 15 attempts to exploit [Shellshock](_URL_0_) against some website hosting software\n* ~30 attempts to log in to the administrative panel of said website hosting using what look like gibberish as the name and password\n\nThat's just my no-name server hosting nothing of particular importance. All of these things are automated attacks that are fire-and-forget and the scale they occur at is astounding. \nWorse yet, you wouldn't actually know if they succeed. The attack would insert some malicious payload that enables the attacker to come back later and steal your data or use your server to launch further attacks. The only defense is pro-actively monitoring for suspicious activity and staying up to date with security patches.\n****\n\nBack to big companies. People attack them because that's where the money is. Target and Home Depot got hit with the same malware that infected the POS terminals used to process credit/debit transactions and whoever was responsible walked away with something insane like information on over 40 *million* credit cards. Worse is that the companies were using extremely out of date security software that was effectively useless. The attacks were certainly impressive in scope but the security they were up against wasn't exactly state-of-the-art or robust.\n\nWith Sony it's very much a developing situation and we don't know how or why it happened. The reported size of data stolen is enormous (~100TB) and it's been reported that leaked portions show extremely bad security practices like keeping usernames and passwords in a text file in a folder named \"Passwords\".\n\ntl;dr: Everyone gets hacked. *Everyone*. What makes the difference is how quickly they identify and respond to those events.\n\ne: For more gory details written in a mostly-layman accessible manner about the Target attack, [this article](_URL_1_) is a solid read. It breaks down the attack into a play-by-play look at how it probably happened.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its *real* hard to build secure systems. Like ludicrously difficult. There are a lot of reasons for this but I'll list two that I think are very important. \n\n1. Security does not compose. You might expect that if you took two secure systems and connected them that the result might end up being secure but this isn't always the case. This means that when setting up a company's IT infrastructure the admins need to be aware of the entire global system. They cannot just work on individual pieces by themselves. For systems of any size this is basically impossible and its really easy for things to slip through the cracks. And this only gets worse as things get more and more complex. \n\n2. You cannot measure security. Anybody who comes to you and says they can put a number on how secure your network is is a liar. Many companies hire pentesters to come and try to break their systems so they can find problems before a real hack happens but pentesters can very easily miss stuff. There is simply no way somebody can look at a reasonably sized system and say \"I've checked everything that could go wrong\". \n\nNow take the fact that it only takes one mistake for the whole thing to come crashing down and you've got a real problem. Misconfigured SSH? Get hacked. Didn't quickly update to the new version of OpenSSL after heartbleed was found? Get hacked. SQL injection vuln in the commercial software you bought to manage your administrative web portal? Get hacked. The list goes on and on and on and on. \n\nIt also doesn't help that there are massive financial incentives to hack large companies. This means that its not just a few guys trying to hack into your system because they feel like it. Its thousands of smart and coordinated people trying to hack you *all the time*. Large organizations receive thousands and thousands of hacking attempts every day and if a single one gets through its bad. \n\nComputer security is **hard**. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we historically live in the time when computers are becoming ubiquitous in society, yet security concerns have not yet penetrated the public consciousness. Consumers confidently swipe their credit cards at retail locations without giving any thought to the legions of criminals trying to steal their accounts. \n\nIt's a bit like cars in the 1950's or 60's. Big tail fins but not very safe. Today in order to bring a car to market you have to spend a lot of research and manufacturing costs on safety. Seat belts, antilock brakes, etc. Traffic fatalities in the US used to run 50,000 a year; now they're down to 33,000 even with more people driving.\n\nIn the future, nobody will be able to sell software or networking equipment without major security features designed in from the beginning. We'll look back on today and think, how could people have been so naive? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One factor is that companies that make security products are not held accountable for the failure of those products. If a company made a bank vault that a bored teenager could break into, you can be sure the vault maker.would get sued. But that's never even a consideration where computer security is concerned. I know that it's impossible the way all the tech is tangled up, but that's part of my point - if companies knew their own business was on the line if their customers got hacked, you could be sure they design unambiguous 'boundaries' into their products. There's no motive now to do so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35752024",
"title": "The Unknowns",
"section": "Section::::Hacked websites and applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The group has hacked many websites and applications using a series of different attacks. The most notable, however, being SQL injection. There have been a lot of companies affected by the group, but some of the hacks even for big companies did not make the media (probably due to keeping the multi-country legal investigation a secret). However, the most notable hacks done by The Unknowns, mostly government related websites, did make mass media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13533",
"title": "Hacker",
"section": "Section::::Motives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing credit card numbers or manipulating banking systems. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. And fourth, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59270266",
"title": "Government hacking",
"section": "Section::::Criminal cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The best-known and legitimate form of government hacking is the watering hole attack, in which the government takes control of a criminal-activity site and distributes a virus to computers which access the site. The malware can be installed through a link clicked by a user or through access to a site. The user is not aware of the infection on their machine; the malware partially controls it, searches for identifying information and sends it to the source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24336717",
"title": "Virtual engagement",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "With the business world increasingly operating on virtual platforms the fear of hackers is rising. As more jobs are using this virtual platform as a standard procedure, the amount of information that is available to be hacked is also increasing. This information may be confidential and if found by the wrong people, detrimental to the business and its customers. One well publicised case was the hacking of the online cheating site Ashley Madison. Consumers joined this site to arrange affairs (cheat on their partners) with others on the site. This information was then leaked enabling the “cheaters” partners to see what they have been up to. This was obviously disastrous for the online business and its customers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7398",
"title": "Computer security",
"section": "Section::::Systems at risk.:Financial systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cyber criminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains. Web sites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39836259",
"title": "USIS (company)",
"section": "Section::::Fraud investigation and charges.:Cyber attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "On July 7, 2014, the company said it was hit by a cyber attack prompting the US government to suspend its work with the firm. Experts who have examined the hack \"believe it has all the markings of a state-sponsored attack,\" but did not detail possible suspects. The investigation revealed that the hackers broke into USIS by pivoting from an SAP system managed by a third party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4668387",
"title": "Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"section": "Section::::Cultural aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Some of the best large-scale hacks (e.g. the Caltech cannon heist) have involved multiple teams of hackers working on coordinated but diverse subtasks such as fund-raising, \"social engineering\", rigging, transportation logistics, gold electroplating, and precision numerical controlled machining, calling on a wide range of technical and management skills. Not surprisingly, some hacker teams have gone on to found start-up business ventures, though they may be reluctant to reveal their earlier exploits until many years have passed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hijix
|
why when you get sunburned you get sleepy/tired?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sunburns usually come with dehydration as well. Mix dehydration and your body trying to repair a sizable chunk of skin, its quite draining. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268981",
"title": "Sleep hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Special populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Due to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from to . The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697339",
"title": "Primary biliary cholangitis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "People with PBC experience fatigue (80 percent) that leads to sleepiness during the daytime; more than half of those have severe fatigue. Dry skin and dry eyes are also common. Itching (pruritus) occurs in 20–70 percent. People with more severe PBC may have jaundice (yellowing of the eyes and skin). PBC impairs bone density and there is an increased risk of fracture. Xanthelasma (skin lesions around the eyes) or other xanthoma may be present as a result of increased cholesterol levels. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18936256",
"title": "Sundowning",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Sundowning should be distinguished from delirium, and should be presumed to be delirium when it appears as a new behavioral pattern until a causal link between sunset and behavioral disturbance is established. Patients with established sundowning and no obvious medical illness may be suffering from impaired circadian regulation, or may be affected by nocturnal aspects of their institutional environment such as shift changes, increased noise, or reduced staffing (which leads to fewer opportunities for social interaction).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18936256",
"title": "Sundowning",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "While the specific causes of sundowning have not been empirically proven, some evidence suggests that circadian rhythm disruption increases sundowning behaviors. In humans, sunset triggers a biochemical cascade that involves a reduction of dopamine levels and a shift towards melatonin production as the body prepares for sleep. In individuals with dementia, melatonin production may be decreased, which may interrupt other neurotransmitter systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18936256",
"title": "Sundowning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Sundowning, or sundown syndrome, is a neurological phenomenon associated with increased confusion and restlessness in patients with delirium or some form of dementia. Most commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, but also found in those with other forms of dementia, the term \"sundowning\" was coined due to the timing of the patient's confusion. For patients with sundowning syndrome, a multitude of behavioral problems begin to occur in the evening or while the sun is setting. Sundowning seems to occur more frequently during the middle stages of Alzheimer's disease and mixed dementia. Patients are generally able to understand that this behavioral pattern is abnormal. Sundowning seems to subside with the progression of a patient's dementia. Research shows that 20–45% of Alzheimer's patients will experience some sort of sundowning confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mouo5
|
english bill of rights
|
[
{
"answer": "The Bill of Rights is to do with establishing England (and later Great Britain and then the UK) as a constitutional monarchy, and formally sets out the relationship between monarch and parliament:\n\nIt states that Parliament is the ultimate decision-making and law-making body in the land. Parliament makes rules in the name of the monarch, but the monarch can not and must not interfere in Parliament's work or decisions, and specifically mentions that:\n\n* Parliament is the only body that can impose taxes on the population. In particular the monarch cannot set up his or her own private income stream based upon taxation.\n* The monarch cannot declare war without Parliament's say-so\n* MPs and Lords cannot be sued for libel or slander for things they say in Parliament -- it is the only place in the UK to have absolute freedom of speech\n\nThe Bill of Rights also introduced for the first time a written requirement that the monarch must not be a Roman Catholic, nor married to one -- a ruling that has only very recently been rescinded.\n\nThere is a lot more in the actual text of the document, but the above points are the most important ones with regard to modern-day Britain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38867",
"title": "Bill of Rights 1689",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "The Bill of Rights, also known as the English Bill of Rights, is an Act of the Parliament of England that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who would be next to inherit the Crown. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the right of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. It also includes no right of taxation without Parliament’s agreement. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51490",
"title": "Rights",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Bill of Rights (1689; England) declared that Englishmen, as embodied by Parliament, possess certain civil and political rights; the Claim of Right (1689; Scotland) was similar but distinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38867",
"title": "Bill of Rights 1689",
"section": "Section::::Augmentation and effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habeas Corpus Act (1679) by codifying certain rights and liberties. Described by William Blackstone as \"Fundamental Laws of England\", the rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen. The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827032",
"title": "History of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Rise of democracy in modern national governments.:Early Modern Era milestones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "BULLET::::- A bill of rights is enacted by the Parliament of England in 1689. The Bill of Rights 1689 set out the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, and limited the power of the monarch. It ensured (with the Glorious Revolution of 1688) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31655",
"title": "Second Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Constitution background.:Influence of the English Bill of Rights of 1689.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1402,
"text": "The English Bill of Rights of 1689 emerged from a tempestuous period in English politics during which two issues were major sources of conflict: the authority of the King to govern without the consent of Parliament, and the role of Catholics in a country that was becoming ever more Protestant. Ultimately, the Catholic James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution, and his successors, the Protestants William III and Mary II, accepted the conditions that were codified in the Bill. One of the issues the Bill resolved was the authority of the King to disarm his subjects, after King Charles II and James II had disarmed many Protestants that were \"suspected or knowne\" of disliking the government, and had argued with Parliament over his desire to maintain a standing (or permanent) army. The bill states that it is acting to restore \"ancient rights\" trampled upon by James II, though some have argued that the English Bill of Rights created a new right to have arms, which developed out of a duty to have arms. In \"District of Columbia v. Heller\" (2008), the Supreme Court did not accept this view, remarking that the English right at the time of the passing of the English Bill of Rights was \"clearly an individual right, having nothing whatsoever to do with service in the militia\" and that it was a right not to be disarmed by the Crown and was not the granting of a new right to have arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31655",
"title": "Second Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Constitution background.:Influence of the English Bill of Rights of 1689.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The text of the English Bill of Rights of 1689 includes language protecting the right of Protestants against disarmament by the Crown. This document states: \"That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law.\" It also contained text that aspired to bind future Parliaments, though under English constitutional law no Parliament can bind any later Parliament. Nevertheless, the English Bill of Rights remains an important constitutional document, more for enumerating the rights of Parliament over the monarchy than for its clause concerning a right to have arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38867",
"title": "Bill of Rights 1689",
"section": "Section::::Date and title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688. This convention arises from the legal fiction (prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed. The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 (New Style), or, under the Old Style calendar in use at the time, 13 February 1688.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ifpgf
|
Great ape crossbreeding... possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "The most closely related African Ape species are the bonobo and the chimp. [Comment 24 has a link to a citation of a known hybrid.](_URL_1_) There are also Orang-orang species hybrids.\n\nThe next closest relation in the phylogeny of apes is humans to bonobos and chimps. I've said before **the number of chromosomes is not a hard species barrier**, it just makes reproduction in the F1 more difficult. So *Homo*-*Pan* would be the next most likely to produce offspring.\n\nEDIT: [Under MOAR](_URL_0_) is an explanation of Robertsonians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot more goes into interbreeding than simply chromosome number; species with different chromosome counts can interbreed, though often the offspring are not viable or, when they are, tend to be sterile.\n\nIn the case of orangutan and chimpanzee or gorilla, you must keep in mind that these are species which have been separated by literally hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. While each of these three species does have 48 chromosomes, the location of various alleles differs greatly between them. The enzyme activity also differs enough that any resulting embryo from a forced fertilization would likely not be viable.\n\nAnd then there's the issue of fertilization itself. Sperm are able to penetrate the membrane surrounding an egg because the enzymatic activity is recognized and an influx of Calcium ions is released, allowing the sperm to more actively penetrate the egg. Because the enzymes are different between species, there would not be such an influx of Calcium ions, making penetration difficult. The chances that a gorilla's sperm could fertilize an orangutan egg are remote.\n\nAnd, of course, this could only happen in a lab. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans are not only genetically but also behaviorally isolated. In the wild, they would not recognize each other as potential mates; if anything, they'd either ignore or attack one another on sight.\n\nSo the short answer is no, crossbreeding would not be possible. It has not been possible for over a million years, if I recall correctly. I'd have to consult my primatological genetics text if I wanted to be sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2756",
"title": "Asexual reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Examples in animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the 9-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36861017",
"title": "Terminal crossbreeding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The first crossbreeding may produce a superior animal due to hybrid vigor. Often, this crossbreed is part of a rotational crossbreeding scheme; if it also incorporates terminal crossbreeding, it is then called a rotaterminal system. By mating the crossbreed with a third breed, hybrid vigor may be further enhanced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379888",
"title": "Inbred strain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1062,
"text": "Inbred strains (also called inbred lines, or rarely for animals linear animals) are individuals of a particular species which are nearly identical to each other in genotype due to long inbreeding. A strain is inbred when it has undergone at least 20 generations of brother x sister or offspring x parent mating, at which point at least 98.6% of the loci in an individual of the strain will be homozygous, and each individual can be treated effectively as clones. Some inbred strains have been bred for over 150 generations, leaving individuals in the population to be isogenic in nature. Inbred strains of animals are frequently used in laboratories for experiments where for the reproducibility of conclusions all the test animals should be as similar as possible. However, for some experiments, genetic diversity in the test population may be desired. Thus outbred strains of most laboratory animals are also available, where an outbred strain is a strain of an organism that is effectively wildtype in nature, where there is as little inbreeding as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "825393",
"title": "Crossbreed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. \"Crossbreeding\", sometimes called \"designer crossbreeding\", is the process of breeding such an organism, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an organism with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of extinction of a given breed of organism. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "825393",
"title": "Crossbreed",
"section": "Section::::Crossbreeds in specific animals.:Cattle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In cattle, there are systems of crossbreeding. In many crossbreeds, one is larger than the other. One is used when the purebred females are particularly adapted to a specific environment, and are crossed with purebred bulls from another environment to produce a generation having traits of both parents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1518773",
"title": "Humanzee",
"section": "Section::::Feasibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "Chimpanzees and humans are closely related (sharing 95% of their DNA sequence and 99% of coding DNA sequences; visual chart: ), leading to contested speculation that a hybrid is possible. The closest known data is that hybridization between chimpanzees and bonobos, which share 99.6% of the genome ( and see the chart) is easily possible (). Some authors even say that \"the population split between bonobo and chimpanzee occurred relatively close in time to the split between the bonobo–chimpanzee ancestor (Pan ancestor) and humans\", or that Pan, especially bonobos , are a \"living fossil\" close to our ancestors, \"Pan prior\". However, genetic similarity and thus the chances of successful hybridization can be different from visual similarity; for example, pugs and huskies look quite dissimilar (perhaps more so than some chimpanzees or bonobos or even gorillas are from humans) but belong to the same species and subspecies and can hybridize freely. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24073609",
"title": "Effective selfing model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Ultimately, it is not possible to tease apart the two potential causes of inbreeding, and attributed the observed inbreeding to one cause or the other. Therefore, just as with the mixed mating model, in the effective selfing model there is only one parameter to be estimated. However this parameter, termed the effective selfing rate, is often a more accurate measure of the proportion of self-fertilisation than the corresponding parameter in the mixed mating model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d6gvq
|
why can't enemy combatants on the ground hear apache helicopters (or whatever) before they strike?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you look at when they fire that missile, there's about 2.5-3s between launch and impact. Wikipedia lists the speed of the [Hydra 70](_URL_0_) rocket as 2,300 feet per second. That puts the chopper over a mile away from the target - plenty of distance for the sound to die out.\n\nThe camera footage you're looking at is zoomed in considerably, making the soldiers appear far closer than they are in reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live under a helicopter tour company's flight path, so I have a lot of exposure to them. I find that the sound waves change considerably depending on the aircraft's orientation. If they are flying level and going forward towards you, they are very quiet. I assume that the rotor wash is going down and slightly behind them to propel them forward, and the exhaust points up or back. When they turn and go the other way, it's a *lot* louder.\n\nIf you couple those characteristics with the training the military pilots must get, they probably use the geography to their advantage as well to disperse the sound waves [hills, valleys, buildings, etc.] to gain the advantage of surprise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26862705",
"title": "2003 attack on Karbala",
"section": "Section::::Engagement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Apache \"Vampire 12\", flown by Warrant Officers David S. Williams and Ronald D. Young Jr., was forced down into a marsh after gunfire severed its hydraulics. Its radio was also hit, preventing communication with the other helicopters. Attempting to flee the crash scene, both men swam down a canal, but were captured by armed civilians. The Iraqi government would later show the helicopter on TV and claim that it had been shot down by a farmer with a Brno rifle; however due to the high volume of anti-aircraft fire and the armor of the Apache, it is unlikely that a bolt-action rifle was responsible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37746",
"title": "Boeing AH-64 Apache",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:United States Army.:Afghanistan and Iraq.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "By the end of U.S. military operations in Iraq in December 2011, several Apache helicopters had been shot down by enemy fire, and others lost in accidents. In 2006, an Apache was downed by a Soviet-made Strela 2 (SA-7) in Iraq, despite the Apache being typically able to avoid such missiles. In 2007, four Apache helicopters were destroyed on the ground by insurgent mortar fire using web-published geotagged photographs taken by soldiers. Several AH-64s were lost to accidents in Afghanistan as of 2012. Most Apaches that took heavy damage were able to continue their missions and return safely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1870398",
"title": "Geotagging",
"section": "Section::::Dangers of geotagging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "In 2007, four United States Army Apache helicopters were destroyed on the ground by Iraqi insurgent mortar fire; the insurgents had made use of embedded coordinates in web-published photographs (geotagging) taken of the helicopters by soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181146",
"title": "Attack aircraft",
"section": "Section::::History.:Recent history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the \"Army Times\", the Army is shifting its doctrine to favour ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire; the U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424684",
"title": "List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War",
"section": "Section::::Rotary-wing aircraft.:2007.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2007 – Four AH-64 Apache helicopters are destroyed on the ground by Iraqi insurgent mortar fire; the insurgents had made use of embedded coordinates in web-published photographs (geotagging) taken by soldiers to track the exact location of the helicopters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26862705",
"title": "2003 attack on Karbala",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Of the 29 returning Apaches, all but one suffered serious damage. On average, each Apache had 15-20 bullet holes. One Apache took 29 hits. Sixteen main rotor blades, six tail blades, six engines, and five drive shafts were damaged beyond repair. In one squadron only a single helicopter was fit to fly. It took a month until the 11th Regiment was ready to fight again. The casualties sustained by the Apaches induced a change of tactics by placing significant restrictions on their use. Attack helicopters would henceforth be used to reveal the location of enemy troops, allowing them to be destroyed by artillery and air strikes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28260813",
"title": "159th Combat Aviation Brigade",
"section": "Section::::Post 9/11.:2002 Afghanistan deployment.:Operation Anaconda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The Apaches entered the valley first to provide overwatch of the helicopter landing zones. The attack aircraft radioed back the call of \"ice\", a military term for an uncontested landing. Though the aircraft were able to disembark infantry without incident, the ground force began taking small arms fire immediately after their departure. After this initial period, the infantry and supporting Chinooks would require repeated air to ground fire support from the accompanying Apaches and USAF assets. The Taliban began to target the aircraft, and on the first day of the operation, five out of seven AH-64s were put out of action by ground fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1t2de9
|
the psychology of a troll (serious)
|
[
{
"answer": "People like to feel powerful. When you're desperate enough for it, even power to fuck people's day up is better than nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They've never outgrown the childish mindset that 'any attention is good attention,' basically. If you're angry at them, you're paying attention to them, and attention and validation is what they crave - and if negative attention is the easiest kind to get, then it's the kind they will seek.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe it is because those people are just reeeeally bored with their lives and find humor in screwing with others. It also may be fun for them to see disaster/controversy stirred up and know that theyre the cause of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's really the basest way to get acknowledgement on the internet. Whenever you write a well thought out response, you're putting yourself out there to be ridiculed. You put in your ideas, your insight, maybe take the time to reread and edit, and then post; for all that, someone can easily just say \"nope\" and downvote. And that downvote - as far as karma goes - essentially negates all your work. \n \nWhen you troll, especially with troll accounts, you're just changing the goals of your redditting. Instead of saying \"I have something thoughtful to contribute\", you say \"I'm just going to be incendiary\". If your only goal is to agitate people, that's pretty manageable. Each downvote represents an occasion when you've gotten a reaction out of someone. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To play the Devil's advocate, downvotes do not necessarily correlate with trolling. Reddit is self-famous for upvoting stupid shit (racism/misogyny, sensationalist articles, anything involving a bear or puffin or duck). Some people are \"contrarian\" trolls just to illuminate this trend.\n\nBut the real answer is that attention is attention. *It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia* summed it up best:\n\n\"It's my character. I'm the TRASH MAN! I come out...I throw TRASH all over the ring! And then I start eating garbage! And then I pick up the trash can and I TRASH the guy on the head!\"\n\n\"I'm not gonna be the ref! **I'm a villain, doncha see?!\"**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18280830",
"title": "Dark triad",
"section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Internet trolls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Recent studies have found that people who are identified as trolls tend to have dark personality traits and show signs of sadism, antisocial behavior, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism. The 2013 case study suggested that there are a number of similarities between anti-social and flame trolling activities and the 2014 survey indicated that trolling is an Internet manifestation of everyday sadism. Both studies suggest that this trolling may be linked to bullying in both adolescents and adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14594",
"title": "Internet troll",
"section": "Section::::Trolling, identity, and anonymity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "According to Tom Postmes, a professor of social and organisational psychology at the universities of Exeter, England, and Groningen, The Netherlands, and the author of \"Individuality and the Group\", who has studied online behavior for 20 years, \"Trolls aspire to violence, to the level of trouble they can cause in an environment. They want it to kick off. They want to promote antipathetic emotions of disgust and outrage, which morbidly gives them a sense of pleasure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11638915",
"title": "Troll (gay slang)",
"section": "Section::::Etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "A troll’s intention will also influence actions and outcomes ranging from casual sex in a more private area to exhibitionism like masturbating to group sex, fulfilling a sexual fantasy or even the voyeuristic thrill of watching someone else have public sex. Some are looking to: perform fellatio either directly or through a glory hole, receive it, or switch roles; perform or receive anal sex; participate in group sex or a BDSM experience even including gang bangs; or simply to watch others perform sex acts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4369276",
"title": "Fairy (Artemis Fowl)",
"section": "Section::::Non-Magical Creatures in the Lower Elements.:Trolls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Trolls are the least intelligent of the non-magical creatures. Most of their decisions are based on their instincts. They are quick for their size and have large serrated tusks which produce a narcotic venom which renders the prey mindlessly—and defenselessly—happy. If they can, their preferred kill tactic is to slip their claws under the rib cage and pop the heart out before the muscles have time to tense up, rendering the meat mostly unharmed and tender. They have an extreme aversion to light, noise, and water. The largest pack of trolls were seen in the Eleven Wonders of the World Exhibit in a run-down part of Haven. Very few people have ever managed to single-handedly down a troll. Holly Short once did it with her helmet's eight-hundred-watt high beams, the shock of the light rendering the troll unconscious. Domovoi Butler became the only human ever to do so with a combination of medieval weaponry and modern combat techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14252995",
"title": "List of Fablehaven's magical creatures",
"section": "Section::::T-Z.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "BULLET::::- Trolls: Trolls are unfriendly, greedy scavengers that will typically live in forests, by rivers, in caves or underground. Some are lizard-like in appearance, burly and shorter than the average man. Others are huge and brutish. There are several types of Trolls mentioned in the books. They are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29957",
"title": "Troll",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A troll is a class of being in Norse mythology and Scandinavian folklore. In Old Norse sources, beings described as trolls dwell in isolated rocks, mountains, or caves, live together in small family units, and are rarely helpful to human beings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12553",
"title": "Glorantha",
"section": "Section::::Specifically Gloranthan creatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Uz, the trolls, are the race of darkness, large, intelligent, astoundingly omnivorous, with a very developed sonar-like sense (\"darksense\"). Their societies are matriarchal, and they worship, among others, a goddess of darkness called Kyger Litor, mother of the Trolls, and the more violent and sinister Zorak Zoran. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xglx2
|
why is it that illegal aliens are routinely arrested and deported but legal action is rarely if ever taken agains those that employ illegal aliens?
|
[
{
"answer": "So since this is already heading into THEY STEALING ER JERBS territory lets break it down. \n\npretty much every company in the USA pays at least minimum wage and auto deduct taxes. That's a whole lot of liability coverage since good luck proving they knew the person was undocumented. Also they probably actually don't know in the first place since there isn't much incentive for those companies to hire undocumented workers what with the minimum wage thing. Their papers looked good, and it's not your employer's job to conduct the kind of in depth and expensive background check needed to spot the issues. Got a SIN number? You can work. \n\nFor everyone else, most undocumented workers are doing cash in hand work. In which case good luck proving they were employed in the first place, or that they knew the persons immigration status especily since A: everyone is getting paid cash in hand, and B: no one is expected to even check a SIN number when you hire for casual day labor since they're only in your employ for a short time.\n\nFailing that sort of work, they also self employ. Quite a few of them actually. One LLC registration later and now they've got their own business doing whatever they care to do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What makes you think action is rarely taken? You can't judge by relatively publicity, because not every case of someone reaching a plea deal over hiring illegal workers will make the news.\n\nBut searching for \"hiring illegal works sentenced\" turns up a fair number of hits. This [Washington Times article](_URL_0_), from March, describes two owners of a hotel who were sentenced to jail for hiring illegal workers. It also mentions that the Justice Department has shifted to targeting employers instead of the illegal workers, but doesn't give any background or details on that assertion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27321738",
"title": "Zadvydas v. Davis",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.:Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "According to a number of legal experts, INS has taken the view that it can detain aliens for preventive rather than punitive purposes. These experts state INS has no authority to conduct a punitive detention, which is only authorized by criminal statutes. Civil libertarians have noted that over 2,000 aliens have been held indefinitely without hope of repatriation and that the Department of Homeland Security holds approximately 31,000 immigrants in detention at any given time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32191",
"title": "Patriot Act",
"section": "Section::::Titles.:Title IV: Border security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 2154,
"text": "The Act amended the INA to add new provisions enforcing mandatory detention laws. These apply to any alien who is engaged in terrorism, or who is engaged in an activity that endangers U.S. national security. It also applies to those who are inadmissible or who must be deported because it is certified they are attempting to enter to undertake illegal espionage; are exporting goods, technology, or sensitive information illegally; or are attempting to control or overthrow the government; or have, or will have, engaged in terrorist activities. The Attorney General or the Attorney General's deputy may maintain custody of such aliens until they are removed from the U.S. unless it is no longer deemed they should be removed, in which case they are released. The alien can be detained for up to 90 days but can be held up to six months after it is deemed that they are a national security threat. However, the alien must be charged with a crime or removal proceedings start no longer than seven days after the alien's detention, otherwise the alien will be released. However, such detentions must be reviewed every six months by the Attorney General, who can then decide to revoke it, unless prevented from doing so by law. Every six months the alien may apply, in writing, for the certification to be reconsidered. Judicial review of any action or decision relating to this section, including judicial review of the merits of a certification, can be held under habeas corpus proceedings. Such proceedings can be initiated by an application filed with the United States Supreme Court, by any justice of the Supreme Court, by any circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, or by any district court otherwise having jurisdiction to entertain the application. The final order is subject to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Provisions were also made for a report to be required every six months of such decisions from the U.S. Attorney General to the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives and the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27088438",
"title": "Arizona SB 1070",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1515,
"text": "U.S. federal law requires aliens 14 years old or older who are in the country for longer than 30 days to register with the U.S. government and have registration documents in their possession at all times. The Act makes it a state misdemeanor crime for an illegal alien to be in Arizona without carrying the required documents and obligates police to make an attempt, when practicable during a \"lawful stop, detention or arrest\", to determine a person's immigration status if there is reasonable suspicion that the person is an illegal alien. Any person arrested cannot be released without confirmation of the person's legal immigration status by the federal government pursuant to § 1373(c) of Title 8 of the United States Code. A first offense carries a fine of up to $100, plus court costs, and up to 20 days in jail; subsequent offenses can result in up to 30 days in jail (SB 1070 required a \"minimum\" fine of $500 for a first violation, and for a second violation a minimum $1,000 fine and a maximum jail sentence of 6 months). A person is \"presumed to not be an immigrant who is unlawfully present in the United States\" if he or she presents any of the following four forms of identification: a valid Arizona driver license; a valid Arizona nonoperating identification license; a valid tribal enrollment card or other tribal identification; or any valid federal, state, or local government-issued identification, if the issuer requires proof of legal presence in the United States as a condition of issuance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Aliens can be classified as unlawfully present for one of three reasons: entering without authorization or inspection, staying beyond the authorized period after legal entry, or violating the terms of legal entry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25458058",
"title": "Emigration from Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Recent trend reversal in migration between Mexico and the U.S..:Developments in the U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Since 2010, deportations of illegal immigrants have increased, as deportation procedures became more systematic and border controls were reinforced with police and military patrols. Several states, such as Arizona and Alabama, have passed laws that criminalize illegal migration. Proposed acts that offer easier paths to U.S. citizenship for immigrants, such as the DREAM Act, have been rejected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33443098",
"title": "United States v. Valenzuela-Bernal",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Immigration law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "In cases involving transporting illegal aliens, the alien is considered a witness to the alleged crime. While the defendant may want the alien to be questioned by the defense counsel and called to testify at trial before being deported, Immigration services wants to return the foreigner to their country immediately without being questioned. In these cases, the defendant can move to have the indictment dismissed because the government’s action has deprived him of his Sixth Amendment right “to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor.” The executive, then, “must faithfully execute the immigration policy adopted by Congress, but it must also ensure that the criminal defendant receives the fundamental fairness inherent in due process.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5952284",
"title": "Administrative detention",
"section": "Section::::Immigration control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "Many countries utilize administrative detention to hold illegal immigrants – those arriving at a country's borders without proper authorization – as an interim step to either deportation or the obtainment of proper legal status. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of individual liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. Comparative studies on administrative detention practices of different countries found that those experiencing large-scale influxes of illegal migrants by sea (such as the United States and Australia) typically have the most draconian systems. Proponents of administrative detention for illegal immigrants claim that detention is required since these immigrants have not committed any crime for which they could be prosecuted under existing laws, and that allowing them to await their potential deportation while not in custody runs a risk of their absconding. Opponents maintain that alternatives to detention exist, and that such alternatives are preferable because they do not violate personal liberty, as well as being less of a financial burden to the state. Among the alternatives suggested are supervised release to a non-governmental organization (NGO), the release into the custody of a private citizen who will guarantee the immigrant's participation in immigration hearings, and \"open detention\" centers with mandatory reporting requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1omzoe
|
How does something as large as a city affect the crust/mantle below it? Could a city become so large and heavy that it would collapse or compress the earth underneath?
|
[
{
"answer": "I guess it depends on the kinds of soil. For example, Mexico City sinks a little bit every year because it is built on a dry lake or swamp soil (idk the correct term). If you look photos of the cathedral you'll see that its base is below ground level and many structures need constant maintenance",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cities don't weigh that much. From our small perspective cities seem like massive heavy metal things, but buildings are hollow and really don't way all that much on a global scale.\n\nEven the biggest heaviest buildings in the world are miniscule compared to a mid sized mountain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Las Vegas, Nevada is subsiding. The weight of the casinos plus the nearby reservoir called Lake Mead is causing subsidence. This subsidence is accommodated by the city draining their water aquifers in excess. The space left behind when the water is removed allows the ground above to sink into that space. BUT this isn't the entire crust that is sinking, it is only localized to the very upper portions of the crust. /u/jace53 is correct, cities are just a speck compared to what causes flexure in the crust/lithosphere. [News article on the subject](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe the reservoir created by the three gorges dam was so large that it not only effected the tectonic plates on which it is held but also effected the gravitational field of the earth due to the change in local mass (this change was theoretical and instruments may not be able to precisly measure it). Any who, the effects on the tectonic plates did not go without consequence. It is believed by some that the earthquake that occurred before the 2008 Olympics was a result on the stresses the reservoir put on the plate. Small movements we unable to be released due to the built of pressure and a cataclysmic release of tectonic tension was inevitable ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try to make this as clear as possible. \n\nFirstly, your answer is no (at least with respect to the crust/mantle). As far as compress the earth underneath, speaking in purely scientific terms, any weight will compress the earth underneath, whether it is 100,000 lbs or 1 oz. The degree of compression is what you are wondering. \n\nYou can see from [this](_URL_0_) boussinesq chart that the load of a *properly loaded* foundation member the weight is distrbued such that at a depth approximately 6 times the length of the footing, the load \"felt\" by the soil is only about 10% of that at the surface. Now, I'm sure you're wondering why don't we just make a 3 inch diameter pile and load it with 1,000,000 lbs and say \"well, at 18\" the load is dropped to 100,000, so we'll double that make it 3 ft and call it a day!\" That won't work; notice I said \"properly loaded\", this means you have to take settlement into account, at an improper load, the foundation will sink (kind of like a hypodermic needle going into skin). So you need to size the footing to avoid this.\n\nBuilding foundations are designed by geotechnical engineers. The first step in this process is to determine the soil properties below the proposed building; this includes getting information on soil properties deep below the surface (hundreds of feet sometimes) using differing methods (SPT, CPT penetrometers, ground penetrating radar, geophone/shear wave recording, etc) Then based on certain methods of settlement (Schmertmann's method is one, also using Boussinesq force distributions) you can determine the structural capacity of the soil. If you have the approximate weight distribution of the building, you can size your footings so that the force doesn't \"over-stress\" the soil. This would result in various failure, either the foundation \"rolling\" over (due to eccentric loading or eccentric support, think two soils next to each other that have different strength), or much more commonly (as noted below with the Mexican example) settlement. \n\nNow, with the soil properties known if it is determined that you can't support all of the load on the surface of the ground, you need to do deep foundations. Commonly these will either be \"drilled shafts\" or \"driven piles\". For huge buildings, it will almost always be a drilled shaft because these are basically holes drilled into the ground (commonly over 10 ft in diameter) then a reinforcement cage lowered in, then concrete filling it. A driven pile, is basically a column that is driven into the ground and don't get much bigger than ~30 inches in diameter. Drilled shafts can be several hundred feet deep. This type of foundation relies more on side friction between the concrete and soil (think about a 100 ft deep, 10ft diameter concrete member buried in sand. It has over 3000 square feet for friction to act on. This is a HUGE amount of resistive force. \n\nIf you determine that the weight of the building will be too large, then you need to redesign it (either by using light weight concrete, which is about 50-60% of the weight of normal weight concrete or by using more steel as it is stronger when compared pound for pound). \n\nThink about it this way, when you go to the beach and stand in the water, you start to sink , but only a couple inches. So what has happened is that your feet don't provide enough force on the surface to keep you up, so you start to settle *until the side friction between your ankles and the sand, plus the bearing capacity of your feet* is equal to your weight. \n\nOn this note, 1.) quicksand is not a thing. You can have sand in what is known as a \"quick\" condition, which is where water is flowing upward. and 2.) in this situation, you will not drown (unless you can't swim), sand is about twice as dense as water, so if the water gets to a fully quick condition, it will just become buoyant sand, meaning it is about the same density as water, and you can swim through it.\n\nIf you want more clarification, let me know.\n\nSource: Masters degree in geotechnical engineering, working on Ph.D.\n\nEDIT: Thank you to whomever gave me gold!\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live in Kentucky which has a largely limestone bed. Aside from cool caves, sinkholes are a major problem. And underground water source can erode the foundation of a structure and it falls in. They are pretty good about it now, mostly older buildings and roads are at risk. However the University of Kentucky has a very big and expensive modern library built over a sinkhole and apparently its slowly sinking into the ground. There is another large one directly beside it that already collapsed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many cases cities and buildings do sink. Look at Venice or the leaning tower of piza. These are caused by sinking of the earth (part of the crust). However it depends on how far down or what portion you really are asking about and where the city would be located. Some city areas obviously have sink holes which are caused by water eroding the subsurface foundation of the city. However many areas of the entire crust can be several miles deep (some south african mines go over a mile underground). So most cities will not deform the crust down into the mantel significantly. If entire mountain ranges like the rockies do not collapse back into the ground immediately (though they do compress the mantle), it is unlikely that any city (with much less mass) would do so. There is however a general limit how tall mountains can get give the pull of such structures back into the earth.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer, yes it can affect the crust/mantle but not it won't collapse. The earth's crust has a flexural strength (think of bending a ruler) which can support some load without any change (think of placing a penny on the end of a ruler, nothing happens. now place 100 pennies, you get bending). Now, assuming enough material has been brought in compared to what's been excavated and removed from the city, it can bend the crust. I remember doing a back of the envelope calculation for the Manhattan, and for normal crustal properties, you should get just under a meter of depression in the center and a couple millimeters of a flexural bulge surrounding it. Now, when all this occurs is an important point. The mantle (actually the asthenosphere) beneath the crust (actually the lithosphere) is viscosity with a Maxwell time on the order of thousands of years, so it will take time for the mantle to respond. This Maxwell time is why the crust is still rebounding in response to the removing ice sheets 18 thousand years ago.\n\nEDIT:\nFurther explanation: If you load the earth's crust over a large enough wavelength, the crust will respond by sinking an amount equal to the ratio of the density of the material you add to the density of the asthensophere (~3300 kg/m3). So you need a large city, like NY, Mexico City, Japan to have an impact. If you take all the building materials added to the crust there and spread them out into a layer (let's assume a density of concrete, so 2400/3300), the crust should sink ~0.7 times the thickness of your layer (not you have remove all the air in between the floors, and between buildings to come up with your thickness of added material). Now, because of flexure, the maximum depression will occur at the center of the city, but note you might not get the full depression if either the city is not large enough or the crust is particularly strong. So bigger municipalities and weaker crust will help facilitate this effect.\n\nSource: I'm a geologist. Teaching isostasy and flexure to my students tomorrow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This happened to Seattle long ago. The current Seattle is built on top of the old Seattle, now known as Seattle underground. \n\n[You can even go down and take a tour of it.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The city of Orvieto, Italy actually began to collapse under its own weight some time ago. This was largely due to the unauthorized underground tunneling and quarrying that occurred in the tufa rock below, but big sections of the city began to collapse in. They've since stopped digging underneath the city to prevent any further damage, but it's very possible that more sections will collapse in the future. You can read more about it at _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To expand on that of others. What you are asking is a question of soil mechanics. The reason why cities don't sink is because we design them not to. Furthermore, there are very large safety factors used (some of the largest in engineering). \n\nHere is an image of the [soil pressure bulb](_URL_2_)\n\nThis illustrates the way loads are transmitted into the soils beneath. When designing a structure, the specific soils are examined and load bearing capacity is determined. Much of the important work in this field was done relatively recently considering how critical it is by [Karl von Terzaghi](_URL_1_). [This Website](_URL_0_) shows you the basics of determining the soil bearing capacity using Terzaghi's methods. \n\nTo answer your question of \"can a city become so large it collapses the earth underneath?\", the answer is kinda. It is very difficult to examine an entire city and, ideally, the individual elements of the city will be design with knowledge of each other so as not to interact or to do so in a controlled fashion. So, for the sake of your question, lets ask \"Is it possible for a load to collapse the soil beneath it?\". The answer, absolutely. If the load on the soil exceeds the soils bearing capacity you will produce a shear failure. The structure will shift and look something like [this](_URL_3_). [This slideshow](_URL_4_) demonstrates more about shear strength. \n\nThere are other movements that can be created even if you have sufficient bearing capacity. Most notable is settlement. Basically, under load, the soil particles can rearrange into a more compact configuration. This can result in long term settlement. This can also be calculated and designed for based on the soil types and loads. \n\nAs far as the mantle is concerned, we don't apply loads onto it. The crust is far to thick, dense and, as other have stated, the loads we create are minuscule compared to those.\nSource: I am a geotechnical engineer in Texas\nEdit:letters",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you look at the skyline of manhattan, you will notice that skyscrapers cluster downtown, and midtown.\n\nIn between there is an area of lower profile.\n\nThat is because the bedrock is thinner there.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAdditionally, the entire weight of the Empire State Building, in the same width and length, is only 50 feet high of granite. So the city weight isn't that much extra from a geological point of view.\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While I'm sure these aren't the only examples, but New Orleans, Venice, and Mexico City are all known to be sinking. While I'm not sure of all the mechanisms involved, I recall hearing that it is believed that New Orleans is sinking due to the way the dikes and other water control features are drying out the swamp land that was once there, and without the water, the open airspaces allow the land to compress. I don't believe these things would be felt at the depth of the mantle. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New Orleans is a great example of something like this. After draining much of the back-of-town, swampy areas between the river and the lake, much of the organic material in the soil dried out and broke down, leaving pockets behind.\n\nOver time and combined with added weight of settlement on top, the area subsided. In some cases, I've heard of houses with the wrong foundations spontaneously exploded from the pressure of having the foundation break up.\n\nsource: *Bienville's Dillema* by Dr. Campanella",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The very simple answer is that the load influence of buildings on the ground doesn't go very deep before it tapers off to effectively zero and that the weight of all the buildings on earth is a miniscule fraction compared to the weight of soils and rock masses.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Given that the earth's crust under a city is 20+ miles thick rock, I don't think the weight of a city makes any difference at all. It's like putting a sticker on a bowling ball and asking if the weight of the sticker compresses the ball.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it should be pointed out that the mantle is solid (so is the crust obviously). It's a common misconception that under the solid crust is a liquid mantle. People see volcanoes and think that's what's \"under\" the hard stuff near the top. But it's not. The pressure keeps everything solid even at stupid temperatures.\n\nSo basically, you're building \"stuff\" on top of 1000's of miles of solids already under amazing pressures. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The whole \"solid ground\" or crust is afloat on a dense \"semiliquid\" material called the mantle. Pushing down on the crust does make it sink deeper into the mantle. Mount Everest makes the deepest dent in the mantle, about the same down as up. A city in comparison to a mountain is so light that it is more like cotton candy than a rock. Filled with huge spaces of air, even a skyscraper is very light compared to a solid structure. No worries there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1570869",
"title": "Lost City Hydrothermal Field",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Lost City is a location dominated by steep cliffs to the south, chimneys, and mounds of carbonate material deposited from chimneys that collapse as they age. Breccia, gabbros, and peridotites are dominating rock types as one maneuvers away from the field, which are prone to mass-wasting as bathymetry steepens. Mass-wasting events of the past are evident by bountiful scarps on the slope of the massif. Rubble tends to accumulate at areas no steeper than 60 degrees bounding the field, and can undergo lithification depending on how far it is located from Lost City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37865624",
"title": "Sufes",
"section": "Section::::Ruins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "A huge mass of rubble is all that remains of a large thermae; and, a large semicircular nymphaeum, decorated with columns and statues, is only represented by the stone blocks which formed the base of the superstructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310995",
"title": "Shrinking cities",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Shrinking cities or urban depopulation are dense cities that have experienced notable population loss. Emigration (migration from a place) is a common reason for city shrinkage. Since the infrastructure of such cities was built to support a larger population, its maintenance can become a serious concern. A related phenomenon is counterurbanization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310995",
"title": "Shrinking cities",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Effects.:Economic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The shrinking of urban populations indicates a changing of economic and planning conditions of a city. Cities begin to 'shrink' from economic decline, usually resulting from war, debt, or lack of production and work force. Population decline affects a large number of communities, both communities that are far removed from and deep within large urban centers. These communities usually consist of native people and long-term residents, so the initial population is not large. The outflow of people is then detrimental to the production potential and quality of life in these regions, and a decline in employment and productivity ensues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3057557",
"title": "Rubble pile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "In astronomy, a rubble pile is a celestial body that is not a monolith, consisting instead of numerous pieces of rock that have coalesced under the influence of gravity. Rubble piles have low density because there are large cavities between the various chunks that make them up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723377",
"title": "Blame!",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The City is actually a structure that began on Earth. The mechanical beings known as Builders, which move around renovating and creating new landscapes, appear to have begun building without end, creating an enormous structure with little internal logic or coherence. The City appears to be organized into distinct floors, with layers of an unknown nigh-indestructible material called \"the megastructure\" between them. Traveling between floors is extremely difficult as the megastructure is almost indestructible and approaching the floor boundaries results in a massive safeguard response. Only a direct Gravitational Beam Emitter blast is known to have been capable of penetrating the megastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58666550",
"title": "Geology of New York (state)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The geology of New York is made up ancient Precambrian crystalline basement rock, forming the Adirondack Mountains and the bedrock of much of the state. These rocks experienced numerous deformations during mountain building events and much of the region was flooded by shallow seas depositing thick sequences of sedimentary rock during the Paleozoic. Fewer rocks have deposited since the Mesozoic as several kilometers of rock have eroded into the continental shelf and Atlantic coastal plain, although volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the Newark Basin are a prominent fossil-bearing feature near New York City from the Mesozoic rifting of the supercontinent Pangea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9yezqy
|
Is time exactly symmetrical? If we were to rewind it would it play back as the reverse of it playing forwards?
|
[
{
"answer": "Time reversal is not a complete symmetry of our universe. We know this, because we can observe T-violation in experiments. We know that the weak force violates CP, and if CPT is a good symmetry, that implies violations of T as well. We can see T-reversal in the shapes of atomic nuclei. There are nuclei which have electric octupole moments (meaning they’re pear-shaped), which is a violation of T symmetry. People are also looking for electric dipole moments in neutrons and other particles, because that would also indicate T-violation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "296639",
"title": "Arrow of time",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The symmetry of time (T-symmetry) can be understood simply as the following: if time were perfectly symmetrical, a video of real events would seem realistic whether played forwards or backwards. Gravity, for example, is a time-reversible force. A ball that is tossed up, slows to a stop, and falls is a case where recordings would look equally realistic forwards and backwards. The system is T-symmetrical. However, the process of the ball bouncing and eventually coming to a stop is not time-reversible. While going forward, kinetic energy is dissipated and entropy is increased. Entropy may be one of the few processes that is not time-reversible. According to the statistical notion of increasing entropy, the \"arrow\" of time is identified with a decrease of free energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Physical definition.:Arrow of time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 1522,
"text": "Time appears to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modelled by a parameter in the system being analysed, where there is no \"proper time\": the direction of the arrow of time is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only travelling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics). The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy). This can be in either direction – Brian Greene theorizes that, according to the equations, the change in entropy occurs symmetrically whether going forward or backward in time. So entropy tends to increase in either direction, and our current low-entropy universe is a statistical aberration, in the similar manner as tossing a coin often enough that eventually heads will result ten times in a row. However, this theory is not supported empirically in local experiment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7506128",
"title": "Retrocausality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Retrocausality or Backwards causation is a concept of cause and effect where the effect precedes its cause in time, so that a later event in time affects an earlier event. In quantum physics, the distinction between cause and effect is not made at the most fundamental level, so time-symmetric systems can be viewed as causal or retro-causal. Philosophical considerations of time travel often address the same issues as retrocausality, as do treatments of the subject in fiction, but the two phenomena are distinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13238263",
"title": "Braid (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"3. Time and Mystery\" introduces objects surrounded by a green glow that are unaffected by time manipulation; for example, switches will remain flipped even if time is rewound to before the action occurred. Rewinding can thus be used to change the synchronization between objects that can and cannot be rewound, the basis of many puzzles in this section. This theme is also used in later worlds to denote objects unaffected by the player's time manipulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2715469",
"title": "Symmetry (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Discrete symmetries.:C, P, and T symmetries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "BULLET::::- T-symmetry (time reversal symmetry), a universe where the direction of time is reversed. T-symmetry is counterintuitive (surely the future and the past are not symmetrical) but explained by the fact that the Standard model describes local properties, not global ones like entropy. To properly reverse the direction of time, one would have to put the Big Bang and the resulting low-entropy state in the \"future.\" Since we perceive the \"past\" (\"future\") as having lower (higher) entropy than the present (see perception of time), the inhabitants of this hypothetical time-reversed universe would perceive the future in the same way as we perceive the past, and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2715469",
"title": "Symmetry (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Discrete symmetries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "BULLET::::- Time reversal: Many laws of physics describe real phenomena when the direction of time is reversed. Mathematically, this is represented by the transformation, formula_8. For example, Newton's second law of motion still holds if, in the equation formula_9, formula_10 is replaced by formula_11. This may be illustrated by recording the motion of an object thrown up vertically (neglecting air resistance) and then playing it back. The object will follow the same parabolic trajectory through the air, whether the recording is played normally or in reverse. Thus, position is symmetric with respect to the instant that the object is at its maximum height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39580830",
"title": "Symmetry in quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Symmetries in quantum field theory and particle physics.:Discrete spacetime symmetries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "BULLET::::- Time reversal flips the time coordinate, which amounts to time running from future to past. A curious property of time, which space does not have, is that it is unidirectional: particles traveling forwards in time are equivalent to antiparticles traveling back in time. Physical laws and interactions unchanged by this operation have T symmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tkk4m
|
What are some modern social concepts that would be completely alien to a person living during the time of you expertise?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not just homosexuality - heterosexuality and bisexuality *as modern Western society understands it* would also be a strange idea to a person of that time depending on the nation-state they hailed from. (Greek sexuality is a little early for me but my understanding is that the erastes/eromenos relationship, which I believe is what you are referring to, was by no means a universal social construct within Ancient Greece as a whole, and the norms of the relationship varied from polis to polis.) \n\nRomans, more my speed than Greeks, knew that there were some men who liked other men exclusively, and some women who liked other women exclusively, and some who preferred the opposite sex exclusively, but in general society functioned under strict laws of *pudicitia*, or sexual morality, for the privileged classes, that were more about preserving honor by restricting the types of sex acts that could be performed under a given circumstance. So Roman insults were more about specific acts performed (e.g. *cinaedus* and *pathicus* - which were the equivalent of \"buttfucker\" except in the reverse - maybe \"pillow-biter\"?) rather than the gender with whom the sex was happening.\n\nAdditionally, the idea of democracy as we currently practice it would have seemed really strange and awful - we include women, and poor people, and in some countries they even allow non-citizen residents to vote! Quelle horreur!\n\nThe way we view marriage is a relatively new concept and would have seemed odd to the Romans, for whom marriage was very much about the joining of families rather than the union of two people madly in love. The idea that it was entirely about property is misguided, but it was very much about using procreation to alter the social status of a family, especially among the privileged classes. Even among the lower classes, though, love wasn't really the primary consideration, at least not from the evidence we have, and so when you get beautiful epitaphs extolling a husband's love for his wife (like the Laudatio Turiae, which is totally worth a read), or vice versa, it makes it even more sweet. At least in my opinion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Atheism and secularism. If you showed up in any period prior to modern times and claimed that there was no God/gods, and that government and religion should be separate you would most likely be considered totally insane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh my goodness. So many weirdnesses just in my small scope reading at the moment on early modern London, let alone the entire world in 16th-18th centuries. I mean, the modern nation-state would look insane to anyone in 1500, let alone things like the fact we've had men on the moon and robots on Mars. \n\nIt is actually a favorite sort of mental exercise I do when reading, to imagine a person from the period and region drawn forward into the modern age. I always wonder what the shareholders of the East India Company would think if they saw modern multi-national corporations. Or what a second generation Dutch silk worker living in London would think of our modern immigration issues. Or even what a merchant living in Edo during the Tokugawa shogunate would think of the city today. \n\nI also like to imagine what sort of culture shock I would experience traveling back to that point in time. For example, as a woman of Scotch-Irish descent in her mid 30s, my expected social role would be hugely different than it is today were I to live in 1650s London. And then I remind myself I wouldn't likely be alive, given all the medical issues I've got, and that their treatments didnt exist then. \n\nThe shear scope of modern medicine would likely confound anyone from the past, at any point in time, if they were shown many of the miracles we can perform today. To have eliminated small pox alone! That we can cure diseases that killed people every day, perform surgery that doesn't kill the patient more often than not, and that the vast majority of children in developed countries survive to adulthood: all of these would be mindbogglingly amazing even to someone from 1900, let alone from 1500. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Late 1700s - early 1900s colonies - racism. So much blatant, unabashed, even casual racism, the type that'd make /r/SRS blush. It's not just from the Europeans, but every society, even ones that are still fairly racist or xenophobic today, really outdid themselves in the colonial era. Also, the double-standard of it being entirely okay for white men to take up native concubines in the colonies and even to a degree, go native (Sir William Johnson, Col James Kirkpatrick, etc), but the other way around was entirely unacceptable (all the white women who chose not to come back when ransomed in North Africa)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea that 'aristocracy' could be considered immoral or bad. Even in the most democratic of societies like Athens in its phase of 'radical' democracy (as termed by Aristotle), there were aristocrats in positions of high influence. In Rome, the echoes of the Patrician class lasted long after the barriers to Plebian advancement had been removed. The idea was that the aristocrats weren't just major landowners with pedigree and probably a posh accent, it was that they also formed the educated class. Literacy was relatively uncommon, even in places like the Roman Empire. Also, traditionally these aristocrats monopolised religious positions of importance. See for example the fact that Julius Caesar's position of Augur in Rome had been practically guaranteed to him since his birth. And the aristocrats really were expected to be warriors and leaders; many states exclusively utilised their aristocracy as the basis for their cavalry, because the training and the horses were both expensive. In Athens, the aristocracy formed the pool from which the city's generals were selected.\n\nSo, for many ancient societies, aristocrats were the warrior class, the intellectual class, and at times the priestly class, all at once. This multifaceted role means it's rather difficult to imagine many ancient states without aristocrats being entwined in these areas to a greater or lesser degree. The idea that everyone can be equally educated would therefore seem bizarre to them, especially the degree of access to higher education. Our tendency to select on ability and not consider economic background a character trait would also puzzle them. Likewise the idea that many manual professions could be seen as skilled labour, or at least the aristocrats would see that as odd. It's a very odd thing, the results of manual labour would often be seen as beautiful or marvellous, but the people who made the objects and the process behind making them were both regarded as lower class and vulgar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "E. P. Thompson has a great piece on the emergence of \"work-time discipline,\" or the notion that schedules are regimented by hourly time, rather than by the amount of sunlight in a given day (for example):\n\n[E. P. Thompson, _Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism_](_URL_0_).\n\nSomeone living in a period before the industrial revolution wouldn't have the same parsed concept of time as, say, a factory worker - punch in to work at 6am, lunch at noon, hourly wages, public transit that runs on a timed schedule, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22082177",
"title": "Consequential strangers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Social life in the 21st century includes a wide array of personal connections, not just intimates—people associated with a particular part of one’s life and daily activities, such as co-workers, neighbors, gym buddies, fellow volunteers and congregants, and providers of goods and services. Typically, peripheral ties far outnumber one’s close relations. Decades of research have shown the importance of primary relationships in both psychological and physiological well being. Yet an analysis of the broader social landscape suggests that consequential strangers provide many of the same benefits as intimates as well as many distinct and complementary functions. They are not universally beneficial—undesirable consequential strangers who cannot be avoided can be found in the workplace, neighborhoods and organizations. But to thrive in a modern society, research suggests, it is vital to have a variety of connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1831754",
"title": "Existential therapy",
"section": "Section::::Four worlds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Existential thinkers seek to avoid restrictive models that categorize or label people. Instead, they look for the universals that can be observed cross-culturally. There is no existential personality theory which divides humanity into types or reduces people to part components. Instead, there is a description of the different levels of experience and existence with which people are inevitably confronted. The way in which a person is in the world at a particular stage can be charted on this general map of human existence (Binswanger, 1963; Yalom, 1980; van Deurzen, 1984).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2783721",
"title": "Social inertia",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The idea of social inertia can be traced back to French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. According to Bourdieu, each person occupies a position in a social space, which consists of his or her social class as well as social relationships and social networks. Through the individual's engagement in the social space, he or she develops a set of behaviors, lifestyle and habits (which Bourdieu referred to as habitus) which often serve to maintain the status quo. Thus, people are encouraged to \"accept the social world as it is, to take it for granted, rather than to rebel against it, to counterpose to it different, even antagonistic, possibles.\" This can explain the continuity of the social order through time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1117658",
"title": "Social model of disability",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The \"social model\" was extended and developed by academics and activists in Australia, the UK, US and other countries, and extended to include all disabled people, including those who have learning difficulties / learning disabilities / or who are intellectually disabled, or people with emotional, mental health or behavioural problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "670359",
"title": "Confianza",
"section": "Section::::Cross-cultural theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Some cross-cultural theorists state that many European and North American cultures are based on universal expectations of individual conduct. \"I cannot hire my relatives to work in a public institution in my care, and, in theory, even my friends I should treat equally to strangers.\" Social obligations are dictated on the basis of norms or rules which are considered of a higher order, transcending the \"accidents\" of relationship, such as personal acquaintance, shared origin or family ties between people. \"If I am an electrical repairperson, I must service my list of clients in the order received because doing so is fair. If I am a police officer, I give my acquaintances tickets because I am a police officer and that's my job.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11683576",
"title": "Accessible tourism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Modern society is increasingly aware of the concept of integration of people with disabilities. Issues such as accessibility, design for all and universal design are featured in the international symposia of bodies such as the European Commission. Steps have been taken to promote guidelines and best practices, and major resources are now dedicated to this field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390003",
"title": "Peter L. Berger",
"section": "Section::::Sociological thought.:The social construction of reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Human beings construct a shared social reality. This is explained in Berger and Thomas Luckmann's book \"The Social Construction of Reality\" (1966). This reality includes things from ordinary language to large-scale institutions. Our lives are governed by the knowledge about the world that we have and use the information that is relevant to our lives. We take into account typificatory schemes, which are general assumptions about society. As one encounters a new scheme, one must compare it to the ones that are already established in one's mind and determine whether to keep those schemes or replace the old ones with new ones. Social structure is the total of all these typificatory schemes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ixij2
|
WW2: What do these patches mean?
|
[
{
"answer": "The circular patches with the \"A\" are the insignia of the US 3rd Army, which in WW2 was under the command of Gen. George S. Patton. The triangular tricolour patches are the insignia of the US 16th Armoured Division. If you look closely, the embroidery below the 16 shows a tank track. The 16th Armoured was established in 1943, and reached Europe in 1945. It saw combat very briefly at the end of 1945 in Czechoslovakia, before withdrawing in accordance with a treaty with the advancing Soviets.\n\nThe patch at the bottom left with the winged star is the symbol of the USAAF, which is a little confusing. Did he transfer to or from the airforce at any point?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"16\" patch is 16th Armored Division, which served in the European Theater from February to October, 1945. The triangle patch without the \"16\" is US Armored Force patch. The red, white, and blue \"A\" patch is Third Army. The red and white \"A\" patch is Ninth Army. The 3-color circle is the US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), established in 1973. The patch with wings is the US Army Air Forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The three-color circular patch is the shoulder patch for the Army's Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), but during WW2 it was that of the Replacement and School Command, which was charged with the responsibility of training Army personnel. The three stripes are in the colors of, and refer to, the basic combat arms; they also refer to the components of the \"One Army\" concept: Active Army, Army Reserve and Army National Guard. Background The shoulder sleeve insignia was originally approved for the Replacement and School Command on 22 March 1943, and was reassigned to the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command on 1 July 1973. So it could very easily have been a WW2 patch in this collection. Many soldiers coming back from overseas combat were reassigned to Training and Doctrine command prior to demobilization, and some of them were used as instructors, to take advantage of their experience. The White \"A\" in a Cloverleaf on red is the patch for the 9th US Army, which was a major headquarters unit for the Americans during the invasion of Europe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13342634",
"title": "39th Infantry Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::World War I.:Unauthorized World War I patch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The World War I patch consisted of a dark blue disc bordered red having upon it a steel gray triangle (the Greek Delta symbol). The area within the triangle was divided into four equilateral triangles, with the lower left red, the top white, the lower right blue, and the central triangle the same dark blue as the disk. There are numerous variations of the World War I design, with the colors of the triangles transposed in various combinations. One common variant has three inner triangles instead of the prescribed four.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4563876",
"title": "Unit Colour Patch",
"section": "Section::::Second AIF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Colour patches of World War II were generally smaller than those of World War I, with the World War II square patch long on the sides, with an additional grey border if the colour patch had been used by the 1st AIF. New shapes were used, for example many five-sided and six-sided shapes including the tank-shaped patches of some armoured units, the T-shaped patches instituted for units of the 9th Division in 1943 representing their key role in the 1942 Siege of Tobruk, the double-diamond of the commandos and independent companies, and the 11th Division arrowheads. Some representations of Australian birds and mammals began to appear. Over 800 separate patches were authorised during World War 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "924103",
"title": "42nd Infantry Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Rainbow unit insignia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The 42nd Division adopted a shoulder patch and distinctive unit insignia acknowledging the nickname. The original version of the patch symbolized a half arc rainbow and contained thin bands in multiple colors. During the latter part of World War I and post war occupation duty in Germany, Rainbow Division soldiers modified the patch to a quarter arc, removing half the symbol to memorialize the half of the division's soldiers who became casualties (killed or wounded) during the war. They also reduced the number of colors to just red, gold and blue bordered in green, in order to standardize the design and make the patch easier to reproduce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34594726",
"title": "Chicago Embroidery Company",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "With the start of World War II, the U.S. military suddenly needed for millions of embroidered patches to signify rank, unit, and specialty of members of the armed forces. The U.S. Government ordered the major embroidery companies to begin making embroidered patches (also known as shoulder sleeve insignia or SSI) and the looms were converted from lacemaking to war patch production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5321956",
"title": "5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Unit history.:The 1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In 1988, a decision was made to reintroduce Colour Patches for the first time since the end of the Second World War. The original 5th Battalion patch (as worn the day the 5th Battalion, 1st AIF, raised in Melbourne later to land at ANZAC Cove on the 25 April 1915) was adopted for the 5/6 RVR. This patch of a black rectangle on top of a red rectangle, is worn on the puggaree of the slouch hat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51070062",
"title": "Morale patch",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Morale patches are a strong part of military history and are deeply connected to soldiers and law enforcement agents. Even before World War 1, the morale patch can be traced to the British Army who called them \"battle patches\". Mainly used to identify allies and enemy units; the distinctive designs would belong to each individual unit as a way to know who was who. Nowadays morale patches are also being used by civilians, for boosting employee morale etc. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13930401",
"title": "Embroidered patch",
"section": "Section::::History.:Military use.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The oldest of all official U.S. military patches is the Big Red One of the 1st Infantry Division, first issued on October 31, 1918. SSI became common during World War II and distinctive patches for individual units of the US Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force and Coast Guard have become a proud tradition. There is an active collectors market, especially for rare, limited edition patches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2njnwm
|
how withdrawl from drugs causes severe illness? sometimes death?
|
[
{
"answer": "The body has been trying to compensate for the disturbances of the drugs by slowly making changes in hormone levels. Sudden withdrawal results in a body with lethal levels of these hormones still circulating. This is why a long term alcoholic suddenly deprived of alcohol may suffer fatal seizures. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The worst withdrawal symptoms seem to be from drugs that are sedating: narcotics, alcohol and benzodiazepines. \n\nThese types of drugs tend to alter the amount of signaling via various neurotransmitters and their receptors. When one receptor is constantly activated by a drug then it will often be \"down regulated\" to try to bring things into balance. Other counter regulatory pathways may also get upregulated. But then when the drug or alcohol is suddenly stopped - you generally get activity that is the opposite, more or less, of what the drug was causing. \n\nWith alcohol and benzo withdrawal this can be really dangerous - marked increases in sympathetic nervous system activity (fight or flight) occurs, heart rate and blood pressure go up, and seizures may occur. If these reactions are severe, death can occur.\n\nNarcotic withdrawal may cause severe discomfort - but generally not life threatening without other health problems: anxiety, sweating, aches, diarrhea, nausea, cramps and dilated pupils - many of which are from nervous system activity that is essentially the opposite of what you get with the drug itself.\n\nIn contrast, after prolonged stimulant use, stopping leads mostly to sleepy folks who are in a bad mood all the time. But not usually very ill from a medical / vital sign perspective.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets look at Opiates:\n\nWhen you an ingest an opiate (Oxycodone, Morphine, etc) it is essentially putting an excess of certain neurotransmitters in the brain that are normally regulated and produced as needed. Over time, the brain begins to produce less of these neurotransmitters because they're being put into the brain from an external source. When you abruptly stop the use of an opiate, the brain goes into a sort of neurochemical shock where the levels of these neurotransmitters are now too low to function normally and thus produce a wide variety of unpleasant symptoms.\n\nIn the case of benzodiazepines (where W/D can be fatal), the neurotransmitters involved can cause fatal seizures when in a state of withdrawal and their levels are out of balance.\n\nTried to keep this as simple and light as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "102959",
"title": "Substance abuse",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Drug abuse, including alcohol and prescription drugs, can induce symptomatology which resembles mental illness. This can occur both in the intoxicated state and also during the withdrawal state. In some cases these substance induced psychiatric disorders can persist long after detoxification, such as prolonged psychosis or depression after amphetamine or cocaine abuse. A protracted withdrawal syndrome can also occur with symptoms persisting for months after cessation of use. Benzodiazepines are the most notable drug for inducing prolonged withdrawal effects with symptoms sometimes persisting for years after cessation of use. Both alcohol, barbiturate as well as benzodiazepine withdrawal can potentially be fatal. Abuse of hallucinogens can trigger delusional and other psychotic phenomena long after cessation of use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14477343",
"title": "Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "Drug abuse, including alcohol and prescription drugs, can induce symptomatology which resembles mental illness. This can occur both in the intoxicated state and during the withdrawal state. In some cases these substance-induced psychiatric disorders can persist long after detoxification from amphetamine, cocaine, opioid, and alcohol use, causing prolonged psychosis, anxiety or depression. A protracted withdrawal syndrome can occur with symptoms persisting for months to years after cessation of substance use. Benzodiazepines, opioids, alcohol, and any other drug may induce prolonged withdrawal and have similar effects, with symptoms sometimes persisting for years after cessation of use. Psychosis including severe anxiety and depression are commonly induced by sustained alcohol, opioid, benzodiazepine, and other drug use which in most cases abates with prolonged abstinence. Any continued use of drugs or alcohol may increase anxiety, psychosis, and depression levels in some individuals. In almost all cases drug-induced psychiatric disorders fade away with prolonged abstinence, although permanent damage to the brain and nervous system may be caused by continued substance use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419447",
"title": "Drug withdrawal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "The route of administration, whether intravenous, intramuscular, oral or otherwise, can also play a role in determining the severity of withdrawal symptoms. There are different stages of withdrawal as well; generally, a person will start to feel bad (crash or come down), progress to feeling worse, hit a plateau, and then the symptoms begin to dissipate. However, withdrawal from certain drugs (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol, glucocorticoids) can be fatal. While it is seldom fatal to the user, withdrawal from opiates (and some other drugs) can cause miscarriage, due to fetal withdrawal. The term \"cold turkey\" is used to describe the sudden cessation use of a substance and the ensuing physiologic manifestations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1553275",
"title": "Physical dependence",
"section": "Section::::Rebound syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A wide range of drugs whilst not causing a true physical dependence can still cause withdrawal symptoms or rebound effects during dosage reduction or especially abrupt or rapid withdrawal. These can include caffeine, stimulants, steroidal drugs and antiparkinsonian drugs. It is debated whether the entire antipsychotic drug class causes true physical dependency, a subset, or if none do. But, if discontinued too rapidly, it could cause an acute withdrawal syndrome. When talking about illicit drugs rebound withdrawal, especially with stimulants, it is sometimes referred to as \"coming down\" or \"crashing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46702056",
"title": "Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine",
"section": "Section::::Notable projects.:Adverse Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "In March 2016, research in the centre systematically identified 353 medicinal products withdrawn worldwide because of adverse drug reactions, assessed the level of evidence used for making the withdrawal decisions, and found that only 40 drugs were withdrawn worldwide. Withdrawal was significantly less likely in Africa than in other continents (Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Australasia and Oceania). Furthermore, in 47% of the 95 drugs for which death was documented as a reason for withdrawal more than 2 years elapsed between the first report of a death and drug withdrawal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11683572",
"title": "Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Withdrawal effects caused by sedative-hypnotics discontinuation, such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, or alcohol, can cause serious medical complications. They are cited to be more hazardous to withdraw from than opioids. Users typically receive little advice and support for discontinuation. Some withdrawal symptoms are identical to the symptoms for which the medication was originally prescribed, and can be acute or protracted in duration. Onset of symptoms from long half-life benzodiazepines might be delayed for up to three weeks, although withdrawal symptoms from short-acting ones often present early, usually within 24–48 hours. There may be no fundamental differences in symptoms from either high or low dose discontinuation, but symptoms tend to be more severe from higher doses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12962",
"title": "Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Although there have been reported fatalities due to GHB withdrawal, reports are inconclusive and further research is needed. A common problem is that GHB does not leave traces in the body after a short period of time, complicating diagnosis and research. Addiction occurs when repeated drug use disrupts the normal balance of brain circuits that control rewards, memory and cognition, ultimately leading to compulsive drug taking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
85s4ns
|
About the fancy uniforms we see in war paintings.
|
[
{
"answer": "Artists who do not travel with armies or have the chance to see one in a situation other than a parade may improperly display soldiers in battle. For example, many artists during the american civil war will draw every soldier with their knapsack (backpack) on and sometimes wearing gaiters, purely because thats what they saw when a regiment marched out of a city or in a parade. However in actual battle knapsacks were dropped before going in and gaiters were thrown away by most soldiers to begin with as they were very disliked.\n\nBut for the most part, uniforms in art are pretty accurate. They did indeed wear such fancy uniforms back then, and for a variety of reasons. A large one is these complex uniforms make distinguishing a friendly soldier from an enemy easy in battle. Though complex uniforms may be especially fancy for prestige reasons, such as the Imperial Guard of Napoleon or the Russian Leib Guard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41356170",
"title": "Portrait of a Commander",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Portrait of a Commander or A Commander Being Dressed for Battle is a portrait of an unknown man in plate armour, normally attributed to Peter Paul Rubens. In July 2010 it was sold for £9 million by Christie's after Sotheby's turned it down, suspecting its authenticity as a Rubens. In December 2011, the portrait was placed on loan with the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41788249",
"title": "Joseph Gray (painter)",
"section": "Section::::Artwork.:War Artist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Gray went on to paint several regimental commissions and he wrote to the Imperial War Museum many times requesting the loan of equipment to make his work ‘authentic.’ He wrote, “I will not do anything unreal or false… my pictures show the war as it was.” He refused to do anything in the ‘Romantic Lady Butler Woodville style’ since ...“most people want straight stuff.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977651",
"title": "Édouard Detaille",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Franco-Prussian War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Detaille enlisted in the 8th Mobile Bataillon of the French Army when the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870; by November he was seeing and experiencing the realities of war. This experience allowed him to produce his famed portraits of soldiers and historically accurate depictions of military manoeuvres, uniforms, and military life in general. He eventually became the official painter of the battles. He published a book called \"L'Armée Française\" in 1885, which contains over 300 line drawings and 20 color reproductions of his works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2680555",
"title": "Museum of Military History, Vienna",
"section": "Section::::Exhibition.:Hall III – Hall of Revolutions (1789–1848).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "A documentation of a special kind are the figurines by Helmut Krauhs (1912–1995), which illustrate the soldiers' uniforms of the Josephinist and Napoleonic eras with meticulous precision and authenticity. Uniforms, medals, and weapons, and also special individual items add to the overall picture, such as the coat of the Russian general Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov, worn by Napoleon on his journey to exile on the island of Elba. The Vienna Congress and the personality of Archduke Karl are documented in detail, and the so-called \"Info-Points\" – interactive touchscreen monitors which visitors can use - provide further information on the events of this period using contemporary graphics, maps, and biographical notes. Hall III is also called the \"Hall of Revolutions\" because the exhibition it contains begins with the French Revolution and ends with the Revolution of 1848.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1578056",
"title": "Charles Hamilton Smith",
"section": "Section::::Antiquary, naturalist and illustrator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "As a prolific self-taught illustrator, he is also known in military history circles for \"Costume of the Army of the British Empire\", produced towards the end of the Napoleonic Wars and an accurate depiction of contemporary British uniform. As an antiquarian, he also produced, in collaboration with Samuel Rush Meyrick, \"Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands\", 1815, and \"The Ancient Costume of England\", with historical illustrations of medieval knights, ladies, shipsm and battles. The majority of his vast body of work (he estimated it was over 38,000 drawings) was not military in character, but largely passed into obscurity. Notebooks of his observations as a naturalist have survived, as well as antiquarian illustrations of civilian life. He also wrote on the history of the Seven Years' War and the natural history of dogs. Smith was of Flemish origin; he wrote the military part of Cox's \"Marlborough\" and many military and natural history books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13422767",
"title": "H. Charles McBarron Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "While informally researching military uniforms and weapons, McBarron realized that many illustrations of military scenes were inaccurate. He became committed to knowledgeable portrayal of detail and historical accuracy. An example is his mature 1975 work \"Soldiers of the American Revolution: A Sketchbook\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38843832",
"title": "John L. Gihon",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The same day Confederate Army Capt. James Lile Lemmon, 18th Georgia Infantry, noted that the photographer \"asked that we sit for our portraits & after some debate among us we agreed as there was no harm in it, but my old uniform was in rags & stained with blood & ect & unfit for a portrait & I was glad that he had among his effects a few Confederate coats one of which I put on & then set for him.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37nvyb
|
why is the triple crown in horse racing so rare?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they allow a horse that hasn't raced in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness, to compete in the Belmont and stop a horse that has raced all three from winning. Stupid ass rules. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The three tracks are different lengths. So it's similar to asking why no one wins the 100m, 200m and 400m gold medals - horses, like people, specialize at certain distances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "692479",
"title": "Triple Crown (rugby union)",
"section": "Section::::Winners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Unlike the Grand Slam, the Triple Crown winners are not necessarily the tournament winners, since France or Italy – or even another of the home nations – could outperform them within the Championship as a whole. To date, the Triple Crown winners who failed to win the Championship are Wales in 1977, England in 1997, 1998, 2002 and 2014, and Ireland in 2004, 2006 and 2007. The champions were France on each occasion, apart from 2014 when Ireland were champions, the first instance of a team winning the Triple Crown but losing the overall title to another team eligible for it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46921491",
"title": "Thoroughbred Racing on CBS",
"section": "Section::::History.:The end of CBS' involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "In 1985, Triple Crown Productions was created when the owner of Spend a Buck chose not to run in the other two Triple Crown races because of a financial incentive offered to any Kentucky Derby winner who could win a set of competing races in New Jersey. The organizers of the three races realized that they needed to work together. Other than the Kentucky Derby, the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes were considered the two \"other\" races. ABC Sports, which had broadcast the Derby since 1975, wanted to televise all the races as a three race package. CBS Sports, which showed the other two races, had much lower ratings for them, with the possible exceptions of years in which the Crown was at stake like 1973, 1977, and 1978.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19116721",
"title": "Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Each Triple Crown race is open to both colts and fillies. Although fillies have won each of the individual Triple Crown races, none has won the Triple Crown itself. Despite attempts to develop a \"Filly Triple Crown\" or a \"Triple Tiara\" for fillies only, no set series of three races has consistently remained in the public eye, and at least four different configurations of races have been used. Two fillies won the series of the Kentucky Oaks, the Pimlico Oaks (now the Black-Eyed Susan Stakes), and the Coaching Club American Oaks, in 1949 and 1952, but the racing press did not designate either accomplishment as a \"Triple Crown\". In 1961, the New York Racing Association created a filly Triple Crown of in-state races only, but the races changed over the years. Eight fillies won the NYRA Triple Tiara between 1968 and 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19116721",
"title": "Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Winners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "At completion of the 2016 season, the three Triple Crown races have attracted 4,224 entrants. Of these, 292 horses have won a single leg of the Triple Crown, 52 horses have won two of the races (23 the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, 18 the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes, and 11 the Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes), and 13 horses have won all three races. Pillory won both the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes in 1922, a year when it was impossible to win the Triple Crown because the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes were run on the same day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19116721",
"title": "Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "In the United States, the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, commonly known as the Triple Crown, is a title awarded to a three-year-old Thoroughbred horse who wins the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes. The three races were inaugurated in different years, the last being the Kentucky Derby in 1875. These races are now run annually in May and early June of each year. The Triple Crown Trophy, commissioned in 1950 but awarded to all previous winners as well as those after 1950, is awarded to a Triple Crown winner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202818",
"title": "Triple Crown",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "A Triple Crown is the act of winning or completing the three most important or difficult or prestigious events, tournaments, or prizes in a given field. Originating in England in the mid-19th century in the sport of horse racing, it has spread to other competitive endeavors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58596",
"title": "Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, often shortened to \"Triple Crown\", comprises three races for three-year-old thoroughbred horses. Winning all three of these thoroughbred horse races is considered the greatest accomplishment in thoroughbred racing. The term originated in mid-19th century England and nations where thoroughbred racing is popular each have their own Triple Crown series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rjj8a
|
Why does Patton seem to be disliked by most of the commanders of his day, yet a prominent figure by the enemy?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you have to remember that Patton, for all his considerable skill, could be a thoroughly infuriating figure. Arrogant, rash, abrasive, impatient, and often intolerant of anything less than an almost reckless abandon for action the best that can be said about him is that he won, and that's probably all he or Eisenhower cared about. And, while it's true many American and British generals disliked him personally, most of even his staunchest adversaries admired his skill and ability. His reputation amongst the Axis forces was because, in many ways, he was the most successful emulation of their type of armored campaign. His ability to conduct brash and often reckless maneuver with great success at the expense of multiple German commanders earned him a thorough and almost universal admiration and respect as the best the Americans had to offer. All in all it was mostly his personal baggage that earned him a foul and sometimes unfair reputation and led many to downplay his professional successes due to personal grievances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly because the German high command only got to see a man with many victories under his belt while the US generals had to deal with his actual personality. He was someone who could be easily disliked. especially by his own soldiers and anyone who told him that his strategy wouldn't work. He knew he was good and assumed everyone else was wrong. So it gave him a bad reputation with his fellow generals when he looked down on them and their ideas for strategy on the western front.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Patton's colorful image, hard-driving personality and success as a commander were at times overshadowed by his controversial public statements. His philosophy of leading from the front and ability to inspire troops with attention-getting, vulgarity-ridden speeches, such as a famous address to the Third Army, met with mixed receptions, favorably with his troops but much less so among a sharply divided Allied high command. His strong emphasis on rapid and aggressive offensive action proved effective, and he was regarded highly by his opponents in the German High Command. An award-winning biographical film released in 1970, \"Patton\", helped solidify his image as an American folk hero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "As a leader, Patton was known to be highly critical, correcting subordinates mercilessly for the slightest infractions, but also being quick to praise their accomplishments. Although he garnered a reputation as a general who was both impatient and impulsive and had little tolerance for officers who had failed to succeed, he fired only one general during World War II, Orlando Ward, and only after two warnings, whereas Bradley sacked several generals during the war. Patton reportedly had the utmost respect for the men serving in his command, particularly the wounded. Many of his directives showed special trouble to care for the enlisted men under his command, and he was well known for arranging extra supplies for battlefield soldiers, including blankets and extra socks, galoshes, and other items normally in short supply at the front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Patton's colorful personality, hard-driving leadership style, and success as a commander, combined with his frequent political missteps, produced a mixed and often contradictory image. Patton's great oratory skill is seen as integral to his ability to inspire troops under his command. Historian Terry Brighton concluded that Patton was \"arrogant, publicity-seeking and personally flawed, but ... among the greatest generals of the war\". Patton's impact on armored warfare and leadership were substantial, with the U.S. Army's adopting many of Patton's aggressive strategies for its training programs following his death. Many military officers claim inspiration from his legacy. The first American tank designed after the war became the M46 Patton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22378121",
"title": "George S. Patton slapping incidents",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Patton had already developed a reputation in the U.S. Army as an effective, successful, and hard-driving commander, punishing subordinates for the slightest infractions but also rewarding them when they performed well. As a way to promote an image that inspired his troops, Patton created a larger-than-life personality. He became known for his flashy dress, highly polished helmet and boots, and no-nonsense demeanor. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of the Sicily operation and Patton's friend and commanding officer, had long known of Patton's colorful leadership style, and also knew that Patton was prone to impulsiveness and a lack of self-restraint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:As viewed by Allied and Axis leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 1415,
"text": "While Allied leaders expressed mixed feelings on Patton's capabilities, the German High Command was noted to have more respect for him than for any other Allied commander after 1943. Adolf Hitler reportedly called him \"that crazy cowboy general\". Many German field commanders were generous in their praise of Patton's leadership following the war, and many of its highest commanders also held his abilities in high regard. Erwin Rommel credited Patton with executing \"the most astonishing achievement in mobile warfare\". \"Generaloberst\" Alfred Jodl, chief of staff of the German Army, stated that Patton \"was the American Guderian. He was very bold and preferred large movements. He took big risks and won big successes.\" \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Albert Kesselring noted that \"Patton had developed tank warfare into an art, and understood how to handle tanks brilliantly in the field. I feel compelled, therefore, to compare him with \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Rommel, who likewise had mastered the art of tank warfare. Both of them had a kind of second sight in regard to this type of warfare.\" Referring to the escape of the Afrika Korps after the Battle of El Alamein, Fritz Bayerlein opined that \"I do not think that General Patton would let us get away so easily.\" In an interview conducted for \"Stars and Stripes\" just after his capture, Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt stated simply of Patton, \"He is your best.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2899869",
"title": "Historical characters in the Southern Victory Series",
"section": "Section::::Confederate States.:Patton, George S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 254,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 254,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Patton was a fierce and aggressive commander, but as the war turned against the Confederate States, Patton's instincts to attack every chance he got largely succeeded only in squandering men and materiel that the Confederacy could not easily replace. Patton's aggressiveness was checked by General Irving Morrell, a punning reference to the real Patton's African contest with Erwin Rommel. When he switched tactics to fight a delaying action in Chattanooga, he was bypassed by a U.S. airborne assault on the hills overlooking the city. Because of this, the U.S. drove to Atlanta, disgracing him in Jake Featherston's eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:As viewed by Allied and Axis leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "For the most part, British commanders did not hold Patton in high regard. General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) − the professional head of the British Army − noted in January 1943 that \"I had heard of him, but I must confess that his swashbuckling personality exceeded my expectation. I did not form any high opinion of him, nor had I any reason to alter this view at any later date. A dashing, courageous, wild, and unbalanced leader, good for operations requiring thrust and push, but at a loss in any operation requiring skill and judgment.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vutq2
|
If someone spoke gibberish to babies would the babies mistake it for real language?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would have to be consistent in order to learn, and if it were then it would just be another language (even if it was made up).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "68974",
"title": "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Literature and science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "In the language deprivation experiment young infants were raised without human interaction in an attempt to determine if there was a natural language that they might demonstrate once their voices matured. It is claimed he was seeking to discover what language would have been imparted unto Adam and Eve by God. In his \"Chronicles\" Salimbene wrote that Frederick bade \"foster-mothers and nurses to suckle and bathe and wash the children, but in no ways to prattle or speak with them; for he would have learnt whether they would speak the Hebrew language (which had been the first), or Greek, or Latin, or Arabic, or perchance the tongue of their parents of whom they had been born. But he laboured in vain, for the children could not live without clappings of the hands, and gestures, and gladness of countenance, and blandishments\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16415709",
"title": "Phonological development",
"section": "Section::::Development once speech sets in (1 year and older).:Perception.:18-20 months.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Children are also able to detect mispronunciations such as ‘vaby’ for ‘baby’. Recognition has been found to be poorer for mispronounced than for correctly pronounced words. This suggests that infants’ representations of familiar words are phonetically very precise. This result has also been taken to suggest that infants move from a word-based to a segment-based phonological system around 18 months of age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41113085",
"title": "Language acquisition by deaf children",
"section": "Section::::Early stages (birth to 12 months).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1541,
"text": "The very earliest linguistic tasks facing newborns are perceptual. Babies need to determine what basic linguistic elements are used in their native language to create words (their phonetic inventory). They also need to determine how to segment the continuous stream of language input into phrases and eventually words. From birth, they have an attraction to patterned linguistic input, which is evident whether the input is spoken or signed. They use their sensitive perceptual skills to acquire information about the structure of their native language, particularly prosodic and phonological features. Sign languages have natural prosodic patterns and infants are sensitive to these prosodic boundaries even if they have no specific experience with sign languages. 6-month-old hearing infants with no sign experience also preferentially attend to sign language stimuli over complex gesture, indicating that they are perceiving sign language as meaningful linguistic input. Since infants attend to spoken and signed language in a similar manner, several researchers have concluded that much of language acquisition is universal, not tied to the modality of the language, and that sign languages are acquired and processed very similarly to spoken languages, given adequate exposure. At the same time, these and other researchers point out that there are many unknowns in terms of how a visual language might be processed differently than a spoken language, particularly given the unusual path of language transmission for most deaf infants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872124",
"title": "Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩",
"section": "Section::::Phonetic realization.:Acquisition problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Children generally learn the less marked phonemes of their native language before the more marked ones. In the case of English-speaking children, and are often among the last phonemes to be learnt, frequently not being mastered before the age of five. Prior to this age, many children substitute the sounds and respectively. For small children, \"fought\" and \"thought\" are therefore homophones. As British and American children begin school at age four and five respectively, this means that many are learning to read and write before they have sorted out these sounds, and the infantile pronunciation is frequently reflected in their spelling errors: \"ve fing\" for \"the thing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38523090",
"title": "Statistical learning in language acquisition",
"section": "Section::::Lexical Acquisition.:Further Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Another follow-up study examined the extent to which the statistical information learned during this type of artificial grammar learning feeds into knowledge that infants may already have about their native language. Infants preferred to listen to words over part-words, whereas there was no significant difference in the nonsense frame condition. This finding suggests that even pre-linguistic infants are able to integrate the statistical cues they learn in a laboratory into their previously-acquired knowledge of a language. In other words, once infants have acquired some linguistic knowledge, they incorporate newly acquired information into that previously-acquired learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16415709",
"title": "Phonological development",
"section": "Section::::Prelinguistic development (birth – 1 year).:Perception.:9 months.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Infants can distinguish native from nonnative language input using phonetic and phonotactic patterns alone, i.e., without the help of prosodic cues. They seem to have learned their native language’s phonotactics, i.e., which combinations of sounds are possible in the language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9014",
"title": "Developmental psychology",
"section": "Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. At this stage infants also start to babble, producing phonemes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5r3yj5
|
How did Genghis Khan's father die, specifically?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yesugai the Brave, by various accounts, was poisoned at a meal on the steppes, by Tatars who by custom owed even an enemy hospitality. \n\nWe do not know if it was actually poison. This could have been a simple bacterial infection. However, actual poisons were available, such as from poisonous mushrooms.\n\nFecal matter would have been a hit-or-miss matter, depending on the local pathogens and whether Yesugei Baghatur had been exposed to them in the past. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea, an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Death and burial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Genghis Khan died in August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, which is the capital of Western Xia. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. According to \"The Secret History of the Mongols\", Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and died because of the injury. He was already old and tired from his journeys. The \"Galician–Volhynian Chronicle\" alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis's death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Early life.:Lineage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Genghis Khan was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai, and Hotula Khan, who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation and were descendants of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 900). When the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Succession.:Jochi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Genghis Khan was aware of the friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died. He therefore decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right, while appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior, because of statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son, was not suitable since in Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given much responsibility due to their age. If Jochi were to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore, Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ögedei. Ögedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate that might defuse the situation between his brothers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147911",
"title": "Golden Horde",
"section": "Section::::Mongol origins (1225–1241).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1449,
"text": "At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages, but the Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols, which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan, were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan, who eventually became the ruler of the Blue Horde, and Orda Khan, who became the leader of the White Horde. In 1235, Batu with the great general Subedei began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The military campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had started under Jochi and Subedei in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239 a large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimea peninsula, and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains, and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and for three years subjugated the principalities of former Kievan Rus', whilst his cousins Möngke, Kadan, and Güyük moved southwards into Alania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40304723",
"title": "Mongol conquest of Western Xia",
"section": "Section::::Second invasion.:Death of Genghis Khan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "In August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, Genghis Khan died. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action by Western Xia, falling from his horse, illness, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Before Genghis Khan died he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor. Later his grandsons split his empire into khanates. Genghis Khan died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. By his request, his body was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia. His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states in all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and substantial portions of Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zk56z
|
unix vs macosx/windows/linux
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer is complex. Unix is a very old operating system (actually, a group of operating systems) that was designed to operate on pre-personal-computer-era machines.\n\nHowever, Unix has consistently been praised for its simplicity and ease of portability. Unix is a \"pocketwatch\" in an age of overblown digital alarm clocks.\n\nLinux is very similar to Unix and carries over many of the concepts of Unix to the modern PC environment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unix is an old OS developed by Bell Labs in the 70s. Since it was copyrighted, there have been many clones that have since grown and branched off. Linux is a notable example, BSD is another one which in turn is what OS X is based off of. These are called Unix-Like operating systems. Windows is something totally different. \n\nedit: One thing worth mentioning is that Linux itself is not an entire desktop OS. This is why we have distributions like Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Red Hat, etc. These are all something you can install to your desktop and server and run but also very different in what they include. Linux is just the kernel (which you can think of like an engine in car).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In additon to what everyone is saying, it's important to note that you almost certainly use Linux in your day to day life. If you have a router, an android phone, any modern digital household appliance, etc., you're using linux. When you post on reddit, you're using linux. It's everywhere because anyone is free to redistribute it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9914431",
"title": "Linux gaming",
"section": "Section::::Supported hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Linux as a gaming platform can also refer to operating systems based on the Linux kernel and specifically designed for the \"sole purpose\" of gaming. Examples are SteamOS, which is an operating system for Steam Machines and computers, video game consoles built from components found in the classical home computer, (embedded) operating systems like Tizen and Pandora, and handheld game consoles like GP2X, and Neo Geo X. The Nvidia Shield runs Android as an operating system, which is based on a modified Linux kernel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6097297",
"title": "Linux",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22194",
"title": "Operating system",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Unix and Unix-like operating systems.:Linux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82% of all \"desktop\" (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other small energy-efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1146204",
"title": "Linux on embedded systems",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Linux kernel has been ported to a variety of CPUs which are not only primarily used as the processor of a desktop or server computer, but also ARC, ARM, AVR32, ETRAX CRIS, FR-V, H8300, IP7000, m68k, MIPS, mn10300, PowerPC, SuperH, and Xtensa processors. Linux is also used as an alternative to using a proprietary operating system and its associated toolchain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6097297",
"title": "Linux",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Linux is the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and the only OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since November 2017, having gradually eliminated all competitors). It is used by around 2.3 percent of desktop computers. The Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20 percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347315",
"title": "Linux kernel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The Linux kernel is a free and open-source, monolithic, Unix-like operating system kernel. The Linux family of operating systems is based on this kernel and deployed on both traditional computer systems such as personal computers and servers, usually in the form of Linux distributions, and on various embedded devices such as routers, wireless access points, PBXes, set-top boxes, FTA receivers, smart TVs, PVRs, and NAS appliances. While the adoption of the Linux kernel in desktop computer operating system is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every other segment of computing, from mobile devices to mainframes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22194",
"title": "Operating system",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Unix and Unix-like operating systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems's Solaris can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's macOS, a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tugbx
|
what are the historical reasons for which english cuisine is usually regarded as "bad" whereas french cuisine is usually regarded as "good"? (at least i think this is how we see it in the us...
|
[
{
"answer": "They were culturally different. Also under Napoleonic rule, France controlled almost all of continental Europe (but obviously not Britain) which allowed French chefs to experiment with ingredients from all around the continent. \n\n\nThe short answer is simply that French chefs had the ingredients available and the cultural passion to elevate cuisine to higher levels than Britain had. It's not about skill it's about generations of tradition and availability of ingredients and culture. \n\n\n\nBrits love their curry though! Can find much better curry and Asian food in general in Britain than in France. \n\n\nUnrelated side note: Was in London last summer. Went past a noodle bar called \"Phat Phuc\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "French cuisine is particularly varied, and there's a strong cultural pride in their food over there.\n\nThe UK was the first country in the world to industrialise, and it happened pretty rapidly that people moved en masse from small rural communities to the growing cities. In the process many of our regional cultural traditions died out. This is why we're the only European country without a \"national dress\" for example. It also broke the connection with our traditional regional food culture as people just ate what could be easily mass produced and transported into cities. Other countries didn't experience this upheaval in such a rapid and extreme way.\n\nI have to say that I think post-industrial Britain is starting to love food again, and we do now value some of our iconic foods (cheeses, sausages, baked goods, beer) more than we have for generations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4170535",
"title": "France–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::Arts and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "In general, France is regarded with favour by Britain in regard to its high culture and is seen as an ideal holiday destination, whilst France sees Britain as a major trading partner. Both countries are famously contemptuous of each other's cooking, many French claiming all British food is bland and boring, whilst many British claim that French food is inedible. Much of the apparent disdain for French food and culture in Britain takes the form of self-effacing humour, and British comedy often uses French culture as the butt of its jokes. Whether this is representative of true opinion or not is open to debate. Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as \"French kissing\", or \"French letter\" for a condom, are used in British English slang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77208",
"title": "English cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43462565",
"title": "List of French restaurants",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "This is a list of notable French restaurants. French cuisine consists of cooking traditions and practices from France, famous for the rich tastes and subtle nuances with long and rich history. France, a country famous for its agriculture and independently minded peasants, was long a creative powerbase for delicious recipes, that are both healthy and refined. Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines and its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education. In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the world's \"intangible cultural heritage\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9316",
"title": "England",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36531380",
"title": "List of English dishes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "This is a list of prepared dishes characteristic of English cuisine. English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60603911",
"title": "Culture of England",
"section": "Section::::Cuisine.:International influences on English cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "French cuisine has influenced English cooking to some degree since the mid-17th century, although in England \"the meal still centred on pies and joints of meat, as it had done there in medieval times. English cooking did not change much over the ages, whereas French food did\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101151",
"title": "Hors d'oeuvre",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:English savouries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Food in England is heavily influenced by other countries due to the island nation's dependence on importing outside goods and sometimes, inspiration. Many English culinary words and customs have been directly borrowed from the original French (some completely Anglicized in spelling) such as: \"cuisine\", \"sirloin\", \"pastry\" and \"omelette\" which came from the 18th century and earlier. In the late 19th and early 20th century, even more words, foods and customs from culinary France made their way into England, such as \"éclair\", \"casserole\", \"à la carte\", \"rôtisserie\" and \"hors d'oeuvre\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wnco6
|
why does my bottom lip get dry and chapped, while my top lip always remains smooth?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think because when you smile, your upper lip remains straight but wider while your lower lip gets wider and bends down, effectively becoming longer than your upper lip, i.e.: stretching more than your upper lip.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4457435",
"title": "Orange peel (effect)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Gloss paint sprayed on a smooth surface (such as the body of a car) should also dry into a smooth surface. However, various factors can cause it to dry into a bumpy surface resembling the texture of an orange peel. The orange peel phenomenon can then be smoothed out with ultra-fine sandpaper, but it can be prevented altogether by changing the painting technique or the materials used. Orange peel is typically the result of improper painting technique, and is caused by the quick evaporation of thinner, incorrect spray gun setup (e.g., low air pressure or incorrect nozzle), spraying the paint at an angle other than perpendicular, or applying excessive paint. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961611",
"title": "Lip balm",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide an occlusive layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips and protect them from external exposure. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have a drying effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, and thus they are often the first to present signs of dryness. Occlusive materials like waxes and petroleum jelly prevent moisture loss and maintain lip comfort while flavorants, colorants, sunscreens, and various medicaments can provide additional, specific benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2136925",
"title": "Lip",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6703108",
"title": "Cheilitis",
"section": "Section::::Chapped lips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16010970",
"title": "Lip liner",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Like lipstick, lip liners are composed of waxes, oils, and pigment. Compared to lipstick, lip liners are firmer in consistency and more deeply pigmented, making them suitable for drawing on to the lip with precision. For these reasons, lip liners have less oil but more wax and pigment than most lipsticks. A popular wax used in the making of lip liners is Japan wax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2345899",
"title": "Lip augmentation",
"section": "Section::::Risks and side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Several studies have found fat grafting of the lip to be one of the best methods of maintaining a semi-permanent fuller and softer lip. When the lips are overfilled, the results can be comic, often supplying fodder to tabloid newspapers and offbeat websites. This look is sometimes mockingly called a 'trout pout.' Overaggressive injections can lead to lumpiness while too little can result in ridges. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303605",
"title": "Lip gloss",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Like lipstick, lip gloss is a mixture of waxes, oils, and pigments. However, lip gloss contains fewer pigments, and those used are often pale in color or diluted (<3%). Furthermore, the free-flowing nature of the product requires less wax. The principal components are lanolin, which feels good on the lips due to its moisturizing qualities and imparts gloss, and polybutene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ay3t85
|
why can’t pc hardware run mac os but mac can run windows?
|
[
{
"answer": "Windows software supports many hardware configurations, because many companies make Windows-compatible hardware.\n\nMac software supports many fewer hardware configurations, because Apply makes only a few hardware configurations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can, it's just that apple doesn't permit OSX to be run on unauthorized hardware, and the lack of included drivers for anything but authorized hardware can be a huge challenge to overcome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are. If you have the specific hardware combination, then you can run OSX on it (look up hackintosh setups), though you won't have some features. It's just a combination of 1) OSX is designed to run on specific hardware while windows must fit general hardware 2) apple is the big mean and intentionally makes it difficult for people to run OSX on unauthorized hardware.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "205635",
"title": "Mac OS 9",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Aside from Apple-branded hardware that is still maintained and operated, Mac OS 9 can be operated in other environments such as Windows and Unix. For example, the aforementioned SheepShaver software was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can only run up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2450846",
"title": "Hackintosh",
"section": "Section::::Hacking approaches.:Virtual machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "It is also possible to run macOS as a virtual machine inside other operating systems installed on standard PC hardware, by using virtualization software such as Oracle's VirtualBox (though this is not officially supported by Oracle). Likewise, it is also possible to install macOS on VMware software, though the company states it is only officially supported for VMware running on Apple-labeled computers according to Apple's licensing policies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33089070",
"title": "Windows To Go",
"section": "Section::::Hardware considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "When using a PC as a host, only hardware certified for use with either Windows 7 or Windows 8 will work well with Windows To Go. Although Microsoft does not provide support for this feature on Windows RT or Macintosh computers, it is possible to boot Windows To Go on a Mac.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18212",
"title": "Linux distribution",
"section": "Section::::OEM contracts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "However, it is possible to buy hardware with Linux already installed. Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Affordy, Purism, and System76 all sell general-purpose Linux laptops, and custom-order PC manufacturers will also build Linux systems (but possibly with the Windows key on the keyboard). Fixstars Solutions (formerly Terra Soft) sells Macintosh computers and PlayStation 3 consoles with Yellow Dog Linux installed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18212",
"title": "Linux distribution",
"section": "Section::::OEM contracts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Computer hardware is usually sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). In the case of IBM PC compatibles the OS is usually Microsoft Windows; in the case of Apple Macintosh computers it has always been a version of Apple's OS, currently macOS; Sun Microsystems sold SPARC hardware with the Solaris installed; video game consoles such as the Xbox, PlayStation, and Wii each have their own proprietary OS. This limits Linux's market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious effort to use a different operating system, and they must either perform the actual installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3698317",
"title": "Apple–Intel architecture",
"section": "Section::::Differences to standard PCs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Some of these differences can pose as obstacles both to running macOS on non-Apple hardware and booting alternative operating systems on Mac computers – Apple only provides drivers for its custom hardware for macOS and Microsoft Windows (as part of Boot Camp); drivers for other operating systems such as Linux need to be written by third parties, usually volunteer free software enthusiasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3698317",
"title": "Apple–Intel architecture",
"section": "Section::::Differences to standard PCs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Intel-based Mac computers use very similar hardware to PCs from other manufacturers which ship with Microsoft Windows or Linux operating systems. In particular, CPUs, chipsets and GPUs are entirely compatible. However, Apple computers also include some custom hardware and design choices not found in competing systems:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ocbfg
|
why do different numbers of protons/neutrons/electrons cause such drastic differences in the elements of the periodic table?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can think of them as chemical properties and atomic properties. \n\n~Chemical properties are mostly caused by the outer most ring of electrons (valence) orbiting the nucleus. You see electrons are lonely little guys and they like to be with other electrons, exactly 8 to be specific. If they can find a way to hook up with other electrons so there are 8 of them in an orbital, the resulting chemical becomes stable. \n\nFor instance you have Carbon, with 4 valence electrons but it really wants to have 8. But take 2 carbons and put them together and they can share each others electrons, 4+4 = 8 and bang, you have a carbon chain. Or take Oxygen, it has 6 valence electrons but wants 8. However if you took 2 Oxygen and a carbon, each oxygen could share 2 electrons with the carbon making 8 total, and the carbon would be sharing 4 electrons between the two oxygen atoms also getting 8. And bam, you have carbon dioxide. Or take 2 hydrogen each with 1 valence electron, add them to an oxygen which has 6 and 1+1+6=8 and you have water. \n\n\nSome atoms already have their valence shells full and neither want to give or take electrons. Because they are quite happy to be by themselves, they very rarely interact with other elements and we call these the noble gases. They are stable, and not very reactive because they already have a full valence shell. \n\n\n\n~Nuclear properties. The number of protons and neutrons affect the mass of an atom, which in turn affects how heavy that element is. For instance Hydrogen has one proton, and it's the lightest gas there is, and Uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons (in some isotopes) , so it is one of the heavier elements (and the heaviest naturally occurring one)\n\nAside from the mass of the atom, as the nucleus gets larger and larger, the ability for the nuclear forces to hold it together get weaker. Above a certain threshold the mass is so large, and the force holding it together so weakened that the atom can split apart and form 2 new elements. This is how radioactivity and fission works. \n\n~Transmutation is a fact of life, yes. For instance most of the helium in the world today is a byproduct of uranium and thorium decomposition. As the uranium radiates and splits into smaller nuclei it breaks down and helium and lead are the byproducts. Helium is so light it would float off into space if we didn't capture it so Earth lost it's original helium a long time ago. Most of the helium we use today comes from natural gas deposits, where the helium is released by decaying uranium and thorium and trapped with the natural gas for the same reason the natural gas is, it's a pocket of impermeable rock holding it all in. It's expected that gases under the earth should tend to collect together. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41891",
"title": "Stable nuclide",
"section": "Section::::Isotopes per element.:Physical magic numbers and odd and even proton and neutron count.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Yet another effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements tend to have fewer stable isotopes. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements (those with only a single stable isotope), all but one have an odd atomic number, and all but one has an even number of neutrons — the single exception to both rules being beryllium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "673",
"title": "Atomic number",
"section": "Section::::History.:The periodic table and a natural number for each element.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onward (hafnium was not known at this time).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666",
"title": "Alkali metal",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:In the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1287,
"text": "The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67211",
"title": "Electron configuration",
"section": "Section::::Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule.:Periodic table.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The form of the periodic table is closely related to the electron configuration of the atoms of the elements. For example, all the elements of group 2 have an electron configuration of [E] \"n\"s (where [E] is an inert gas configuration), and have notable similarities in their chemical properties. In general, the periodicity of the periodic table in terms of periodic table blocks is clearly due to the number of electrons (2, 6, 10, 14...) needed to fill s, p, d, and f subshells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2324648",
"title": "Oddo–Harkins rule",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The Oddo–Harkins rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. It is possible that in elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair balancing the spin of the other; even parity thus enhances nucleon stability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29952420",
"title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History",
"section": "Section::::Episode 2: The Order of the Elements.:Henry Moseley's proton numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Because this is the number of protons, the atomic number must be a whole number – there cannot be any fractional values. Moseley realised it was the atomic number, not the atomic weight that determines the order of the elements. What's more, because the atomic number increases in whole numbers from one element to the next there can be no extra elements between Hydrogen (atomic number 1) and Uranium (atomic number 92) – there can only be 92 elements, there is no room for any more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number \"Z\" (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (\"period\") is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (\"groups\") are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6xg3ut
|
how does the definition of "species" work in single cell organisms?
|
[
{
"answer": "Traditionally, bacteria were classified by characteristics of theirs that were observed in a lab. For example, the most fundamental division of bacteria is between bacteria that are stained by a Gram stain and those that aren't. (This corresponds to important differences in their cell wall and membrane.)\n\nLooking at other features like morphology (what the cells look like under a microscope), colony morphology (what the blobs that grow when you put them on a Petri plate look like), metabolic features (what can it eat and what wastes does it produce; also, what vitamins it needs), and other lab tests, bacteria were further and further classified until the scientists were satisfied that they couldn't discern any differences within the last groups defined. Those groups were species.\n\nSo for a hypothetical example, bacteria in genus X might be Gram-positive (stained by a Gram stain) with spherical cells ~1.5 microns in diameter that form very flat greenish colonies and are catalase negative (do not make hydrogen peroxide bubble when mixed with it). Within genus X, species Y can use glucose, maltose, and lactose for food, while species Z can only use glucose.\n\nWith the advent of easy DNA sequencing, bacterial species are mostly defined by their genome sequence. But when the genome sequence databases were built, they made them by sequencing the genomes of bacteria classified by the old methods and assigning the sequence to the old species name.\n\nIn the end, \"species\" is not really a well-defined concept for single-celled organisms and it will always be a little fuzzy and inconsistent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a bit different.\n\nFirst the microbiologists discovered that bacteria can exchange genetic material. It is not the sexual mating of multicellular organisms. But nuclear material does get transferred from one single celled organism to another.\n\n\"Species\" is a concept invented by humans. Linne did this. He enthusiastically started classifying living organisms into species. When he and his buddies got down to microscopic creatures he did not stop. They named them all. If a single cell organism looked like others, they were called members of a species. \n\nIt worked. Microbiologists could classify those little creatures. Studying them under the microscope they could name them by shape, rod, sphere, (cocci), twisty ones, (spirochetes). This really did help a lot. A scientist could describe experiments. Another scientist could duplicate these experiments.\n\nThey described the organisms they worked with by naming their species. Mostly the experiments worked. The experiments could be duplicated. They studied how they stained and what they grew on. So the species descriptions began to include phrases like gram negative lactose intolerant. It became understood that their were various strains of these species. If a scientist described an important experiment they would keep cultures of the organism used. Someone wanting to replicate the experiment could request a test tube of the organism.\n\nThis happens now too. Many species of bacteria have had their complete DNA sequences recorded.\n\n It is still important to name single cell bacteria as species. Vaccines are developed which will immunize against infection by named species. Reference strains are kept in laboratories to use to develop the vaccines. If the vaccine works against the reference strain it will work against what are called \"wild\" strains.\n\nSome strains of bacteria grown in culture in a laboratory must be periodically used to infect a lab animal. The bacteria in their blood is cultured and used to keep the strain virulent. \n\nSo single celled bacteria which spread a particular disease will have the same physical appearance and DNA. Recognizing an organism recovered from the blood from an infected person or animal is an important Eureka moment. Malarial species are still named. They also exchange genetic material. Part of their life cycle is asexual reproduction. Part is not.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21780446",
"title": "Species",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In biology, a species () is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.:Speciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1196,
"text": "There are multiple ways to define the concept of \"species.\" The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The \"Biological Species Concept\" (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that \"species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.\" Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532379",
"title": "Type species",
"section": "Section::::Use in zoology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "A type species is both a concept and a practical system that is used in the classification and nomenclature (naming) of animals. The \"type species\" represents the reference species and thus \"definition\" for a particular genus name. Whenever a taxon containing multiple species must be divided into more than one genus, the type species automatically assigns the name of the original taxon to one of the resulting new taxa, the one that includes the type species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94320",
"title": "Virus classification",
"section": "Section::::Virus species definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Species form the basis for any biological classification system. The ICTV had adopted the principle that a virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitutes a replicating lineage and occupies a particular ecological niche. In July 2013, the ICTV definition of species changed to state: \"A species is a monophyletic group of viruses whose properties can be distinguished from those of other species by multiple criteria.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2528728",
"title": "Species complex",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as \"separately evolving metapopulation lineage\" but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied. Thus, many species defined traditionally, based only on morphological similarity, have been found to comprise several distinct species when other criteria, such as genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation were applied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19653842",
"title": "Organism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms such as a protists, bacteria, and archaea. All types of organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and some degree of response to stimuli. Humans are multicellular animals composed of many trillions of cells which differentiate during development into specialized tissues and organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167660",
"title": "Cell type",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. A multicellular organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells in humans, that differ both in appearance and function yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype, but different cell type due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation family that are commonly used for this purpose in immunology). Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33kfrt
|
Has anything in the bible been proven to be historically wrong?
|
[
{
"answer": "Where does one begin?\n\nTo give a very brief summary of the kind of thing you're asking about:\n\n* The world was not created in 4,000 BC.\n* There was no global flood in the 25th century BC.\n* The world did not speak one language and all live in the city of Babel (Babylon) in the 23rd century BC.\n* The biblical patriarchs (Abraham, Jacob, Moses, etc.) are folklore characters and probably did not exist, at least in the way they are depicted biblically.\n* The biblical exodus of two million Hebrews from Egypt did not occur.\n* The Israelites did not violently conquer the Canaanites. They *were* Canaanites.\n* The kingdom of David and Solomon (if it even existed) was not a mighty empire stretching \"from the Nile to the Euphrates\".\n* Jonah never converted Nineveh to Judaism.\n* The book of Daniel gets the kings of Babylon and Persia wrong. In particular, there was no such person as Darius the Mede.\n* Some of the historical details in the Gospels are implausible; there was no empire-wide census under Caesar Augustus as Luke claims, and the dead did not rise out of the graves and wander around Jerusalem as Matthew claims.\n\nThe real problem is treating the Bible as a history textbook, when it is more of a cultural artifact that includes poetry, mythology, folklore, fiction, allegory, satire, and so on. It is the modern reader who insists that holy books be literally true, not necessarily the ancient one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191164",
"title": "Matthew 5:17",
"section": "Section::::Jesus and Mosaic law.:Early Christians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Some scholars also believe that antinomianism, the belief that all was allowed because there were no laws, was believed by a faction in the early Christian community. In this verse the Gospel of Matthew directly counters these views by insisting the \"old laws\" such as the Ten Commandments are still valid. France notes that \"law and prophets\" was a common expression for the entirety of what Christians today call the Old Testament, though it more correctly refers to the Mosaic Law and Neviim, see Biblical Canon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166080",
"title": "Historicity of the Bible",
"section": "Section::::Schools of archaeological and historical thought.:Overview of academic views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "An important point to keep in mind is the documentary hypothesis, which, using the biblical evidence itself, claims to demonstrate that our current version is based on older written sources that are lost. Although it has been modified heavily over the years, most scholars accept some form of this hypothesis. There have also been and are a number of scholars who reject it, for example Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen and Old Testament scholar Walter Kaiser, Jr., as well as R. N. Whybray, Umberto Cassuto, O. T. Allis, Gleason Archer, John Sailhamer, and Bruce Waltke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301913",
"title": "Biblical inerrancy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Theological criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The view that biblical inerrancy can be justified by an appeal to prooftexts that refer to its divine inspiration has been criticized as circular reasoning, because these statements are only considered to be true if the Bible is already thought to be inerrant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11461",
"title": "Francis Crick",
"section": "Section::::Views on religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Crick asked in 1998 \"and if some of the Bible is manifestly wrong, why should any of the rest of it be accepted automatically? ... And what would be more important than to find our true place in the universe by removing one by one these unfortunate vestiges of earlier beliefs?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301913",
"title": "Biblical inerrancy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Biblical inerrancy is the belief that the Bible \"is without error or fault in all its teaching\"; or, at least, that \"Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact\". Some equate inerrancy with biblical infallibility; others do not. The belief is of particular significance within parts of evangelicalism, where it is formulated in the \"Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3321944",
"title": "Internal consistency of the Bible",
"section": "Section::::Biblical criticism and criticism of the Bible.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The study of inconsistencies in the Bible has a long history. In the 17th century, Spinoza considered the Bible to be, \"...a book rich in contradictions.\" In the 18th century, Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason compiled many of the Bible's self-contradictions. And in 1860, William Henry Burr produced a list of 144 self-contradictions in the Bible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1687846",
"title": "Robert Dick Wilson",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Throughout his career, he opposed the higher criticism, which held that the Bible was inaccurate on many points and not historically reliable. Professor Wilson wrote, \"I have come to the conviction that no man knows enough to attack the veracity of the Old Testament. Every time when anyone has been able to get together enough documentary 'proofs' to undertake an investigation, the biblical facts in the original text have victoriously met the test\" (quoted in R. Pache, \"The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ehvmp
|
What causes the liquid in a full spray bottle to siphon out entirely?
|
[
{
"answer": "Based on what information you provided, I would say that the cause would have been a temperature fluctuation paired with a faulty nozzle. As gases heat up, they expand, and when they cool, they contract. Even minor temperature changes (5°-10°C) are enough to make a noticeable difference in volume. So as the air inside the bottle rated up, it would have pushed all of the liquid out of the bottle through a potentially faulty nozzle head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18918232",
"title": "Atomizer nozzle",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The difference between the reduced pressure at the top of the tube and the higher atmospheric pressure inside the bottle pushes the liquid from the reservoir up the tube and into the moving stream of air where it is broken up into small droplets (not atoms as the name suggests) and carried away with the stream of air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316824",
"title": "Nozzle",
"section": "Section::::Jet.:Spray.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- Swirl nozzles inject the liquid in tangentially, and it spirals into the center and then exits through the central hole. Due to the vortexing this causes the spray to come out in a cone shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11591432",
"title": "Acoustic droplet ejection",
"section": "Section::::Ejection mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "ADE shoots a droplet from a source well upward to an inverted receiving plate positioned above the source plate. Liquids ejected from the source are captured by dry plates due to surface tension. For larger volumes, multiple droplets can be rapidly ejected from the source (typically 100 to 500 droplets/sec) to the destination with the coefficient of variation typically 4% over a volume range of two orders of magnitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5941851",
"title": "Spray bottle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern spray bottles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Unlike the rubber bulb dispenser which primarily moved air with a small amount of fluid, modern spray bottles use a positive displacement pump that acts directly on the fluid. The pump draws liquid up a siphon tube from the bottom of the bottle and forces it through a nozzle. Depending on the sprayer, the nozzle may or may not be adjustable, so as to select between squirting a stream, aerosolizing a mist, or dispensing a spray. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068557",
"title": "Shotgunning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "A related technique, strawpedoing, is used for containers not easily punctured such as a glass bottles. A straw is inserted into the bottle and bent around the hole. When the bottle is tilted, the beverage quickly drains and is quickly consumed. The technique increases beverage delivery since the extra hole allows the liquid to leave while air enters simultaneously through the main hole. The bottleneck, created where air entering the container must travel through the same orifice as liquid leaving, is removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8874570",
"title": "Spray nozzle",
"section": "Section::::Two-fluid nozzles.:External-mix two-fluid nozzles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "External mix nozzles contacts fluids outside the nozzle as shown in the schematic diagram. This type of spray nozzle may require more atomizing air and a higher atomizing air pressure drop because the mixing and atomization of liquid takes place outside the nozzle. The liquid pressure drop is lower for this type of nozzle, sometimes drawing liquid into the nozzle due to the suction caused by the atomizing air nozzles (siphon nozzle). If the liquid to be atomized contains solids an external mix atomizer may be preferred. This spray may be shaped to produce different spray patterns. A flat pattern is formed with additional air ports to flatten or reshape the circular spray cross-section discharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36550176",
"title": "Vanishing spray",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The can contains water (~80%), butane gas (~17%), surfactant (~1%), and other ingredients including vegetable oil (~2%). The liquefied butane expands when the product is ejected from the can. The butane evaporates instantly, forming bubbles of gas in the water/surfactant mixture. The surfactant(s) cause the bubbles to have stability and hence a gas-in-liquid colloid (foam) forms. The bubbles eventually collapse and the foam disappears, leaving only water and surfactant residue on the ground. More technical details can be found in the US patent applications for two of the commercial products available: Spuni (2001) and 9-15 (2010).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zgh5l
|
why do our bowels release when we are scared?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bowel contents are not required in an emergency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your body needs to lose weight and save energy. \nIn instances of literally pants shitting, bladder empting terror, your body is likely going to need to move as quickly and agilely as possible. \nEmptying your bowls can immediately drop your weight by about 1%. \nIt also takes effort to hold it in. So all the extra oxygen/glucose the muscles of you sphincter is using get channeled elsewhere. And all the neurons controlling said sphincter stop hogging the blood that the rest of your brain needs to prevent you from being messily devoured.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1703383",
"title": "Waking the Tiger",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "When prey are able to avoid predators, however, prey will sprint away and \"literally shake off the residual effects of the immobility response\" while \"their bodies convulse with paroxysmal spasms\". There is no evidence for Levine's conclusions about the prey's responses or Nancy's response to their session. Observing Nancy, Levine concluded that her convulsions were an \"instinctive and long-overdue response\" to her being strapped down and scared when a child. He concluded without evidence that Nancy's panic attacks were caused by the \"frozen residue of 'energy'\" that remained stuck in her, not from the traumatic experience. Levine argues that humans cannot effortlessly release energy from a traumatic memory because human's triune brain structure which, shaped by feelings and acumen, frequently supersedes instinct. He said that Nancy stopped experiencing panic attacks after she had additional sessions with him that involved more convulsions\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324424",
"title": "Bowel obstruction",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Bowel obstruction may be complicated by dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities due to vomiting; respiratory compromise from pressure on the diaphragm by a distended abdomen, or aspiration of vomitus; bowel ischemia or perforation from prolonged distension or pressure from a foreign body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32127388",
"title": "FODMAP",
"section": "Section::::Absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "FODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops symptoms when the underlying bowel response is exaggerated or abnormal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13008446",
"title": "Bowel ischemia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Bowel ischemia produces abdominal pain, which can be extreme. Underlying causes include embolism, blood clots in arteries (called \"thrombosis\"), and insufficient blood flow, either due to damage to arteries, compression caused by other situations such as bowel obstruction, or arteries that are unable to supply the extra blood flow needed while digesting food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7513911",
"title": "Fecal vomiting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Fecal vomiting occurs when the bowel is obstructed for some reason, and intestinal contents cannot move normally. Peristaltic waves occur in an attempt to decompress the intestine, and the strong contractions of the intestinal muscles push the contents backwards through the pyloric sphincter into the stomach, where they are then vomited. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221221",
"title": "Stomach rumble",
"section": "Section::::Diseases and conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- Irritable bowel syndrome, a disorder in the lower intestinal tract, is usually accompanied by other symptoms, such as abdominal pain and diarrhea. It is more common in women and it usually occurs during early adulthood. There are many risk factors such as emotional stress and a low-fiber diet. These can all cause stomach disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11319000",
"title": "Prandial",
"section": "Section::::Usages of postprandial.:Medical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "BULLET::::- Postprandial abdominal distension usually refers to bloating of the abdomen following a meal, especially a large one. It is generally harmless, but tends to be uncomfortable. Instances of its sudden onset or prolonged duration can, however, be symptoms of certain severe adverse gastro-intestinal conditions such as irritable bowel disease.Postprandial abdominal distension is also a documented side effect of some medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17syyj
|
the difference between libertarian economics and anarcho-capitalism.
|
[
{
"answer": "Libertarians believe that a government should exist that supports property rights (e.g law enforcement (police), courts, etc) whereas, Anarcho-Capitalists believe that there does not have to be a government to protect property rights as everything associated with them (law enforcement, courts, etc) would exist without government funding, people would pay for their own security.\n\nSo just as Libertarians believe that government doesn't have to fund some things as they would exist privately (e.g, healthcare, education, etc) Anarcho-Capitalists go one step further and believe the same of law enforcement, thus there is no need for a government whatsoever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Libertarians think the government is necessary. They want a much, much *smaller* government than the one we currently have, sure. But at the end of the day, libertarians think that we need a government to keep people from breaking the law.\n\nAnarcho-capitalists don't think this. They think that government isn't necessary to enforce the law; people could just shop around for dispute resolution services, and subscribe to the best one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Libertarianism is an umbrella term, so you will not find much agreement on what libertarian economics is. Just [look at the wikipedia page](_URL_0_). It is a very wide grouping of ideologies, with economic subdivisions ranging from the extremes of capitalism to socialism.\n\nAnarcho-capitalism falls under the libertarian umbrella. It is the belief that private markets and voluntary interactions can provide all the goods and services a society needs to survive, with no need for a formal government.\n\nIn the US, the most mainstream libertarian ideology would be that of the libertarian party, which at its most basic is laissez-faire. The role of the government is to provide only public goods (those goods which cannot be efficiently provided by private action), typically providing courts, law enforcement, and national defense, sometimes including roads. Government should be minimally intrusive; private action provides all the proper incentives for an efficient economy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Libertarians believe that the playground needs yard-duty teachers to enforce basic school rules.\n\nAnarcho-capitalists believe that the people on the playground are not children and can make their own decisions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may want to take a look at the Austrian School of Economics, whose ideas are very closely related to libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism: /r/austrian_economics .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228884",
"title": "Anarchist economics",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical economic systems.:Post-classical theoretical economic systems.:Left-wing market anarchism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Left-wing market anarchism identifies with left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism) which names several related but distinct approaches to politics, society, culture and political and social theory, which stress both individual freedom and social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, they believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights; and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold and trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9996578",
"title": "Debates within libertarianism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1302,
"text": "There are many philosophical disagreements among proponents of libertarianism concerning questions of ideology, values and strategy. For instance, left-libertarians were the ones to coin the term as a synonym for anarchism. Outside of the United States, libertarianism is still synonymous with anarchism and socialism (social anarchism and libertarian socialism). Right-libertarianism, known in the United States simply as libertarianism, was coined as a synonym for classical liberalism in May 1955 by writer Dean Russell due liberals embracing progressivism and economic interventionism in the early 20th century after the Great Depression and with the New Deal. As a result, the term was co-opted in the mid-20th century to instead advocate \"laissez-faire\" capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources. The main debate between the two forms of libertarianism therefore concerns the legitimacy of private property and its meaning. Most other debates remains within right-libertarianism as abortion, capital punishment, foreign affairs, LGBT rights and immigration are non-issues for left-libertarians whereas within right-libertarianism they are debated due to their divide between cultural liberal and cultural conservative right-libertarians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38860786",
"title": "Types of socialism",
"section": "Section::::Socialist ideologies.:Libertarian socialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "Libertarian socialism (sometimes called social anarchism, left-libertarianism and socialist libertarianism) is a group of political philosophies within the socialist movement that reject the view of socialism as state ownership or command of the means of production within a more general criticism of the state form itself as well as of wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead it emphasizes workers' self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political government asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite. Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions, and workers' councils. All of this is generally done within a general call for libertarian and voluntary human relationships through the identification, criticism, and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18048",
"title": "Libertarian socialism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Anti-capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist and can be distinguished from right-libertarians. Whereas capitalist and right-libertarian principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. A key difference between libertarian socialism and right-libertarian philosophies such as neoliberalism is that advocates of the former generally believe that one's degree of freedom is affected by one's economic and social status whereas advocates of the latter focus on freedom of choice within a capitalist framework, specifically under capitalist private property. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228884",
"title": "Anarchist economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. With the exception of anarcho-capitalists who accept private ownership of the means of production, anarchists are anti-capitalists. They argue that its characteristic institutions promote and reproduce various forms of economic activity which they consider oppressive, including private property, hierarchical production relations, collecting rents from private property, taking a profit in exchanges and collecting interest on loans. They generally endorse possession-based ownership rather than propertarianism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499",
"title": "Left-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Left-libertarians, libertarian socialists and anarchists believe in a decentralized economy run by trade unions, workers' councils, cooperatives, municipalities and communes and oppose both state and private control of the economy, preferring social ownership and local control, in which a nation of decentralized regions is united in a confederation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39398243",
"title": "Left-wing market anarchism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Left-wing market anarchism, also known as free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism, is a form of individualist anarchism and libertarian socialism associated with contemporary scholars such as Kevin Carson, Roderick T. Long, Charles W. Johnson, Brad Spangler, Sheldon Richman, Chris Matthew Sciabarra and Gary Chartier, who stress the value of radically free markets, termed freed markets to distinguish them from the common conception which these libertarians believe to be riddled with statist and capitalist privileges. Referred to as left-wing market anarchists or market-oriented left-libertarians, proponents of this approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labor positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding cultural issues such as gender, sexuality and race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
205c0j
|
when a multi-billion dollar transaction occurs between two companies, how are the funds transferred/managed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yup. Just a bank transfer. They will - in this particular case and many others - be broken up into smaller transactions, but not exactly because of the volume of money, but because when you're doing that size of a deal you're going to have complex contracts with lots of smaller deliverable and milestones and payments associated with each. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically by Wire Transfer. \n\nWire Transfers, unlike checks or regular electronic bank payments (known as ACH transactions in the US), are irrevocable once final -- even in the case of fraud. (That is, if someone authorized to make a wire transfer makes one, even if defrauded or illegally embezzling funds, the accountholder are still liable for the payment. If someone at the bank who isn't authorized to make a wire transfer illegally makes one, the accountholder is not liable.)\n\nThe idea is that businesses need finality when they receive payments, they can't just have money disappear from their accounts like if a \"chargeback\" or \"stop payment\" is done. If a wire transfer is made and you need your money back, you have to sue the recipient -- you can't just ask the bank to reverse the charge. For transactions between businesses, it's assumed that the need for finality outweighs the fraud protections that checks and nonwire electronic payments provide. (In the US, wire transfers are rarely used by consumers. Also why scamsters try to get you to wire money to them - people wrongly assume that wire transfers have the same protections as consumer payment systems.) Source: The Uniform Commercial Code Article 4A.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See venture Capitalism _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh man, its so anticlimactic. Basically, the business folks and the lawyers from both sides get on conference call with all the banks involved. Both sides say they're ok to release the wire, then the buyer's bank wires the money through the Fed wire system to the seller's bank and the bankers confirm on the call that the money has been sent/received. Usually a day or two ahead of time, an email will be sent, cc-ing all parties, with the wire information so its all agreed to ahead of time. Then its done. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54355231",
"title": "SQL syntax",
"section": "Section::::Queries.:Transaction controls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The following example shows a classic transfer of funds transaction, where money is removed from one account and added to another. If either the removal or the addition fails, the entire transaction is rolled back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20769",
"title": "Mergers and acquisitions",
"section": "Section::::Financing.:Cash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Payment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder's shareholders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "825775",
"title": "Large Value Transfer System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "The Large Value Transfer System, or LVTS, is a system in Canada for electronic wire transfers of large sums of money; it permits the participating institutions and their clients to send large sums of money securely in real-time with complete certainty that the payment will settle. LVTS processes the majority of payments made every day in Canada, and is designed to work with funds in Canadian dollars (CAD). On a normal business day, it clears and settles approximately CAD $153.5 billion. Frequently, when settling the payments made through LVTS between each other, some banks find themselves with extra funds, while others find themselves short; to come up with money, the banks can borrow it from each other for a day, or \"overnight\". The rate at which they borrow is called overnight rate, targets for which are set by the Bank of Canada as part of its monetary policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35094579",
"title": "International Money Transfers System Leader",
"section": "Section::::Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Sending and receiving money transfers is the core of company’s services. The transfer is not strictly refer to a concrete bank-recipient, which means the transfer can be given out at any location in the receipt country. In order to forward money a Sender-Client presents funds at any Leader System location for transfer service, receives the Money Transfer Control Number (MTCN) from an operator and transmits it to the recipient. The natural person, a recipient, can come to any location, presenting the MTSN and a photo ID. The data proves correct, the operator gives out the money. The transfer is delivered instantly, taking 2–3 minutes. Besides paying out cash, a sum can be transferred to the Client’s bank account of the recipient. The Sender can monitor the transfer status online at the System website. Besides, a Client can forward the transfer to a recipient online through leomoney.ru, the company’s own web portal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27613051",
"title": "National Payments Corporation of India",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Unified Payments Interface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Unified Payments Interface is a real-time interbank payment system for sending or receiving money. It is integrated with more than 120 banks in India. Consumers can participate in P2P transfer as long as they both have an account in one of the registered banks. To initiate fund transfer, users have to use any UPI supporting Android or iOS app, link their bank accounts and generate BHIM UPI PIN. Funds can be transferred via the following methods: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3786967",
"title": "Child Trust Fund",
"section": "Section::::Subscriptions.:Investment options.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "CTF funds can be transferred between providers. Rules for transfers are similar to those for Individual Savings Accounts – customers should inform the new provider they wish to use and they will undertake the move. No penalty or fee can be imposed for transferring the account, except for the cost of selling shares (such as dealing charges) in equity accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14193830",
"title": "Clandestine human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Support services.:Finance.:Informal value transfer systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Another means of transferring assets is through commercial shipment of conventional goods, but with an artificially low invoice price, so the receiver can sell them and recover disbursed funds through profit on sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bbmz0
|
why won't youtube fix the issue of saving the video quality even though it's the number one complaint they get?
|
[
{
"answer": "You mean when you start a new video? It's becomes HD every time I enter full screen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube Help Forum Top Contributor here. I don't know what you mean by \"saving the video quality\", but whatever it is -- no, it's not the \"number one complaint\".\n\nIf you're uploading gaming videos, then I suspect that you're complaining about compression artefacts. They practically unavoidable. That is, they *could* be avoided, but only by making it impossible for most people to actually watch the video.\n\nIn my experience, gamers are *extremely* sensitive about the slightest loss of quality, even if most other people would never notice anything \"wrong\".\n\nBut whenever you upload a video, YouTube has to transcode it into a number of different resolutions and formats for playback on a wide variety of devices. And it has to keep the file sizes as small as possible, partly to save bandwidth at YouTube's end (the cost of bandwidth alone is *insane* -- YouTube uses more bandwidth than the entire internet did ten years ago), and partly because most people on Planet Earth still don't have access to decent high-bandwidth internet (I get less than 6 Mbit/s). This *always* involves sacrificing a little quality, although it tries to make it unnoticeable.\n\nUnfortunately for gamers, the typical gameplay video is extremely difficult to compress efficiently. Things like lots of fine, sharp detail, fast action sequences and rapid cuts are the mortal enemies of efficient video compression, so those videos suffer the most, especially when viewed at lower resolutions.\n\nYouTube is currently switching over to the WebM video codec, a process which is pretty much complete, although many browsers still don't support VP9. But this should compress a bit more easily, so it should show at least some improvement in video quality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58440381",
"title": "Content ID (algorithm)",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute. Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the \"Video Manager\". YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 to allow some users to upload videos of unlimited length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53918675",
"title": "YouTube Kids",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Filtering issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In November 2017, YouTube announced that it would take further steps to review and filter videos reported by users as containing inappropriate content, including more stringent use of its filtering and age-restriction system to prevent such videos from appearing on the app and YouTube proper. In an update to the YouTube Kids app that month, a more prominent disclaimer was added to its first-time setup process, stating that the service can not fully guarantee the appropriateness of videos that were not manually curated, and informing parents of means to report and block videos that they do not find suitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31460",
"title": "Tom Cruise",
"section": "Section::::Scientology.:YouTube video removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "After YouTube investigated this claim, they found that the video did not breach copyright law, as it is covered by the fair use clause. It was subsequently reinstated on the site, and as of April 2019, the video has achieved over 13 million views. YouTube has declined to remove it again, due to the popularity of the video, and subsequent changes to copyright policy of the Web site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520208",
"title": "Google Video",
"section": "Section::::Video distribution methods.:Third-party download services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Google offered users the means to save only some of the videos on the site, mostly for copyright reasons. Their documentation went so far as to claim that only these videos could be downloaded. However, since viewing a video requires downloading it to the computer, their software merely made saving videos less than trivially difficult, not impossible: a number of solutions, including external software and bookmarklets, have been developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48627029",
"title": "YouTube copyright issues",
"section": "Section::::2015–present fair use controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Outcries arose from the YouTube community in late 2015 and onward, regarding the unfair removal of YouTube videos and even entire channels based upon allegations of copyright infringement, many of which were invalid as no fair use laws were broken. Much of the controversy erupted when a review of the film \"Cool Cat Saves the Kids\" by the channel I Hate Everything was removed from YouTube on November 9, 2015. Videos by large channels such as Channel Awesome and Markiplier were being taken down and deleted from the website; complaints sparked across YouTube, as well as on the social media site Twitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5339378",
"title": "Censorship by Google",
"section": "Section::::YouTube.:Advertiser-friendly content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "In August 2016, YouTube introduced a new system to notify users of violations of the \"advertiser-friendly content\" rules, and allow them to appeal. Following its introduction, many prominent YouTube users began to accuse the site of engaging in \"de facto\" censorship, arbitrarily disabling monetization on videos discussing various topics such as skin care, politics, and LGBT history. Philip DeFranco argued that not being able to earn money from a video was \"censorship by a different name\", while Vlogbrothers similarly pointed out that YouTube had flagged both \"Zaatari: thoughts from a refugee camp\" and \"Vegetables that look like penises\" (although the flagging on the former was eventually overturned). The hashtag \"#YouTubeIsOverParty\" was prominently used on Twitter as a means of discussing the controversy. A YouTube spokesperson stated that \"while our policy of demonetizing videos due to advertiser-friendly concerns hasn't changed, we've recently improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to our creators.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43364188",
"title": "Webdriver Torso",
"section": "Section::::Speculation.:YouTube's reply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "\"We're never gonna give you uploading that's slow or loses video quality, and we're never gonna let you down by playing YouTube in poor video quality. That's why we're always running tests like Webdriver Torso.\" This is a reference to Rick Astley's song \"Never Gonna Give You Up\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54zbhz
|
i know the 2 major parties don't want 3rd party candidates in presidential debates unless polling is at 15%, but why does the media let the parties control who is invited to these debates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the media knows that the candidates can always take their debate to another network. Since both sides tend to agree to this idea, it's even easier to get the media to agree.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The media doesn't.\n\nThere's a non-profit organization who coordinates them, called the Commission on Presidential Debates.\n\nTheir rules for who appears on stage are based on the rules held by the League of Women Voters, which set a standard of \"must appear in 15% of reputable polls\" way back when.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"The media\" is not invovled.\n\nThe debates are held by the Commission on Presidential debates. Which is run bipartisanly by republicans and democrats.\n\nCommission sets the rules and the parties agree. The media just covers the debate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThis is a petition to allow all qualified candidates to participate in the debates if you're interested! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cynical answer: They're all in it together, maaaaaan. They want to control your MIND.\n\nMore practically- despite literal decades of whining, everyone knows Gary Johnson wants to sell guns made of pot to teenagers for bitcoin and that Jill Stein is the sort of person that makes Bernie go on old man rants about the \"fuckin goddamned hippies\". We get it. Every four years, there's the mid-race think pieces, and interview, and \"THERES OTHERS OPTIONS GUYS\" as bored reporters think they're the first ones to discover this. \n\nThere's no public interest, theres no point, and Gary Johnson keeps doing unsettlingly weird shit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "319501",
"title": "Third party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to third party success.:Winner-take-all vs. proportional representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "In the United States, if an interest group is at odds with its traditional party, it has the option of running sympathetic candidates in primaries. If the candidate fails in the primary and believes he or she has a chance to win in the general election he or she may form or join a third party. Because of the difficulties third parties face in gaining any representation, third parties tend to exist to promote a specific issue or personality. Often, the intent is to force national public attention on such an issue. Then, one or both of the major parties may rise to commit for or against the matter at hand, or at least weigh in. H. Ross Perot eventually founded a third party, the Reform Party, to support his 1996 campaign. In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt made a spirited run for the presidency on the Progressive Party ticket, but he never made any efforts to help Progressive congressional candidates in 1914, and in the 1916 election, he supported the Republicans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222069",
"title": "United States presidential debates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "During presidential elections in the United States, it has become customary for the main candidates (almost always the candidates of the two largest parties, currently the Democratic Party and the Republican Party) to engage in a debate. The topics discussed in the debate are often the most controversial issues of the time, and arguably elections have been nearly decided by these debates (e.g., Nixon vs. Kennedy). Candidate debates are not constitutionally mandated, but it is now considered a \"de facto\" election process. The debates are targeted mainly at undecided voters; those who tend not to be partial to any political ideology or party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52829367",
"title": "Republican Party presidential debates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Since 1980, the Republican Party of the United States has held debates between candidates for the Republican nomination in presidential elections during the primary election season. Unlike debates between party-nominated candidates, which have been organized by the bi-partisan Commission on Presidential Debates since 1988, debates between candidates for party nomination are organized by mass media outlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15723651",
"title": "Vote trading",
"section": "Section::::Among citizens.:United States presidential elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "BULLET::::- The third-party candidate improves his/her showing as a percentage of the nationwide popular vote, increasing his/her party's visibility and prompting the voting public (including major-party sympathizers with the third party's platform) to take the third party more seriously. Most notably, organizations hosting presidential-candidate debates may require that a party clear a certain popular-vote threshold in one election in order for its candidate in the next election to qualify for the debates held in advance of that election, and vote trading helps the candidate reach that threshold. Because the third-party supporter in the swing state would likely vote for the more favored or less disfavored major-party candidate in the absence of a vote trade, the third-party candidate has little to lose from the vote trade's guarantee that the swing-state vote will be cast for the major party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60567",
"title": "President of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1509,
"text": "The result of the election is often determined by party politics. In most cases, the candidate of the majority party or coalition in the Bundestag is considered to be the likely winner. However, as the members of the Federal Convention vote by secret ballot and are free to vote against their party's candidate, some presidential elections were considered open or too close to call beforehand because of relatively balanced majority positions or because the governing coalition's parties could not agree on one candidate and endorsed different people, as they did in 1969, when Gustav Heinemann won by only 6 votes on the third ballot. In other cases, elections have turned out to be much closer than expected. For example, in 2010, Wulff was expected to win on the first ballot, as the parties supporting him (CDU, CSU and FDP) had a stable absolute majority in the Federal Convention. Nevertheless, he failed to win a majority in the first and second ballots, while his main opponent Joachim Gauck had an unexpectedly strong showing. In the end Wulff obtained a majority in the third ballot. If the opposition has turned in a strong showing in state elections, it can potentially have enough support to defeat the chancellor's party's candidate; this happened in the elections in 1979 and 2004. For this reason, presidential elections can indicate the result of an upcoming general election. According to a long-standing adage in German politics, \"if you can create a President, you can form a government.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47461382",
"title": "Democratic Party presidential debates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Since 1983, the Democratic Party of the United States holds a few debates between candidates for the Democratic nomination in presidential elections during the primary election season. Unlike debates between party-nominated candidates, which have been organized by the bi-partisan Commission on Presidential Debates since 1988, debates between candidates for party nomination are organized by mass media outlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31581355",
"title": "2011 Democratic Progressive Party presidential primary",
"section": "Section::::Opinion polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The form of polling caused some controversy. If someone say they prefer all three DPP candidates over Ma, it would cancel out have no effect on the outcome. \"The goal of the primaries is to choose one from three. If voters support all three candidates, it defeats the purpose of the poll\", Frank Hsieh Chang-ting was quoted as saying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
563qls
|
why the english speaking nations are more successful than any other linguistic nationalities in history?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not *English* that does it. It's luck, mostly.\n\nEurope had the industrial revolution first. That gave it an unprecedented ability to conquer other lands, which many countries did. The Brittish Empire just so happened to be in the right place at the right time to spread its influence far and wide.\n\nThen came the United States. It had an ungodly amount of resources and land, which supported a *massive* population. It also was isolated enough that it could grow in strength before and during the world wars. All that combined to make it an economic superpower. The USA is in fact so big that it can swing the entire world economy to its whims. At the time when the US was rising to power, neither China nor India could really compete economically, and after WWII, the USSR dissolved, losing its power.\n\nGiven that English existed both in the USA and in practically every former Brittish colony, English quickly became the language of trade. If you spoke English, you could talk with all the big players, which is obviously a good thing if you want to make money.\n\nIf some other country, say Portugal, Spain, or France had settled the land that would become the USA, it might have been Portuguese, Spanish, or French that became the language of trade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They werent in the 18th century, US has only been the leader since ~WWI but was tied with a lot of other groups like Japan the UK and France until WWII, the UK lost most of their power after WWI ~1920 as their economy got surpassed, new independence movements and their military shrinks. France was the world power until Napoleon ~1812 after Napoleon it went to the UK, before that Spain until their Armada's defeat in 1588 after that it was France. Before Spain it was the Ottoman empire, Mongol Empire, Byzantine empire, Abbasid Caliphate etc. etc. \n\nI left some out and the dates go backwards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about the Romans? Ancient Egypt? The Tang Dynasty?\n\nEnglish domination is relatively recent on a historical scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31030456",
"title": "List of lingua francas",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "English is the current lingua franca of international business, education, science, technology, diplomacy, entertainment, radio, seafaring, and aviation. After World War II, it has gradually replaced French as the lingua franca of international diplomacy. The rise of English in diplomacy began in 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as in French, the dominant language used in diplomacy until that time. The widespread use of English was further advanced by the prominent international role played by English-speaking nations (the United States and the Commonwealth of Nations) in the aftermath of World War II, particularly in the establishment and organization of the United Nations. English is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (the other five being French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish). The seating and roll-call order in sessions of the United Nations and its subsidiary and affiliated organizations is determined by alphabetical order of the English names of the countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60622381",
"title": "Linguistic capital",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic capital and lingua franca.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "413744",
"title": "Hinglish",
"section": "Section::::History and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Meanwhile, English was on its way to becoming the first global lingua franca. By the end of the twentieth century, it had special status in seventy countries, including India. Worldwide, English began to represent modernization and internationalization, with more and more jobs requiring basic fluency in it. In India especially, the language came to acquire a social prestige, 'a class apart of education', which prompted native Indian or South Asian speakers to turn bilingual, speaking their mother tongue at home or in a local context, but English in academic or work environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569916",
"title": "English language",
"section": "Section::::Geographical distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The \"inner circle\" countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068783",
"title": "Monolingualism",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for persistence.:Predominance of English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1357,
"text": "The predominance of English in many sectors, such as world trade, technology and science, has contributed to English-speaking societies being persistently monolingual, as there is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking countries and areas works against this to some extent. Although the country is economically interdependent with trade partners such as China, American corporations and heavily-Americanized subsidiaries of foreign corporations both mediate and control most citizens' contact with most other nations' products. There is a popular joke: \"What do you call a person who speaks three languages? A trilingual. What do you call a person who speaks two languages? A bilingual. What do you call a person who speaks one language? An American.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32374",
"title": "Venezuela",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "English is the most widely used foreign language in demand and is spoken by many professionals, academics, and members of the upper and middle classes as a result of the oil exploration done by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, and the native English-speaking influence is evident in folk and calypso songs from the region. English was brought to Venezuela by Trinidadian and other British West Indies immigrants. A variety of Antillean Creole is spoken by a small community in El Callao and Paria. Italian language teaching is guaranteed by the presence of a consistent number of private Venezuelan schools and institutions, where Italian language courses and Italian literature are active. Other languages spoken by large communities in the country are Basque and Galician, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664832",
"title": "Eurolinguistics",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic minorities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Despite the importance of English as an international lingua franca also in Europe, Europe can be associated with its linguistic diversity, which also includes the special protection of minority languages, e.g. by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages founded in the 1990s. This underlines that the popular view of “one nation = one language” (cf. Wirrer 2003) is mostly false.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abvgl1
|
when a company commits a gross violation that affects people (physically/mentally/financially, etc.), why is the company forced to pay the government, instead of the people they hurt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually they'll have to pay both. Fines levyed by the state is not meant to replace money companies have to pay for the damages they cause a person.\n\nLet's say a company causes you to lose a leg because of negligence, they might be fined by the state if they broke the law, but *in addition to that* they have to pay you money for the damages they caused you specifically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The company pays the government for violating federal codes. They are punitive, not compensatory. Compensatory actions are done through the court system via individual or class action lawsuit, though the ruling that determines the fine will typically help the case for compensation for those that have been affected. They are separate actions. \n\nSame as getting into an accident while drunk. The state fines you for your crime along with any other penalties, the lawsuit by the person you hit will compensate them for their injuries, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49261",
"title": "Corporate personhood",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Legislation in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same constitutional rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1287559",
"title": "Privacy laws of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Modern tort law.:False light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Moreover, the standards of behavior governing employees of government institutions subject to a state or national Administrative Procedure Act (as in the United States) are often more demanding than those governing employees of private or business institutions like newspapers. A person acting in an official capacity for a government agency may find that their statements are not indemnified by the principle of agency, leaving them personally liable for any damages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855134",
"title": "Corporate manslaughter",
"section": "Section::::Support and criticism of the concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Further, a corporation may simply be a \"veil\" for an individual's activities, easily liquidated and with no reputation to protect. Again it is argued, company fines ultimately punish shareholders, customers and employees in general, rather than culpable managers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21167332",
"title": "Staff management",
"section": "Section::::Responsibilities and liabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The organization is responsible for every employee in a company if something goes wrong. Employees can receive compensation for any serious incidents that may have occurred such as health and safety violations or injuries operating machinery, for example. Another example is the case of a supplier to British retailer Primark. The supplier's factory was located in the Rana Plaza building in Bangladesh. The building collapsed on April 24, 2013 killing 1100 people. The company was forced to pay the victims £12 million in damages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29354893",
"title": "Uninsured employer",
"section": "Section::::State-based uninsured employers fund.:New York Uninsured Employers Fund.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "BULLET::::- If an employee is hurt when there is no workers' compensation policy in effect and that employee chooses to file a workers' compensation claim, the employer will be liable for the actual cost of medical care and compensation payments, in addition to penalties. If a corporation has failed to secure workers' compensation coverage, the president, secretary and treasurer of a corporation are personally liable for the medical care, compensation payments, penalties and possible criminal prosecution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18681682",
"title": "Grama (halacha)",
"section": "Section::::In civil law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "There is a rule that \"Grama benizakin patur\". If somebody caused financial harm to somebody else via an action that was not guaranteed to harm them, the person cannot be forced by a court to pay, although he might be morally obligated to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40229978",
"title": "Anti-corporate activism",
"section": "Section::::Counter-arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The defenders of corporations such as Ron Arnold highlight that governments do legislate in ways that restrict the actions of corporations (see Sarbanes-Oxley Act) and that lawbreaking companies and executives are routinely caught and punished, usually in the form of monetary fines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hsgoq
|
what's the difference between killer bees and honey bees?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"killer bee,\" AKA the Africanized honey bee, is a hybrid bee created from Western and European bee strains.\n\nFor whatever reason (and I'm not a geneticist nor a beekeeper, so I don't know how this happened), the Africanized bee picked up a few nasty traits. They are excessively defensive of their hive, and will swarm much more aggressively in defense of it. They are also known to pursue more aggressively. Where normal honeybees will swarm a threat and pursue for a limited distance, returning to the hive once they feel the invader is no longer a threat, killer bees are known to swarm greater numbers of bees and will chase for a much greater distance. They're thus much more likely to inflict lethal numbers of stings than basic honeybees.\n\nSeveral swarms of these bees escaped captivity. The problem then became the fact that they compete more aggressively than European honeybees and tend to push them out when they compete for territory, meaning that the \"killer bee\" is rapidly spreading as wild swarms supplant the native wild honeybees.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34946831",
"title": "List of genetic hybrids",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- Killer bees were created in an attempt to breed tamer and more manageable bees. This was done by crossing a European honey bee and an African bee, but instead the offspring became more aggressive and highly defensive bees that had escaped into the wild.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161804",
"title": "Africanized bee",
"section": "Section::::Impact on human population.:Misconceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "\"Killer bee\" is a term frequently used in media such as movies that portray aggressive behavior or actively seeking to attack humans. \"Africanized honeybee\" is considered a more descriptive term in part because their behavior is increased defensiveness compared to European honeybees that can exhibit similar defensive behaviors when disturbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41244",
"title": "Hybrid (biology)",
"section": "Section::::In different taxa.:In animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Among insects, so-called killer bees were accidentally created during an attempt to breed a strain of bees that would both produce more honey and be better adapted to tropical conditions. It was done by crossing a European honey bee and an African bee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23507874",
"title": "List of Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide characters",
"section": "Section::::Recurring characters.:Killer Bees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Killer Bees – A group of three spelling bee addicted bullies, known as King Bee (Carlos Pena), Queen Bee (Krystal Acosta), and Stinger (Sean Michael Afable). They always dress in yellow and black, and tend to quickly spell-out insults at people. Their only appearances were \"Spelling Bees\" and \"Best Friends\". They always seemed to have an aversion towards Cookie because he was also good at spelling. Later on in the series, they ask Cookie to be part of their group, but this was only so they could have their math grades changed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11596736",
"title": "Schwarziana quadripunctata",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Reproduction and reproductive suppression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Unlike typical honeybees, which practice multiple mating, stingless bees have been suspected of single mating between drones and queen bees. This, along with the consequential pairing of the high relatedness rates within colonies of \"S. quadripunctata\", serves to explain the high degree of kin selection among stingless bees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18214141",
"title": "Western honey bee",
"section": "Section::::Social caste.:Drones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "Drones are the colony's male bees. Since they do not have ovipositors, they do not have stingers. Drone honey bees do not forage for nectar or pollen. The primary purpose of a drone is to fertilize a new queen. Many drones will mate with a given queen in flight; each will die immediately after mating, since the process of insemination requires a lethally convulsive effort. Drone honey bees are haploid (single, unpaired chromosomes) in their genetic structure, and are descended only from their mother (the queen). In temperate regions drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter, dying of cold and starvation since they cannot forage, produce honey or care for themselves. There has been research into the role western honey bee drones play in thermoregulation within the hive. Given their larger size (1.5 times that of worker bees), drones may play a significant role. Drones are typically located near the center of hive clusters for unclear reasons. It is postulated that it is to maintain sperm viability, which may be compromised at cooler temperatures. Another possible explanation is that a more central location allows drones to contribute to warmth, since at temperatures below their ability to contribute declines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1477867",
"title": "Oriental hornet",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with other species.:Conflict with bees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The best place for hornets to find a combination of animal proteins (bees or larvae) and carbohydrates (honey) are bee hives. Oriental hornets have been known to cause serious damage to bee colonies. They are the primary pest that attacks honey bee colonies in many countries. In defense, Japanese honey bees have been shown to kill predatory hornets by surrounding them by forming a tight ball in which the temperature rises to lethal levels. Cyprian honey bees (\"Apis mellifera cypria\") have developed a slightly different method for killing their major predator. They form a tight, smothering ball around the attacking hornet and kill it by asphyxiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aud4bl
|
How do scientists know the decay progression of Uranium-238 if it takes place over billions of years?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the rate is the same. You can observe it for any period of time and extrapolate that rate of decay across whatever unit of time, whether it's days, months, or billions of years. Even if you observe it for a normal human period of time, there's still a tiny tiny change, and if you measure accurately, the rate is there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics of radioactive decay.:Decay timing: definitions and relations.:Half-life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its \"(1/3)-life\" (how long until only 1/3 is left) or \"(1/10)-life\" (a time period until only 10% is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of and \"\" for marker-times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the \"same proportion\" of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time-period that one chooses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics of radioactive decay.:Universal law of radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no \"memory\" or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not \"age\" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time, but stays constant no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change. This is in marked contrast to complex objects which do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time, that increases from the moment they begin their existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48035153",
"title": "RATE project",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The project's findings were published in 2005, and while they acknowledged evidence for over 500 million years of radiometric decay at today's rates, they also claimed to have discovered other lines of evidence that pointed to a young earth. They therefore hypothesised that nuclear decay rates were accelerated by a factor of approximately one billion on the first two days of the Creation week and during the Flood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31743",
"title": "Uranium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2739–99.2752%), uranium-235 (0.7198–0.7202%), and a very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0050–0.0059%). Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is 704 million years, making them useful in dating the age of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5234576",
"title": "Environmental radioactivity",
"section": "Section::::Natural.:Uranium-lead dating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "One of the advantages of this method is that any sample provides two clocks, one based on uranium-235's decay to lead-207 with a half-life of about 703 million years, and one based on uranium-238's decay to lead-206 with a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, providing a built-in crosscheck that allows accurate determination of the age of the sample even if some of the lead has been lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7987684",
"title": "Plutonium",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Isotopes and nucleosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 are captured by uranium-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; a beta decay converts a neutron into a proton to form neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36 days) and another beta decay forms plutonium-239. Egon Bretscher working on the British Tube Alloys project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rujl4
|
Why was the Spanish colonisation of the Americas so brutal and destructive compared to their colonisation of the Philippines?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have a mistaken impression about the Spanish conquest. I don't know much about the Mayans and others, but the Spanish didn't genocide the Aztecs, though in other cases, like with the Pueblo, there's certainly a case to be made for genocide. \n\nThe reasons so many Aztecs died were primarily diseases. It's not really clear how many died, but one estimate made by historians at Berkeley University even puts it at 95% of the Aztec population dying because of repeated epidemics. Admittedly, the early Spanish colonial system was filled with abuse as the conquistadors formed their own fiefdoms with the Indians as their servants, a system called the encomienda system, but that system was abolished relatively quickly and replaced by a much more benign system, where Indians generally were left to rule themselves in their own communities, called pueblos de indios, or at least be ruled by Indian mayors called gobernador de indios, who were in turn elected by the local Indian nobility, the caciques, alongside a Spanish administrator called a corregidor.\n\nMestizos aren't the product of mass rape, they're the product of simply intermixing over the course of several centuries. It's the same reason you have Afro-Indians and Afro-Europeans in Mexico. The early Spanish conquistadors didn't bring their wives along, so they just started marrying native women. Same with slaves and Indians and slaves and Europeans. Though the Spaniards had instituted a racial caste system, race was such a vague system that it was practically useless. Indian nobles were above a poor Spanish farmer de facto, and a village full of black people could be classified as an Indian village simply on basis of location. \n\nIn general, the Spanish king had a very paternalistic view towards Indians, so if they were abused he did try to help them generally, although it was from a somewhat misguided point of view. There are still hundreds of letters in Spain between Indians nobles appealing their cases to the Spanish king. This was one of the reasons the Spanish king abolished the encomienda system, alongside the more practical reason that he didn't want the conquistadors to form independant kingdoms in the New World. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "599543",
"title": "Moro Rebellion",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1129,
"text": "The United States claimed the territories of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. The ethnic Moro (Muslim) population of the southern Philippines resisted both Spanish and United States colonization. The Spaniards were restricted to a handful of coastal garrisons or Forts and they made occasional punitive expeditions into the vast interior regions. After a series of unsuccessful attempts during the centuries of Spanish rule in the Philippines, Spanish forces occupied the abandoned city of Jolo, Sulu, the seat of the Sultan of Sulu, in 1876. The Spaniards and the Sultan of Sulu signed the Spanish Treaty of Peace on July 22, 1878. Control of the Sulu archipelago outside of the Spanish garrisons was handed to the Sultan. The treaty had translation errors: According to the Spanish-language version, Spain had complete sovereignty over the Sulu archipelago, while the Tausug version described a protectorate instead of an outright dependency. Despite the very nominal claim to the Moro territories, Spain ceded them to the United States in the Treaty of Paris which signaled the end of the Spanish–American War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23888361",
"title": "History of the Philippines (1521–1898)",
"section": "Section::::Resistance against Spanish rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines was constantly threatened by indigenous rebellions and invasions from the Dutch, Chinese, Japanese and British. The previously dominant groups resisted Spanish rule, refusing to pay Spanish taxes and rejecting Spanish excesses. All were defeated by the Spanish and their Filipino allies by 1597. In many areas, the Spanish left indigenous groups to administer their own affairs but under Spanish overlordship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25017137",
"title": "Sovereignty of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Spanish period.:Spanish rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "During Spain's 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the Chinese pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in 1574), Dutch forces, and Portuguese forces. Moros from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago constantly raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and occasionally brought home loot and fair women. They often sold their captives as slaves. A British conquest of the Spanish Philippines occurred during the Seven Years' War, with British occupation of the capital between 1762 and 1764. Also, there were a number of failed Philippine revolts during Spanish rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23441",
"title": "History of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898).:Spanish rule during the 18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the Dutch from the West, in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South and combating Japanese Wokou piracy from the North nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Furthermore, the state of near constant war caused a high death and desertion rate among the Mestizo, Mulatto and Indio (Native American) soldiers sent from Mexico and Peru that were stationed in the Philippines. The high death and desertion rate also applied to the native Filipino warriors conscripted by Spain, to fight in battles all across the archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of wages and near starvation were so intense, almost half of the soldiers sent from Latin America either died or fled to the countryside to live as vagabonds among the rebellious natives or escaped enslaved Indians (From India) where they race-mixed through rape or prostitution, further blurring the racial caste system Spain tried hard to maintain. These circumstances contributed to the increasing difficulty of governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to King Charles III of Spain, in which he advises to abandon the colony but the religious orders opposed this since they considered the Philippines a launching pad for the conversion of the Far East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32565486",
"title": "Friars in Spanish Philippines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "After the conquistadores brought the Filipinos under the rule of the Spanish crown, either by peaceful means of treaties and pacts or, alternatively, by war, Spain did not send large standing armies to maintain its empire in the East. The apostolic zeal of the missionaries followed the efforts of men such as Miguel López de Legazpi, and aided to consolidate the enterprise of Hispanizing the Philippines. The Spanish missionaries acted as de facto conquerors; they gained the goodwill of the islanders, presented Spanish culture positively, and in so doing won approximately 2 million converts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15443",
"title": "Western imperialism in Asia",
"section": "Section::::Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia.:Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "The energies of Castile (later, the \"unified\" Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by Andres de Urdaneta in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the Spanish–Moro conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13394",
"title": "Honduras",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spanish Honduras (1524–1821).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Although the Spanish conquered the southern or Pacific portion of Honduras fairly quickly, they were less successful on the northern, or Atlantic side. They managed to found a few towns along the coast, at Puerto Caballos and Trujillo in particular, but failed to conquer the eastern portion of the region and many pockets of independent indigenous people as well. The Miskito Kingdom in the northeast was particularly effective at resisting conquest. The Miskito Kingdom found support from northern European privateers, pirates and especially the British formerly English colony of Jamaica, which placed much of the area under its protection after 1740.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ntri0
|
i love that t-mobile does this, but how is allowing unlimited data for music streaming not a violation of nn?
|
[
{
"answer": "Net neutrality says companies need to provide equal bandwidth access to all sites. T-Mobile is still providing equal bandwidth which conforms to NN. Data metering is different as you get a set amount of data you can use on any site. They just don't meter you for the music site they prefer. You're still able to use another streaming service if you prefer with the same download speed. \n\nIt does seem like a loophole to NN though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is actually a violation of it. However, people aren't really fighting it because people like T-Mobile. Also, allowing unlimited music streaming scissor benefits people, so they like it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has nothing to to with network neutrality. \n\nAn example of a violation of NN would be if they, for example, wanted to make sure that you used their music service instead of iTunes, so they looked at every data packet you are getting, and decided to 'lose' or give low priority to the ones from iTunes.\n\nThey are just saying 'here, we have songs. Listen to as many as you want.'\n\nI hope you see there is a difference. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would be very easy for T-Mobile in two years to say: \"Ok streaming services, time to pony up some cash if you want your streaming to still be free and unlimited\". So yes, this is a violation of net neutrality. Furthermore, what if a new up and coming streaming service pops up down the road? They will be at a disadvantage because T-Mobile customers will be less likely to use a service that is not part of T-Mobile's music freedom feature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43209058",
"title": "Zero-rating",
"section": "Section::::Existing programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Since June 2014, U.S. mobile provider T-Mobile US has offered zero-rated access to participating music streaming services to its mobile internet customers. T-Mobile launched its plan called “Music Freedom” which would exempt users of T-Mobile from having to pay premium prices for access to music content; additionally, this content access would not count as part of an individual's cap, which is the limit they can reach before they are charged for data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48551607",
"title": "Un-carrier",
"section": "Section::::Music Freedom (Un-carrier 6.0).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "On June 18, 2014, T-Mobile also announced Un-carrier 6.0, known as \"Music Freedom\". Data used on certain streaming music services would no longer count to users' data limits. At the time of the announcement, these services included: Pandora, Spotify, Rhapsody, Google Play Music, iTunes Radio, Slacker, Milk Music, Beatport, and iHeartRadio. In addition, users are also able to vote for more music services to be selected for inclusion into this program. T-Mobile has partnered with Rhapsody to offer \"UnRadio\", a streaming radio service with unlimited skips, no ads, and offline playback. The service will be free to unlimited T-Mobile customers, and will be available to all others for a nominal fee, which varies between T-Mobile and non-T-Mobile customers. On November 24, 2014 this was expanded to add an additional 14 music services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6251263",
"title": "MOG (online music)",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "MOG was a subscription service that allows users to play tracks from its catalog on a variety of digital devices, including computers, handheld devices, Sonos system and television (through MOG's Roku channel). The company claimed that its catalog was 16 million tracks, although it is not clear how the count was produced or audited. Songs could be streamed via the internet or stored on their devices so that they could be played without internet connection. Web streams were 320kbit/s MP3 files and mobile streams were 48 kbit/s AAC+ files. Users could choose whether mobile downloads were 'high-quality' 320kbit/s MP3 files or 48 kbit/s AAC+ files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216683",
"title": "Open music model",
"section": "Section::::Industry adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- in 2012, Google Play Music launched unlimited music streaming for a subscription price of $9.99 per month. Users can upload their own MP3s to the service and download them, but cannot download songs they have not uploaded themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935666",
"title": "Copyright Act of 1976",
"section": "Section::::Significant portions of the Act.:Impact on Internet Radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Streaming music on a portable device is becoming mainstream, but digital radio and music streaming websites such as Pandora are fighting an uphill battle when it comes to copyright protection. 17 USC 801(b)(1)(D) of the Copyright Act states that Copyright Royalty Judges should \"minimize any disruptive impact on the structure of the industries involved and on generally prevailing industry practices\". \"Much of the initial drafting of the ‘76 Act was by the Copyright Office, which chaired a series of meetings with prominent industry copyright lawyers throughout the 1960s\". Some believe that Section 106 was designed with the intent to maximize litigation to the benefit of the legal industry, and gives too much power and protection to the copyright holder while weakening fair use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28682",
"title": "Streaming media",
"section": "Section::::Use of streaming media by consumers.:Music streaming platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Although music streaming is no longer a freely replicable public good, streaming platforms such as Spotify, Deezer, Apple Music, SoundCloud, and Prime Music have shifted music streaming to a club-type good. While some platforms, most notably Spotify, give customers access to a freemium service that enables the use of limited features for exposure to advertisements, most companies operate under a premium subscription model. Under such circumstances, music streaming is financially excludable, requiring that customers pay a monthly fee for access to a music library, but non-rival, since one customer’s use does not impair another’s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22631818",
"title": "Microsoft Kin",
"section": "Section::::Kin \"m\" series features.:Zune music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "One seemingly data-laden feature of the old Kin devices which remained available for the repurposed phones was Zune Pass, although it was now able to stream music only over Wi-Fi, even when customers had 3G data enabled, to conserve data. This was done to accommodate Verizon's new tiered data plans, which marked the end of unlimited data for users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qwipr
|
how do they make boneless chicken breasts?
|
[
{
"answer": "They take regular chicken breasts and take the bones out of them. There isn't any magic beyond that. They aren't growing boneless chickens out there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5741239",
"title": "Chicken as food",
"section": "Section::::Cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Some chicken breast cuts and processed chicken breast products include the moniker \"with rib meat\". This is a misnomer, as it refers to the small piece of white meat that overlays the scapula, removed along with the breast meat. The breast is cut from the chicken and sold as a solid cut, while the leftover breast and true rib meat is stripped from the bone through mechanical separation for use in chicken franks, for example. Breast meat is often sliced thinly and marketed as chicken slices, an easy filling for sandwiches. Often, the tenderloin (pectoralis minor) is marketed separately from the breast (pectoralis major). In the US, \"tenders\" can be either tenderloins or strips cut from the breast. In the UK the strips of pectoralis minor are called \"chicken mini-fillets\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20834048",
"title": "Piccata",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "A chicken breast is butterflied or sliced along its width. It is flattened to an even thickness with a tenderizer between two pieces of wax paper or plastic wrap. It is seasoned and dredged in flour before being browned in butter or olive oil. The sauce is made using the pan drippings. Lemon juice and white wine or chicken stock are added and reduced. Shallots or garlic can be added with capers, chopped parsley and slices of lemon. After reduction, butter is stirred in to finish the sauce. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20382397",
"title": "Chicken mull",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "Recipes for chicken mull vary slightly from person to person, but it is usually made by first cooking a whole chicken by boiling or parboiling, allowing a rich broth to form. The chicken is then removed from the pot and the meat is pulled from the bones or cut off with a knife. The skin, bones and fat are removed as well. Sometimes boneless, skinless chicken breasts are used instead of a whole chicken. A thickening of milk or cream is made (and sometimes evaporated milk is added as well) and added to the broth. Several sleeves of saltine crackers can be crumbled into broth and chicken mixture as it is the more common method of thickening the mull. The chicken is usually ground up in a meat grinder, although sometimes it is cut into small pieces. The chicken is then added back into the liquid along with salt, pepper and butter or margarine. Various other ingredients may be added to the stew according to local tradition, (such as diced potatoes or onions); a more common addition is varying amounts of hot sauce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets, and are often grilled on skewers: Japanese \"hāto yakitori\", Brazilian \"churrasco de coração\", Indonesian chicken heart satay. They can also be pan-fried, as in Jerusalem mixed grill. In Egyptian cuisine, they can be used, finely chopped, as part of stuffing for chicken. Many recipes combined them with other giblets, such as the Mexican \"pollo en menudencias\" and the Russian \"ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13111318",
"title": "Belly cast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Belly casts are most often made toward the end of the third trimester of pregnancy, though a series of casts may also be made during the pregnancy. They are made by preparing the skin with a coating of Vaseline or a similar lubricant and adding strips of wet plaster gauze over the abdomen to make the cast. Some women also cast their breasts, arms, hands and thighs into a full torso sculpture. The plaster sets in about 20–30 minutes but some fast-setting strips set in five minutes. Once set, the cast is gently removed by the mother using a wriggling motion. It takes one or two days for the cast to dry completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5396209",
"title": "Fillet (cut)",
"section": "Section::::Meat.:Chicken.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Chicken fillets, sometimes called inner fillets, are a specific cut of meat from the chicken. There are two fillets in a chicken, and they are each a few inches long and about 1 inch or less wide. They lie under the main portion of the breast just above the ribcage around the center of the sternum. They are separated from the main breast by filament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13111318",
"title": "Belly cast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "A belly cast is a three-dimensional plaster sculpture of a woman's pregnant abdomen as a keepsake of her pregnancy. It can also be known as a belly mask, pregnancy belly cast, a pregnant plaster cast, or prenatal cast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u4ds0
|
how does amazon ec2 work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Amazon EC2 is a service that allows you to rent servers and pay for what you use in an easy to use way.\n\nWith the amazon ec2 you do not pay for a server by the month though, you pay for it by the hour. So let me create a scenario for you:\n\nLet's say you have a theory for the stock market that you want to test out. You've written some program to analyze historical data to see how accurate your theory has been throughout the stock markets history. The problem is there's a TON of data, and you only need to analyze it once to see if your theory will work. How do you do this? \n\nWell, you could do it on your home computers, but it will probably take forever and what if your program makes requests to webpages each time it analyzes a price? Something like looking up how many news articles were released about that company on that specific day in history. That would kill your internet bandwith and probably get your internet suspended by your ISP if you tried to run all that at home. \n\nSo the next logical thinking is, I know, I'll get a dedicated server to process all this. You head over to rackspace and quickly realize that they want a year contract for servers, and it's going to be EXPENSIVE. Before cloud computing services like the ec2, these were your only options. You could either shell out a bunch of money to test your theory, or you could scale it way down, run it on your own computer, and not get a completely accurate picture.\n\nNOW, with the amazon ec2, the way to solve this is to rent a server. Remember you pay by the hour, so if you rent a giant ec2 server with 16 cpu cores and 64 gb of ram, it wont take very long to analyze all that data will it? Maybe it would take 6 hours or so? Well, after those 6 hours, you can simply stop the server, and you will no longer be paying for it. Doing it this way makes it affordable (you pay to rent a giant server for a little while, instead of shelling out the money to buy it all month or all year) even for the little man. \n\nThere are numerous other benefits like easily making backups, changing network configurations instantly, and yes scalability (the problem i presented above is a scalability problem).\n\nWe use the ec2 and other AWS stuff heavily where I work, so if you have any questions feel free to ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5962343",
"title": "Amazon S3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Amazon S3 or Amazon Simple Storage Service is a service offered by Amazon Web Services (AWS) that provides object storage through a web service interface. Amazon S3 uses the same scalable storage infrastructure that Amazon.com uses to run its global e-commerce network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51172107",
"title": "List of Amazon products and services",
"section": "Section::::Amazon Web Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Amazon introduced SimpleDB, a database system, allowing users of its other infrastructure to utilize a high-reliability, high-performance database system. In 2008, Amazon graduated EC2 from beta to \"Generally Available\" and added support for the Microsoft Windows platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51172107",
"title": "List of Amazon products and services",
"section": "Section::::Amazon Web Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Also in 2006, Amazon introduced Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2), a virtual site farm, allowing users to use the Amazon infrastructure to run applications ranging from running simulations to web hosting. In 2008, Amazon improved the service by adding Elastic Block Store (EBS), offering persistent storage for Amazon EC2 instances and Elastic IP addresses, and offering static IP addresses designed for dynamic cloud computing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28149405",
"title": "Amazon Elastic Block Store",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Amazon EBS provides a range of options for storage performance and cost. These options are divided into two major categories: SSD-backed storage for transactional workloads, such as databases and boot volumes (performance depends primarily on IOPS), and disk-backed storage for throughput intensive workloads, such as MapReduce and log processing (performance depends primarily on MB/s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18413356",
"title": "Ecto (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "ecto is a commercial weblog client for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows. It allows one to compose and store blog entries on the local desktop computer, then upload them to a weblog host. ecto interacts with popular server software such as Blogger, Movable Type, and WordPress, among others. The developer believes the additional flexibility of the desktop operating system allows the client to incorporate features lacking in web-based clients. For example, ecto incorporates spell checking, easy insertion of images, and text formatting. ecto employs the standard controls the operating system provides to all applications. It can also trackback to other blogs and add categories and tags to a blog entry. The Macintosh version integrates with iTunes and iPhoto. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1691376",
"title": "Amazon Web Services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a subsidiary of Amazon that provides on-demand cloud computing platforms to individuals, companies, and governments, on a metered pay-as-you-go basis. In aggregate, these cloud computing web services provide a set of primitive abstract technical infrastructure and distributed computing building blocks and tools. One of these services is Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, which allows users to have at their disposal a virtual cluster of computers, available all the time, through the Internet. AWS's version of virtual computers emulate most of the attributes of a real computer including, hardware central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs) for processing, local/RAM memory, hard-disk/SSD storage); a choice of operating systems; networking; and pre-loaded application software such as web servers, databases, customer relationship management (CRM), etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In 2002, the corporation started Amazon Web Services (AWS), which provided data on Web site popularity, Internet traffic patterns and other statistics for marketers and developers. In 2006, the organization grew its AWS portfolio when Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), which rents computer processing power as well as Simple Storage Service (S3), that rents data storage via the Internet, were made available. That same year, the company started\" Fulfillment by Amazon \"which managed the inventory of individuals and small companies selling their belongings through the company internet site. In 2012, Amazon bought Kiva Systems to automate its inventory-management business, purchasing Whole Foods Market supermarket chain five years later in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fzjnl6
|
is human brain at it's limits? and are there other stages of human brain development that will lead to us getting smarter.
|
[
{
"answer": "A helpful way to think about the brain is not as a something that reaches 'capacity'. Our brains are very efficient, so as we develop and grow we keep reinforcing the neural pathways that help us the most in life - i.e. how should I interpret someone shouting at me, or someone crying.\n\nIf you grow up with a lot of exposure to learning, you'll create very efficient pathways that make you very good at lets say math, or writing, or critical analysis. This means that by the time we reach adulthood, we have very established connections which act as a kind of 'cheat sheet' for interpreting external stimulation - we see something and the brain draws on past experience to make sense of it. \n\nBUT what is very interesting is work being done on psychedelics right now. Essentially, under the influence of certain things in psychedelics our mind opens up and we can forge brand new neural connections much more easily - that is bits of the brain that weren't talking before can now talk to each other. This gives us new perspectives and insights and returns our mind to state like when we were young, that is when we were building our neural pathways. \n\nSo our brains are never at their limits because what they can build strong neural connections for are endless - they are just set in their ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2681589",
"title": "Noogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Issues and further research prospects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The development of the human brain, perception, cognition, memory and neuroplasticity are unsolved problems in neuroscience. Several megaprojects are being carried out in: American BRAIN Initiative, European Human Brain Project, China Brain Project, Blue Brain Project, Allen Brain Atlas, Human Connectome Project, Google Brain, - in attempt to better our understanding of the brain's functionality along with the intention to develop human cognitive performance in the future with artificial intelligence, informational, communication and cognitive technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20211596",
"title": "Ten percent of the brain myth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The 10 percent of the brain myth is a widely perpetuated urban legend that most or all humans only use 10 percent (or some other small percentage) of their brains. It has been misattributed to many people, including Albert Einstein. By extrapolation, it is suggested that a person may harness this unused potential and increase intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22189413",
"title": "Up from Dragons",
"section": "Section::::Chapters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::18. Third Millennium Brain: The rewriting of the brain's potentials that started in the past still continues. “Braintech” is arising and will enhance humans even more. It is suggested that humans knowing that their origins lie in their brains, rather than ancient myth, will gain Brain Rights and enter a new Era—that of the Brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452832",
"title": "Evolution of human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Group selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to a expanded quantity of intelligence in humans. However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et. al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more \"intelligent\" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175813",
"title": "Korea Institute of Science and Technology",
"section": "Section::::Research institutes and divisions.:Brain Science Institute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The human brain is a highly complex system often dubbed a miniature universe. Its many mysteries have yet to be unveiled. The Brain Science Institute specializes in convergence research encompassing biology, chemistry, nanotechnology, information technology and computer engineering through which it aims to understand the neural mechanism responsible for controlling human behavior and to discover the clues to the tools for overcoming brain dysfunctions. The objective of the Brain Science Institute is to unravel the mysteries of the brain and thereby develop into the hub of the world's brain science research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519280",
"title": "Intelligence",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine by Douglas Fox in \"Scientific American\", June 14, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ex5ez
|
Does WiFi have any detrimental effects?
|
[
{
"answer": "While it's prudent to repeat the experiment, there's nothing that is known so far (as in, reviewed and shown to be repeatable) that would indicate negative effects of Wi-Fi. The most serious detrimental effect of Wi-Fi is the rage it induces when the connection is too weak for whatever you're doing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33172",
"title": "Wireless network",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The position of the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time\". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6357454",
"title": "One-to-one computing",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Addiction may be a problem (possibly more with touch-devices). There can also be objection against possible effect of exposure to radiation from the screens and WiFi. As stated under advantages there is no general consensus on the scientific evidence on efficacy. In a field as new as 1:1 with the technology used having undergone major changes it may take time for clear patterns to emerge and be agreed on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19108933",
"title": "2.4 GHz radio use",
"section": "Section::::Resolving interference.:Adding base stations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Interference caused by a Wi-Fi network to its neighbors can be reduced by adding more base stations to that network. Every Wi-Fi standard provides for automatic adjustment of the data rate to channel conditions; poor links (usually those spanning greater distances) automatically operate at lower speeds. Deploying additional base stations around the coverage area of a network, particularly in existing areas of poor or no coverage, reduces the average distance between a wireless device and its nearest access point and increases the average speed. The same amount of data takes less time to send, reduces channel occupancy, and gives more idle time to neighboring networks, improving the performance of all networks concerned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1747821",
"title": "Jill Stein",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Health effects of Wi-Fi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "In a question-and-answer session, Stein voiced concern about wireless internet (Wi-Fi) in schools, saying, \"We should not be subjecting kids' brains especially to that ... and we don't follow this issue in our country, but in Europe, where they do, you know, they have good precautions about wireless. Maybe not good enough, you know. It's very hard to study this stuff. You know, we make guinea pigs out of whole populations and then we discover how many die.\" According to the World Health Organization (WHO), \"no adverse health effects are expected from exposure to [Wi-Fi]\". Stein later said, \"take precautions about how much we expose young children to WiFi and cellphones until we know more about the long-term health effects of this type of low-level radiation.\" In an interview with the \"Los Angeles Times\" editorial board, Stein clarified that her statements on Wi-Fi were \"not a policy statement\" and that attention to her statement on Wi-Fi was \"a sign of a gotcha political system\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22023214",
"title": "Everus Communications",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The World Health Organization investigated this issue due to persistent public misconceptions about it. They released a report on Electromagnetic fields and public health and their effects on health. Their conclusive findings showed that signal from wireless towers did no harm to health and the common radio signal was 5 times stronger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3382014",
"title": "Elizabeth May",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Views on dangers of wireless internet and support for homeopathy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "In 2011, May Tweeted a flurry of warnings about the possible dangers of WiFi using her cellphone. May's comments that the use of WiFi might be related to the \"disappearance of pollinating insects\" and writing that WiFi was a \"possible human carcinogen\" fueled attacks over the scientific soundness of her views. \"It is very disturbing how quickly Wi-Fi has moved into schools as it is children who are the most vulnerable\", she wrote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2605490",
"title": "Wireless electronic devices and health",
"section": "Section::::Wireless networking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The HPA's position is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time\". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ar3l57
|
why do governments, schools, and big businesses (mostly) always use hp printers?
|
[
{
"answer": "So they? All I ever see is RICOH",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "hp usually gives away a lot of printers for free, but makes you sign a contract to buy supplies ie ink, toner, and paper from them. so businesses jump at this due to the low upfront cost since some of those higher end printers can easily cost 10k+",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HP has payment plans for equipment. That includes computers and printers. Like a rent to own. They also do contracts where they will replace equipment X is Y years. Maintenance contacts are also available. The willingness of HP to work with the needs of the company is hard to beat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly Konika Minolta nowadays.\n\nIn any case, HP has / had a great tech support plan. Costly, but they offered \"our technician will be at your location tomorrow first thing\" as an option, 15+ years ago. Big businesses and governments want their stuff to work, so getting stuff fixed fast was a big deal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347024",
"title": "Hewlett-Packard",
"section": "Section::::Products and organizational structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "HP produces lines of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstation computers, and computers for home and small-business use; many of the computers came from the 2002 merger with Compaq. HP promotes itself as supplying not just hardware and software, but also a full range of services to design, implement, and support IT infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32489930",
"title": "HP business desktops",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "HP Inc. targets their line of business desktop computers for use in the corporate, government and education markets. HP operate their business desktops on minimum 12-month product cycle and directly compete with Dell Optiplex, Acer Veriton and Lenovo ThinkCentre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47034703",
"title": "HP Inc.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "HP Inc. (also known as HP and stylized as hp) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. It develops personal computers (PCs), printers and related supplies, as well as 3D printing solutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47034703",
"title": "HP Inc.",
"section": "Section::::History.:As HP Inc..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "In 2016, HP announced a focus on users who upgrade their computers frequently and spend more money on games and released the game-centric Omen brand of laptops and desktops targeted at mid-range customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47034703",
"title": "HP Inc.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "HP is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the S&P 500 Index. It is the world's largest personal computer vendor by unit sales, having regained its position in 2017 since it was overtaken by Lenovo in 2013. HP ranked No. 58 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3695788",
"title": "Programmable calculator",
"section": "Section::::Related tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The HP programmables and others have an IrDA interface which allows them to interface with the printers specially designed for the calculators, HP's main lines of laser printers, computers, other calculators, and other devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347024",
"title": "Hewlett-Packard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "The company was founded in a one-car garage in Palo Alto by Bill Hewlett and David Packard, and initially produced a line of electronic test equipment. HP was the world's leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q2 2013, at which time Lenovo ranked ahead of HP. HP specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. Major product lines included personal computing devices, enterprise and industry standard servers, related storage devices, networking products, software and a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. HP directly marketed its products to households, small- to medium-sized businesses and enterprises as well as via online distribution, consumer-electronics and office-supply retailers, software partners and major technology vendors. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tjtk3
|
if shadows are the absence of light, why do you get different coloured shadows with different light sources?
|
[
{
"answer": "A shadow is generally not the total absence of light. It is simply an area where there is less light because a light source has been blocked by something opaque. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "217296",
"title": "Shadow",
"section": "Section::::Point and non-point light sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296793",
"title": "Hard and soft light",
"section": "Section::::Hard light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Hard light sources cast shadows whose appearance of the shadow depends on the lighting instrument. For example, fresnel lights can be focused such that their shadows can be \"cut\" with crisp shadows. That is, the shadows produced will have 'harder' edges with less transition between illumination and shadow. The focused light will produce harder-edged shadows. Focusing a fresnel makes the rays of emitted light more parallel. The parallelism of these rays determines the quality of the shadows. For shadows with no transitional edge/gradient, a point light source is required. Hard light casts strong, well defined shadows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217296",
"title": "Shadow",
"section": "Section::::Point and non-point light sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an \"umbra\". For a non-point or \"extended\" source of light, the shadow is divided into the umbra, penumbra and antumbra. The wider the light source, the more blurred the shadow becomes. If two penumbras overlap, the shadows appear to attract and merge. This is known as the Shadow blister effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6146159",
"title": "Shade (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Shades grow more powerful in areas of darkness or shadows, including the ability to leap from shadow to shadow, to create shadowy duplicates of themselves, and even become entirely invisible. They can also decrease the amount of light in an area, and can see through darkness, even of the magical variety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5729336",
"title": "Countershading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "When light falls from above on a uniformly coloured three-dimensional object such as a sphere, it makes the upper side appear lighter and the underside darker, grading from one to the other. This pattern of light and shade makes the object appear solid, and therefore easier to detect. The classical form of countershading, discovered in 1909 by the artist Abbott Handerson Thayer, works by counterbalancing the effects of self-shadowing, again typically with grading from dark to light. In theory this could be useful for military camouflage, but in practice it has rarely been applied, despite the best efforts of Thayer and, later, in the Second World War, of the zoologist Hugh Cott.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Shadows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Shadows are cast through fog in three dimensions. The fog is dense enough to be illuminated by light that passes through gaps in a structure or tree, but thin enough to let a large quantity of that light pass through to illuminate points further on. As a result, object shadows appear as \"beams\" oriented in a direction parallel to the light source. These voluminous shadows are created the same way as crepuscular rays, which are the shadows of clouds. In fog, it is solid objects that cast shadows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217296",
"title": "Shadow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A shadow is a dark (real image) area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, or a reverse projection of the object blocking the light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ap172a
|
Is the black hole of our galaxy, rotating around something else?
|
[
{
"answer": "The galaxy rotates around itself. All the stars are being pulled by all the other stars, which tends to mean they are revolving around the center of mass - the barycenter.\n\nSagittarius A\\* happens to be at the center (well, near it), but the Sun doesn't orbit it. It isn't nearly massive enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19063921",
"title": "Sphere of influence (black hole)",
"section": "Section::::Rotational influence sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "If the black hole is rotating, there is a second radius of influence associated with the rotation. This is the radius inside of which the Lense-Thirring torques from the black hole are larger than the Newtonian torques between stars. Inside the rotational influence sphere, stellar orbits precess at approximately the Lense-Thirring rate; while outside this sphere, orbits evolve predominantly in response to perturbations from stars on other orbits. Assuming that the Milky Way black hole is maximally rotating, its rotational influence radius is about 0.001 parsec, while its radius of gravitational influence is about 3 parsecs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26930551",
"title": "Sigma (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "They then realised that the black holes must have something to do with a galaxy's formation, so they turned to something they thought was useless: the speed of the stars around the edge of the galaxy. This is sigma, the speed of the stars at the edge of the galaxy supposedly unaffected by the mass of the black hole at the centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49207552",
"title": "NGC 2768",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "In the centre of the galaxy are two tiny, S-shaped symmetric jets. These two flows of material travel outwards from the galactic centre along curved paths, and are masked by the tangle of dark dust lanes that spans the body of the galaxy. These jets are a sign of a very active centre, where lies a supermassive black hole. This speeds up and sucks in gas from the nearby space, creating a stream of material swirling inwards towards the black hole known as an accretion disc. This disk throws off material in very energetic outbursts, creating structures like the jets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21926",
"title": "Naked singularity",
"section": "Section::::Predicted formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "From concepts drawn from rotating black holes, it is shown that a singularity, spinning rapidly, can become a ring-shaped object. This results in two event horizons, as well as an ergosphere, which draw closer together as the spin of the singularity increases. When the outer and inner event horizons merge, they shrink toward the rotating singularity and eventually expose it to the rest of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27086745",
"title": "Frame-dragging",
"section": "Section::::Experimental tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In the case of stars orbiting close to a spinning, supermassive black hole, frame dragging should cause the star's orbital plane to precess about the black hole spin axis. This effect should be detectable within the next few years via astrometric monitoring of stars at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3728106",
"title": "NGC 4526",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The inner nucleus of this galaxy displays a rise in stellar orbital motion that indicates the presence of a central dark mass. The best fit model for the motion of molecular gas in the core region suggests there is a supermassive black hole with about (450 million) times the mass of the Sun. This is the first object to have its black-hole mass estimated by measuring the rotation of gas molecules around its centre with an Astronomical interferometer (in this case the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864424",
"title": "Sombrero Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Nucleus.:Central supermassive black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In the 1990s, a research group led by John Kormendy demonstrated that a supermassive black hole is present within the Sombrero Galaxy. Using spectroscopy data from both the CFHT and the Hubble Space Telescope, the group showed that the speed of revolution of the stars within the center of the galaxy could not be maintained unless a mass 1 billion times the mass of the Sun, or , is present in the center. This is among the most massive black holes measured in any nearby galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o6z7g
|
Could we send a spacecraft to LEO using solar sails?
|
[
{
"answer": "Solar sails provide a very small but consistent force. For a 100 square meter sail, the force is about 0.0005 Newtons. In space, that will provide a small acceleration, which over long times will give it appreciable speed. On Earth, however, there is the 10000+ Newton force of gravity keeping it down. 0.0005 won't do much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is [this](_URL_0_) but I don't know if they've ever developed this concept further.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31865376",
"title": "Physics of the Future",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:Future of Space Travel: To the Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Unlike conventional chemical rockets which use Newton's third law of motion, solar sails take advantage of radiation pressure from stars. Kaku believes that after sending a gigantic solar sail into orbit, one could install lasers on the moon, which would hit the sail and give it extra momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::Projects operating or completed.:IKAROS 2010.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 876,
"text": "Until 2010, no solar sails had been successfully used in space as primary propulsion systems. On 21 May 2010, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun) spacecraft, which deployed a 200 m polyimide experimental solar sail on June 10. In July, the next phase for the demonstration of acceleration by radiation began. On 9 July 2010, it was verified that IKAROS collected radiation from the Sun and began photon acceleration by the orbit determination of IKAROS by range-and-range-rate (RARR) that is newly calculated in addition to the data of the relativization accelerating speed of IKAROS between IKAROS and the Earth that has been taken since before the Doppler effect was utilized. The data showed that IKAROS appears to have been solar-sailing since 3 June when it deployed the sail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166134",
"title": "Cosmos 1",
"section": "Section::::Planned mission profile.:Possible beam propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The solar sail craft could also have been used to measure the effect of artificial microwaves aimed at it from a radar installation. A 70 m dish at the Goldstone facility of NASA's Deep Space Network would have been used to irradiate the sail with a 450 kW beam. This experiment in beam-powered propulsion would only have been attempted after the prime mission objective of controlled solar sail flight was achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Satellites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Robert L. Forward has commented that a solar sail could be used to modify the orbit of a satellite about the Earth. In the limit, a sail could be used to \"hover\" a satellite above one pole of the Earth. Spacecraft fitted with solar sails could also be placed in close orbits such that they are stationary with respect to either the Sun or the Earth, a type of satellite named by Forward a \"statite\". This is possible because the propulsion provided by the sail offsets the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Such an orbit could be useful for studying the properties of the Sun for long durations. Likewise a solar sail-equipped spacecraft could also remain on station nearly above the polar solar terminator of a planet such as the Earth by tilting the sail at the appropriate angle needed to counteract the planet's gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Inner planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Solar sails can travel to and from all of the inner planets. Trips to Mercury and Venus are for rendezvous and orbit entry for the payload. Trips to Mars could be either for rendezvous or swing-by with release of the payload for aerodynamic braking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15111",
"title": "Interplanetary spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Solar sails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Currently, the only spacecraft to use a solar sail as the main method of propulsion is IKAROS which was launched by JAXA on May 21, 2010. It has since been successfully deployed, and shown to be producing acceleration as expected. Many ordinary spacecraft and satellites also use solar collectors, temperature-control panels and Sun shades as light sails, to make minor corrections to their attitude and orbit without using fuel. A few have even had small purpose-built solar sails for this use (for example Eurostar E3000 geostationary communications satellites built by EADS Astrium).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40504865",
"title": "LGarde",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "It had been long theorized that solar sails could reflect photons streaming from the sun and convert some of the energy into thrust. The resulting thrust, though small, is continuous and acts for the life of the mission without the need for propellant. In 2003, LGarde, together with partners JPL, Ball Aerospace, and Langley Research Center, under the direction of NASA, developed a solar sail configuration that utilized inflatable rigidized boom components to achieve 10,000 m sailcraft with a real density of 14.1 g/m and potential acceleration of 0.58 mm/s. The entire configuration released by the upper stage has a mass of 232.9 kg and required just 1.7 m of volume in the booster. Additional advancement of the solar sail project came as LGarde engineers improved “sailcraft” coordinate systems and proposed a standard to report propulsion performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vkdqj
|
why is there a stigma with google glass?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's just rude to video tape people that don't want to be on video.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As with all emerging technology it's paranoia and fear. We've had cameras that you can't even see with the naked eye that can take decent pictures/video for a while now. We've had hidden camera tech going back decades that's gotten even easier to conceal and hide.\n\nThe thing is: No one gives a shit about you enough to record you. This is hard for some people to accept but it's the truth of things. There's plenty of already semi-discreet ways to take pictures/record someone with your phone without them suspecting anything.\n\nAnd sure, some people do. But Google Glass isn't really changing anything that wasn't already quite possible and easy to accomplish anyway. If you don't like being recorded in public, stay home.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Additionally, there is controversy that Google Glass would cause security problems and violate privacy rights. Organizations like the FTC Fair Information Practice work to uphold privacy rights through Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPPS), which are guidelines representing concepts that concern fair information practice in an electronic marketplace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42032995",
"title": "Smartglasses",
"section": "Section::::Public reception for commercial usage.:Critical reception.:Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1306,
"text": "Other concerns have been raised regarding legality of Google Glass in a number of countries, particularly in Russia, Ukraine, and other post-USSR countries. In February 2013, a Google+ user noticed legal issues with Google Glass and posted in the Google Glass community about the issues, stating that the device may be illegal to use according to the current legislation in Russia and Ukraine, which prohibits use of spy gadgets that can record video, audio or take photographs in an inconspicuous manner. Concerns were also raised in regard to the privacy and security of Google Glass users in the event that the device is stolen or lost, an issue that was raised by a US congressional committee. As part of its response to the governmental committee, Google stated in early July that is working on a locking system and raised awareness of the ability of users to remotely reset Google Glass from the web interface in the event of loss. Several facilities have banned the use of Google Glass before its release to the general public, citing concerns over potential privacy-violating capabilities. Other facilities, such as Las Vegas casinos, banned Google Glass, citing their desire to comply with Nevada state law and common gaming regulations which ban the use of recording devices near gambling areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Several facilities have banned the use of Google Glass before its release to the general public, citing concerns over potential privacy-violating capabilities. Other facilities, such as Las Vegas casinos, banned Google Glass, citing their desire to comply with Nevada state law and common gaming regulations which ban the use of recording devices near gambling areas. On October 29, 2014, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and the National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) announced a ban on wearable technology including Google Glass, placing it under the same rules as mobile phones and video cameras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Google Glass is a brand of smart glasses—an optical head-mounted display designed in the shape of a pair of eyeglasses. It was developed by X (previously Google X) with the mission of producing a ubiquitous computer. Google Glass displayed information in a smartphone-like, hands-free format. Wearers communicated with the Internet via natural language voice commands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Google Glass applications are free applications built by third-party developers. Glass also uses many existing Google applications, such as Google Now, Google Maps, Google+, and Gmail. Many developers and companies have built applications for Glass, including news apps, facial recognition, exercise, photo manipulation, translation, and sharing to social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter. Third-party applications announced at South by Southwest (SXSW) include Evernote, Skitch, \"The New York Times\", and Path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42032995",
"title": "Smartglasses",
"section": "Section::::Public reception for commercial usage.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "In November 2012, Google Glass received recognition by \"Time\" Magazine as one of the \"Best Inventions of the Year 2012\", alongside inventions such as the Curiosity Rover. After a visit to the University of Cambridge by Google's chairman Eric Schmidt in February 2013, Wolfson College professor John Naughton praised the Google Glass and compared it with the achievements of hardware and networking pioneer Douglas Engelbart. Naughton wrote that Engelbart believed that machines \"should do what machines do best, thereby freeing up humans to do what \"they\" do best\". Lisa A. Goldstein, a freelance journalist who was born profoundly deaf, tested the product on behalf of people with disabilities and published a review on August 6, 2013. In her review, Goldstein states that Google Glass does not accommodate hearing aids and is not suitable for people who cannot understand speech. Goldstein also explained the limited options for customer support, as telephone contact was her only means of communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Concerns have been raised by various sources regarding the intrusion of privacy, and the etiquette and ethics of using the device in public and recording people without their permission. Google co-founder, Sergey Brin, claims that Glass could be seen as a way to become even more isolated in public, but the intent was quite the opposite: Brin views checking social media as a constant \"nervous tic,\" which is why Glass can notify the user of important notifications and updates and does not obstruct the line of sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tm1ew
|
What different tactics were developed by both the French and Germans to assault enemy trenches?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you referring to a specific war, or in general?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Towards the beginning of the war, the French and Germans utilized very similar tactics on the offense. This would involve extremely long preparatory bombardments (lasting days, or even weeks, and firing millions of shells) at enemy positions. The idea was, the bombardment would destroy emplacements, ruin trench networks, and break up wire obstacles. Gas shells (which the Germans pioneered) and Livens projectors (which were actually more like holes in the ground with gas canisters which were opened at the right moment time) would be used during the final minutes of the attack to force the defends to stay in their trenches (or, by the defender, to disrupt the impending attack). As the bombardment began to fade, the attackers would come out of their trenches and cross no-mans land. Ideally, the defenders would be so broken from the bombardment that the infantry could quickly cross and size the first trench line. Then follow up bombardments would allow the attackers to continue until the had broken through the trench network, where Cavalry would exploit the the victory and win the war! \n\nProblem was, the defenders were rarely broken by the bombardments and gas attacks. Frequently, the bombardments would only serve to ruin the battlefield and make the crossing *more* difficult. And the Germans became particularly efficient at creating deep dugouts which were difficult to collapse. The defenders could sit for days underground before the bombardment would stop, and the defenses would be remanned. In these conditions, the infantry attack would be brutalized before it gained much ground. Some improvements, like the Creeping Barrage (which was used by all sides) helped, but not much. \n\nBut in the French army, these problems were all exacerbated by their concept of *elan*. It roughly means dash or eagerness bordering on zealotry. French troops were expected to attack aggressively, push the enemy hard, and overwhelm them in close combat. Thus, the bayonet was an integral weapon for the French. \n\nLater in the war, the French and Germans began to differ in tactics. The French invested heavily in tanks, which they employed with mixed success. After a shorter bombardment, the tanks would advance against German strong points and absorb their fire. The infantry would advance behind these tanks, support them in bad ground, and secure the success that they achieved. But in practice this almost never happened. Heinz Guderian's *Achtung Panzer* goes into detail with French tank tactics, their success, and their critical failures. He argues that the French attacks failed in two major areas: Concentration and support. They failed to employ enough tanks to penetrate the German lines reliably, which ruined their element of surprise, as well as allowed the Germans to concentrate fire on fewer targets. Further, where tanks were successful, Infantry rarely supported them to secure their success. For one reason or another, tanks were often forced to operate without help. This meant they were vulnerable, and isolated if they ran into mechanical trouble (which many did)\n\nOn the other hand, the Germans imported a tactical concept that they first experienced in the East. The German name for it was *Hutier* tactics, and it was a radical departure from the older forms attack. The *Hutier* attack first called on a powerful but short artillery barrage called a Hurricane Bombardment. The issue (as one might expect) with the long bombardments was that they telegraphed the location and timing of an attack. If somebody was willing to burn 1million shells in a sector, it was pretty obvious they were up to something. With the Hurricane Bombardment, the attackers focused more on an extremely heavy, but very short, bombardment. During this bombardment, stormtroopers would already begin crossing no-mans land. They would operate in small teams, and were armed with grenades, flame throwers, and other close combat weapons. When the bombardment ended, the stormtroopers would leap up and immediately attack the defender while they were leaving their dugouts. The hope was, the enemy would be completely overwhelmed by the storm troopers in the transition, and the first line of trenches would be rapidly secured. Obviously this didnt work in *every* place, but where it did, the stormtroopers were quickly reinforced by the regular infantry, who didnt have to contend with heavy resistance. Meanwhile, the artillery was already beginning a bombardment of the secondary trench lines. Not only would that prevent any major reinforcements, but it would serve as a jumping off point for the *next* assault. So the Germans could quickly overwhelm several positions, and the *Hutier* tactic brought the Germans as close to the fabled breakthrough as they would ever get. \n\nAs for your last question, I would direct you to the [Mutiny of the French Army](_URL_0_). I dont have time to elaborate more, but if you have questions, ask away. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "182259",
"title": "Trench warfare",
"section": "Section::::Trench battles.:World War I tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The popular image of a trench assault is of a wave of soldiers, bayonets fixed, going \"over the top\" and marching in a line across no man's land into a hail of enemy fire. This was the standard method early in the war; it was rarely successful. More common was an attack at night from an advanced post in no man's land, having cut the barbed wire beforehand. In 1915, the Germans innovated with infiltration tactics where small groups of highly trained and well-equipped troops would attack vulnerable points and bypass strong points, driving deep into the rear areas. The distance they could advance was still limited by their ability to supply and communicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Progress of the war.:1917–1918.:German Spring Offensive of 1918.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named \"Hutier\" tactics after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. In the Spring Offensive of 1918, however, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909541",
"title": "Infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Infantry warfare by type.:Trench warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "An improvement was the \"creeping barrage\" in which artillery fire is laid immediately in front of advancing infantry to clear any enemy in their way. This played an important part in later battles such as the Battle of Arras (1917), of which Vimy Ridge was a part. The tactic required close coordination in an era before widespread use of radio, and when laying telephone wire under fire was extremely hazardous. In response, the Germans devised the \"elastic defence\" and used \"infiltration tactics\" in which shock troops quietly infiltrated the enemy's forward trenches, without the heavy bombardment that gave advance warning of an imminent attack. The French and British/Dominion Armies were also engaged in evolving similar infantry tactics. The Allies introduced the tank to overcome the deadlock of static positions but mechanical unreliability prevented them from doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1073621",
"title": "Stormtrooper",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I assault tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In the first part of the war, the standard assault on a trench line consisted of a lengthy artillery barrage all along the line, attempting to smash the enemy positions, followed by a rush forward of infantry in massed lines to overwhelm any remaining defenders. This process either failed, or at most gained only a short distance, while incurring enormous casualties, and the armies settled into trench warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1073621",
"title": "Stormtrooper",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development of tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Allied versions of infiltration tactics were first formally proposed by French Army captain André Laffargue. In 1915 Laffargue published a pamphlet, \"The attack in trench warfare\", based upon his experiences in combat that same year. He advocated that the first wave of an attack identify hard-to-defeat defenses but not attack them; subsequent waves would do this. The French published his pamphlet \"for information\", but did not implement it. The British Empire armies did not translate the pamphlet, and the British Army continued to emphasise fire power, although Laffargue's proposals were gradually adopted informally, first by the Canadian Corps. The U.S. \"Infantry Journal\" published a translation in 1916.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34293487",
"title": "Eingreif division",
"section": "Section::::German defensive tactics.:1914–1916.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "German defensive tactics had been based on the publication of 1906 (Drill Regulations for the Infantry), which expected defensive warfare to be short periods between offensives. On the Somme front, the construction plan ordered by Falkenhayn in January 1915 had been completed. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt wide to two, wide and about apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid high. The front line had been increased from one line to three, apart, the first trench (, \"battle trench\") occupied by sentry groups, the second (, \"living trench\") for the front-trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry-posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dug-outs had been deepened from to , apart and large enough for An intermediate line of strong points () about behind the front line had also been built.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166656",
"title": "Fireteam",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1648,
"text": "Skirmishers in the Napoleonic War would often work in teams of two, ranging ahead of the main group and providing covering fire for each other. During World War I, trench warfare resulted in a stalemate on the Western Front. In order to combat this stalemate, the Germans developed a doctrinal innovation known as infiltration tactics (based on the Russian tactics used in the Brusilov Offensive), in which a brief intensive artillery preparation would be followed by small, autonomous teams of stormtroopers, who would covertly penetrate defensive lines. The Germans used their stormtroopers organised into squads at the lowest levels to provide a cohesive strike force in breaking through Allied lines. The British and Canadian troops on the Western Front started dividing platoons into sections after the Battle of the Somme in 1916. (This idea was later further developed in World War II). French Chasseur units in WWI were organised into fireteams, equipped with a light machine gun (Chauchat) team and grenades, to destroy German fire positions by fire (not assault) at up to 200 meters using rifle grenades. The light machine gun team would put suppressive fire on the enemy position, while the grenadier team moved to a position where the enemy embrasure could be attacked with grenades. The Chasseur tactics were proven during the Petain Offensive of 1917. Survivors of these French Chasseur units taught these tactics to American infantry, who used them with effectiveness at St. Mihiel and the Argonne. It was typical of a fireteam in this era to consist of four infantrymen: two assaulters with carbines, one grenadier, and one sapper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2dh96q
|
When did mortgages start to be sold regularly?
|
[
{
"answer": "In _The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World_ by Niall Ferguson, he discusses (among many other things) the history of debt instruments. The truth is, the buying and selling of debt obligations has been around almost as long as debt obligations themselves.\n\nSpecifically, you may be referring to the changing of hands of the *servicing rights* of the mortgage. I have to delve a bit into current events here, but when you get a mortgage today (and this has largely remained unchanged since the sub-prime crisis of a few years ago), the mortgage itself is likely to be sold only once and only once - probably to Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, or Ginnie Mae, depending on the type of loan, but sometimes to private companies (although not nearly as much since the real estate bubble popped). Then, the cashflow from hundreds or thousands of loans is sold to investors in the form of bonds. The company that actually accepts your monthly payment (say, Wells Fargo or Bank of America) does not own the loan. They accept a servicing fee each month to pay for their expenses in servicing the loan (I've seen between 0% and 1.25% of outstanding principal as a servicing fee), and pass the rest of the payment onto the trustee which administers the bond. It is not uncommon for the servicing rights to change hands during the life of the loan, and was quite common during the real estate boom in the US in the previous decade.\n\nAway from current events now, and back to history.\n\nModern securitization as described above is a system that came about with the chartering of Freddie Mac in 1970, and the creation of the first residential mortgage backed security (RMBS) by the US Dept of Housing and Urban Development. But securitization of mortgages had been around since the mid 1800s. It's easier for a small local bank to loan out money when they can sell their mortgages immediately on the secondary market, rather than have their money tied up for many years. However, and getting to your question, even when the mortgage itself was sold, the mortgagor (usually a farmer) still made payments to the same bank that originally made the loan. It was not until the Great Depression and the creation of Fannie Mae that the secondary market included government sponsored enterprises (GSE). Before that, it was large, usually East Coast, banks that bought mortgages on the secondary market.\n\nSo I guess the answer to your question would be around 1970, with the creation of the first government sponsored RMBS, and then the late 80s, with the creation of the first private label RMBS. The RMBS structure allows Bank A to make a loan, Bank B to buy and repackage the loan, and Bank C to service the loan, potentially removing the originating bank (Bank A) from the equation before the first payment is even made (in all three cases, I am using the term \"bank\" loosely, because these are very different kinds of banks). In previous forms of securitization (the ones going back to the 1800s), the originating bank was either the owner of the mortgage, or at least retained the servicing after they sold it (otherwise, they wouldn't have gone to the trouble of originating it).\n\nBesides the above book, my source for the second paragraph, where I discuss modern mortgage servicing, is that I've been in the industry for 10 years, including some very interesting front row seats working as an RMBS securities analyst from 2007-2009. I hope that's ok, and that I answered your question.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "878571",
"title": "Savings and loan association",
"section": "Section::::U.S. savings and loan in the 20th century.:Mortgage lending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The earliest mortgages were not offered by banks, but by insurance companies, and they differed greatly from the mortgage or home loan that is familiar today. Most early mortgages were short with some kind of balloon payment at the end of the term, or they were interest-only loans which did not pay anything toward the principal of the loan with each payment. As such, many people were either perpetually in debt in a continuous cycle of refinancing their home purchase, or they lost their home through foreclosure when they were unable to make the balloon payment at the end of the term of that loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "22099091",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.:Mortgage lending regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 253,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 253,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Mortgage lending standards declined during the boom and complex, risky mortgage offerings were made to consumers that arguably did not understand them. At the height of the bubble in 2005, the median down payment for first-time home buyers was 2%, with 43% of those buyers making no down payment whatsoever. An estimated one-third of adjustable rate mortgages originated between 2004 and 2006 had \"teaser\" rates below 4%, which then increased significantly after some initial period, as much as doubling the monthly payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194185",
"title": "Mortgage-backed security",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Among the early examples of mortgage-backed securities in the United States were the farm railroad mortgage bonds of the mid-19th century which may have contributed to the panic of 1857. There was also an extensive commercial MBS market in the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1557324",
"title": "Sears Catalog Home",
"section": "Section::::Sears Modern Homes 1908–1942.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Sears began offering financing plans around 1912. Early mortgage loans were typically for 5 – 15 years at 6% – 7% interest. Sales peaked in 1929, just before the Great Depression. While financing through Sears helped many homeowners purchase homes, the Great Depression led to rising payment defaults, resulting in increasing strain on the Modern Homes program. By 1934, Sears had stopped offering mortgages after the company was forced to liquidate $11 million in defaulted debt. Sears stopped selling homes for a short time in 1934 before restarting sales. Sales slowly recovered as the United States emerged from the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7918671",
"title": "Savings bank (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Performance in the first half of the 20th Century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Between 1862 and 1867, 40 per cent of the amount of the loans was granted against pawned items and the remaining 60 per cent was secured by stock. Diversification continued and by the outbreak of World War I, Spanish savings banks were readily issuing mortgages directly to retail customers. The Mortgage Act of 4 June 1908 contributed to the development of this phenomenon as it pioneered exemption from having to pay different forms of capital gains and corporation’s tax for mortgages issued by the Mount of Piety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13056365",
"title": "Residential mortgage-backed security",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "The origins of modern residential mortgage-backed securities can be traced back to the Government National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae), although variations on mortgage securitization existed in the U.S. in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In 1968, Ginnie Mae was the first to issue a new type of government-backed bond, known as the residential mortgage-backed security. This bond took a number of home loans, pooled the monthly principal and interest payments and then used the monthly cash flows as backing for the bond(s). The principal of these mortgages was guaranteed by Ginnie Mae, but not the risk that borrowers pay off the principal balance early or opt to refinance the loan, a set of possible future outcomes known as \"prepayment risk.\" Selling pools of mortgages in this way allowed Ginnie Mae to acquire new funds with which to buy additional home loans from mortgage brokers which furthered the agency's Congressionally mandated mission to \"expand affordable housing\". Because banks and other mortgage originators could sell their mortgages in an RMBS, they used the proceeds to make new mortgage loans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25485377",
"title": "Banco Hipotecario",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "During the resulting stagflation of the 1980s, the Mortgage Bank increasingly became the prime source of not only mortgages, but of construction financing, as well, and directly funded the completion of over 15,000 homes a year (roughly half the average annual rate of private sector housing starts during that difficult decade). This practice, however, required growing subsidies from the Central Bank (over US$400 million annually), and during the era of financial liberalization advanced by President Carlos Menem from 1989 onwards, this support was reduced. The National Mortgage Bank became a secondary player in the small, domestic mortgage market. Ultimately, the bank, which remained smaller, commercial and profitable up to that date, was privatized in 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24t08k
|
Was Jesus trying to reform the Jewish faith as opposed to trying to begin a new religion?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the New Testament gospels, we can find a portrait of a Jesus wherein he certainly considered himself to be operating within \"Judaism.\" I mean, there are any number of phrases we could select to show this (for a particularly 'conservative' one, try \"Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets; I have come not to abolish but to fulfill. For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all is accomplished,\" in Mt 5:17-18).\n\nScholars debate the so-called \"parting of the ways\" between Judaism and Christianity; but virtually everything about this is mired in ambiguity. It's probably most useful to talk about the parting of the ways in terms of when separate groups (like some of the figureheads in Rabbinic Judaism) would consider other groups to be \"illegitimate,\" and would attempt to exclude them from their sphere of influence and various normative social practices, etc. Certainly, in the New Testament gospels, words are placed in the mouth of Jesus that were deemed heretical--beyond the pale of \"minimal\"/normative Jewish belief--both by Jewish figures *within* the gospels, and without (and this obviously continues up to the modern day, among Jews). But, in a sense, the ideology behind this was probably thought to be a *corrupt* form of Judaism, rather than a totally separate ideology.\n\nThere were certainly anti-Judaic trends that developed among early Christian theologians--one of the great ironies of history. I mean, although there's an obvious sense in which this is ridiculous, you have some sayings by Paul (and others) that on the surface seem to be diametrically opposed to those positive statements made about the Law by Jesus (like the quote from Mt 5:17-18 earlier). And then you have things like [1 Thessalonians 2:14-16](_URL_0_), which was fodder for anti-Judaism.)\n\n____\n\nAddendum: there is a phenomenally difficult crux underlying everything here (and, really, underlying *many* issues of religion, identity, etc.): who is the person who gets to decide who is or is not a Jew (or a Christian, or a “liberal,” or whatever)? Do we look for a \"normative\" body of belief and practices, find all of those who conform to these, and then exclude all others? Or are the claims of the (supposed) \"outsiders,\" that there are in fact really *insiders* (just as much as any other person), enough to establish their insideness, in-and-of-themselves? \n\nIs Islam the \"perfected\" Abrahamic religion, over against Judaism and Christianity? Are Mormons/LDS \"Christians\" just as much as anyone else is?\n\nThe ambiguities of insider/outsider identity in regard to Judaism/Christianity are probably no more tangible than at the beginning of the 9th chapter of Paul's epistle to the Romans:\n\n > For I could wish that I myself were accursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my own people, my kindred according to the flesh. 4 They are Israelites, and to them belong the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises; 5 to them belong the patriarchs, and from them, according to the flesh, comes the Messiah, who is over all, God blessed forever. Amen. 6 It is not as though the word of God had failed. *For not all Israelites truly belong to Israel*, 7 and not all of Abraham's children are his true descendants; but \"It is through Isaac that descendants shall be named for you.\" 8 This means that it is not the children of the flesh who are the children of God, but the children of the promise are counted as descendants. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Simple answer: yes, according to the texts of the New Testament, Jesus was a Jew acting as a continuation and a fulfillment of Jewish messianic prophecies.\n\nMy first point is that there are repeated references in the Gospels and the entire New Testament to the Hebrew Bible, where Jesus (and others, like Peter, Paul, John the Baptist, and a bunch more) would quote from Jewish scripture. \n\nJesus was, in the view of the New Testament, the arrived Messiah, properly filling the requirements set forth by prophecies from the Hebrew Bible. Matthew 1:22-23 (that is, the Gospel of Matthew, the very first book of the New Testament), for example, is a quotation from Isaiah 7:14. Isaiah states (depending on your translation) that the messiah would come from a young woman, or more commonly, a virgin. Matthew uses this and Mary as proof that the child here is the one whose coming was foretold in Isaiah. In the second chapter of Matthew, at 2:5-6, we come across a combined quotation from Micah and 2 Samuel stating that the messiah would hail from Bethlehem, which Matthew tells us is where Jesus was born. There are around fourteen references through the Gospel of Matthew alone to various Jewish texts that reaffirm that Jesus fits all the criteria necessary to be the Jewish Messiah, not to mention the significant number of others in the books beyond.\n\nI would contend that the myriad references to Jewish texts were attempts to legitimize him as the Jewish messiah, linking him to Judaism in a profound way.\n\nIt's also tough to ignore the references to Jewish figures alongside Jesus in the text. This quotation from Mark, known as The Transfiguration, is a good example: *\"After six days Jesus took Peter, James and John with him and led them up a high mountain, where they were all alone. There he was transfigured before them. His clothes became dazzling white, whiter than anyone in the world could bleach them. And there appeared before them **Elijah and Moses**, who were talking with Jesus. Peter said to Jesus, “Rabbi, it is good for us to be here. Let us put up three shelters—one for you, one for Moses and one for Elijah.” (He did not know what to say, they were so frightened.) Then a cloud appeared and covered them, and a voice came from the cloud: “This is my Son, whom I love. Listen to him!” Suddenly, when they looked around, they no longer saw anyone with them except Jesus.\"* (Mk 9:2-8)\n\nThen, of course, there's Jesus' \"cleansing of the Temple\" in Jerusalem in John 2:13-24. He angrily addresses the people in the temple selling various goods and changing money.\n\nA second quick point is that, according to the Gospels, Jesus was born a Jew. Luke 2:21 tells us that \"After eight days had passed, it was time to circumcise the child; and was called Jesus....\" To my knowledge, really the only ones circumcising their children at this point in that region were the Jews.\n\nThirdly, there isn't ever really a place where Jesus says anything about creating what I would understand as a new religion. He talks of a new covenant (as does Paul later in the New Testament when discussing the meaning of Jesus' death); he talks about being the \"new Temple\": *\"Jesus answered them, “Destroy this temple, and I will raise it again in three days.” They replied, “It has taken forty-six years to build this temple, and you are going to raise it in three days?” But the temple he had spoken of was his body\"*; he even talks about a \"new commandment\" in the Gospel of John. \n\nIn several of the accounts of his death in the Gospels (all but Luke, in fact), Jesus is referred to as the \"King of the Jews,\" and this proclamation, according to the New Testament, is what got him killed.\n\nThe references to Jewish scripture, the details around Jesus' life and ministry as related to Jewish life, and the lack of any statements from Jesus suggesting that he intended to build a new religion all point to an intended reformation, rather than an attempt to break away and build something new.\n\nHope that helped! Post questions if you've got 'em! :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sure, Jesus was trying to reform Judaism, in that he claimed to be the fulfillment of Jewish texts--but the binary nature of the question (\"reform the Jewish faith\" *or* \"trying to begin a new religion\") can be a little misleading.\n\nYour humanities professor said Jesus was a \"Jewish guy trying to reform his church\"--but the really interesting part of that sentence is the beginning. Jesus certainly wasn't claiming to be \"[just] a Jewish guy\". According to the only record we have of his teachings, he claimed to be something way more important than that--so it doesn't make much sense to call him a \"reformer\" if that draws comparison with guys like Martin Luther, who emphatically weren't claiming independent divine authority to speak the word of God.\n\nHe claimed that the Old Testament prophets testified of his coming, that the ruling authorities of contemporary Judaism were out of sync with their teachings--and that he was the Son of God, able to authoritatively interpret God's law regardless of tradition and precedent. That sounds like \"reform\" of a sort, but how radical does a reform need to be before it's something fundamentally new?\n\nTo illustrate--Muhammad also claimed to be restoring the correct interpretation of the Abrahamic tradition, and leaned heavily on the Hebrew prophets, but you would hardly call him a \"Jewish reformer\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you so much to everyone for the answers, it is more clear to me now. Now I realize it is a more interesting and involved concept than I had originally thought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369237",
"title": "Emil Fackenheim",
"section": "Section::::The 614th Commandment.:Implications.:Conversion to other religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "After Auschwitz the Christian churches no longer wish to convert the Jews. While they may not be sure of the theological grounds that dispense them from this mission, the churches have become aware that asking the Jews to become Christians is a spiritual way of blotting them out of existence and thus only reinforces the effects of the Holocaust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2646111",
"title": "Criticism of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Scripture.:Unfulfilled prophecy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "The 16th-century Jewish theologian Isaac ben Abraham, who lived in Trakai, Lithuania, penned a work called \"Chizzuk Emunah\" (\"Faith Strengthened\") that attempted to refute the ideas that Jesus was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament and that Christianity was the \"New Covenant\" of God. He systematically identified a number of inconsistencies in the New Testament, contradictions between the New Testament and the Old Testament, and Old Testament prophesies which remained unfulfilled in Jesus' lifetime. In addition, he questioned a number of Christian practices, such as Sunday Sabbath. Written originally for Jews to persuade them not to convert to Christianity, the work was eventually read by Christians. While the well-known Christian Hebraist Johann Christoph Wagenseil attempted an elaborate refutation of Abraham's arguments, Wagenseil's Latin translation of it only increased interest in the work and inspired later Christian freethinkers. \"Chizzuk Emunah\" was praised as a masterpiece by Voltaire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4160363",
"title": "Disputation of Tortosa",
"section": "Section::::Proceedings.:Second phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The Jewish religious leaders fiercely rejected the claim that their refusal to accept the religion of Jesus is the reason for the lengthening of the Exile, for if they had accepted the Islamic religion and turned to such nations as the Ottomans, they would also have been freed from bondage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181116",
"title": "Johann Reuchlin",
"section": "Section::::Hebrew studies and advocacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1155,
"text": "Many of his contemporaries thought that the first step to the conversion of the Jews was to take away their books. This view was advocated by Johannes Pfefferkorn, a German Catholic theologian. Pfefferkorn, himself a converted from Judaism, actively preached against the Jews and attempted to destroy copies of the \"Talmud\", and engaged in what became a long running pamphleteering battle with Reuchlin. He wrote that \"The causes which hinder the Jews from becoming Christians are three: first, usury; second, because they are not compelled to attend Christian churches to hear the sermons; and third, because they honor the \"Talmud\".\". Pfefferkorn's plans were backed by the Dominicans of Cologne; and in 1509 he obtained the emperor's authority to confiscate all Jewish books directed against the Christian faith. Armed with this mandate, he visited Stuttgart and asked Reuchlin's help as a jurist and expert in putting it into execution. Reuchlin evaded the demand, mainly because the mandate lacked certain formalities, but he could no long remain neutral. The execution of Pfefferkorn's schemes led to difficulties and to a new appeal to Maximilian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35000033",
"title": "Insider movement",
"section": "Section::::The emergence of insider movements as a social phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "At the same time, some adherents of the world’s major religious traditions became attracted to Jesus, yet were not drawn to the religion or institution of Christianity. In the 1960s, for example, numbers of Jews, after significant study, came to the conclusion that Jesus was indeed the long awaited Messiah. Yet they had no emotional or cultural link to the Christian religion, which was often seen as a part of Christendom, and associated with countries that had historically mistreated Jews. Therefore, when these Jews embraced Jesus as Messiah, many opted to remain within Judaism rather than convert to Christianity. Since the 1980s, similar phenomena have been seen among those of other non-Christian religious cultures, most notably among Hindus and Muslims. It is important to note that many Jews do not regard Messianic Jews as being true Jews anymore. Furthermore, some Jewish followers of Christ have come to consider that the term 'Messianic Judaism' was a mistake, because it placed 'the emphasis on rabbinic Judaism instead of Jewish culture'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382494",
"title": "Christian Zionism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Some Christian Zionists believe that the gathering of the Jews in Israel is a prerequisite for the Second Coming of Jesus. The idea has been common in Protestant circles since the Reformation that Christians should actively support a Jewish return to the Land of Israel, along with the parallel idea that the Jews ought to be encouraged to become Christians as a means of fulfilling Biblical prophecy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597543",
"title": "Proselytization and counter-proselytization of Jews",
"section": "Section::::Christian missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "A leading effort to convert Jews to Christianity is known as Jews for Jesus. It was founded by Martin \"Moishe\" Rosen, a Jew who grew up in a non-observant home, converted to Christianity, and was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1957. In 1973, Rosen left the employment of the American Board of Missions to the Jews, now called Chosen People Ministries, to incorporate a separate mission which became known as Jews for Jesus ministries. In 1986 he received an honorary Doctor of Divinity Degree from Western Conservative Baptist Seminary in Portland, Oregon. Jews for Jesus is now led by David Brickner, who has been working for the organization since 1977.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
i978w
|
Is it possible that humans have evolved to have a tolerance to alcohol?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ask some native Americans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It appears that we have evolved a tolerance to alcohol. Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase is more expressed in humans than other mammals. Some people lack the enzyme (usually asians) which causes them to get red-faced and feel ill after drinking.\n\n > society may have partly formed due to beer\n\nThis is nonsense. Apes have societies and they don't make booze. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol tolerance in different ethnic groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "To engage in alcohol consumption and development of alcoholism appear to be common to primates, and is not a specific human phenomenon. Humans have access to alcohol on far greater quantity than non-human primates, and the availability increased particularly with the development of agriculture. The tolerance to alcohol is not equally distributed throughout the world's population. Genetics of alcohol dehydrogenase indicate resistance has arisen independently in different cultures. In North America, Native Americans have the highest probability of developing alcoholism compared to Europeans and Asians. Different alcohol tolerance also exists within Asian groups, such as between Chinese and Koreans. The health benefit of a modest alcohol consumption reported in people of European descent appear not to exist among people of African descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38568822",
"title": "Long-term impact of alcohol on the brain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "While researchers have found that moderate alcohol consumption in older adults is associated with better cognition and well-being than abstinence, excessive alcohol consumption is associated with widespread and significant brain lesions. The effects can manifest much later—mid-life Alcohol Use Disorder has been found to correlate with increased risk of severe cognitive and memory deficits in later life. Alcohol related brain damage is not only due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol-related brain damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187155",
"title": "Alcohol and health",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Alcohol (also known as ethanol) has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol consumption include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain and alcoholism. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin production, which speeds up glucose metabolism and can result in low blood sugar, causing irritability and possibly death for diabetics. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. A 2014 World Health Organization report found that harmful alcohol consumption caused about 3.3 million deaths annually worldwide. Negative efforts are related to the amount consumed with no safe lower limit seen. Some nations have introduced alcohol packaging warning messages that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer, as well as foetal alcohol syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46695897",
"title": "Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism",
"section": "Section::::Tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Tolerance is a lessened response to ethanol after repeated or prolonged ethanol exposure or consumption. In mammals, tolerance can form within minutes or over longer periods of time. Ghezzi et al. (2014) speculated that tolerance occurs due to a homeostatic mechanism that resists environmental changes. However, homeostatis does not explain how tolerance influences alcohol addiction in many cases. Epigenetic alterations, including phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation, miRNA, and chromatin remodeling, may help explain the cases not explained by homeostatic mechanisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The best available current evidence suggests that consumption of alcohol (chemically known as ethanol) does not improve health. Previous assertions that low or moderate consumption of alcohol improved health have been deprecated by more careful and complete meta-analysis. Heavy consumption of ethanol (alcohol abuse) can cause severe detrimental effects. Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease and cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases risk for certain types of cancer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312313",
"title": "Procedural memory",
"section": "Section::::Drugs.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "While the effects of Alcohol have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20hrtr
|
why did apple's iphone gain so much popularity but windows phones have seen such meager market penetration?
|
[
{
"answer": "The iphone had no competition, the windows phone did. The iphone has a positive market image, while windows phone does not.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "342663",
"title": "BlackBerry Limited",
"section": "Section::::History.:2001–2011: Global expansion and competition.:Primary competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "When Apple's iPhone was first introduced in 2007, it generated substantial media attention, with numerous media outlets calling it a \"BlackBerry killer\". While BlackBerry sales continued to grow, the newer iPhone grew at a faster rate and the 87 percent drop in BlackBerry's stock price between 2010 and 2013 is primarily attributed to the performance of the iPhone handset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::History and availability.:Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The continued top popularity of the iPhone despite growing Android competition was also attributed to Apple being able to deliver iOS updates over the air, while Android updates are frequently impeded by carrier testing requirements and hardware tailoring, forcing consumers to purchase a new Android smartphone to get the latest version of that OS. However, by 2013, Apple's market share had fallen to 13.1%, due to the surging popularity of the Android offerings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342663",
"title": "BlackBerry Limited",
"section": "Section::::History.:2001–2011: Global expansion and competition.:Primary competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The first three models of the iPhone (introduced in 2007) generally lagged behind the BlackBerry in sales, as RIM had major advantages in carrier and enterprise support; however, Apple continued gaining market share. In October 2008, Apple briefly passed RIM in quarterly sales when they announced they had sold 6.9 million iPhones to the 6.1 million sold by RIM, comparing partially overlapping quarters between the companies. Though Apple's iPhone sales declined to 4.3 million in the subsequent quarter and RIM's increased to 7.8 million, for some investors this indicated a sign of weakness. Apple's iPhone began to sell more phones quarterly than the BlackBerry in 2010, brought on by the release of the iPhone 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::History and availability.:Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "On March 2, 2011, at the iPad 2 launch event, Apple announced that they had sold 100 million iPhones worldwide. As a result of the success of the iPhone sales volume and high selling price, headlined by the iPhone 4S, Apple became the largest mobile handset vendor in the world by revenue in 2011, surpassing long-time leader Nokia. While the Samsung Galaxy S II proved more popular than the iPhone 4S in parts of Europe, the iPhone 4S was dominant in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::History and availability.:Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Apple sold 6.1 million first generation iPhone units over five quarters. Sales in the fourth quarter of 2008 temporarily surpassed those of Research In Motion's (RIM) BlackBerry sales of 5.2 million units, which briefly made Apple the third largest mobile phone manufacturer by revenue, after Nokia and Samsung (however, some of this income is deferred). Recorded sales grew steadily thereafter, and by the end of fiscal year 2010, a total of 73.5 million iPhones had been sold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19006979",
"title": "Macintosh",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990–98: Decline and transition to PowerPC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Apple's market share further struggled due to the release of the Windows 95 operating system, which unified Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products. Windows 95 significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought the capabilities of Windows substantially nearer to parity with Mac OS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43364288",
"title": "Xiaomi Mi 4",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Reception towards the device was generally positive, though there were still a high amount of negative feedback from users of Apple's iPhone due to its similar design and quality. Some media companies hailed it to be one of the best smartphones available in the market due to its high-end hardware which is sold for a comparably at a lower price compared to competitor smartphones. However, others criticized it for being too similar to Apple's iPhone 5S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ub64q
|
when a person is attempting suicide (eg about to jump from a bridge) and gets saved by emergency services, what happens to them next? what's their follow up care? could they just walk away?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well I don't know about the American system, but I imagine it's similar to here in the UK. If you tried and failed at suicide, they would treat you for whatever damage you did in the attempt, after which you would see a psychiatrist who would almost certainly section you, so you would have to stay in hospital to be treated for whatever it is that is causing you to attempt suicide, until the psychiatrist thinks it's safe for you to go home. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just gonna leave this here: \n\n**National Suicide Prevention Lifeline**\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't speak for other countries, but in America, you will be emergency petitioned, which is to say that you will be escorted to the emergency room. This is often by police, but it doesn't have to be. You will then be contained to the mental ward until the doctors decide you are no longer a threat to yourself. From there, you can go into therapy or back to therapy if you were already in it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, most states have laws that allow anyone suspected of being mentally unstable to the point they might harm themselves to be put on a 72-hour psychological evaluation. They get confined to a facility for three days, and after that, they might be released on their own, released to under the supervision of others, or held for a longer period of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "709239",
"title": "West Gate Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.:Suicide location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Those who argue for a suicide barrier claim that most of those who jump from the West Gate Bridge do so through impulse and that police officers who try to save those who try to jump are putting their own lives in danger. There are multiple incidents of police officers dangling off the side of the bridge while holding onto would-be jumpers. A 2000 Royal Melbourne Hospital study on people who jumped from the bridge found at least 62 cases between 1991 and 1998. Seven people survived the fall. 74 percent of those who jumped from the bridge were male, with an average age of 33. More than 70 percent were suffering from mental illness. Of those who jumped off the West Gate Bridge, 31 percent fell on land. Some of those who landed in water drowned afterwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45680787",
"title": "Suicides at the Golden Gate Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and intervention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Various methods have been tried to reduce the number of suicides. The bridge is fitted with suicide-hotline telephones and staff patrol the bridge in carts, looking for people who appear to be planning to jump. The bridge is now closed to pedestrians at night. Cyclists are still permitted across at night, but can buzz themselves in and out through the remotely controlled security gates. Attempts to introduce a suicide barrier have been thwarted by engineering difficulties, high costs, and public opposition. One recurring proposal had been to build a barrier to replace or augment the low railing, a component of the bridge's original architectural design, as amended by the second designer in the final blueprint. New barriers have eliminated suicides at other landmarks around the world, but were opposed for the Golden Gate Bridge for reasons of cost, aesthetics, and safety, as the load from a poorly designed barrier could significantly affect the bridge's structural integrity during a strong windstorm. Despite these concerns, on June 27, 2014, California approved a funding plan to install a suicide barrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45680787",
"title": "Suicides at the Golden Gate Bridge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "A number of measures are in place to discourage people from jumping, including telephone hotlines and patrols by emergency personnel and bridge workers. Although it had previously been considered impractical to build a suicide barrier, in 2014 the Bridge's directors approved a proposal for a net below the bridge's deck, extending out either side, rather than side barriers at the railings as had long been proposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22561696",
"title": "Van Stadens Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Suicides at Van Stadens Bridge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "One such dramatic rescue took place when a man from Humansdorp wanted to commit suicide from the bridge but was stopped just in time by Freddie van Niekerk, who had just walked past him and said he \"felt a sudden chill, as if God was speaking to me\" and grabbed the man. Van Niekerk endangered his own life and battled for 45 minutes to stop the man from jumping. Van Niekerk remained with the desperate man, even after the suicidal man had grabbed his benefactor's arms and threatened to pull him off the bridge, too. Van Niekerk had to save that same man a second time that day when he escaped from the Thornhill police station and started jogging back towards the bridge again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1853790",
"title": "Suicide bridge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "A suicide bridge is a bridge used frequently to die by suicide, most typically by jumping off and into the water or ground below. A fall from the height of a tall bridge into water may be fatal, although people have survived jumps from high bridges such as the Golden Gate Bridge. Medical examiners at the Golden Gate Bridge state that jumpers suffer a gruesome death as their bodies hit the water at about , with severe organ damage (multiple ruptured organs) and broken necks, pelvises, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20321",
"title": "Mackinac Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Facts and figures.:Work and major accident fatalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Because the bridge is not accessible to pedestrians, suicides by jumping from the bridge have been rare, with the most recent confirmed case taking place on December 31, 2012. There have been roughly a dozen suicides by people jumping off the bridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4438997",
"title": "Victory Bridge (New Jersey)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In the decade through 2014, nearly 80 individuals have attempted suicide by jumping off the new Victory Bridge, resulting in 22 deaths. In February 2011, The City of Perth Amboy sent a resolution to Governor Chris Christie and the New Jersey General Assembly requesting the addition of a fence along the Victory Bridge. Currently there are no phones along the bridge route but there are suicide hotline numbers listed along the bridge's route. Following the temporary closure of the pedestrian sidewalks and bike lanes in October 2014, NJDOT officials installed fences along both sides to prevent further suicides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1aflf1
|
What muscle are involved in your tongue sticking out
|
[
{
"answer": "The primary muscle is the [genioglossus](_URL_0_). Note the figure there - because it attaches to the inside of the chin, contraction of the muscle 'pulls' the tongue forward. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3101537",
"title": "Transverse muscle of tongue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "The transverse muscle of tongue (transversus linguae) is an intrinsic muscle of the tongue. It consists of fibers which arise from the median fibrous septum and pass lateralward to be inserted into the submucous fibrous tissue at the sides of the tongue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55999",
"title": "Tongue",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Structure.:Muscles.:Intrinsic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The superior longitudinal muscle runs along the upper surface of the tongue under the mucous membrane, and elevates, assists in retraction of, or deviates the tip of the tongue. It originates near the epiglottis, at the hyoid bone, from the median fibrous septum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39242947",
"title": "Sleep surgery",
"section": "Section::::Genioglossus advancement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, the surgeon cuts a small window or bone cut in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle where the genioglossus muscle attaches. This piece of bone, along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate and screws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3059656",
"title": "Genioglossus",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Genioglossus is the fan-shaped extrinsic tongue muscle that forms the majority of the body of the tongue. Its arises from the mental spine of the mandible and its insertions are the hyoid bone and the bottom of the tongue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3105992",
"title": "Genioglossus advancement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, a small window or bone cut is made in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle which is where the genioglossus muscle is attached. This piece of bone along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and is subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate(s) and screws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55999",
"title": "Tongue",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Structure.:Muscles.:Extrinsic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The four extrinsic muscles originate from bone and extend to the tongue. They are the genioglossus, the hyoglossus (often including the chondroglossus) the styloglossus, and the palatoglossus. Their main functions are altering the tongue's position allowing for protrusion, retraction, and side-to-side movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2283764",
"title": "Stylohyoid muscle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The stylohyoid muscle is a slender muscle, lying anterior and superior of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It shares this muscle's innervation by the facial nerve, and functions to draw the hyoid bone backwards and elevate the tongue. Its origin is the styloid process of the temporal bone. It inserts on the body of the hyoid .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
emiox6
|
how can you love yourself?
|
[
{
"answer": "If anyone ever is raised by their family *not* to love themselves, to have that voice in their head that speaks loving thoughts, then their family has failed them terribly (likely because they themselves were failed and so on..). No, that is not okay and not right and should be different. Everyone should work hard so that never happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A big part of the *how* is self-improvement.\n\nIf there’s something you don’t like, you alone have the power to change it. Change is not overnight, and often requires baby-steps.\n\nI struggle with this myself. All you can do is set small, realistic goals and take it one day at a time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49884522",
"title": "The Rise of a Tomboy",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "This is a story about a university student who believed love has a formula to success and tried to prove it in a month. Her mom left her when she was young and she learn to be independent and strong. She eventually felt in love but to prove her formula works she follows her mind instead of her heart, but only to realize in the end that true love is about being able to feel the heartbeat of the other person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14107691",
"title": "Love, Me",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "\"Love, Me\" is a ballad in the key of C major, accompanied by Fender Rhodes electric piano and steel-string acoustic guitar. It tells of a couple who promise to love each other. The song's narrator tells of being with his grandfather, and reading a note that was written by his late grandmother back when both grandparents were younger. The grandfather explains that he had intended to meet her at a certain tree: \"\"If you get there before I do, don't give up on me / I'll meet you when my chores are through, I don't know how long I'll be / But I'm not gonna let you down, darling, wait and see / And between now and then, 'til I see you again, I'll be loving you / Love, me.\"\" In the second verse, the narrator and his grandfather are at a church where they stopped to pray just before the late grandmother died, and the grandfather reads the note and begins to cry, that is the first time that he ever saw his grandfather crying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904391",
"title": "Pendragon (role-playing game)",
"section": "Section::::System.:Passions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Love\" is a feeling of affection for another person (a parent, sibling, friend, or lover) or people (allies / followers, friends, or family members) that the character has strong emotional ties to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10831328",
"title": "Insomniac (Enrique Iglesias album)",
"section": "Section::::Background and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "\"I wanted to write about love because it is the one thing that we all identify with. Everyone knows what it feels like to be with someone you love, and to fall out of love. You suffer because of love and then love makes you happy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27684741",
"title": "So Much Love for You",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "\"So Much Love for You\" is an upbeat pop song. It is based around an arrangement of guitars and light percussion instruments, along with background piano and added sound effects. The chorus sections feature added bass/percussion. The lyrics talk about being in love. The song's protagonists says that she will feel happily in love no matter what they are looking at, and no matter where they are together. They ask their lover, who has \"fallen ill with love,\" to embrace all of them, since they want to feel their true feelings from the voice in their heart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42587287",
"title": "First Love (Jennifer Lopez song)",
"section": "Section::::Music and lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "Lyrically, \"First Love\" talks about meeting somebody and finally feeling like it's the one and wishing you had met them years before. For Andy Walsh of \"Renowned for Sound\", the song \"deal[s] with the stars romantic past and the often-confusing side of relationships.\" Caroline Sullivan of \"The Guardian\" noted that the track \"sweetly extols the pleasure of finding the right person long past the first flush of youth.\" According to Lopez, \"The truth is it really is just about a feeling — the feeling of falling, of falling in love, the feeling of you've found the one, or that this person that you're with, you wish you would've met them years ago,\" she said. \"So for me it was less about telling a story, and more about capturing that feeling.\" In the beginning, she sings: \"And I wasn't looking for someone new / Til you came down / Giving me the best the time I've had.\" During the chorus, she admits: \"I wish you were my first love / 'Cos if you were my first / Baby there wouldn't have been no second, third or fourth love\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39382736",
"title": "Theories of love",
"section": "Section::::Necessity of love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Love allows people to attribute a sense of purpose for living. From the moment of birth relationships are made: mother and child, father and child, grandparent and child, and the like. As people grow older and enter into schools, jobs, and get involved in their communities the number of relationships, they have grown, as does their ability to maintain these relationships. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rzgyp
|
why people eat salty food then crave sugary food and repeat the cycle? what's going on in human body that causes this craving?
|
[
{
"answer": "We need salt and sugar to survive. Salt is vital for water retention and brain chemistry. And sugar is used by the body as well and natural sources of sugar like fruit and veggies are extremely good for us. \n\nAlso sweet and salty I believe are two major components of our taste. So our brain rewards is heavily for getting those things into our mouth and into our system. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We've evolved in environments where sugar and salt were no where near as abundant as they are today, and because they're so vital for our survival we've evolved to enjoy the taste of them in order to make us want to eat them to get the nutrition we need(ed). Now, there's a bit of a mismatch because of how readily available sugar and salt are. Not sure if this explains why you'd crave one after the other in a cycle though. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16063653",
"title": "Nutrition transition",
"section": "Section::::Relation to economic development.:Biopsychosocial forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "The desires for these new diets and lifestyles are very understandable from a biological and psychosocial perspective. For example, humans have an innate preference for sweets dating back to hunter-gatherer populations. These sweets signaled a good source of energy for hunter-gatherers that were not food secure. This same concept also relates to human predisposition for energy-dense fatty foods. These foods were needed to sustain long journeys and provided a safety net for times of famine. Humans also desire to eliminate physical exertion. This can explain the shift to more sedentary lifestyles from occupational, domestic, and leisurely activities that were previously much more physical taxing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159670",
"title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "If a food containing even small but perceivable amount of sugar (simple sugars or disaccharides that can be tasted sweet, or starch that is at least minimally hydrolyzed by salivary amylase, or even some non-sugar sweeteners) is eaten in this state, there may be a period of time after it enters stomach and before bulk absorption occurs, when continuous exercise becomes very hard, and easily triggers rhabdomyolysis. It probably happens because the digestive system senses and signals forthcoming delivery of sugars, inhibiting fatty acid release and oxidation, and starving glycogen-less muscle cells of the sole available source of energy. Even simple continuous exercise, like walking or washing dishes by hand right after the meal, may trigger rhabdomyolysis in the exercising muscles. This rhabdomyolysis is probably not of exertional, but of hypoglycemic nature, as loaded glycogen-less muscles can rapidly remove glucose from blood, and the normal mechanism of glucose homeostasis lacks the required responsiveness or capacity to prevent hypoglycemia. The broken down myocytes probably do not yield much glucose. Unlike the case with exertional rhabdomyolisys, there is no warning. At rest, however, the liver will effortlessly cover the whole body energy needs until absorption of carbohydrates occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4748084",
"title": "Self-denial",
"section": "Section::::Positive effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There is evidence brief periods of fasting, a denial of food, can be beneficial to health in certain situations. Self-denial is sometimes related to inhibitory control and emotional self-regulation, the positives of which are dealt with in those articles. As people grow accustomed to material goods they often experience hedonic adaptation, whereby they get used to the finer things and are less inclined to savor daily pleasures. Scarcity can lead people to focus on enjoying an experience more deeply, which increases happiness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14083964",
"title": "Animal psychopathology",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral disorders.:Addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1645,
"text": "Sugar addiction has been examined in laboratory rats and it develops in the same way that drug addiction develops. Eating sugary foods causes the brain to release natural chemicals called opioids and dopamine in the limbic system. Tasty food can activate opioid receptors in the ventral tegmental area and thereby stimulate cells that release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The brain recognizes the intense pleasure derived from the dopamine and opioids release and learns to crave more sugar. Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the mesolimbic system. The hippocampus, the insula and the caudate activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because it provides energy, but if the nervous system goes through a change and the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake, somatic signs of withdrawal begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested. Morphine tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug. Morphine tolerance does not depend merely on the frequency of pharmacological stimulation, but rather on both the number of pairings of a drug-predictive cue with the systemic effects of the drug. Rats became significantly more tolerant to morphine when they had been exposed to a paired administration than those rats that were not administered a drug-predictive cue along with the morphine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929220",
"title": "Food craving",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Foods with high levels of sugar glucose, such as chocolate, are more frequently craved than foods with lower sugar glucose, such as broccoli, because when glucose interacts with the opioid receptor system in the brain an addictive triggering effect occurs. The consumer of the glucose feels the urge to consume more glucose, much like an alcoholic, because the brain has become conditioned to release \"happy hormones\" every time glucose is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929220",
"title": "Food craving",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "There is no single explanation for food cravings, and explanations range from low serotonin levels affecting the brain centers for appetite to production of endorphins as a result of consuming fats and carbohydrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14511650",
"title": "Impulsivity",
"section": "Section::::Associated behavioral and societal problems.:Eating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Consumption of a tempting food by non-clinical individuals increases when self-regulatory resources are previously depleted by another task, suggesting that it is caused by a breakdown in self control. Impulsive eating of unhealthy snack foods appears to be regulated by individual differences in impulsivity when self-control is weak and by attitudes towards the snack and towards healthy eating when self-control is strong. There is also evidence that greater food consumption occurs when people are in a sad mood, although it is possible that this is due more to emotional regulation than to a lack of self-control. In these cases, overeating will only take place if the food is palatable to the person, and if so individual differences in impulsivity can predict the amount of consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m4ksf
|
all the different kinds of alcohol, what they are, how they're different, what each one kinda tastes like, etc. etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll go ahead and post this comment in place of the requisite reference to how five year-olds wouldn't exactly care-for or need these instructions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is something you kind of need to experience yourself but here goes nothing:\n\n* **Wine** is broken into two main categories: red and white. Wine is generally made from fermenting grapes. The color is mainly determined by whether or not the grade skin was strained out. It has a pretty low alcohol content relative to liquor, but a little bit higher than beer. 8-12% alcohol by volume is common. It tastes somewhat like grape juice but less sickly sweet (though some wines are very sweet, so called dessert wines). White wines are generally \"crisper\" than reds, but they all have such a wide variety of specific flavors that it is hard to generalize. Also in the wine category I am going to through champagne, which is basically really fizzy wine.\n\n* **Beer** is made from grains, and usually has a slightly lower alcohol content than wine. 5% for light beers, to 8 or 10 for regular. Some can get even higher. \"Bready\" is probably the best taste descriptor for someone who has never had beer, but again you really need to try it, and several different kinds.\n\n* **Liquor** is the last main category. Liquor is distilled, rather than simply fermented, giving it a much higher alcohol content than wine or beer. 40% alcohol by volume is kind of the \"standard\" content, but it can range from 20 up to 96ish. Different liquors can be made of different things, so I will address them in groups. **Vodka** is made from grain or potatoes. It is notable as a mixing ingredient because it has very little taste on its own. Good vodka is judged largely on how it feels in your mouth. It can easily be flavored with basically anything. **Gin** is basically vodka flavored primarily with juniper, giving it a \"christmas tree\" like taste. Very piney, with hints of citrus and other flavors. **Rum** is made from molasses, and has a complex flavor that can vary largely depending on the type. **Whisk(e)y** is made from grains, and has no one flavor. Some are described as smoky, peaty, but rarely fruity, if that gives you any general idea. It is broken down into Bourbon (usually from kentucky), Tennessee whiskey, Irish whiskey, Scotch (whisky), and Rye whiskey, broadly speaking, depending on where its from and what its made with. **Tequila** is made from the blue agave plant, and I really can't tell you what it tastes like because I have never had it straight. **Brandy**, **Cognac**, and **Port** are all basically fortified wines. This means wine was taken and distilled to a higher alcohol content. Brandy and cognac can be made from other fruits but they follow the same process. \n\nI probably missed a ton of stuff but hopefully this helps a bit.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "People all over the world have basically been sticking whatever carbohydrate-rich local agriculture they have access to in a vat in order to ferment and get an alcohol content. (That means that yeast takes molecules and make them into other molecules, in this case alcohol). \nThese fermented agriculture drinks include things like beer, cider, mead and wine. \n\nThen, someone discovered that by heating this stuff to just the right temperature (around 70°C), you can get the alcohol to turn into steam, while the water and all the other stuff will be left behind. If you catch the steam and cool it down, it turns into liquid alcohol again, only stronger than before. These are destilates, such as vodka (potato-based alcohol steam) cognac (grape-based alcohol steam) whisky (corn-based alcohol steam) and rum (sugar-based alcohol steam). \n\nEdit: Carbohydrate-rich, not protein-rich.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Scotch tastes kind of like you lit a stick on fire, let it burn for a while, and then started chewing on it.... whether or not you put out the fire before chewing depends on how much you paid for the bottle.",
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{
"answer": "Wow, I read the title of this thread and assumed OP wanted to know the difference between actual types of alcohol. Like ethanol, isopropyl, methanol, etc.\n\nIn fact, a literal reading of the title still seems to mean that. Though why you'd want to taste rubbing alcohol is beyond me.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "**Mead** This is a very old and often forgotten drink. It is believed to be one of the first alcohols, beer would be it's contender. Mead is made from honey, with the addition of other botanicals as well. Many people refer to it as honey wine because of its taste and i would agree. It is usually sweet, but with a little twang at the end and can be flavored with different honey and fruits to make it even more exotic, some have even been flavored with hops and won beer medals because [of it](_URL_0_). The term honeymoon actually comes from mead. Back in the medieval times newlyweds were given enough mead to last a moon cycle in the hopes that they would consummate a baby hence honeymoon. overall they run between 8% and 15% abv.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "**EDIT: A number of people have asked for more info, so here it is. I'm rearranging the article to make a bit more sense as well.** \n \nIf you want something done right... \n \n* **Wine** is fermented grape juice. Red grapes fermented in contact with the skins on make red wine. White wines are (usually) made from white grape juice that is fermented in the absence of the \"pomace\" (skins and pulp). Rose can be made by partly fermenting with the skins, from pink grapes (there are very few of these), or blending white and red wine (forbidden in some countries, I believe). Either red or white wine may be fermented and/or aged in oak, which gives them a 'toasty' flavour. \n* Adding a little bit of sugar and some fresh yeast just before bottling carbonates the bottle and makes **sparkling wine**. Champagne is the most famous sparkling, coming from the Champagne region of France. Sparking wine can also be made by pressurizing the still wine with CO2, or a few other methods. Force-carbonation is less than ideal, though, and mostly reserved for cheaper wines. Typically wine is 8-13% alcohol. \nRegardless of the style, grape or colour, the flavour of wine is generally a mixture of sugar, acid, alcohol, and (for reds) tannins. Young wines tend to be fruity and flowery, and as they get older, develop 'darker' flavours. Keep in mind that about 85% of wine produced is intended for drinking within a year or two of bottling. \n* **Fortified wines** are such things as Port (\"porto\"), Sherry, and Madeira. They are made by adding a hard alcohol (see below) to partly fermented wine. They tend to be quite sweet (with some exceptions!), round-about 20% alcohol, and are very unique. Sherry tastes somewhat like dates or prunes, Madeira is sometimes compared with soy sauce, and port tastes like...everything you ever dreamed of. (yes, I'm a port lover :-) OK, port is almost always sweet and fruity, often tasting the most like unfermented grape juice of all drinks. \n* **Sake** is wine made from rice instead of grapes. It has its own flavour, and I can't really compare it to anything else. All I can say is that it tastes like Sake. If anyone else want to chime in, I'd love some comparisons! \n* **Retsina** is resinated wine; that is, it's white wine made with pine resin added to the fermenting tanks. It has a VERY distinctive turpentine flavour and aroma that tends to overpower the base wine flavour, until you get used to it. \n* **Beer** is generally an extract of malted barley and hops that's been fermented. **Lagers** and **Ales** are made with yeasts that ferment on the bottom or top of the fermenter, respectively. Lagers are usually fermented slowly at cold temperatures, which gives them a crisper and often more complex taste than Ales, which tend to be more wine-like in character. These are very VERY broad categorizations. Beer flavours are driven by hoppiness (usually in the smell), maltiness, bitterness, and sweetness. Light beers can taste almost like carbonated alcoholic water, while some dark beers can taste like chocolate and woodsmoke. Note also that beer is sometimes made from rye, wheat, or rice. Also, Belgian (or Belgian-style) beers are an almost completely different category, often without hops, and with wild yeasts that give them a sour, winey flavour. Beer is typically about 3.5-6.5% alcohol, but can get as high as ~10%. Beer may be the broadest category of styles and flavours of all the different drinks out there, and is the oldest alcoholic drink we know of. \n* **Cider** is fermented fruit, typically hard fruits like pears and apples. (Note that in the USA, I believe this is called hard cider. Soft cider in the US is generally known elsewhere as unfiltered juice.) It tastes much like the fruit combined with alcohol, and is usually crisp and refreshing. \n* **Liqueurs** are usually manufactured drinks, that is they're made by adding alcohol to a flavouring. They can taste like absolutely anything - mandarin oranges, liquorice, pepper, vanilla, or anything else you feel like turning into a beverage. Alcohol content is all over the map, from ~20% to 50% or more. Most are made with neutral spirits (i.e. ethanol), but there are some liqueurs made from Whisky (**Drambuie** and Cream liqueurs such as **Irish Cream** are examples). \n* **Mead** is fermented honey, or honey wine. It can run from about 6-18% alcohol (typically 8-11%), and tastes like honey and when still young, wallpaper paste! It can be still or sparkling, dry(-ish) or sweet, and can have spices or fruit added. These drinks are called **metheglin** and **melomel** respectively. Mead always has a bit of an odd sickly flavour to it, and commercial meads are (sadly!) often sickly-sweet. \n\nI've got to head to work, but if there's interest, I'll do the hard liquors when I get there (~1/2 hour), and expand on any points above. I may be a borderline alcoholic, but I know my booze! \n\n* **Spirits, hard alcohol, liquor** are essentially cider, beer, or wine (or another basic fermented booze) that has been distilled. There are a huge variety of them. Mostly they are ~35%-45% alcohol, although some can be higher (cask-strength can get over 60%, and \"Everclear\" is basically straight alcohol). Because spirits are generally quite harsh when they're first fermented, they're often aged in oak (raw or \"toasted\", i.e. flamed inside, and sometimes barrels that have been used in other roles, such as red wine). \n* * **Vodka** is made from distilled anything--often potatoes because they're cheap and ferment cleanly. It should theoretically be a neutral spirit with no flavour other than the alcohol and water; but there are definite variations in quality, as well as flavoured vodkas. You can get things like chocolate vodka of course, but various regions around the world have traditional flavours as well - **Akvavit** is flavoured with caraway or dill, for an example, and **Ouzo** is flavoured with anise. \n* * **Gin** is vodka that has been flavoured with spices, typically juniper berries and assorted other components that are added at distillation time. It tastes...exactly like that. In the Netherlands (where Gin originated), **Jenever** is usually aged for a number of years and develops a soft nutty flavour. \n* * **Absinthe** is traditionally made in the same way as gin, but with fennel, anise, and wormwood. It is usually bottled at a very high alcohol level (~50-75%), but intended to be diluted with water and sweetened with sugar, ideally in an elaborate ceremony. It tastes quite spicy, and burns going down at almost any dilution. A compound (thujone) in the wormwood is a mild hallucinogen, and hysteria about it causing madness led to the general banning of absinthe around most of the world, until fairly recently. \n* * **Brandy** is distilled either from wine or from fermented pomace, the crud left behind from pressing the grapes. It is usually aged in oak for a number of years, but not always (many **Grappa**, for instance). Different parts of the world have the legal right to give their own regional name to their brandy, which is where **Cognac** and **Armagnac** come in--they are brandies from those respective regions of France. Brandy tends to be off-dry and have a rich caramel flavour in addition to the wine flavour in the background. \n* * **Fruit brandy** is brandy made from...fruit! That is, it's distilled cider. For some reason, these fruits tend to carry their basic flavour through more than grapes. **Calvados** is a (wonderful!) example of distilled apple cider. \n* * **Whisk(e)y** is, generically, a fermented grain that has been distilled. In other words, distilled beer. **Bourbon** is made from corn mash, **Rye whiskey** from (you guessed it!) rye, **Scotch and Irish whiskies** are made from malted barley (in fact, the stuff that goes into the stills in Scotland is very much like unhopped beer). **Canadian Whisky** is usually just called rye, but in fact is mostly made from rice. In fact, rice ferments and distills quite neutrally, so is added to a number of whiskies during fermentation to lighten the character. Trying to break down the flavours of these is almost impossible, since they're so wide-ranging. Depending on the region and methods used, Scotch Whisky alone can be sweet, dry, peaty, smoky, briny, astringent...it just goes on and on. Bourbon typically has a sweet vanilla flavour, whereas rye is usually a bit sour. What they all have in common is being strongly flavoured, and having a fairly pronounced flavour from the wood they're aged in. The spelling (with or without the 'e') is a bit of a mess. When in doubt, use whisky for Scotch, and whiskey for everything else, and you probably won't be beaten *too* hard. \n* * **Rum** is made from sugarcane juice, usually in the form of molasses. It has a (surprise!) characteristically sweet flavour, which becomes more pronounced in the darker (usually older) rums. White rum is fairly unique in that it's aged and then filtered of colour; most spirits are either unaged if clear, or coloured as a result of aging. This filtering renders it fairly light in flavour too, but probably not as harsh as if it hadn't been aged at all (NOTE: this is my own conjecture, based on grappa and the like). Also, spiced rums are exactly what they sound like--rum with spices added; typically cinnamon and Christmassy flavours, or coconut. \n* * **Tequila** is distilled from the Blue Agave cactus, and has a distinctive spicy, peppery, plant-like flavour. It can be sold unaged, or aged in oak for several years. Like any spirit, the harshness softens and develops more complexity as it ages in oak. \n \nThat's...well, lots of them. Certainly not all. There are a number of styles of coolers which are a base alcohol (vodka or wine) that have been sweetened and flavoured, and they taste mostly like the flavour that's been added. People have made wine from almost anything that ferments to a reasonable percentage (fruit, dandilion, lilac petals), and beer from any grain that grows (spelt, millet, sorghum...). There are drinks make from coconut (**arrack**) and from milk (**kefir** and **kumis** are two of many. Most likely by the time you get the chance to try them, though, you'll be far more knowledgeable about what to expect for flavour. \n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Everyone else has been explaining different kinds of alcoholic beverage, when the OP asked about different kinds of alcohol.\n\nAll taste strong. Ethanol is the alcohol in alcoholic drinks. Other alcohols (eg, methanol) can be harmful. Don't drink them.\n\nEDIT: corrected statement\n",
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{
"answer": "A few people have said that the difference between lager and ale is down to the type of yeast used in the fermentation process and while that's a decent basic overview it's not a strict measure. Lagers will always use a bottom-fermenting yeast and what are termed 'real ale' will always use top-fermenting yeast, but many other ales are made with bottom-fermenting yeasts. Porter, a type of ale originating in London in the 18th century, is an example of an ale that can be bottom-fermented.\n\nI think the better distinction is in temperature.\n\nLagers are fermented at lower temperatures than ales. This is why most lagers are clean-flavoured and refreshing - but not necessarily simple or light. As well as the malted barley and hops that are characteristic of every lager, other flavourings and fermentable material can be used. Wheat, for example, provides some classic and superb wheat beers, quite different to the mainstream light gold fizzy liquid that is often associated with the label lager. Blue Moon is a wheat beer that also uses orange and coriander to add more flavour.\n\nAles are fermented at warmer temperatures. This is why ales usually have more complex flavours and aromas than most lagers. It's also why ales are traditionally served warmer than lager, because each is more suited to the temperature at which it was brewed.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Best way to find out is by experience. Trust me on this one ;)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'll just talk about what I know: hard liquor. These are all 80 proof (40% alcohol) minimum.\n\n* **VODKA** is 40% alcohol and 60% water. Plain as it comes. It tastes like burning. Mix with whatever, or shoot it and chase with your favorite juice/soda, you girl. They drink it straight in Eastern Europe. My favorite: *doesn't matter, they all taste the same*\n\n* **RUM** is distilled from molasses. Spiced rum (e.g. Captain Morgan) is brownish and probably what you think of most often. White rums are purer and more vodka-like. Careful, some have been purified to ridiculous levels (e.g. Bacardi 151, 75.5% pure alcohol). My favorite: *Sailor Jerry* with Coke\n\n* **TEQUILA** is made in Mexico, and tastes like it. It's like a burro kicking you in the teeth while a Tijuana hooker squeezes your balls. If you buy expensive tequila, you want to sip it, the traditional Mexican way. If you buy cheap tequila, shoot it, the traditional American way: lick your hand, put some salt on it, lick the salt, take the shot, bite a lemon slice. Yowza. The first time you do this, you'll think \"that wasn't so bad,\" do six, and barf. There is a superset of tequila called **MEZCAL** which has a stronger flavor and sometimes a worm (seriously). My favorite: *Monte Alban* mezcal (the only mezcal sold at American liquor stores)\n\n* **WHISKEY** is the drink of classy motherfuckers and shameless drunks worldwide. It ranges from really good and expensive to really cheap and trashy. Subdivided into **WHISKY**, **WHISKEY**, **SCOTCH**, and **BOURBON**. Drink it straight if you're man enough. Nothing wrong with some plain old Jim Beam or Jack Daniels. The most popular Irish whiskey is probably Jameson. If you buy scotch, I recommend spending $50 on a good single-malt, it's really worth it. Don't drink it all at once. My favorite (that's not super expensive): *Bushmills* on the rocks\n\n* **GIN** is a horrible concoction drunk primarily by old people. In my opinion, any drink involving gin is improved by the substitution of vodka. Gin has a rather piney flavor. Personally I hate it.\n\n* **SOJU** is a Korean rice liquor that tastes like water and will get you absolutely wasted. It's considered rude to pour your own; let someone else fill your glass. Don't let them fill it more than 5 or 6 times though, because the Koreans are dedicated drinkers and excellent hosts. Shoot it straight, it tastes like nothing. My favorite: *no clue, I don't speak Korean*\n\n* **ARAK** is an Arabic liquor. It's clear in the bottle, and very strong undiluted, but you're supposed to mix it with a small amount of water in your glass and it turns cloudy. Tastes a bit like licorice. I've never had **OUZO**, a Greek drink, but it's supposed to be similar.",
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"answer": "An alcohol is an organic compound (meaning it contains carbon) that has a hydroxy (OH- , think bases like NaOH) functional group attached to a carbon. People typically think of alkane alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and butanol.\n\nEach alcohol has differing characteristics and there are so many that I can't list them all here. But alcohols are generally toxic and very strong smelling/tasting. They're commonly used as solvents; some are used as polar solvents because the polar OH- group is able to overtake the non-polar carbon chain. These alcohols will mix into water. Others are used as non-polar solvents because the carbon chain \"wins out\" over the polar OH- group.\n\nBecause of the weak hydrogen bonding between the OH- groups, alcohols have higher boiling points than other hydrocarbons. Allowing them to be liquid at room temperature.",
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{
"answer": "Not sure if it was mentioned, but all these different types of drinks are related: they all contain [ethanol](_URL_0_), which is a type of alcohol. In drinks, alcohol is a general term, but in chemistry there are many types of alcohols, just as there are many types of salts (not just table salt).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Just a minor correction to the things people are saying:\n\n**Gin is not juniper flavored vodka**, it's a spirit distilled from juniper berries with a couple of other spices for flavoring. Gin that's a neutral spirit with flavoring is called \"compound gin\" and it is terrible.\n\nDo yourself a favor. Only drink London Dry Gin. (I highly enjoy a locally produced gin called Clearheart that is especially citrusy, but Bombay Sapphire is enjoyable as well.)",
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{
"answer": "No one's really approached what they taste like, so I'll give it a go.\n\n**Vodka** tastes like alcohol. It's not supposed to have a taste of its own. This makes it an excellent mixer.\n\n**Gin** tastes like a sparkly christmas tree. This is better than it sounds.\n\n**Whiskey** tastes kind of woody and sometimes a little like caramel. It is very enjoyable, but will always retain its presence in what you put it in.\n\n**Scotch** tastes like liquid smoke or lighter fluid. I am told this is enjoyable. It is always drunk straight. Wars have been fought over whether this should be done at room temperature or chilled.\n\n**Tequila**, when it's cheap, tastes like it has thorns. The good stuff is smooth, vaguely citrusy, and rather astringent. \n\n**Sake** tastes kind of like the sea. In my experience, it's much saltier than other liquors.\n\n**Absinthe** tastes like a particularly vicious black liquorice.\n\nMost liqueurs taste pretty much like what you'd think they would based on their ingredients.",
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"answer": "again: you need to experience each. but... if i want to do it like we're all drunken kindergarteners, mixing sensations and tastes, here's my taste:\n\n* red wine: plums, grapes, and wood\n* white wine: bubbles, grapes, and sugar\n* beer: bread and burps\n* vodka: sharp and heavy\n* gin: sharp and fruity or bright\n* rum: mellow and round\n* whiskey: sharp wood juice\n* tequila: watery butter\n* brandy: see whiskey, but rounder\n* bourbon: see whiskey, but sweeter\n* port: dizzy raisins\n* sake: nail polish remover\n* cider: unsweet apple juice",
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{
"answer": "The best drink in existence is the Pan-Galactic Gargle Blaster. The effect of drinking one of these is rather like having your brains smashed out with a slice of lemon, wrapped around a large gold brick.",
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{
"answer": "I'll go ahead and post this comment in place of the requisite reference to how five year-olds wouldn't exactly care-for or need these instructions.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This is something you kind of need to experience yourself but here goes nothing:\n\n* **Wine** is broken into two main categories: red and white. Wine is generally made from fermenting grapes. The color is mainly determined by whether or not the grade skin was strained out. It has a pretty low alcohol content relative to liquor, but a little bit higher than beer. 8-12% alcohol by volume is common. It tastes somewhat like grape juice but less sickly sweet (though some wines are very sweet, so called dessert wines). White wines are generally \"crisper\" than reds, but they all have such a wide variety of specific flavors that it is hard to generalize. Also in the wine category I am going to through champagne, which is basically really fizzy wine.\n\n* **Beer** is made from grains, and usually has a slightly lower alcohol content than wine. 5% for light beers, to 8 or 10 for regular. Some can get even higher. \"Bready\" is probably the best taste descriptor for someone who has never had beer, but again you really need to try it, and several different kinds.\n\n* **Liquor** is the last main category. Liquor is distilled, rather than simply fermented, giving it a much higher alcohol content than wine or beer. 40% alcohol by volume is kind of the \"standard\" content, but it can range from 20 up to 96ish. Different liquors can be made of different things, so I will address them in groups. **Vodka** is made from grain or potatoes. It is notable as a mixing ingredient because it has very little taste on its own. Good vodka is judged largely on how it feels in your mouth. It can easily be flavored with basically anything. **Gin** is basically vodka flavored primarily with juniper, giving it a \"christmas tree\" like taste. Very piney, with hints of citrus and other flavors. **Rum** is made from molasses, and has a complex flavor that can vary largely depending on the type. **Whisk(e)y** is made from grains, and has no one flavor. Some are described as smoky, peaty, but rarely fruity, if that gives you any general idea. It is broken down into Bourbon (usually from kentucky), Tennessee whiskey, Irish whiskey, Scotch (whisky), and Rye whiskey, broadly speaking, depending on where its from and what its made with. **Tequila** is made from the blue agave plant, and I really can't tell you what it tastes like because I have never had it straight. **Brandy**, **Cognac**, and **Port** are all basically fortified wines. This means wine was taken and distilled to a higher alcohol content. Brandy and cognac can be made from other fruits but they follow the same process. \n\nI probably missed a ton of stuff but hopefully this helps a bit.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "People all over the world have basically been sticking whatever carbohydrate-rich local agriculture they have access to in a vat in order to ferment and get an alcohol content. (That means that yeast takes molecules and make them into other molecules, in this case alcohol). \nThese fermented agriculture drinks include things like beer, cider, mead and wine. \n\nThen, someone discovered that by heating this stuff to just the right temperature (around 70°C), you can get the alcohol to turn into steam, while the water and all the other stuff will be left behind. If you catch the steam and cool it down, it turns into liquid alcohol again, only stronger than before. These are destilates, such as vodka (potato-based alcohol steam) cognac (grape-based alcohol steam) whisky (corn-based alcohol steam) and rum (sugar-based alcohol steam). \n\nEdit: Carbohydrate-rich, not protein-rich.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Scotch tastes kind of like you lit a stick on fire, let it burn for a while, and then started chewing on it.... whether or not you put out the fire before chewing depends on how much you paid for the bottle.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Wow, I read the title of this thread and assumed OP wanted to know the difference between actual types of alcohol. Like ethanol, isopropyl, methanol, etc.\n\nIn fact, a literal reading of the title still seems to mean that. Though why you'd want to taste rubbing alcohol is beyond me.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "**Mead** This is a very old and often forgotten drink. It is believed to be one of the first alcohols, beer would be it's contender. Mead is made from honey, with the addition of other botanicals as well. Many people refer to it as honey wine because of its taste and i would agree. It is usually sweet, but with a little twang at the end and can be flavored with different honey and fruits to make it even more exotic, some have even been flavored with hops and won beer medals because [of it](_URL_0_). The term honeymoon actually comes from mead. Back in the medieval times newlyweds were given enough mead to last a moon cycle in the hopes that they would consummate a baby hence honeymoon. overall they run between 8% and 15% abv.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "**EDIT: A number of people have asked for more info, so here it is. I'm rearranging the article to make a bit more sense as well.** \n \nIf you want something done right... \n \n* **Wine** is fermented grape juice. Red grapes fermented in contact with the skins on make red wine. White wines are (usually) made from white grape juice that is fermented in the absence of the \"pomace\" (skins and pulp). Rose can be made by partly fermenting with the skins, from pink grapes (there are very few of these), or blending white and red wine (forbidden in some countries, I believe). Either red or white wine may be fermented and/or aged in oak, which gives them a 'toasty' flavour. \n* Adding a little bit of sugar and some fresh yeast just before bottling carbonates the bottle and makes **sparkling wine**. Champagne is the most famous sparkling, coming from the Champagne region of France. Sparking wine can also be made by pressurizing the still wine with CO2, or a few other methods. Force-carbonation is less than ideal, though, and mostly reserved for cheaper wines. Typically wine is 8-13% alcohol. \nRegardless of the style, grape or colour, the flavour of wine is generally a mixture of sugar, acid, alcohol, and (for reds) tannins. Young wines tend to be fruity and flowery, and as they get older, develop 'darker' flavours. Keep in mind that about 85% of wine produced is intended for drinking within a year or two of bottling. \n* **Fortified wines** are such things as Port (\"porto\"), Sherry, and Madeira. They are made by adding a hard alcohol (see below) to partly fermented wine. They tend to be quite sweet (with some exceptions!), round-about 20% alcohol, and are very unique. Sherry tastes somewhat like dates or prunes, Madeira is sometimes compared with soy sauce, and port tastes like...everything you ever dreamed of. (yes, I'm a port lover :-) OK, port is almost always sweet and fruity, often tasting the most like unfermented grape juice of all drinks. \n* **Sake** is wine made from rice instead of grapes. It has its own flavour, and I can't really compare it to anything else. All I can say is that it tastes like Sake. If anyone else want to chime in, I'd love some comparisons! \n* **Retsina** is resinated wine; that is, it's white wine made with pine resin added to the fermenting tanks. It has a VERY distinctive turpentine flavour and aroma that tends to overpower the base wine flavour, until you get used to it. \n* **Beer** is generally an extract of malted barley and hops that's been fermented. **Lagers** and **Ales** are made with yeasts that ferment on the bottom or top of the fermenter, respectively. Lagers are usually fermented slowly at cold temperatures, which gives them a crisper and often more complex taste than Ales, which tend to be more wine-like in character. These are very VERY broad categorizations. Beer flavours are driven by hoppiness (usually in the smell), maltiness, bitterness, and sweetness. Light beers can taste almost like carbonated alcoholic water, while some dark beers can taste like chocolate and woodsmoke. Note also that beer is sometimes made from rye, wheat, or rice. Also, Belgian (or Belgian-style) beers are an almost completely different category, often without hops, and with wild yeasts that give them a sour, winey flavour. Beer is typically about 3.5-6.5% alcohol, but can get as high as ~10%. Beer may be the broadest category of styles and flavours of all the different drinks out there, and is the oldest alcoholic drink we know of. \n* **Cider** is fermented fruit, typically hard fruits like pears and apples. (Note that in the USA, I believe this is called hard cider. Soft cider in the US is generally known elsewhere as unfiltered juice.) It tastes much like the fruit combined with alcohol, and is usually crisp and refreshing. \n* **Liqueurs** are usually manufactured drinks, that is they're made by adding alcohol to a flavouring. They can taste like absolutely anything - mandarin oranges, liquorice, pepper, vanilla, or anything else you feel like turning into a beverage. Alcohol content is all over the map, from ~20% to 50% or more. Most are made with neutral spirits (i.e. ethanol), but there are some liqueurs made from Whisky (**Drambuie** and Cream liqueurs such as **Irish Cream** are examples). \n* **Mead** is fermented honey, or honey wine. It can run from about 6-18% alcohol (typically 8-11%), and tastes like honey and when still young, wallpaper paste! It can be still or sparkling, dry(-ish) or sweet, and can have spices or fruit added. These drinks are called **metheglin** and **melomel** respectively. Mead always has a bit of an odd sickly flavour to it, and commercial meads are (sadly!) often sickly-sweet. \n\nI've got to head to work, but if there's interest, I'll do the hard liquors when I get there (~1/2 hour), and expand on any points above. I may be a borderline alcoholic, but I know my booze! \n\n* **Spirits, hard alcohol, liquor** are essentially cider, beer, or wine (or another basic fermented booze) that has been distilled. There are a huge variety of them. Mostly they are ~35%-45% alcohol, although some can be higher (cask-strength can get over 60%, and \"Everclear\" is basically straight alcohol). Because spirits are generally quite harsh when they're first fermented, they're often aged in oak (raw or \"toasted\", i.e. flamed inside, and sometimes barrels that have been used in other roles, such as red wine). \n* * **Vodka** is made from distilled anything--often potatoes because they're cheap and ferment cleanly. It should theoretically be a neutral spirit with no flavour other than the alcohol and water; but there are definite variations in quality, as well as flavoured vodkas. You can get things like chocolate vodka of course, but various regions around the world have traditional flavours as well - **Akvavit** is flavoured with caraway or dill, for an example, and **Ouzo** is flavoured with anise. \n* * **Gin** is vodka that has been flavoured with spices, typically juniper berries and assorted other components that are added at distillation time. It tastes...exactly like that. In the Netherlands (where Gin originated), **Jenever** is usually aged for a number of years and develops a soft nutty flavour. \n* * **Absinthe** is traditionally made in the same way as gin, but with fennel, anise, and wormwood. It is usually bottled at a very high alcohol level (~50-75%), but intended to be diluted with water and sweetened with sugar, ideally in an elaborate ceremony. It tastes quite spicy, and burns going down at almost any dilution. A compound (thujone) in the wormwood is a mild hallucinogen, and hysteria about it causing madness led to the general banning of absinthe around most of the world, until fairly recently. \n* * **Brandy** is distilled either from wine or from fermented pomace, the crud left behind from pressing the grapes. It is usually aged in oak for a number of years, but not always (many **Grappa**, for instance). Different parts of the world have the legal right to give their own regional name to their brandy, which is where **Cognac** and **Armagnac** come in--they are brandies from those respective regions of France. Brandy tends to be off-dry and have a rich caramel flavour in addition to the wine flavour in the background. \n* * **Fruit brandy** is brandy made from...fruit! That is, it's distilled cider. For some reason, these fruits tend to carry their basic flavour through more than grapes. **Calvados** is a (wonderful!) example of distilled apple cider. \n* * **Whisk(e)y** is, generically, a fermented grain that has been distilled. In other words, distilled beer. **Bourbon** is made from corn mash, **Rye whiskey** from (you guessed it!) rye, **Scotch and Irish whiskies** are made from malted barley (in fact, the stuff that goes into the stills in Scotland is very much like unhopped beer). **Canadian Whisky** is usually just called rye, but in fact is mostly made from rice. In fact, rice ferments and distills quite neutrally, so is added to a number of whiskies during fermentation to lighten the character. Trying to break down the flavours of these is almost impossible, since they're so wide-ranging. Depending on the region and methods used, Scotch Whisky alone can be sweet, dry, peaty, smoky, briny, astringent...it just goes on and on. Bourbon typically has a sweet vanilla flavour, whereas rye is usually a bit sour. What they all have in common is being strongly flavoured, and having a fairly pronounced flavour from the wood they're aged in. The spelling (with or without the 'e') is a bit of a mess. When in doubt, use whisky for Scotch, and whiskey for everything else, and you probably won't be beaten *too* hard. \n* * **Rum** is made from sugarcane juice, usually in the form of molasses. It has a (surprise!) characteristically sweet flavour, which becomes more pronounced in the darker (usually older) rums. White rum is fairly unique in that it's aged and then filtered of colour; most spirits are either unaged if clear, or coloured as a result of aging. This filtering renders it fairly light in flavour too, but probably not as harsh as if it hadn't been aged at all (NOTE: this is my own conjecture, based on grappa and the like). Also, spiced rums are exactly what they sound like--rum with spices added; typically cinnamon and Christmassy flavours, or coconut. \n* * **Tequila** is distilled from the Blue Agave cactus, and has a distinctive spicy, peppery, plant-like flavour. It can be sold unaged, or aged in oak for several years. Like any spirit, the harshness softens and develops more complexity as it ages in oak. \n \nThat's...well, lots of them. Certainly not all. There are a number of styles of coolers which are a base alcohol (vodka or wine) that have been sweetened and flavoured, and they taste mostly like the flavour that's been added. People have made wine from almost anything that ferments to a reasonable percentage (fruit, dandilion, lilac petals), and beer from any grain that grows (spelt, millet, sorghum...). There are drinks make from coconut (**arrack**) and from milk (**kefir** and **kumis** are two of many. Most likely by the time you get the chance to try them, though, you'll be far more knowledgeable about what to expect for flavour. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone else has been explaining different kinds of alcoholic beverage, when the OP asked about different kinds of alcohol.\n\nAll taste strong. Ethanol is the alcohol in alcoholic drinks. Other alcohols (eg, methanol) can be harmful. Don't drink them.\n\nEDIT: corrected statement\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few people have said that the difference between lager and ale is down to the type of yeast used in the fermentation process and while that's a decent basic overview it's not a strict measure. Lagers will always use a bottom-fermenting yeast and what are termed 'real ale' will always use top-fermenting yeast, but many other ales are made with bottom-fermenting yeasts. Porter, a type of ale originating in London in the 18th century, is an example of an ale that can be bottom-fermented.\n\nI think the better distinction is in temperature.\n\nLagers are fermented at lower temperatures than ales. This is why most lagers are clean-flavoured and refreshing - but not necessarily simple or light. As well as the malted barley and hops that are characteristic of every lager, other flavourings and fermentable material can be used. Wheat, for example, provides some classic and superb wheat beers, quite different to the mainstream light gold fizzy liquid that is often associated with the label lager. Blue Moon is a wheat beer that also uses orange and coriander to add more flavour.\n\nAles are fermented at warmer temperatures. This is why ales usually have more complex flavours and aromas than most lagers. It's also why ales are traditionally served warmer than lager, because each is more suited to the temperature at which it was brewed.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Best way to find out is by experience. Trust me on this one ;)",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I'll just talk about what I know: hard liquor. These are all 80 proof (40% alcohol) minimum.\n\n* **VODKA** is 40% alcohol and 60% water. Plain as it comes. It tastes like burning. Mix with whatever, or shoot it and chase with your favorite juice/soda, you girl. They drink it straight in Eastern Europe. My favorite: *doesn't matter, they all taste the same*\n\n* **RUM** is distilled from molasses. Spiced rum (e.g. Captain Morgan) is brownish and probably what you think of most often. White rums are purer and more vodka-like. Careful, some have been purified to ridiculous levels (e.g. Bacardi 151, 75.5% pure alcohol). My favorite: *Sailor Jerry* with Coke\n\n* **TEQUILA** is made in Mexico, and tastes like it. It's like a burro kicking you in the teeth while a Tijuana hooker squeezes your balls. If you buy expensive tequila, you want to sip it, the traditional Mexican way. If you buy cheap tequila, shoot it, the traditional American way: lick your hand, put some salt on it, lick the salt, take the shot, bite a lemon slice. Yowza. The first time you do this, you'll think \"that wasn't so bad,\" do six, and barf. There is a superset of tequila called **MEZCAL** which has a stronger flavor and sometimes a worm (seriously). My favorite: *Monte Alban* mezcal (the only mezcal sold at American liquor stores)\n\n* **WHISKEY** is the drink of classy motherfuckers and shameless drunks worldwide. It ranges from really good and expensive to really cheap and trashy. Subdivided into **WHISKY**, **WHISKEY**, **SCOTCH**, and **BOURBON**. Drink it straight if you're man enough. Nothing wrong with some plain old Jim Beam or Jack Daniels. The most popular Irish whiskey is probably Jameson. If you buy scotch, I recommend spending $50 on a good single-malt, it's really worth it. Don't drink it all at once. My favorite (that's not super expensive): *Bushmills* on the rocks\n\n* **GIN** is a horrible concoction drunk primarily by old people. In my opinion, any drink involving gin is improved by the substitution of vodka. Gin has a rather piney flavor. Personally I hate it.\n\n* **SOJU** is a Korean rice liquor that tastes like water and will get you absolutely wasted. It's considered rude to pour your own; let someone else fill your glass. Don't let them fill it more than 5 or 6 times though, because the Koreans are dedicated drinkers and excellent hosts. Shoot it straight, it tastes like nothing. My favorite: *no clue, I don't speak Korean*\n\n* **ARAK** is an Arabic liquor. It's clear in the bottle, and very strong undiluted, but you're supposed to mix it with a small amount of water in your glass and it turns cloudy. Tastes a bit like licorice. I've never had **OUZO**, a Greek drink, but it's supposed to be similar.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "An alcohol is an organic compound (meaning it contains carbon) that has a hydroxy (OH- , think bases like NaOH) functional group attached to a carbon. People typically think of alkane alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and butanol.\n\nEach alcohol has differing characteristics and there are so many that I can't list them all here. But alcohols are generally toxic and very strong smelling/tasting. They're commonly used as solvents; some are used as polar solvents because the polar OH- group is able to overtake the non-polar carbon chain. These alcohols will mix into water. Others are used as non-polar solvents because the carbon chain \"wins out\" over the polar OH- group.\n\nBecause of the weak hydrogen bonding between the OH- groups, alcohols have higher boiling points than other hydrocarbons. Allowing them to be liquid at room temperature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if it was mentioned, but all these different types of drinks are related: they all contain [ethanol](_URL_0_), which is a type of alcohol. In drinks, alcohol is a general term, but in chemistry there are many types of alcohols, just as there are many types of salts (not just table salt).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a minor correction to the things people are saying:\n\n**Gin is not juniper flavored vodka**, it's a spirit distilled from juniper berries with a couple of other spices for flavoring. Gin that's a neutral spirit with flavoring is called \"compound gin\" and it is terrible.\n\nDo yourself a favor. Only drink London Dry Gin. (I highly enjoy a locally produced gin called Clearheart that is especially citrusy, but Bombay Sapphire is enjoyable as well.)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "No one's really approached what they taste like, so I'll give it a go.\n\n**Vodka** tastes like alcohol. It's not supposed to have a taste of its own. This makes it an excellent mixer.\n\n**Gin** tastes like a sparkly christmas tree. This is better than it sounds.\n\n**Whiskey** tastes kind of woody and sometimes a little like caramel. It is very enjoyable, but will always retain its presence in what you put it in.\n\n**Scotch** tastes like liquid smoke or lighter fluid. I am told this is enjoyable. It is always drunk straight. Wars have been fought over whether this should be done at room temperature or chilled.\n\n**Tequila**, when it's cheap, tastes like it has thorns. The good stuff is smooth, vaguely citrusy, and rather astringent. \n\n**Sake** tastes kind of like the sea. In my experience, it's much saltier than other liquors.\n\n**Absinthe** tastes like a particularly vicious black liquorice.\n\nMost liqueurs taste pretty much like what you'd think they would based on their ingredients.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "again: you need to experience each. but... if i want to do it like we're all drunken kindergarteners, mixing sensations and tastes, here's my taste:\n\n* red wine: plums, grapes, and wood\n* white wine: bubbles, grapes, and sugar\n* beer: bread and burps\n* vodka: sharp and heavy\n* gin: sharp and fruity or bright\n* rum: mellow and round\n* whiskey: sharp wood juice\n* tequila: watery butter\n* brandy: see whiskey, but rounder\n* bourbon: see whiskey, but sweeter\n* port: dizzy raisins\n* sake: nail polish remover\n* cider: unsweet apple juice",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best drink in existence is the Pan-Galactic Gargle Blaster. The effect of drinking one of these is rather like having your brains smashed out with a slice of lemon, wrapped around a large gold brick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33999",
"title": "List of cocktails",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Cocktails often also contain one or more types of juice, fruit, sauce, honey, milk or cream, spices, or other flavorings. Cocktails may vary in their ingredients from bartender to bartender, and from region to region. Two creations may have the same name but taste very different because of differences in how the drinks are prepared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666105",
"title": "Fusel alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Aroma alcohols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4979006",
"title": "Flavored liquor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Flavored liquors may have a base of vodka or white rum, both of which have little taste of their own, or they may have a tequila or brandy base. Typically, a fruit extract and, in some cases, sugar syrup are added to the base spirit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151503",
"title": "Jelly Belly",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Jelly beans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Several flavors have been based on popular alcoholic beverages, beginning with Mai Tai in 1977. Over the years, new additions have included blackberry brandy (now discontinued), strawberry daiquiri, margarita, mojito, and piña colada. Draft beer, a flavor inspired by Hefeweizen ale, was introduced in 2014. All such flavors are entirely alcohol-free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4979006",
"title": "Flavored liquor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Flavored liquors (also called infused liquors) are alcoholic beverages that have added flavoring and, in some cases, a small amount of added sugar. They are distinct from liqueurs in that liqueurs have a large sugar content and may also contain glycerine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948043",
"title": "Alcoholic drink",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for use.:Flavoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2952",
"title": "Alcopop",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "While the alcohol content of flavored malt beverages is similar to that of most traditional malt beverages, the alcohol in many of them is derived primarily from the distilled spirits component of the added flavors rather than from fermentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fn3kb
|
what's the deal with the uk independence party?
|
[
{
"answer": "The uk traditonally had two main parties, Labour, left wing, and the Tories/conservatives , Right wing, Over the last few decades both parties have moved more to centre-left and centre-right. This is where the UkIP comes in. The Ukip is right wing party that aims to appeal to the more right wing members of the conservative party who feel disenfranchised by the Tories more recent moderate stance.\n\nOne of the Ukip's main positions is the UK should have more autonomy from Europe and European law. Possibly going far enough for the Uk to leave the European union.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "AmazingEmmet has put it quite well. UKIP has been around for a long time, it's only major policy being 'leave the EU', and nobody paid it much attention. Since the last election, however, its significance has skyrocketed.\n\nMy personal view on this is that it's a result of the Eurozone economic crisis making people worried about us being a member state (as if leaving would help at all), conservative voters disappointed with their party's stance on gay marriage, Europe and other social issues, and people who voted liberal as a screw-you to the main two parties but now can't do that anymore because they're in government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bunch of twats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50992504",
"title": "Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum",
"section": "Section::::Party politics.:UKIP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The UK Independence Party was founded to press for British withdrawal from the EU, and following the referendum its leader Nigel Farage announced, on 4 July, that having succeeded in this goal, he would stand down as leader. Following the resignation of the elected leader Diane James, Farage became the interim party leader on 5 October. Farage's successor Paul Nuttall was elected the party leader on 28 November 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217536",
"title": "UK Independence Party",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The UK Independence Party (UKIP ) is a hard Eurosceptic, right-wing to far-right political party in the. It currently has one representative in the House of Lords and two Assembly Members (AMs) in the National Assembly for Wales. The party reached its greatest level of success in the mid-2010s, when it gained two Members of Parliament and was the largest UK party in the European Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26878016",
"title": "Hope not Hate",
"section": "Section::::Significant events.:UKIP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In 2013 the organisation initiated a nationwide consultation among its supporters about the UK Independence Party (UKIP). The move attracted considerable criticism from some on the right. It went on to campaign vociferously against UKIP during the run-up to the 2014 European elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54073404",
"title": "Candidates in the 2017 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::Scotland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The UK Independence Party are stood in ten seats, the Scottish Green Party in three, and the Scottish Christian Party in two, with one candidate from each of the Social Democratic Party, Women's Equality Party, Something New, Scotland's Independence Referendum Party and Independent Sovereign Democratic Britain. There were also ten independent candidates. For the first time in many years, the Scottish Socialist Party did not contest the election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4887884",
"title": "2006 Blaenau Gwent by-elections",
"section": "Section::::Westminster by-election.:Candidates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Despite contesting both the previous Assembly and Parliamentary elections, the United Kingdom Independence Party decided not to stand a candidate, instead calling for a vote for the Blaenau Gwent People's Voice Group - even though the Group does not support withdrawal from the European Union, nor the abolition of the Welsh Assembly, key UKIP policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36148626",
"title": "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Analysis of results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The UK Independence Party (UKIP) came top of the poll, the first time a political party other than the Labour Party or Conservative Party had won the popular vote at a British election since the 1906 general election. It was also the first time a party other than Labour or Conservative had won the largest number of seats in a national election since the December 1910 general election. However, by the end of 2018, following multiple departures and other changes, only 9 MEPs remained affiliated to UKIP. By February 2019, there were only 7 UKIP MEPs, while 7 former UKIP MEPs had joined the new Brexit Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41688778",
"title": "Brexit",
"section": "Section::::Background: the United Kingdom and Europe.:Accession and period of European Union membership.:Euroscepticism, opt-outs and 'outers'.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic political party, was formed in 1993. It achieved third place in the UK during the 2004 European elections, second place in the 2009 European elections and first place in the 2014 European elections, with 27.5 per cent of the total vote. This was the first time since the 1910 general election that any party other than Labour or the Conservatives had taken the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election. UKIP's electoral success in the 2014 European election is documented as the strongest correlate of the support for the leave campaign in the 2016 referendum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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