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8e08ee
|
why is integral of velocity equal to displacement?
|
[
{
"answer": "An area under a function is the definition of an integral.\n\nOr think of it this way: you have a height of a function on a graph. The slope of the function indicates if the height is getting bigger or smaller. Ex: if your function is a line with positive (upwards) slope that means the height is getting bigger as you move along the line. If downward (negative) the height is shrinking.\n\nSo graphically, that proves the formal definition of a derivative -- the rate at which something changes. Velocity is the rate at which displacement changes. So if you tried to indicate displacement as an area, the function bounding the top of it would be its rate of change, and therefore its velocity. Some examples:\n\nIf velocity = 1 m/s, then every second the displacement is 1 meter. If you only analyzed the displacement for 5 seconds -- from time 0 to time 5, the height of the velocity function would be 1 the whole time. But the width would be 5, and you know that 1 m/s * 5 sec = 5m. Graphically, the area under V from t0 to t5 is 1x5 which also = 5.\n\nIf velocity as a function is equal to 2t, that means that it's 0 at t0, 2 m/s at 1 sec, 4 m/s at 2 sec, etc. So the object is getting faster, which means during each second it moves more than in the previous second. Intuitively the displacement (height) should increase each second. In other words, it would look like a triangle, exactly the shape under the V graph.",
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"answer": "Just to clarify, you're talking about integrating with respect to *time.*\n\nThe respective differential matters just as much as the nature of *integrand* does.\n\nIf you integrate with respect to *distance* you end up with the total travel time an object takes to get from location A to location B. \n\nThis is useful in a wide range of physics calculations where elapsed time needs to be known. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "19468696",
"title": "Fundamental theorem of calculus",
"section": "Section::::Physical intuition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Now remember that the velocity function is simply the derivative of the position function. So what we have really shown is that integrating the velocity simply recovers the original position function. This is the basic idea of the theorem: that \"integration\" and \"differentiation\" are closely related operations, each essentially being the inverse of the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "2047298",
"title": "Stokes flow",
"section": "Section::::Incompressible flow of Newtonian fluids.:Methods of solution.:By Green's function: the Stokeslet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "This integral representation of the velocity can be viewed as a reduction in dimensionality: from the three-dimensional partial differential equation to a two-dimensional integral equation for unknown densities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2823",
"title": "Antiderivative",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so on).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53252845",
"title": "Glossary of calculus",
"section": "Section::::I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "From this derivative equation, in the one-dimensional case it can be seen that the area under a velocity vs. time ( vs. graph) is the displacement, . In calculus terms, the integral of the velocity function is the displacement function . In the figure, this corresponds to the yellow area under the curve labeled ( being an alternative notation for displacement).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20491903",
"title": "Velocity",
"section": "Section::::Equation of motion.:Instantaneous velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "From this derivative equation, in the one-dimensional case it can be seen that the area under a velocity vs. time ( vs. graph) is the displacement, . In calculus terms, the integral of the velocity function is the displacement function . In the figure, this corresponds to the yellow area under the curve labeled ( being an alternative notation for displacement).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1783069",
"title": "Time derivative",
"section": "Section::::Use in physics.:Example: circular motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "With this form for the displacement, the velocity now is found. The time derivative of the displacement vector is the velocity vector. In general, the derivative of a vector is a vector made up of components each of which is the derivative of the corresponding component of the original vector. Thus, in this case, the velocity vector is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15314901",
"title": "Proper velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In relativity, proper velocity, also known as celerity, is an alternative to velocity for measuring motion. Whereas velocity relative to an observer is distance per unit time where both distance and time are measured by the observer, proper velocity relative to an observer divides observer-measured distance by the time elapsed on the clocks of the traveling object. Proper velocity equals velocity at low speeds. Proper velocity at high speeds, moreover, retains many of the properties that velocity loses in relativity compared with Newtonian theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ettsci
|
how exactly is a person's phenotype determined? does every gene in our dna influence our phenotype?
|
[
{
"answer": "So to start, there are dominant and recessive genes. You have two sets of every gene (one from each parent), so when one is dominant and the other recessive, the recessive gene isn't contributing anything (in reality this can be a bit more complicated). \n\nThen there's \"non-coding\" DNA, sometimes called \"junk DNA\". There's plenty of ways bits if DNA get into the genome. Viruses, mutations, etc. can all introduce random chunks of DNA with no biological activity. So this will also qualify. It's pretty unclear how much of human DNA is non-coding, but the upper limit of estimates is about 20%. \n\nThere are genes and traits associated with ethnicities, but it is important to be careful when talking about your DNA being a certain percentage Irish or something else. Genetic information codes for certain attributes, and certain regions have higher rates of those attributes. Scotland, for example, had a much much higher percentage of people with red hair than Mongolia. There are also trends in non-coding DNA, where certain random and mutations are more common in certain regions because someone got them and passed them along. This can also happen in functional DNA, as there are multiple ways for DNA to code for the same thing. But again, all of these things are correlations, so having a certain sequence of DNA means your ancestors are more likely to be from a certain region. There's certainly questions about the reliability of these markers. For one, theyre really only reliable if a population lived in an area for a very long time with little intermingling with other populations.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9819863",
"title": "Race and health",
"section": "Section::::Genetic factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A phenotype is the \"outward, physical manifestation\" of an organism.\" For humans, phenotypic differences are most readily seen via skin color, eye color, hair color, or height; however, any observable structure, function, or behavior can be considered part of a phenotype. A genotype is the \"internally coded, inheritable information\" carried by all living organisms. The human genome is encoded in DNA\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075217",
"title": "Phenome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 513,
"text": "Just as the genome and proteome signify all of an organism's genes and proteins, the phenome represents the sum total of its phenotypic traits. Examples of human phenotypic traits are skin color, eye color, body height, or specific personality characteristics. Although any phenotype of any organism has a basis in its genotype, phenotypic expression may be influenced by environmental influences, mutation, and genetic variation such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), or a combination of these factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24543",
"title": "Phenotype",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties in definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by Western blotting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human blood groups are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure. A notable extension to this idea is the presence of \"organic molecules\" or metabolites that are generated by organisms from chemical reactions of enzymes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12796",
"title": "Genotype",
"section": "Section::::Phenotype.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "BULLET::::- Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated. Some genes only express a given phenotype in certain environmental conditions. Conversely, some phenotypes could be the result of multiple genotypes. The genotype is commonly mixed up with the phenotype which describes the end result of both the genetic and the environmental factors giving the observed expression (e.g. blue eyes, hair color, or various hereditary diseases).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44746274",
"title": "DNA phenotyping",
"section": "Section::::Predicted phenotypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Human phenotypes are predicted from DNA using direct or indirect methods. With direct methods, genetic variants mechanistically linked with variable expression of the relevant phenotypes are measured and used with appropriate statistical methodologies to infer trait value. With indirect methods, variants associated with genetic component(s) of ancestry that correlate with the phenotype of interest, such as Ancestry Informative Markers, are measured and used with appropriate statistical methodologies to infer trait value. The direct method is always preferable, for obvious reasons, but depending on the genetic architecture of the phenotype, is not always possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1732638",
"title": "Expressivity (genetics)",
"section": "Section::::Variable expressivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Variable expressivity occurs when a phenotype is expressed to a different degree among individuals with the same genotype. For example, individuals with the same allele for a gene involved in a quantitative trait like body height might have large variance (some are heavier than others), making prediction of the phenotype from a particular genotype alone difficult. The expression of a phenotype may be modified by the effects of aging, other genetic loci, or environmental factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24543",
"title": "Phenotype",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "The phenotype () of an organism is the composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits, including its morphology or physical form and structure; its developmental processes; its biochemical and physiological properties; its behavior, and the products of behavior, for example, a bird's nest. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code, or its genotype, and the influence of environmental factors, which may interact, further affecting phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book \"The Extended Phenotype\" suggested that bird nests and other built structures such as caddis fly larvae cases and beaver dams can be considered as \"extended phenotypes\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tso90
|
how do laser range finders work? wouldn't the laser bounce away when it hits the target?
|
[
{
"answer": "if there is a visible dot on the surface, than atleast *some* of that light is being reflected back at you.\n\ndoesnt even need to be visible to you, as the device is going to be far more sensitive.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2714255",
"title": "3D scanning",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Non-contact active.:Time-of-flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The laser range finder only detects the distance of one point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans its entire field of view one point at a time by changing the range finder's direction of view to scan different points. The view direction of the laser range finder can be changed either by rotating the range finder itself, or by using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and can thus be rotated much faster and with greater accuracy. Typical time-of-flight 3D laser scanners can measure the distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35269648",
"title": "Laser tracker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Laser trackers are instruments that accurately measure large objects by determining the positions of optical targets held against those objects. The accuracy of laser trackers is of the order of 0.025 mm over a distance of several metres. Some examples of laser tracker applications are to align aircraft wings during assembly and to align large machine tools. To take measurements the technician first sets up a laser tracker on a tripod with an unobstructed view of the object to be measured. The technician removes a target from the base of the laser tracker and carries it to the object to be measured, moving smoothly to allow the laser tracker to follow the movement of the target. The technician places the target against the object and triggers measurements to be taken at selected points, sometimes by a remote control device. Measurements can be imported into different types of software to plot the points or to calculate deviation from the correct position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095325",
"title": "Smart bullet",
"section": "Section::::Types of smart bullets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In 2012 Sandia National Laboratories announced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with a laser designator. The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38309424",
"title": "Precision-guided firearm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In 2012 Sandia National Laboratories announced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with a laser designator. The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23772279",
"title": "Precision-guided munition",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Guided small arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In 2012 Sandia National Laboratories announced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with a laser designator. The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34350145",
"title": "Triggertrap",
"section": "Section::::Arduino-based products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "By using the Laser sensor, users can use a laser pointer or laser module (both visible and infra-red lasers are supported), pointing it at the laser sensor of the device. The user can then choose to trigger \"on break\" (when the laser beam is broken), \"on make\" (when the laser beam hits the sensor), or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461372",
"title": "Laser rangefinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "A laser rangefinder is a rangefinder that uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object. The most common form of laser rangefinder operates on the time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam towards the object and measuring the time taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target and returned to the sender. Due to the high speed of light, this technique is not appropriate for high precision sub-millimeter measurements, where triangulation and other techniques are often used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ak1u6
|
The Anglican Church: Ancient Institution or Created by Henry VIII?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to any greater a degree than in other regions of Europe. The church in England, in all its guises, has possessed national character, expressed through saints' lives, relics, and architecture. In terms of a church hierarchy the Pope was the official ruler of the English church right up until Henry VIII said he wasn't. That's not to say, however, that there weren't struggles over power and authority between church and state. The murder of Thomas Beckett, for instance (allegedly on the orders or wishes of Henry II) resulted in a struggle between Henry and Pope Alexander III which resulted in Henry II doing public penance -- a humiliating act for a king. Despite the pope's official role as head of the church, there was plenty of contention over who got to wield the real authority throughout the middle ages. This was not unique to England by any means. Henry IV (of the Holy Roman Empire) also interfered in church governance, claiming the right to invest bishops and abbots. His penance was at least as humiliating as Henry II's -- he had to walk barefoot through the snow in a hair shirt. \n\nI'm not sure what scholar you're referring to in your question, but the separate foundation of England in the early middle ages strikes me as revisionist as well. The standard narrative of the christianization of Britain begins with Pope Gregory the Great sending missionaries to evangelize the Anglo-Saxons. Gregory's orders were to not destroy the pagan holy sites but instead to sanctify them. Now we know that there were Christians in Britain before Gregory sent his missionaries. St. Patrick, for instance, was the son and grandson of a deacon and a priest in England around the early 5th century. But Gregory's mission, along with the arrival of Irish missionaries in the 6th century, began the process of converting the kings and leaders. \n\nIf one were to argue that the English church was founded independently, I'm hard-pressed to understand where and when the missionaries would have arrived. Again, not knowing which scholars you're referring to, I'm only guessing, but perhaps they would argue that the process of christianization happened under the Romans? That's true to an extent. Christianity did trickle into Roman Britain through merchants, soldiers, etc. But saying that there were Christians in Britain is very different from saying that a Church was founded, and that may be where the confusion arose.\n\nOne more thing with regard specifically to doctrine: the Pelagian heresy, which emphasizes human free will rather than original sin, started with the British monk Pelagius around the same time as Patrick. Not an auspicious claim to fame. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60603911",
"title": "Culture of England",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Today, the Church of England is the established church in England. It regards itself as in continuity with the pre-Reformation state Catholic church (something the Roman Catholic Church does not accept) and has been a distinct Anglican church since the settlement under Elizabeth I of England (with some disruption during the 17th-century Commonwealth of England period). The British Monarch is formally Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Its spiritual leader is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is regarded by convention as the head of the worldwide Anglican Communion. In practice the Church of England is governed by the General Synod of the Church of England, under the authority of Parliament. The Church of England's mission to spread the Gospel has seen the establishment of many churches in the Anglican Communion throughout the world particularly in the Commonwealth of Nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5955",
"title": "Church of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Church of England (C of E) is the established church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1214",
"title": "Anglicanism",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "The faith of Anglicans is founded in the Scriptures and the Gospels, the traditions of the Apostolic Church, the historical episcopate, the first four ecumenical councils, and the early Church Fathers (among these councils, especially the premier four ones, and among these Fathers, especially those active during the five initial centuries of Christianity, according to the \"quinquasaecularist\" principle proposed by the English bishop Lancelot Andrewes and the Lutheran dissident Georg Calixtus). Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as \"containing all things necessary for salvation\" and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith. Reason and tradition are seen as valuable means to interpret scripture (a position first formulated in detail by Richard Hooker), but there is no full mutual agreement among Anglicans about \"exactly how\" scripture, reason, and tradition interact (or ought to interact) with each other. Anglicans understand the Apostles' Creed as the baptismal symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1135593",
"title": "Religion in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Religions.:Christianity.:Protestantism.:Anglicanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The Church of England is the established church in England. Its most senior bishops sit in the national parliament and the Queen is its supreme governor. It is also the \"mother church\" of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The Church of England separated from the Catholic Church in 1534 and became the established church by an Act of Parliament in the Act of Supremacy, beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation. Historically it has been the predominant Christian denomination in England and Wales, in terms of both influence and number of adherents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "259071",
"title": "History of the Church of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The formal history of the Church of England is traditionally dated by the Church to the Gregorian mission to England by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in AD 597. As a result of Augustine's mission, and based on the tenets of Christianity, Christianity in England fell under control or authority of the Pope. This gave him the power to appoint bishops, preserve or change doctrine, and/or grant exceptions to standard doctrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50549",
"title": "Diocese",
"section": "Section::::Church of England and Anglican Communion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "After the English Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as dioceses, not archdioceses: they are the metropolitan bishops of their respective provinces and bishops of their own diocese and have the position of archbishop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909",
"title": "Anglican Communion",
"section": "Section::::Ecclesiology, polity and ethos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Originally, the Church of England was self-contained and relied for its unity and identity on its own history, its traditional legal and episcopal structure and its status as an established church of the state. As such Anglicanism was, from the outset, a movement with an explicitly episcopal polity, a characteristic which has been vital in maintaining the unity of the communion by conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
4plcsp
|
Whats stopping us from using H2O electrolysis as energy storage for solar arrays?
|
[
{
"answer": "People have been talking about the \"Hydrogen Economy\" since the 70s, but there are some significant issues that have plagued it, although a lot of smart people are working on the problems.\n\nThe first is how to store the hydrogen. First off, it is extremely flammable (think Hindenburg), and while the gas by weight is very energy dense, it is not very energy dense by *volume*. To make matters worse, because it is so small, it can escape many containers, and even [diffuse into steel or other metals making them brittle.](_URL_0_) This last issue can be avoided by expensive coatings that are already in use for natural gas pipelines.\n\nMost attention has been put into the energy density by volume issue. These include high pressure hydrogen (bad because pressurization is expensive, as well as needing heavy, embrittlement-proof tanks), liquid hydrogen (bad because it is a cryogenic liquid @ ~20 K, again expensive to condense), storage as a metal hydride (reversible, but needs high pressures and temperatures), and probably most promisingly, adsorption on to other materials.\n\nThese adsorption materials are porous in specific manners, which could potentially store molecular hydrogen at high density without extreme conditions. These can be natural rocks such as zeolites, or complex synthetic [metal-organic frameworks](_URL_1_). A lot of current research still requires very low temperature conditions again.\n\nPerhaps the real kicker is the energy efficiency. Electrolysis of water is only about 70% efficient, and a modern fuel cell has an efficiency of only ~40%. Compared to the nearly 90% efficiency that Li-ion batteries have from grid to application, hydrogen doesn't look so great.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Efficiency. I'm pretty sure batteries, or even compressed air, would be more efficient than electrolysis. Researchers do seem to come out with improvements to efficiency, but so far I have not heard of any large-scale even-pilot systems to work on a 'grid'. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why suffer an inefficiency conundrum when Sunlight and water are either inexpensive or free? CO2 and Methane are in the equation. It matters that emission free energy generation and stored short-term fuel from it is free of GHG. Hydrogen is an efficient means to bridge hybrid electric engines. Photovoltaic partial self-consumption from array to generate Hydrogen as a fuel for storage already has proven to work. It's going to be very clear (soon enough) that this is economically feasible. There's also Demand management from Hydrogen which can immediately address peak demand from grid infrastructure. There is behind the meter configuration that blows away Solid Chemistry battery storage (with a coupled solar array, hydrogen generator and a fuel cell) which provides for emergency generator (Islanded) and for disaster relief station's which can be had from this arrangement. Hydrogen is probably more safe a fuel than gasoline or propane or natural gas. The Hindenburg argument is a red herring. Hydrogen open the the atmosphere will travel straight into space (where it yearns to be) at a rate of 40 miles per hour. The Hindenburg's first 4 seconds was all Hydrogen (true) the rest of it, which nobody explains or discusses, was the Magnesium Paint applied to the surface of the Zeppelin... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1110875",
"title": "High-temperature electrolysis",
"section": "Section::::Economic potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Even with HTE, electrolysis is a fairly inefficient way to store energy. Significant conversion losses of energy occur both in the electrolysis process, and in the conversion of the resulting hydrogen back into power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39435562",
"title": "Grid balancing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "This temporarily excess electric energy could alternatively be used in electrolysis of water to make high purity hydrogen fuel used in fuel cells. In areas with little hydroelectricity, pumped storage systems such as the Dinorwig Power Station can allow the energy to be used for operational reserve or at times of peak demand rather than run a natural gas peaking power plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18790726",
"title": "High-pressure electrolysis",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The US DOE believes that high-pressure electrolysis, supported by ongoing research and development, will contribute to the enabling and acceptance of technologies where hydrogen is the energy carrier between renewable energy resources and clean energy consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "452779",
"title": "Brilliant Light Power",
"section": "Section::::Company.:Collaborators with the company.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "In 1996, NASA released a report describing experiments using a BLP electrolytic cell. Although not recreating the large heat gains reported for the cell by BLP, unexplained power gains ranging from 1.06 to 1.68 of the input power were reported, which, whilst \"...admit[ing] the existence of an unusual source of heat with the cell...falls far short of being compelling\". The authors went on to propose the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen as a possible explanation of the anomalous results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24429024",
"title": "Lithium–air battery",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Grid backup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The solar cell used a mesh made from microscopic rods of titanium dioxide to allow the needed oxygen to pass through. Captured sunlight produced electrons that decompose lithium peroxide into lithium ions, thereby charging the battery. During discharge, oxygen from air replenished the lithium peroxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11034547",
"title": "PS10 solar power plant",
"section": "Section::::Energy storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The PS10 solar power tower stores heat in tanks as superheated and pressurized water at 50 bar and 285 °C. The water evaporates and flashes back to steam, releasing energy and reducing the pressure. Storage is for 30 minutes. It is suggested that longer storage is possible, but that has not been proven in an existing power plant. However, there are many considerations for using molten salt as an energy storage medium due to the great capability of storing energy for long periods without substantial losses. Another possibility is to use a phase-change material as thermal storage where latent heat is used to store energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2712280",
"title": "Solar desalination",
"section": "Section::::Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF).:Solutions for thermal systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "One solution to the barrier presented by the high level of solar energy required in solar desalination efforts is to reduce the pressure within the reservoir. This can be accomplished using a vacuum pump, and significantly decreases the temperature of heat energy required for desalination. For example, water at a pressure of 0.1 atmospheres boils at rather than .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6p4576
|
how did people who found other people who speak a previously unknown language translate it to the point of perfection?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same way children who previously don't know any language learn it to perfection: someone learns the unknown language. As soon as you've got a few people that can translate, the accuracy of it snowballs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9248",
"title": "Esperanto",
"section": "Section::::Official use.:Achievement of its creator's goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Zamenhof's goal to \"enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not\", as he wrote in 1887, has been achieved, as the language is currently spoken by people living in more than 100 countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3889714",
"title": "Stillbay",
"section": "Section::::Tools and fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Kyle Brown, one of the scientists responsible for this research has been quoted as making a link with the existence of language: \"These people were extremely smart ... I don't think you could have passed down these skills from generation to generation without language.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42805822",
"title": "Lingwa de planeta",
"section": "Section::::Development and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "At the moment the language is used mainly on the Internet, when it comes to direct communication. About 10–15 people have mastered the language, and about 50 can use it in communication. A lot of texts have been translated, including rather spacious texts like \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\" by Lewis Carroll, and \"Sailor Ruterford in Maori captivity\" by (son of Korney Chukovsky; translated from Russian), and also some tales. There are songs both written and translated, including an album by musician , and subtitles made for cartoons and movies (like the popular Russian film \"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5561",
"title": "Computational linguistics",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In order to translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the grammar of both languages, including both morphology (the grammar of word forms) and syntax (the grammar of sentence structure). In order to understand syntax, one had to also understand the semantics and the lexicon (or 'vocabulary'), and even something of the pragmatics of language use. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process natural languages using computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31350029",
"title": "List of autodidacts",
"section": "Section::::Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "BULLET::::- Kató Lomb, one of the first simultaneous interpreters in the world, spoke more than ten languages fluently and she learned them by gleaning their rules and vocabulary from books (mostly novels), as she described in her book \"Polyglot: How I Learn Languages\" (2008), originally published in Hungarian in four editions (1970, 1972, 1990, 1995).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43762960",
"title": "Atlantis (franchise)",
"section": "Section::::Atlantean language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "To create this, Dr. Okrand took common characteristics of all world languages and applied them to the Proto-Indo-European language. His main source of words (roots and stems) for the language is Proto-Indo-European, but Okrand also uses ancient Chinese, Biblical Hebrew, Latin and Greek languages, along with a variety of other ancient languages or ancient language reconstruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630584",
"title": "Xenoglossy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Stories of the miraculous abilities of certain individuals to read, write, speak, or understand a foreign language that appear in the Bible and other Christian religious literature went on to inspire similar accounts and stories during the Middle Ages. Claims of mediums speaking foreign languages were made by Spiritualists in the 19th century, as well as by Pentecostals in the 20th century, but these did not hold up to scientific scrutiny. More recent claims of xenoglossy have come from reincarnation researchers who have alleged that individuals were able to recall a language spoken in a past life. Some reports of xenoglossy have surfaced in the popular press, such as Czech speedway rider Matěj Kůs who in September 2007 supposedly awoke after a crash and was able to converse in perfect English; however press reports of his fluency in English were based entirely on anecdotal stories told by his Czech teammates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7te4qe
|
What happened to General Montgomery after Operation: Market Garden failed?
|
[
{
"answer": "tl;dr - Almost nothing changed in Montgomery's situation, he continued in command of the 21st Army Group which included most (all?) of the Commonwealth combat divisions, and several US units, until the end of the war.\n\nFor a while since the invasion of Normandy Montgomery had been pressing for Eisenhower to appoint a single commander for the ground troops in NW Europe. Naturally his intent that this commander would be himself. Remember that Montgomery was the ground forces commander for Operation Overlord, having command over Bradley and US 1st Army, until the command structure was changed in July 1944. He also wanted all the allies effort focused on a single push into Germany. Again his intent was he would command this push. Eisenhower resisted these suggestions, not least because the US was already providing the bulk of the armed forces in Europe, but found it difficult to argue against Montgomery's charisma and experience.\n\nFollowing Market Garden, Montgomery continued to argue for a single commander and a single push but the over-worked Eisenhower was now determined to stick to the plan of advancing on multiple fronts. The relationship between the two became further strained and Montgomery wrote an ill-advised letter to Eisenhower which almost cost him his job in October. Eisenhower was forced to give Montgomery a direct order to open him the port of Antwerp to shipping in order to relieve the Allies logistics problems. \n\nWhen the Germans launched their winter offensive (The Battle of the Bulge) on December 16th 1944 they quickly drove a wedge between the US 1st and 9th Armies on the north side of the bulge and the rest of the US 12th Army (see 1 below). Bradley's HQ was south of the Bulge and in order to simplify communications control of those Armies was temporarily transferred to Montgomery. Following the reduction of the pocket control was returned to Bradley, but the US commanders did not appreciate the interference and liked even less Montgomery's implication to the press that he alone had saved the Americans.\n\nHowever, Montgomery's reputation in the UK was such that it was pretty much unaffected by the failure of Market Garden. After the war he commanded the British forces occupying Northern Germany, which became the British Army Of the Rhine (BAOR), was appointed as Chief of the Imperial General Staff and also served as Deputy Supreme Commander of NATO.\n\nSome other points:\n\n1. Montgomery was just one of three ground forces commanders under Eisenhower from August 1944 to the end of the war in Europe. The other two were Bradley, commanding the 12th US Army Group and Gen Jacob Devers, commanding the 6th Army Group^*. Patton commanded the 3rd US Army under Bradley (mostly).\n\n2. Although Market Garden failed to achieve its ultimate goal of seizing the Arnhem bridge, the ground that was taken during the operation was crucial as a jumping off point when the offensive resumed in early 1945.\n\n3. Patton would not have been appointed to command the 21st Army Group which, as noted, was largely composed of Commonwealth troops. Such a move would have been politically impossible.\n\nprinciple source : Rick Atkinson, *The Guns at Last Light*\n\n^* Devers command responsibilities were very complex and fluid and well outside the scope of this question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3873",
"title": "Bernard Montgomery",
"section": "Section::::Second World War.:Operation Market Garden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Montgomery's plan for Operation Market Garden (17–25 September 1944) was to outflank the Siegfried Line and cross the Rhine, setting the stage for later offensives into the Ruhr region. The 21st Army Group would attack north from Belgium, through the Netherlands, across the Rhine and consolidate north of Arnhem on the far side of the Rhine. The risky plan required three Airborne Divisions to capture numerous intact bridges along a single-lane road, on which an entire Corps had to attack and use as its main supply route. The offensive failed to achieve its objectives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26675322",
"title": "No. 38 Group RAF",
"section": "Section::::History.:Light Warning Units at Arnhem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Operation MARKET GARDEN was Field Marshal Montgomery’s bold plan to capture the vital bridges over the Dutch rivers at Arnhem in 1944. The plan required the deployment of two highly secret radar units so that Close Air Support could be given to the lightly equipped airborne units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8845577",
"title": "Wiltshire Regiment",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Second World War.:Territorial and war service battalions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "During Operation Market Garden, the 4th and 5th Wiltshires formed part of the relief force that tried to reach the airborne troops of the US 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, as well as the British 1st Airborne Division fighting at Arnhem. After the failure of Market Garden and the ensuing stalemate, both battalions participated in the Geilenkirchen Offensive in October 1944. Both battalions also played a significant part in the 43rd division's fighting in the Roer Salient, as well as the capture of Bremen. By the time of VE-Day and the end of the war in Europe both battalions had suffered heavy casualties; 4th Wilts had suffered 19 officers and 213 other ranks killed in action and the 5th Wilts had 334 killed in action, including 21 officers, with a further 1,277 wounded or missing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56433",
"title": "Operation Market Garden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Operation Market Garden was a failed World War II military operation fought in the Netherlands from 17 to 25 September 1944. It was the brainchild of Field Marshal Sir Bernard Law Montgomery, planned primarily by Generals Brereton and Williams of the USAAF. The airborne part of the operation was undertaken by the First Allied Airborne Army with the land operation by XXX Corps of the British Second Army. The objective was to create a salient into German territory with a foothold over the River Rhine, creating an Allied invasion route into northern Germany. This was to be achieved by seizing a series of nine bridges by Airborne forces with land forces swiftly following moving over the bridges. The operation succeeded in liberating the Dutch cities of Eindhoven and Nijmegen along with many towns, creating a salient into German-held territory limiting V-2 rocket launching sites. It failed, however, to secure a foothold over the Rhine, halting at the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2066288",
"title": "Medal of Honor: Airborne",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "After Market Garden ends in failure for the Allies, Travers transfers to the 17th Airborne Division. In March 1945, his division takes part in Operation Varsity, landing within an industrial complex in Essen, Germany, to destroy its stockpile of munitions and tanks, while shutting down its weapon production facilities. Despite a counter-attack by heavily armored Allgemeine SS troopers wielding MG42s that inflict heavy losses on the Allied troops, Travers manages to overcome the new threat and successfully destroys an armoured ammunition train that arrives at the complex. A few days later, with Operation Varsity proceeding as planned, Travers finds his squadron going deeper into enemy-held territory within Essen, with the task of destroying a massive flak tower that Allied bombers had failed to level. Despite heavy opposition, Travers helps to neutralize key fortifications within the tower, before assisting an engineering unit and detonating charges placed beneath the tower, destroying the structure as the war in Europe begins to enter its final stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3873",
"title": "Bernard Montgomery",
"section": "Section::::Second World War.:Normandy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Operation Goodwood almost cost Montgomery his job, as Eisenhower seriously considered sacking him and only chose not to do so because to sack the popular \"Monty\" would have caused such a political backlash in Britain against the Americans at a critical moment in the war that the resulting strains in the Atlantic alliance were not considered worth it. Montgomery expressed his satisfaction at the results of Goodwood when calling the operation off. Eisenhower was under the impression that Goodwood was to be a break out operation. There was a miscommunication between the two men or Eisenhower did not understand the strategy. Alan Brooke chief of the British Imperial General Staff wrote: \"Ike knows nothing about strategy and is quite unsuited to the post of Supreme Commander. It is no wonder that Monty's real high ability is not always realised\". Bradley fully understood Montgomery's intentions. Both men would not give away to the press the true intentions of their strategy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42090",
"title": "George S. Patton",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Lorraine Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1259,
"text": "Patton's offensive came to a halt on August 31, 1944, as the Third Army ran out of fuel near the Moselle River, just outside Metz. Patton expected that the theater commander would keep fuel and supplies flowing to support successful advances, but Eisenhower favored a \"broad front\" approach to the ground-war effort, believing that a single thrust would have to drop off flank protection, and would quickly lose its punch. Still within the constraints of a very large effort overall, Eisenhower gave Montgomery and his Twenty First Army Group a higher priority for supplies for Operation Market Garden. Combined with other demands on the limited resource pool, this resulted in the Third Army exhausting its fuel supplies. Patton believed his forces were close enough to the Siegfried Line that he remarked to Bradley that with 400,000 gallons of gasoline he could be in Germany within two days. In late September, a large German Panzer counterattack sent expressly to stop the advance of Patton's Third Army was defeated by the U.S. 4th Armored Division at the Battle of Arracourt. Despite the victory, the Third Army stayed in place as a result of Eisenhower's order. The German commanders believed this was because their counterattack had been successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
am9ewk
|
Are there any good online sources on the Opium Wars?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is difficult to prove a negative, but from my experience the answer is 'basically no, unless you count output on this subreddit.' While academic consensus on the Opium War has swung decisively in the revisionist direction, most online articles continue to exaggerate the impact of the war and fail to cover the Chinese side in any significant depth. Going back to the paper medium, there are a couple of recent books intended for a wide audience – Julia Lovell's *The Opium War* and Stephen Platt's *Imperial Twilight* especially – which should be relatively accessible and not prohibitively expensive. If, however, you are insistent on the content being free and online, my answers on Opium War topics can be found [here](_URL_0_) and my rebuttal to Extra Credits' Opium War video series [here](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3070329",
"title": "Brian Inglis",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Inglis wrote about war over the opium trade in his book \"The Opium War\" (1976). Donald Gould gave the book a positive review describing it as a fascinating account. However, the historian John Fairbank concluded the book offered nothing new and covered less detail than other writers on the subject such as Peter Fay about warfare. Jacques Downs wrote the book was a respectable contribution to the subject but Fay's book would be preferred by historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32084922",
"title": "Visualizing Cultures (website)",
"section": "Section::::Units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842. Essay by Peter C. Perdue. Draws on the visual record of the first Opium War to look at the opium trade linking England, India, and China; hostilities; and illustrated accounts of a war that altered China's position in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30726365",
"title": "Julia Lovell",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1567,
"text": "Lovell's book \"The Opium Wars: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China\" was widely reviewed in both scholarly journals and the press. Matthew W. Mosca, writing in the \"Journal of Asian Studies\", wrote that the Opium War had \"once ranked among the most studied events in Chinese history,\" but interest had notably declined. Lovell, he said, suggested that there were still holes in English language coverage and that Chinese scholarly and popular interest in the war has, if anything, grown. Lovell, he concludes, \"is certainly correct that the Opium War, as an event in the round, has been curiously neglected in Western scholarship\" and hers is \"the only book-length general history of the conflict in English by an author directly consulting both Chinese and Western sources.\" He noted that the book devoted much space to explaining how 20th century politics, especially under the Nationalist Party government of Chiang Kai-shek, used these events to build patriotic sentiment. Oxford University professor Rana Mitter wrote in \"The Guardian\" that Lovell's book \"is part of a trend in understanding the British empire and China's role in it,\" and that the \"sense of an unfolding tragedy, explicable but inexorable, runs through the book, making it a gripping read as well as an important one.\" A reviewer in\"The Economist\" commented: \"Julia Lovell’s excellent new book explores why this period of history is so emotionally important for the Chinese\" and \"more importantly” explains “how China turned the Opium Wars into a founding myth of its struggle for modernity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32349230",
"title": "Frank Sanello",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "Publication of \"The Opium Wars\" (2002) in China was unusual because Chinese scholars and government watchdogs typically rejected Western accounts of their history as biased and Eurocentric. The book attempted to offer a more balanced account of the two conflicts fought between Britain and China in the mid-19th century. In his critique of \"The Opium Wars\" in the \" East Asian Review of Books\", Wayne E. Yang wrote: \"Those who believe the dictum that 'those who fail to learn [from] history are doomed to repeat it' have fodder in W. Travis Hanes III and Frank Sanello's \"The Opium Wars\".\" In a review for the American Library Association's \"Booklist\", Jay Freeman wrote: \"[This] account of the causes, military campaigns, and tragic effects of these wars is absorbing, frequently macabre, and deeply unsettling.\" \"Publishers Weekly\" wrote, \"Hanes (\"Imperial Diplomacy in the Era of Decolonization\") and film author and former \"Los Angeles Daily News\" critic Sanello have teamed up to produce this fine popular account... The book covers a familiar time and place in history, but the authors make some nice analogies between the brutal economics and empire of the 19th century, and 21st-century forms of money, politics and war.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143829",
"title": "First Opium War",
"section": "Section::::References and further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- Waley, Arthur, \"The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes\" (London: Allen & Unwin, 1958; reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1968). Translations and narrative based on Lin's writings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143829",
"title": "First Opium War",
"section": "Section::::References and further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Polachek, James M., \"The Inner Opium War\" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1992.) Based on court records and diaries, presents the debates among Chinese officials whether to legalise or suppress the use and trade in opium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14700562",
"title": "The Opium War (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Opium War (鸦片战争) is a 1997 Chinese historical epic film directed by Xie Jin. The winner of the 1997 Golden Rooster and 1998 Hundred Flowers Awards for Best Picture, the film was screened in several international film festivals, notably Cannes and Montreal. The film tells the story of the First Opium War of 1839–1842, which was fought between the Qing Empire of China and the British Empire, from the perspectives of key figures such as the Chinese viceroy Lin Zexu and the British naval diplomat Charles Elliot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
805q7a
|
How were the Persians able to field so vast armies? And what are the logistics behind such a monumental effort.
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi! You might be interested in [this post](_URL_0_) I wrote recently about the Persian army numbers you find in sources like Herodotos and Xenophon. In short, these numbers are not reliable historic facts, but estimates that were meant to look plausible enough not to undermine Greek authors' credibility. They probably reflect the Greeks' (pretty ill-informed) estimates of the full manpower potential of the Persian empire, not the size of actual field armies. We are fairly certain that the numbers we get (such as Xerxes' army of 2.6 million in 480 BC, or Artaxerxes II's 1.2 million men at Kounaxa in 401 BC) are impossibly large; the logistical challenges would be far too great.\n\nThat said, it's certain that the Persians would have been able to field larger armies than their Greek enemies; modern scholars' estimates for their largest armies tend to range between 60,000 and 150,000. These numbers are entirely plausible given the vast manpower reserves of the Achaemenid Persian empire. This was the largest empire that had ever existed. It covered some of the world's most densely populated areas, such as Egypt, Phoenicia and Mesopotamia. Even if they required each of their satrapies (administrative districts) to supply only a modest number of men, their royal armies would soon reach a vast total. To these levies and locally raised mercenaries the Persians would add their own standing forces: the king's royal bodyguard of 10,000 infantry, and the Persian cavalry raised from estates across the empire.\n\nThe logistical challenges of fielding such forces were immense. Every man and horse needed food and drink; food and equipment needed to be carried either by humans or by pack animals, each of which needed food and drink as well. Armies tended to march with large throngs of merchants, craftsmen, engineers, cooks, guides, servants, entertainers and sex workers in tow. The Persian king travelled with an enormous entourage of courtiers, councillors, concubines and companions. Moving all these people required careful organisation and a tremendous amount of resources. It was practically impossible for an army to carry its own supplies for more than a few days' marching.\n\nHerodotos describes the two ways in which the Persians solved these problems. The first was to \"call ahead\", so to speak, and order the assembly of supply dumps along the route where the army was to march. In friendly territory this was easily done using local food and fodder surplus. It was more than the Greeks themselves ever managed in logistical terms, though, and provoked some admiration in the Greek historian. Greek practice was typically to rely on local markets, and the Spartan king Agesilaos was praised for the simple expedient of having such markets arranged in advance to ensure a supply of food would be available for his men to buy.\n\nThe second solution was simply to requisition supplies from the territories the Persians were moving through. Herodotos reports a Persian practice, also attested elsewhere, to subject these territories to a special tax called the King's Dinner. This meant in theory that a particular city or region would have the honour of setting up a banquet for the king, but in practice that the area's food stores would be used up to feed and entertain the Persian army and allow the king to engage in royal generosity towards his loyal followers. Herodotos tells us that the island of Thasos was made to supply the King's Dinner at a cost of 400 silver talents (about 8,000 years' worth of wages for a skilled worker). Where no supply dumps were set up, then, the Great King simply solved his logistical problems by squeezing his subjects for everything they had.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198436",
"title": "Second Persian invasion of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Strategic analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "At the beginning of the invasion, it is clear that the Persians held most advantages. Regardless of its actual size, it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece. The Persians had a unified command system, and everyone was answerable to the king. They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy, which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning. The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established. Furthermore, the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare, as shown by their (nearly successful) attempts to divide-and-conquer the Greeks. The Greeks, by comparison, were fragmented, with only 30 or so city-states actively opposing the Persian invasion; even those were prone to quarrel with each other. They had little experience of large-scale warfare, being largely restricted to small-scale local warfare, and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing, rather than because of any experience or expertise. As Lazenby therefore asks: \"\"So why did the Persians fail?\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3459560",
"title": "Roman–Persian Wars",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine–Sasanian wars.:Climax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine, Egypt, Rhodes and several other islands in the eastern Aegean, as well as to devastate Anatolia. Meanwhile, the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241926",
"title": "Battle of Gaugamela",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:Strategic analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1407,
"text": "Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3459560",
"title": "Roman–Persian Wars",
"section": "Section::::Strategies and military tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans. The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in siege warfare and had developed a range of siege machines. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit-and-run tactics that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery, and also chemical weapons, such as in Dura-Europos (256) and Petra (550-551). Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft, military engineering, and organization, as well as ability to build defensive works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12537675",
"title": "Battle of Chains",
"section": "Section::::Khalid’s strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "The Sassanid army was one of the most powerful and best equipped armies of the time, and was an ideal force for a set-piece, head-on confrontation. The only weakness of the Persian army was in its lack of mobility: the heavily armed Persians were not able to move fast, and any prolonged movement would tire them. On the other hand, Khalid's troops were mobile; they were mounted on camels with horses at the ready for cavalry attacks. Khalid's strategy was to use his own speed to exploit the lack in mobility of the Sassanid army. He planned to force the Persians to carry out marches and counter-marches until they were worn out, and then strike when the Persians were exhausted. Geography would help Khalid ibn Walid to carry out this strategy successfully. There were two routes to Uballa, via Kazima or via Hufair, so Khalid wrote a letter to the Persian leader Hormozd from Yamama so that he would expect Khalid to arrive via the direct route from Yamama to Kazima and then to Uballa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25485654",
"title": "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stage of the war from 602 to 622, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, several islands in the Aegean Sea and parts of Anatolia, the ascendancy of emperor Heraclius in 610 led, despite initial setbacks, to a status quo ante bellum. Heraclius' campaigns in Iranian lands from 622 to 626 forced the Persians onto the defensive, allowing his forces to regain momentum. Allied with the Avars and Slavs, the Persians made a final attempt to take Constantinople in 626, but were defeated there. In 627 Heraclius invaded the heartland of Persia. A civil war broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "716794",
"title": "Lakhmids",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In 325, the Persians, led by Shapur II, began a campaign against the Arab kingdoms. When Imru' al-Qais realised that a mighty Persian army composed of 60,000 warriors was approaching his kingdom, he asked for the assistance of the Roman Empire. Constantius II promised to assist him but was unable to provide that help when it was needed. The Persians advanced toward Hira and a series of vicious battles took place around and in Hira and the surrounding cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qsbax
|
Is there a reason that the letters towards the end of the western alphabet (the last five in particular) are less frequently used than the others?
|
[
{
"answer": "keep in mind that they are less frequently used *in english*. spanish uses y and z quite a bit. french uses x all the time. italian also uses z a lot. so while they might not be common letters in english, they are common in other languages",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5945442",
"title": "Hillside letters",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "By the 1920s and 1930s, letters were being rapidly constructed across the West. Although the pace has slowed since then, newly constructed letters continue to appear today. Meanwhile, many letters are fading due to lack of maintenance (especially in cases where the school that created the letter has closed), or have been removed outright due to environmental concerns or changing aesthetic preferences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7286347",
"title": "History of the Latin script",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "The lower case (minuscule) letters developed in the Middle Ages from New Roman Cursive writing, first as the uncial script, and later as minuscule script. The old Roman letters were retained for formal inscriptions and for emphasis in written documents. The languages that use the Latin alphabet generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and for proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalised; whereas Modern English of the 18th century had frequently all nouns capitalised, in the same way that Modern German is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1971339",
"title": "History of the Arabic alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Reorganization of the alphabet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Less than a century later, Arab grammarians reorganized the alphabet, for reasons of teaching, putting letters next to other letters which were nearly the same shape. This produced a new order which was not the same as the numeric order, which became less important over time because it was being competed with by the Indian numerals and sometimes by the Greek numerals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23690734",
"title": "Armenian alphabet",
"section": "Section::::History and development.:Creation by Mashtots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The number and order of the letters have changed over time. In the Middle Ages, two new letters (օ , ֆ ) were introduced in order to better represent foreign sounds; this increased the number of letters from 36 to 38. From 1922 to 1924, Soviet Armenia adopted a reformed spelling of the Armenian language. The reform changed the digraph ու and the ligature և into two new letters, but it generally did not change the pronunciation of individual letters. Those outside of the Soviet sphere (including all Western Armenians as well as Eastern Armenians in Iran) have rejected the reformed spellings, and continue to use the traditional Armenian orthography. They criticize some aspects of the reforms (see the footnotes of the chart) and allege political motives behind them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25657",
"title": "Roman numerals",
"section": "Section::::Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Lower case, minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: , , , , and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10601505",
"title": "Mising language",
"section": "Section::::Standard Mising Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Likewise many other languages of the world including Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Chinese, the alphabets are not named after their respective phoneme values. Similar practice holds good for Standard Mising Language too. The names of the alphabets are thus read as is done in the country today. Names and order of the Roman Script have been recognized worldwide, and also by our country for reading and writing English and also transliteration of national terminologies; so Standard Mising Language has retained them likewise without variations, neither in name nor in order. Names and order of alphabets have no partisan values. Rather, changing alphabetical order and inserting additional letter in the matrix of literal characters cause hardware problems in the computer technology. We being a small community hugely constrained by limited man-power, missionary and monitory resources; things cannot be done so easily. Even once done too, it will not be commercially viable in terms of its utility – just waste of time and energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625125",
"title": "Letter case",
"section": "Section::::Case folding and case conversion.:Methods in programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "This only works because the letters of upper and lower cases are spaced out equally. In ASCII they are consecutive, whereas with EBCDIC they are not; nonetheless the upper-case letters are arranged in the same pattern and with the same gaps as are the lower-case letters, so the technique still works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l9m2s
|
what are the us voting for today?
|
[
{
"answer": "Congress gets voted in more often. The House of Representatives(like your House of Commons) gets completely re-voted every two years, so they're all up for election, and the Senate(vaguely similar to an elected House of Lords) is on staggered 6-year terms, so 1/3 of them are up for election. Also, there's a lot of state and municipal elections and referendums that get bundled into it, including 36 of the 50 state governors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Congressional races (\"local\" representatives that control the spending of the federal government) occur every two years, to help keep the government accountable to the people and (in certain cases) limit the power of the President and/or the party in the majority. _URL_1_\n\nThis is also an election year for some of the U.S. Senate (there are two senators in every state) who are on a 6 year term. _URL_0_\n\nThere are also some state races for Governor, Auditor, Secretary of State, etc; each state varies as each have their own constitution and laws that determine elections.\n\nThere are also a number of local elections for city councils, mayors, school boards, sheriff's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have an election every year in November. We don't just elect our president - we also elect many state and local officials. We can also vote on laws and tax levies. \n\nMy ballot today was two pages long. It included the state governor, representatives to the US congress and my state congress, a lot of judges, a school board member, a state treasurer, a county auditor, a revision to my city's charter and tax levies for my city's public schools, hospitals, and the renovation of a historic monument. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61065812",
"title": "Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency (1994)",
"section": "Section::::November.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "BULLET::::- November 29 – In a statement, President Clinton says \"the United States House of Representatives cast an historic vote for American workers, farmers, and families\" that night demonstrating \"our confidence in America's ability to compete and win in the global economy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56814560",
"title": "Complexly",
"section": "Section::::Ceased productions.:\"How to Vote in Every State\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "\"How to Vote in Every State\" was an initiative based around the 2016 United States elections to help voters determine how to properly register and submit their vote. Videos were posted for all 50 states and DC, plus instructions for those in the military, overseas and in unincorporated territories. The series was re-done two years later for the 2018 United States elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1136615",
"title": "America Votes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "America Votes is a 501(c)4 organization that aims \"to coordinate and promote progressive issues.\" America Votes leads national and state-based coalitions to advance progressive policies and increase voter turnout for Democratic Party candidates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11732313",
"title": "Arts Engine",
"section": "Section::::Big Mouth Films.:\"Election Day\" (2007).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "On November 2, 2004, millions of Americans put the world's most famous democracy to the test at polling places across the country. \"Election Day\" follows a dozen of these citizens—from the plains of South Dakota to the palm trees of southern Florida-over the course of twenty-four hours. Uplifting yet troubling, their experiences offer rare insight into a hallowed American ritual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12282128",
"title": "U.S. Vote Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "US Vote was initially founded to facilitate and increase participation of overseas and military absentee voters by providing public access to Internet-based voter services. Since 2012 the organization's primary objective has expanded to serve domestic voters in addition to overseas voters. In addition, US Vote offers its data for use by third party voter outreach organizations, voter apps and services developers, and academics and other researchers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31756",
"title": "United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::Congress and the public.:Advantage of incumbency.:Public perceptions of Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 1485,
"text": "Prominent Founding Fathers writing in \"The Federalist Papers\" felt that elections were essential to liberty, that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential, and that \"frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured\". In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25% with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the \"size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize.\" Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, \"Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources\" and that most members behave ethically. They contend that \"Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend\" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run \"against\" Congress, which is an \"old form of American politics\" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994892",
"title": "Voter registration",
"section": "Section::::Effects and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Because of this history, voter registration laws and practices in the United States have been closely scrutinized by interest groups and the federal government, especially following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It authorized federal oversight of jurisdictions with a history of under-representation of certain portions of their populations in voting. Such laws are often controversial. Some advocate for their abolition, while others argue that the laws should be reformed, for instance: to allow voters to register on the day of the election. Several US states - Connecticut, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, Wisconsin and Wyoming - have adopted this approach, called Election Day Registration. For the 2012 election year, California joined this list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jn9fw
|
expiration dates for painkillers (details inside)
|
[
{
"answer": "You are looking at date Filled vs date expired. Not date manufactured vs date expired. These drugs are created in large quantities but that doesnt mean they all get distributed at the same time. So the ones you got in 2013 and the ones you got in 2015 could have all been made in 2013. Drugs do expire. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, expiration dates on medications are a date until which they are guaranteed to be 100% as effective as when manufactured. One of the pills, taken a year later, will still be safe but may only be say 90% as potent as when manufactured.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doctors have done studies (most recently by the DHS) to gauge the efficacy of medications past their due dates. Most antibiotics were indistinguishable from new even at 10, 20 or even 40 years past their due date. \n\nThe due date is just so you buy more pills (in most cases). Some notable exceptions include epi pens, insulin. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This page](_URL_0_), section 5, has a good breakdown on medications that you should NOT use past expiration. Most other medications in pill or tablet form retain good potency for many years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75473",
"title": "Ricinus",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "If ricin is ingested, symptoms may be delayed by up to 36 hours but commonly begin within 2–4 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; however, in most cases a full recovery can be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "881753",
"title": "Oxymorphone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Oxymorphone, sold under the brand names Numorphan among others, is a powerful semi-synthetic opioid analgesic (painkiller). Pain relief after injection begins after about 5–10 minutes and 15–30 minutes after rectal administration, and lasts about 3–4 hours for immediate-release tablets and 12 hours for extended-release tablets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530691",
"title": "Glucocorticoid",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Withdrawal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- If high doses were used for 11–30 days, cut immediately to twice replacement, and then by 25% every four days. Stop entirely when dose is less than half of replacement. Full adrenal recovery should occur within one to three months of completion of withdrawal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877316",
"title": "Opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Corticosteroids (such as \"prednisone\" or \"methylprednisolone\") used at high dosages (500 mg - 2 g per day intravenously for a course of 3 to 5 days) can accelerate regression of symptoms. Subsequent very gradual tapering with pills generally follows. Most patients require high doses for months to years before tapering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60731815",
"title": "Painkiller (Ruel song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "\"Painkiller\" is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Ruel. The song was released on 30 April 2019 as the lead single from his forthcoming second extended play. The song sees Ruel again working with producer M-Phazes and songwriter Sarah Aarons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1015919",
"title": "Excedrin (brand)",
"section": "Section::::Versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Discontinued – Excedrin Menstrual Complete Excedrin Menstrual Complete continues the trend of marketing pain products for specific types of pain, even though it has identical active ingredients to the regular Excedrin Extra Strength product and Excedrin Migraine, 250 mg acetaminophen, 250 mg aspirin and 65 mg caffeine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1015919",
"title": "Excedrin (brand)",
"section": "Section::::Versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2007: Excedrin Back and Body – a dual-ingredient formula claiming that it \"works two ways—as a pain reliever and a pain blocker right where it hurts\". Contains 250 mg acetaminophen, 250 mg aspirin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u72k2
|
To what extent is modern US law derived from Roman law?
|
[
{
"answer": "In *The Common Law* Oliver Wendell Holmes looks at similarities between Roman and common law but I can't remember if he establishes that any common law doctrines were derived from, as oppose to merely resemble, Roman doctrines.",
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},
{
"answer": "Louisiana has a system of civil law, unlike the common law in the rest of the United States. It's codes are derived from French and Spanish law as opposed to English law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26364",
"title": "Roman law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the \"Corpus Juris Civilis\" (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I. Roman law forms the basic framework for civil law, the most widely used legal system today, and the terms are sometimes used synonymously. The historical importance of Roman law is reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in many legal systems influenced by it, including common law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Roman law and politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Although the law of the Roman Empire is not used today, modern law in many jurisdictions is based on principles of law used and developed during the Roman Empire. Some of the same Latin terminology is still used today. The general structure of jurisprudence used today, in many jurisdictions, is the same (trial with a judge, plaintiff, and defendant) as that established during the Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9575789",
"title": "The Accusers",
"section": "Section::::Allusions/references to history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "BULLET::::- Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. The development of Roman law covers more than one thousand years from the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Emperor Justinian I (around 530). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes became the basis of legal practice in the \"Byzantine Empire\" and—later—in continental Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26364",
"title": "Roman law",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Today, Roman law is no longer applied in legal practice, even though the legal systems of some countries like South Africa and San Marino are still based on the old \"jus commune\". However, even where the legal practice is based on a code, many rules deriving from Roman law apply: no code completely broke with the Roman tradition. Rather, the provisions of the Roman law were fitted into a more coherent system and expressed in the national language. For this reason, knowledge of the Roman law is indispensable to understand the legal systems of today. Thus, Roman law is often still a mandatory subject for law students in civil law jurisdictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26364",
"title": "Roman law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "\"Roman law\" also denoted the legal system applied in most of Western Europe until the end of the 18th century. In Germany, Roman law practice remained in place longer under the Holy Roman Empire (963–1806). Roman law thus served as a basis for legal practice throughout Western continental Europe, as well as in most former colonies of these European nations, including Latin America, and also in Ethiopia. English and Anglo-American common law were influenced also by Roman law, notably in their Latinate legal glossary (for example, \"stare decisis\", \"culpa in contrahendo\", \"pacta sunt servanda\"). Eastern Europe was also influenced by the jurisprudence of the \"Corpus Juris Civilis\", especially in countries such as medieval Romania (Wallachia, Moldavia, and some other medieval provinces/historical regions) which created a new system, a mixture of Roman and local law. Also, Eastern European law was influenced by the \"Farmer's Law\" of the medieval Byzantine legal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2587315",
"title": "Byzantine law",
"section": "Section::::Early Byzantine period.:Corpus Iuris Civilis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Although Law as practiced in Rome had grown up as a type of case law, this was not the \"Roman Law\" known to the Medieval, or modern world. Now Roman law claims to be based on abstract principles of justice that were made into actual rules of law by legislative authority of the emperor or the Roman people. These ideas were transmitted to the Middle Ages in the great codification of Roman law carried throughout by the emperor Justinian. The Corpus Iuris Civilis was issued in Latin in three parts: the Institutes, the Digest (Pandects), and the Code (Codex). It was the last major legal document written in Latin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15wbgz
|
why do we say "on the plane", "on the train", but "in the car"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Presumably in this case because a car is ours, so we're *in* our possession.\n\nThe others are open to the public, so we're *on* the service.\n\nAt least, that's how I assumed it works.\n****\nEdit: Giraffebacon has an awesome theory that it doesn't depend on possession, but **control**. If you control something, you're in it. If not, you're on it.\n\nEdit 2: Of course there are exceptions. Bikes / skateboards you are physically \"on\", and can't be \"in\", so the rule doesn't apply.\n\nEdit 3: thedrew is [very clever] (_URL_0_).",
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},
{
"answer": "Not sure if related, but in German, you don't ride on _or_ in any of them (to my knowledge); you ride _with_ them. We're all just weird with our languages. :p\n\nFor example: Ich fahre mit dem Bus. \"I ride _with_ the bus.\"",
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},
{
"answer": "I think it depends on where you're from. People in NYC usually say they're \"waiting on line\" when referring to waiting in line. People where I'm from would say \"waiting in line\". I think the same thing applies to vehicles as I know a person who would say she's \"getting off the car\" when exiting the vehicle. It sounds weird to me because I would say I'm \"getting out of the car\". \n\nTL;DR I think it's just a regional thing.",
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},
{
"answer": "Also, one must board a train, or a plane or a sub. You do not board a car.",
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},
{
"answer": "I thought it was because you can walk around ON a train and plane, but you can't really walk around IN your car. On is for platforms.",
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},
{
"answer": "We ride *in* a car because we ride *in* a carriage, even when that carriage is *on* a train.",
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},
{
"answer": "Related question: Why do we say we're \"driving\" a car, but \"riding\" a bike? Seems like you put much more effort into making the bike move.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do people who own and fly personal planes say they're in' the plane, as opposed to 'on', referring to the personal possession explanation. ",
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},
{
"answer": "The way I have always understood it is in terms of who decides the destination. \n\nA car or Taxi only travels to where we decide for it to go, whereas a train, bus or plane etc have pre-existing destinations that we choose to go on. \n\nFor example, a bus or train will be making that trip regardless of if I am using it or not, where as a car will only travel to a location if I am in it.\n\n\n",
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},
{
"answer": "English is terrible when it comes to consistency of grammar and mechanics rules.",
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},
{
"answer": "As Georgeorgeorge Carlin said: \"'Get on the plane, get on the plane' Fuck you, I'm getting in the plane!\"",
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},
{
"answer": "Linguist teaching English to foreign students here.\n\nCan you be inside it? Yes: you can be \"in\" it (\"I'm in the plane\" is also acceptable, but a little off). No: you can only be \"on\" it (i.e. skateboard).\n\nCan you stand up while inside? Yes: you can be \"on\" it. No: you can only be \"in\" it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My guess is that it relates to the relative size of what you're talking about.\n\nOn the plane. On the train. (They are large.) \nIn the car. In the taxi. (They are small.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure, but it only recently occurred to me why I was raised to say \"get down from the car\" instead of \"get out of the car.\" People have been bugging me about it my whole life. My family is Mexican-American and \"bajar\" means to get out and also to get down in Spanish, so the English translation is \"get down.\" ",
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},
{
"answer": "In sorta relation to this topic. Why do we have a baby but take a shit? Wouldn't we be having a shit?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You board a ship.\n\nYou board a train.\n\nYou board a plane.\n\nYou board a bus.\n\nYou are \"on\" them.\n\nYou don't board a car or taxi. You just get in them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Things that you can 'drive': in. \nThings that you can 'ride': on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because English is the second most ridiculous language on the planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a long Islander, I always wondered why you can be \"in New York\" or \"in Brooklyn\" but we are always \" on Long Island.\" Why is that?",
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},
{
"answer": "this is sort of meta, but I thought eli5 was about people asking for simplistic but detailed answers to questions they only know a little about to help them piece together their knowledge... not just generic one-off questions that could be answered with one sentence and would fit better on /r/askreddit or something. I mean, you gotta ask yourself, is this something I want to have explained in laymen's terms, or just a factual answer that I need?",
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},
{
"answer": "I think that a lot of the people responding in this thread are leading you in the wrong direction. I find it unlikely that the preposition which people choose to head these phrases is semantically determined.\n\nMy guess would be that these phrases are forms of [lexical phrases](_URL_1_) or [multi-word expressions](_URL_0_) I think that it's most likely that they are institutionalized phrases which are mentioned at the bottom of the MWE link, which are not as strict as others which would account for why you can rationalize being *on a plane* but also *in a plane*.\n\nI think that it's more sensible to approach items like this descriptively, because I'm not convinced that we actually pick and choose which words we use like this based on any rules.",
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},
{
"answer": "I think it all comes down to whether you need to duck or crouch to board the vehicle, or if you can simply walk on.",
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},
{
"answer": "As a french-canadian, it's so obvious this is just cultural standards, \n\nno real answer can be given, \n\nfor example, \n\nhere **in Quebec we say \"in the city\"** while **in France they say \"on the city\"**, when visiting or living or whatever \"in\" the city (this is a translation, in Quebec we say \"dans la ville\" while in France they say \"sur la ville\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268021",
"title": "Train (roller coaster)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "It is called a train because the cars follow one another around the track, the same reason as for a railroad train. Individual cars vary in design and can carry from one to eight or more passengers each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1484606",
"title": "Rail directions",
"section": "Section::::Radial directions.:Up and down.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "In Japan, railway directions are referred to as and , and these terms are widely employed in timetables and station announcements for the travelling public. For JR Group trains, trains going towards the capital Tokyo are \"up\" trains, while those going away from the capital are \"down\" trains. For private railway operators, the designation of \"up\" or \"down\" (if at all) usually relies on where the company is headquartered as \"up\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "669746",
"title": "Park and ride",
"section": "Section::::Kiss and ride / kiss and fly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Many railway stations and airports feature a \"kiss-and-ride\" or \"kiss-and-fly\" area in which cars can stop briefly to discharge or, less commonly, pick up passengers. The term first appeared in a 20 January 1956 report in the \"Los Angeles Times\". It refers to the nominal scenario whereby a passenger is driven to the station by spouse or partner; they kiss each other goodbye before the passenger catches the train. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30598",
"title": "Train",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "A train is a form of transport consisting of a series of connected vehicles that generally runs along a railroad track to transport cargo or passengers. The word \"train\" comes from the Old French \"trahiner\", derived from the Latin \"trahere\" meaning \"to pull\" or \"to draw\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31916064",
"title": "Moniker (graffiti)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Since the utilization of trains in the late 1800s, messages were written on boxcars with solid paint sticks used to communicate with people in different locations across North America to warn others about people, or news. A Moniker is a one line \"tag\" on a freight train that was done by hobos or train conductors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26161590",
"title": "Train station",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "In British English, traditional usage favours \"railway station\" or simply \"station\", even though \"train station\", which is often perceived as an Americanism, is now about as common as \"railway station\" in writing; \"railroad station\" is not used, \"railroad\" being obsolete there. In British usage, the word \"station\" is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise qualified. In American English, the most common term in contemporary usage is \"train station\"; \"railroad station\" and \"railway station\" are less common, though they have been more common in the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291138",
"title": "Mind the gap",
"section": "Section::::The phrase worldwide.:In trains.:Asia and Oceania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "BULLET::::- On many trains in Japan, the message \"\" is spoken. This translates as: \"There is a wide space between the train and the platform, so please be careful\". The phrase \"\" is also common, which means \"Please mind your step\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iysqh
|
Light splits in all colors, so is light just a ray of photons with different colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. You can think of sunlight for example as a very large stream of photons of a variety of colors (wavelengths). For sunlight, the distribution looks like [this](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! \n\nWhen light splits (like when you pass light through a prism) it is because each wavelength of light is going to refract at a different angle. When you see white light all of the wavelengths are being seen by your eye in the same place at the same time. A beam of white light has photons of various different wavelengths all moving in the same direction at the same time. After they pass though a prism you can see all of the different colors because each individual color (wavelength) is refracted at a different angle and they will be in different places when they are perceived by your eye, so now you don't see white, you can see each color on its own.\n\nHere is an analogy:\n\nWhen you mix paints on a pallet, if you have blue and yellow in separate blobs you see blue and yellow. If you mix them you see green, but if you had the ability to look at a small enough scale you could see individual blue and green pigments still but with the naked eye they are mixed. If you had some kind of filter that would separate the blue and yellow pigments then you would see each of them separately again. \n\nA prism is sort of like this filter. It separates the different photons based on their wavelengths and puts them in different places so you can see them without being mixed into white. But that original beam of white light had all of those photons already. You didn't take a single photon and change its wavelength; you just made them all land in different places so now your eyes can see each color. \n\nI hope this helps light is really cool! \n[Here](_URL_1_) is a neat description of how (and why) the different colors separate when you use a prism. \n\nThis doesn't just apply to the visible color either the other (non-visable) wavelengths are also separated when you use a prism. This is actually how [infrared light was discovered by Sir William Hershel](_URL_0_), all he used was a bunch of thermometers, a prism and sunlight!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29329",
"title": "Spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Electromagnetic spectrum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 684,
"text": "Light from many different sources contains various colors, each with its own brightness or intensity. A rainbow, or prism, sends these component colors in different directions, making them individually visible at different angles. A graph of the intensity plotted against the frequency (showing the brightness of each color) is the frequency spectrum of the light. When all the visible frequencies are present equally, the perceived color of the light is white, and the spectrum is a flat line. Therefore, flat-line spectra in general are often referred to as \"white\", whether they represent light or another type of wave phenomenon (sound, for example, or vibration in a structure).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "Section::::Classical optics.:Physical optics.:Dispersion and scattering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The separation of colours by a prism is an example of normal dispersion. At the surfaces of the prism, Snell's law predicts that light incident at an angle θ to the normal will be refracted at an angle arcsin(sin (θ) / \"n\"). Thus, blue light, with its higher refractive index, is bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well-known rainbow pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3474700",
"title": "Delayed-choice quantum eraser",
"section": "Section::::The experiment of Kim \"et al.\" (1999).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "An individual photon goes through one (or both) of the two slits. In the illustration, the photon paths are color-coded as red or light blue lines to indicate which slit the photon came through (red indicates slit A, light blue indicates slit B).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41464",
"title": "Visible spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Spectral colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Colors that can be produced by visible light of a narrow band of wavelengths (monochromatic light) are called pure spectral colors. The various color ranges indicated in the illustration are an approximation: The spectrum is continuous, with no clear boundaries between one color and the next.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1886691",
"title": "Theory of Colours",
"section": "Section::::Goethe's theory.:Light and dark spectra.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "With a light spectrum (i.e. a shaft of light in a surrounding darkness), we find yellow-red colours along the top edge, and blue-violet colours along the bottom edge. The spectrum with green in the middle arises only where the blue-violet edges overlap the yellow-red edges. Unfortunately an optical mixture of blue and yellow gives white, not green, and so Goethe's explanation of Newton's spectrum fails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43049479",
"title": "Violet light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Composed-light violet shows two colors when decomposed. Violet light from the rainbow, which can be referred as spectral violet, is composed only by a short wavelength instead. This monochromatic violet light occupies its own place at the end of the visible spectrum, and is one of the seven spectral colors described by Isaac Newton in 1672.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10134",
"title": "Electromagnetic spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
740d9n
|
How did the free peasant republic in Dithmarschen in the 15th and 16th centuries actually function?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've basically covered this on a podcast, so let me start with that.\n\nYour answer is in this episode:\n_URL_0_\n\nThat show was actually about the region south of Dithmarschen. But the cause of their freedom was the same:\n\nIt's swampy and tough economics there. There were NOT actually independent on paper. They were under the Bremen Archbishop, for example. But since that was tough to enforce, and the people so poor that they were all basically egalitarian and helped each other -- no nobility formed. Just like in East Frisia.\n\nAdded to that, it was a buffer state between Denmark and the German empire. So, just weak jurisdiction to begin with. Far away and usually not worth the trouble.\n\nThe Franks (Charlemagne) just gave up on the region after holding it for 20 years.\n\nTechnically there were under Hamburg (church-wise) ..but probably barely even knew that (in the 11the century control was just nominal on paper, really).\n\nWhat you are referring to is the same that happened in other remote, coastal areas. They eventually founded a \"Bauernrepublik\" or Farmers (Peasant's) Republik. Meaning they elected 48 judges to run things.... which... just like in East Frisia, eventually started to come from fewer and fewer families, and the judges dynastic families became the de facto nobility.\n\nThe local \"militia\" were good at fighting in the Watt. They could even just open the dikes and flood the enemy.\n\nDon't underestimate the border factor though.. Even in the 19th century they were still kinda part of the Danish crown, and part of Bismark's Prussia, until wars were fought. But just the fact that they weren't clearly and directly ruled gave them a lot of freedom. Only 1866 was it really, finally, officially part of Germany (Schlesswig Holstein Prussia).\n\nSorry about the lack of sources. I can update this later.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27461",
"title": "History of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::Old Confederacy (1300–1798).:Early Modern Switzerland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In 1653, peasants of territories subject to Lucerne, Bern, Solothurn, and Basel revolted because of currency devaluation. Although the authorities prevailed in this Swiss peasant war, they did pass some tax reforms and the incident in the long term prevented an absolutist development as would occur at some other courts of Europe. The confessional tensions remained, however, and erupted again in the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "91186",
"title": "Dithmarschen",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "In the 15th century the Ditmarsians confederated in a peasants' republic. Several times neighbouring princely rulers, accompanied by their knights and mercenaries tried to subdue the independent ministate to feudalism, however, without success. In 1319 Gerhard III was repelled in the Battle of Wöhrden. After Eric IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg had raided Dithmarschen, the Ditmarsians blamed his son-in-law, Albert II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, of complicity, who then used this as a pretext for his own unsuccessful conquest attempt in 1403, dying during the campaign from inflicted injuries. In 1468 Dithmarschen allied with Lübeck to protect their common interest as to commerce and containing the spreading feudalism in the region. Ditmarsians had established trade with Livonia and neighbouring Baltic destinations since the 15th century, based on the Hanseatic obligations and privileges since the pact with Lübeck. Both parties renewed their alliance several times and it thus lasted until Dithmarschen's final defeat and Dano-Holsatian annexation in 1559.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987559",
"title": "Brücken, Kusel",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern times.:Recent times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 2691,
"text": "The interlude with Palatinate-Zweibrücken, however, did not last long, for the old feudal states were all swept away in the aftermath of the French Revolution. In 1793, the first French Revolutionary troops showed up in the region, exacting contributions from the populace and plundering the countryside. Brücken was spared none of this. In 1801, France annexed the German lands on the Rhine’s left bank and the oppression that had characterized the early days of French hegemony came to an end, although local young men were still being pressed into the French Army to fight France’s wars. During the short time of French rule, which ended in 1814, Brücken lay in the \"Mairie\" (“Mayoralty”) of Schönenberg, the Canton of Waldmohr, the Arrondissement of Saarbrücken and the Department of Sarre (\"Département de la Sarre\"), whose seat was at Trier. In 1814, the French withdrew from the German lands on the Rhine’s left bank, and Brücken was at first assigned to the district of Ottweiler. After a transitional time – the changes brought about by the Congress of Vienna had not quite taken hold – the \"Baierischer Rheinkreis\" (“Bavarian Rhine District”) came into being in 1816, later coming to be known as the \"bayerische Rheinpfalz\" (“Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate”), an exclave of the Kingdom of Bavaria. Brücken now lay within this new piece of Bavaria, and within the \"Bürgermeisterei\" (“Mayoralty”) of Schönenberg, to which belonged not only Schönenberg itself, but also the villages of Kübelberg and Schmittweiler, and this \"Bürgermeisterei\" further belonged to the canton of Waldmohr in the \"Landkommissariat\" (later \"Bezirksamt\" and \"Landkreis\" or district) of Homburg. After the First World War, the district of Homburg was grouped into the autonomous Saar. The canton of Waldmohr, though, remained with Bavaria – now the Free State of Bavaria now that the last king of Bavaria and the Kaiser had abdicated – and thus with Germany, too. It belonged with a branch location of the administration to the \"Bezirksamt\" of Kusel, which remained in existence until 1940. As early as 1895, the citizens of Brücken put forth a proposal to the Kingdom of Bavaria to split the village away from the Mayoralty of Schönenberg and found their own mayoralty, and a year later the appropriate municipal council decision was made. The raising of the village to self-governing municipality came about in 1921. After the Waldmohr branch administration had been dissolved, this mayoralty belonged administratively to the district of Kusel. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate, Brücken became an \"Ortsgemeinde\" in the \"Verbandsgemeinde\" of Schönenberg-Kübelberg in 1972.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146789",
"title": "East Frisia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "During the 14th century adherence to the Redjeven constitution decayed. Catastrophes and epidemics such as pestilence intensified the process of destabilization. This provided an opportunity for influential family-clans to establish a new rule. As chieftains (in Low German: \"hovedlinge\"; in standard German: \"Häuptlinge\") they took control over villages, cities, and regions in East Frisia; however, they still did not establish a feudal system as it was known in the rest of Europe. Instead, the system implemented in Frisia was a system of followship which has some similarity to older forms of rule known from Germanic cultures of the North. There was a specific relation of dependence between the inhabitants of the ruled area and the chieftain, but the people retained their individual freedom and could move where they wanted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13224",
"title": "History of Germany",
"section": "Section::::1648–1815.:Peasants and rural life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The agrarian reforms in northwestern Germany in the era 1770–1870 were driven by progressive governments and local elites. They abolished feudal obligations and divided collectively owned common land into private parcels and thus created a more efficient market-oriented rural economy, which increased productivity and population growth and strengthened the traditional social order because wealthy peasants obtained most of the former common land, while the rural proletariat was left without land; many left for the cities or America. Meanwhile, the division of the common land served as a buffer preserving social peace between nobles and peasants. In the east the serfs were emancipated but the Junker class maintained its large estates and monopolized political power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376974",
"title": "France in the Middle Ages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of the seigneurial economic system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through serfdom); the extension of the feudal system of political rights and obligations between lords and vassals; the so-called \"feudal revolution\" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th centuries led to the convening of an advisory assembly, the Estates General, and also to an effective end to serfdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8992666",
"title": "Erp (Germany)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The old feudal system disappeared with the arrival of French troops in October 1794. The French made Erp a municipality (in French: “mairie”) as part of the French administration. After the official recognition of the annexation of the Rhineland in the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 Erp became French; a situation that should last until 1814. The French period had important consequences for the village. The big farms which had been owned for centuries by nobles, monasteries or other religious institutions were sold by auction and became property of private persons. Moreover, the legal and administrative system changed completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
960p8g
|
Catharism was a militant heresy that gained strong support in Southern France in the 13th century before being suppressed in the two decade Albigensian Crusade. Two or three centuries later, Southern France again became a bastion of militant religious heresy with French Huguenots. Any connection?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've asked a few questions about Cathars on this sub, and it seems that a lot of historians question whether the Cathars even existed at all. \nYou might want to look at this answer about Cathars from u/sunagainstgold\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18266484",
"title": "History of the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "12th-century France witnessed the growth of Catharism in Languedoc. It was in connection with the struggle against this heresy that the Inquisition originated. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a papal legate in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade. Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future massacres and root out the remaining Cathars. Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height. Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Moorish invasion or for political purposes. The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment or execution by burning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4746031",
"title": "History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The persecution of Christian heretics resumed in 1022, when fourteen people were burned at Orléans. Around this time Bogomilism and Catharism appeared in Europe; these sects were seen as heretical by the Catholic Church, and the Inquisition was initially established to counter them. Heavily persecuted, these heresies were eradicated by the 14th century. The suppression of the Cathar (or \"Albigensian\") faith took the form of the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church. Its violence was extreme even by medieval standards. Notable individuals who were executed for heresy in the late Middle Ages are Jerome of Prague, John Badby and Jan Hus. Only the Waldensians, another heretical Christian sect, managed to survive in remote areas in Northern Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83212",
"title": "Aude",
"section": "Section::::History.:Catharism in Aude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "In the 13th century, the region saw the development of Catharism, a dualistic Christian sect with similarities to Gnosticism. This religion was very quickly judged to be heretical by the Catholic Church. Faced with its growing strength in the counties of Carcassonne and Toulouse, Pope Innocent III in 1209 declared a crusade against the Albigensians. The barons of the north united to form an army under the command of Simon de Montfort. Whereas the count of Toulouse Raymond VI received absolution, the Count of Carcassonne confronted the army alone. The city of Carcassonne became the refuge of numerous Cathars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611083",
"title": "Heresy",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.:Catholicism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In France the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement and the belief was spreading to other areas. The Cathar Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in Languedoc. Heresy was a major justification for the Inquisition (\"Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis\", Inquiry on Heretical Perversity) and for the European wars of religion associated with the Protestant Reformation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46670079",
"title": "House of Toulouse",
"section": "Section::::History.:Fall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "In the 12th century, a new heresy, Catharism, developed in the region, supported by many local lords. Count Raymond V demanded the aid of Cîteaux to fight against the Cathars, but in the early 13th century, their presence is such that Raymond VI cannot fight against them without alienating a large part of the population. The murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau triggered the Albigensian Crusade. Launched in 1208 by Pope Innocent III, it aimed to crush heresy and to subdue the powerful lords of the south and their wealthy domains. In 1215, Simon de Montfort, who took the leadership of the Crusade, defeated the army of Toulouse and entered the city. He proclaimed himself Count of Toulouse but was killed in 1218 by the inhabitants. After this event, the counts of Toulouse sided with the people against the royal armies. But after a new offensive launched by King Louis VIII, Raymond VII gave in and signed the Treaty of Meaux in 1229.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13568947",
"title": "Dualistic cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Theistic dualism.:In Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The Cathars, a Christian sect in southern France, believed that there was a dualism between two gods, one representing good and the other representing evil. The Roman Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by Pope Innocent III in 1208 to remove the Cathars from Languedoc in France, where they were known as Albigesians. The Inquisition, which began in 1233 under Pope Gregory IX, also targeted the Cathars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9213123",
"title": "Orléans heresy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The Orléans heresy in 1022 was an early instance of heresy in Europe. Unlike other heresies, it was driven by erudite clergy, aligned with the queen of France, in a political context opposing the king to the Count of Blois for influence over Orléans. It was documented by contemporary observers. The small heretical sect at the center of the event had coalesced around two canons, Stephen and Lisios, who expressed ascetic and possibly dualist beliefs. The sect leaders and their followers were tried and condemned by a church council, excommunicated and burned at the stake. This was believed to the first recorded burning of humans for the crime of heresy in the medieval West.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kmkqg
|
why is the tachometer (rpm counter) so large in a car's dashboard (as large as the speed dial)? how is the information useful to the average driver?
|
[
{
"answer": "Great if you drive a manual. Tells you if your revs are too high and you need to shift up, or too low and you need to shift down. No idea why you'd want one on an automatic. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly useless, even for a standard transmission. If all you drive is a standard, you'll end up shifting based on sound, feel, and perception than by looking at the tach. Normal street legal cars have rev-limiters, so it's difficult to overshoot on accident, even on a down shift.\n\nFor racing, it's a visual queue prior to the shift light to prepare yourself for the shift, lest you miss your shift, over-rev, and blow the engine. Most race cars use light bars and shift lights so you don't have to look directly at the indicator, and don't have a rev-limiter. If you're racing a sports car that doesn't have a light, you'll get in the bad habit of looking at the tach near the top end of the rpm range instead of the road.\n\nIt can convey some diagnostic information depending on the situation and if you know what to look for, but more for standards than automatics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In an automatic I use it to know how much passing power I have while driving on flat roads.\n\nIf I'm midway in my gear (medium RPM) and going the same speed as the car in front of me then I know I can punch it and zoom around. But if I'm high or low in the gear it becomes more doubtful that I have the torque to make a quick pass and I'm better off increasing speed (if I'm low) or letting the gear change (if I'm high) before punching the gas.\n\nIf my car has Overdrive (most do) then it's not so much of an issue.\n\nIn a stick shift you have full control of your torque if you watch where the gears top out. Riding near the top of the RPM's provides you with optimal power; you've got a small amount of excellent torque and the option to slow the vehicle without applying the brake (by just easing off on the gas and letting the engine do the braking.) If you're racing this is critical.\n\nAnybody used to driving in the mountains is as glued to the tach as they are to the speedometer. Application of torque becomes a lot more critical in mountains (especially in snow or mud.)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even for daily drivers it can be useful info.. if you find your car is most efficient around 3k revs as in power curve ramps up steeply just before there then you know optimum time to shift... over time will get used to a particular car but every car sounds different",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233487",
"title": "Tachometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2326475",
"title": "Learjet 25",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The electrically operated RPM tachometer consists of a signal generator on the engine and an indicator located in the centre of the instrument panel. Dial markings are based on percent of maximum allowable engine speed. The large markings are graduated in 2% increments from 0% to 100% and the small dial is graduated in 1% increments from 0% to 10% to allow the pilots to accomplish more precise engine speed settings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576681",
"title": "Speedometer",
"section": "Section::::Error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Most speedometers have tolerances of some ±10%, mainly due to variations in tire diameter. Sources of error due to tire diameter variations are wear, temperature, pressure, vehicle load, and nominal tire size. Vehicle manufacturers usually calibrate speedometers to read high by an amount equal to the average error, to ensure that their speedometers never indicate a lower speed than the actual speed of the vehicle, to ensure they are not liable for drivers violating speed limits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725797",
"title": "Dashboard",
"section": "Section::::Dashboard features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Contemporary dashboards may include the speedometer, tachometer, odometer, engine coolant temperature gauge, and fuel gauge, turn indicators, gearshift position indicator, seat belt warning light, parking-brake warning light, and engine-malfunction lights. Other features may include a gauge for alternator voltage, indicators for low fuel, low oil pressure, low tire pressure and faults in the airbag (SRS) systems, glove compartment, ashtray and a cigarette lighter or power outlet — as well as heating and ventilation systems, lighting controls, safety systems, entertainment equipment and information systems, e.g., navigation systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9575371",
"title": "BMW Z9",
"section": "Section::::Interior design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "A large, 8.8-inch monitor in the center of the dashboard displays all the information the driver needs, apart from the speedometer and tachometer, which are conventional analog instruments. The monitor is positioned within the driver's field of vision, allowing it to be viewed while focusing attention on the road ahead. Controls are operated with a single large, multifunction knob located between the front seats. The control (called the Intuitive Interaction Concept) consists of a combination rotary and push button for selecting functions. Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on the dash mounted screen. Several hundred functions can be controlled with this device. The concept of operating the Z9, which BMW calls Intuitive Interaction Concept, allows the driver to easily activate functions while driving without the need to constantly examine and manipulate conventional controls. It was an early prototype of the series production iDrive, introduced in 2001 on the BMW 7 Series (E65).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233487",
"title": "Tachometer",
"section": "Section::::In automobiles, trucks, tractors and aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS voltage waves from the low tension (LT) side of the ignition coil, while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output. This is from a special connection called an \"AC tap\" which is a connection to one of the stator's coil output, before the rectifier. Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine (usually on the camshaft) exist - usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic or no electrical systems. On recent EMS found on modern vehicles, the signal for the tachometer is usually generated from an ECU which derives the information from either the crankshaft or camshaft speed sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233487",
"title": "Tachometer",
"section": "Section::::In automobiles, trucks, tractors and aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of rotation speeds. This can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the driving conditions. Prolonged use at high speeds may cause inadequate lubrication, overheating (exceeding capability of the cooling system), exceeding speed capability of sub-parts of the engine (for example spring retracted valves) thus causing excessive wear or permanent damage or failure of engines. This is more applicable to manual transmissions than to automatics. On analogue tachometers, speeds above maximum safe operating speed are typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of \"redlining\" an engine — revving the engine up to the maximum safe limit. The red zone is superfluous on most modern cars, since their engines typically have a revolution limiter which electronically limits engine speed to prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector systems have an integral governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers in vehicles and machinery fitted with such engines sometimes lack a redline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gn2uz
|
Would you hear an explosion in space from Earth/Endor?
|
[
{
"answer": "IANA explosion expert. But being historically inclined, I remembered that there have been a few nuclear explosions in the very high atmosphere, and so I went looking for information there. You can find more information than you want [here](_URL_0_) (pdf).\n\nPage 21 says they heard no sounds from the explosion, which was a 1.4 MT weapon, 250 miles above and 19 miles downrange of the listening post.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might hear a sonic boom from very large piece of it entering the atmosphere near your location - but the sound of the blast itself would not be heard as the vacuum of space prevents sound transmission",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19480418",
"title": "Praxis effect",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Astronomer Philip Plait has described the explosion and resultant shock wave as \"the most dramatic effect ever filmed\", but states that in reality it would be more likely for the explosion seen in \"Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country\" to generate a spherical shock wave. He finds the effect to be more plausible when appearing in the Special Edition of \"\" during the explosion of the first Death Star, as an explosion traveling from the core of the space station would reach the equatorial trench before the surface of the station and find no resistance at this point. However, the Praxis effect was perpendicular to the trench in this shot, instead of on the same plane. When the second Death Star explodes at the end of the Special Edition of \"Return of the Jedi\", the Praxis effect is on the same plane as the equatorial trench.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4274607",
"title": "Iturralde crater",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "For an air burst to have occurred, the extraterrestrial body must have been small enough and/or possessed low enough density (e.g. porous ice or stone) that made it unable to penetrate the atmosphere and reach the Earth's surface to form a classical impact crater. If so, the impactor would have encountered the atmosphere at velocities of approximately , and the released energy of the airburst would have been comparable to or greater than any known nuclear explosion. Extreme heat created by such atmospheric disruption would have formed convection cells that lifted the surface unconsolidated material into the fireball, where it melted and subsequently settled to Earth in the form of glass beads. The hypervelocity plume of such an airburst could have reached the ground and created the bowl-like feature visible today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4821036",
"title": "General Roca, Río Negro",
"section": "Section::::2016 meteor event.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "In the afternoon of 20 June 2016, a series of loud blasts could be heard in General Roca, causing buildings to shake and windows to rattle, but police, firefighters and emergency workers could not find any evidence of an explosion or natural calamity. No damage was reported. The astronomical observatory in nearby Neuquén later revealed that the cause had been a meteor that burst in the atmosphere over the city, at an estimated speed of . Astronomer Roberto Figueroa estimated that the meteor measured approximately across and probably broke on atmospheric entry, falling mostly as ash, but some larger fragments could have reached the lower atmosphere and caused an audible boom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534824",
"title": "2004 FH",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Had this object hit Earth, it would probably have detonated high in the atmosphere. It might have produced a blast measured in hundreds of kilotons of TNT, but may not have produced any effect on the ground. It could also have been an Earth-grazing fireball if it had been much closer but not close enough to impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50893060",
"title": "Nuclear blackout",
"section": "Section::::Bomb effects.:Outside the atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "For simple geometric reasons, about half of the particles released by the explosion will be traveling towards the Earth and interact with the upper layers of the atmosphere, while the other half travels upwards into space. The particles penetrate the atmosphere to a depth depending on their energy:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4601214",
"title": "Tardisode",
"section": "Section::::Synopses.:Tardisode 2 – \"Tooth and Claw\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "An object from space crashes into the Earth with a large explosion. Three hundred years later, an elderly man walks through a grassland. Suddenly, something in the grass starts chasing him. The man quickens his speed, and turns round just in time to see a werewolf jump at him…\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22814106",
"title": "Kevin Saunders",
"section": "Section::::Explosion and recovery.:Corpus Christi Public Grain Elevator explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Saunders was in the USDA government building when the largest explosion struck. Having heard the sudden blasts erupting just yards away, his last recollection of the event is that “the walls blew out in my face. The crackling and popping of the concrete being blown apart was so loud it felt like it was going to split my head wide open.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gbdc4
|
Were there any universally agreed upon "rules of engagement" for hand-to-hand combat in pre-firearm era battles?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I know some of the bloodiest combat happened after formations broke\n\nThe bloodiest combat would happen after the formation of *one side* broke, and almost all of the blood would come from them.\n\n > but were there rules to how you fought with the enemy, i.e. one-on-one.\n\nDon't do it because it's stupid and suicidal?\n\nThe most basic, fundamental rule that governs battles before the gunpowder era (and it's mostly true of later eras too) is that if you have two friends around you and the guy you are facing doesn't, he is going to die and you are going to live. Because of this, almost everything about fighting is about how to ensure that you can maintain the safety of a formation.\n\nHollywood movies often show battles as first having organized lines which then break down into a disorganized general melee. This is completely wrong, and would never happen. The moment your line fails, you don't continue fighting the enemy, you either do everything in your power to rally our friends and form a new line, or you flee the field. Because your enemy is certainly going to try to rebuild his line, and the moment they succeed, they will completely roll over you.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "Section::::Western traditions.:Americas.:Latin America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Duels were common in much of South America during the 20th century, although generally illegal. In Argentina, during the 18th and 19th century, it was common for \"gauchos\"—cowboys—to resolve their disputes in a fight using working knives called \"facones\". After the turn of the 19th century, when repeating handguns became more widely available, use of the facón as a close-combat weapon declined. Among the gauchos, many continued to wear the knife, though mostly as a tool. However, it was occasionally still used to settle arguments \"of honor\". In these situations two adversaries would attack with slashing attacks to the face, stopping when one could no longer see clearly through the blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90398",
"title": "Code duello",
"section": "Section::::Irish Code Duello.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Typical weapons were cased duelling pistols, tuned for identical appearance, reliability and accuracy. In America, the Irish code eventually supplanted the usual method of brutal hand-to-hand combat and gave the combat a respectable feel. However, since the combatants could not control guns as precisely as swords, gun duels had a greater chance of being fatal. Some duels miscarried because both opponents did not hear or see the starting signal. Agreeing to a signal was helpful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "Section::::Rules.:Offense and satisfaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In the event that the seconds failed to persuade their principals to avoid a fight they then attempted to agree on terms for the duel that would limit the chance of a fatal outcome, consistent with the generally accepted guidelines for affairs of honor. The exact rules or etiquette for dueling varied by time and locale but were usually referred to as the code duello. In most cases the challenged party had the choice of weapons with swords being favored in many parts of continental Europe and pistols in the United States and Great Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37682487",
"title": "Historical medieval battles",
"section": "Section::::Regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "There are unified international rules for the battles. They prohibit a number of very traumatic techniques, as well as regulate the admission of fighters and their weapons in order to observe the historical reliability of equipment, and also to eliminate serious injuries. Due to the fact that different countries used to have different fighting rules, the first unified rules were developed specifically for the world championship on historical medieval battle, \"Battle of the Nations.\" However, the rules used at a local tournament may still differ (for example it may be prohibited to deliver blows to certain areas, e.g. below the knee, elbow, etc.), but the international rating events are conducted in accordance with the accepted international rules for historical medieval battles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "Section::::Asian traditions.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Dueling was a common practice in the Philippines since ancient times, and continued to be recorded during Spanish and American colonialism. In the Visayas, there is a tradition of dueling where the offended party would first \"hagit\" or challenge the offender. The offender would have the choice whether to accept or decline the challenge. In the past, choice of weapons was not limited. But most often, bolos, rattan canes, and knives were the preferred weapons. Duels were either first-blood, submission, or to the last man standing. Duels to death were known as \"huego-todo\" (without bounds). The older generation of Filipino martial artists still tell of duels which occurred during their youth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Knightly culture in the Middle Ages.:Tournaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1292,
"text": "Besides formal tournaments, they were also unformalized judicial duels done by knights and squires to end various disputes. Countries like Germany, Britain and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat was of two forms in medieval society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms were done to settle hostilities between two large parties and supervised by a judge. The chivalric combat was fought when one party's honor was disrespected or challenged and the conflict could not be resolved in court. Weapons were standardized and must be of the same caliber. The duel lasted until the other party was too weak to fight back and in early cases, the defeated party were then subsequently executed. Examples of these brutal duels were the judicial combat known as the Combat of the Thirty in 1351, and the trial by combat fought by Jean de Carrouges in 1386. A far more chivalric duel which became popular in the Late Middle Ages was the \"pas d'armes\" or \"passage of arms\". In this hastilude, a knight or a group of knights would claim a bridge, lane or city gate, and challenge other passing knights to fight or be disgraced. If a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "684903",
"title": "Épée",
"section": "Section::::History.:Dueling sword.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The dueling sword developed in the 19th century when, under pressure from the authorities, duels were more frequently fought until \"first blood\" (as indicated by the French to English translation) only, instead of to the death. Under this provision, it became sufficient to inflict a minor nick on the wrist or other exposed area on the opponent in order to win the duel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bx3c4t
|
how does the brain create brand new words?
|
[
{
"answer": "Creativity. You could have merged together \"rustles\" with \"cramp\" or just added a c to the beginning because it was amusing to 8 year old you. Or you just randomly thought of it and it stuck.\n\nFor an example not involving language, imagine a purple creature the size of a chihuahua with a handlebar mustache and monocle. Chances are, you can picture this thing that does not actually exist in real life. Why did I choose these specific features? Because I was actively trying to be random and then when I added the handlebar mustache my brain associated the monocle with it so I added that too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586235",
"title": "Onomasiology",
"section": "Section::::Lexical change.:Processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In order to create a new word, the speaker first selects one or two physically and psychologically salient aspects. The search for the motivations (iconemes) is based on one or several cognitive-associative relations. These relations are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158074",
"title": "Lemma (psycholinguistics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "When a person produces a word, they are essentially turning their thoughts into sounds, a process known as lexicalisation. In many psycholinguistic models this is considered to be at least a two-stage process. The first stage deals with semantics and syntax; the result of the first stage is an abstract notion of a word that represents a meaning and contains information about how the word can be used in a sentence. It does not, however, contain information about how the word is pronounced. The second stage deals with the phonology of the word; it attaches information about the sounds that will have to be uttered. The result of the first stage is the lemma in this model; the result of the second stage is referred to as the lexeme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6968451",
"title": "Concept learning",
"section": "Section::::Methods of learning a concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Words – Hearing or reading new words leads to learning new concepts, but forming a new concept is more than learning a dictionary definition. A person may have previously formed a new concept before encountering the word or phrase for it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The most common process has been to form compounds of existing words, written with the characters of the constituent words. Words have also been created by adding affixes, reduplication and borrowing from other languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49830964",
"title": "James Reyne and the Magnificent Few",
"section": "Section::::Lyrical Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "“When it started off there was someone who inspired it, in the beginning, but not really, It quickly becomes just the usual amalgam of stuff and then you make up stuff, and then it just becomes a matter of playing with the words — you start enjoying yourself just playing with the words to make little twists and turns and rhymes and things like that. But there’s a rough basis in something, although I don’t want to say who it is obviously. And I wouldn’t want to qualify the person.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569916",
"title": "English language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Word formation processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Formation of new words, called neologisms, based on Greek and/or Latin roots (for example \"television\" or \"optometry\") is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the \"international scientific vocabulary\" (ISV) when compiling \"Webster's Third New International Dictionary\" (1961). Another active word-formation process in English is acronyms, words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases (e.g. \"NATO\", \"laser\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43892832",
"title": "Theodor Birt",
"section": "Section::::Neo-Kantianism in Marburg.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The \"logos\" is as non-spatial as music, and has its extension only in time. Before writing, our collective memory entrusted its survival to song, to Homer and the ancient rhapsodes. When writing first came, it was nothing more than a crutch for our memory. In itself, the written word is not more than sound and thought crystallized into space, and streams out into time again as soon as it touches the reader’s eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ri567
|
modern militia purposes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The are a remnant of an earlier time. The truth is they aren't all that important, but many states feel strongly about maintaining their right to have one (Which is the true point of the 2nd Amendment).\n\nIn theory, in the event of an invasion or the like they would join the fight. The thing is, that is also what the National Guard and the regular military is for.",
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},
{
"answer": "They're also around to overthrow the government should the need arise. The right to revolution is a core principle of the American founding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At least in the U.S., the official state militia is indeed the state's National Guard. Most other militias are associated with smaller townships and are tailored to purposes that serve that specific township (possibly disaster relief, as you mentioned). However, there are established militias that have mission statements that carry more gravitas. For example, it's not unheard of for a town to have a militia whose objective it is to protect the town from unwarranted intrusions (perhaps from the state or, more likely, federal government). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also the US military \"legally\" is not allowed to conduct operations on American soil. The National Guard is the modern state militia. A state's National Guard answers to the governor of that respective state. Originally the state militia served as a reserve force in event of invasion and also as a counterpoint to the Federal Government's need for a regular military. It ensures (or rather ensured) that should the Feds ever try to overstep their constitutional bounds with force; the states could resist. \n\nTL;DR To back up the military in time of invasion and to balance power between the states and Feds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4562088",
"title": "Minnesota National Guard",
"section": "Section::::History.:1636–1850.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The idea of a militia, or body of citizen Soldiers as distinct from career soldiers, was borrowed from England and dates in this country from 1636, when three militia regiments were organized for the common defense in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Militia companies were eventually organized throughout colonial America, and they provided its principal defense force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20622",
"title": "Militia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a nation, or subjects of a state, who can be called upon for military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of regular, full-time military personnel, or historically, members of a warrior nobility class (e.g., knights or samurai). Generally unable to hold ground against regular forces, it is common for militias to be used for aiding regular troops by skirmishing, holding fortifications, or irregular warfare, instead of being used in offensive campaigns by themselves. Militia are often limited by local civilian laws to serve only in their home region, and to serve only for a limited time; this further reduces their use in long military campaigns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13958208",
"title": "Constitutional militia movement",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Conceptually, a citizen's militia has been defined as a constitutionalist private army meeting regularly to practice combat skills and discuss weapons. The militia is defined as social groups practice \"skills within a distinct territory, are not always anti-government, and have some opinions regarding use of terrorism to further militia goals.\" It may have an offensive, paramilitary, and/or defensive orientation depending on circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18908650",
"title": "Militia Act of 1903",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Militia Act of 1903 (), also known as \"The Efficiency in Militia Act of 1903\", also known as the Dick Act, was legislation enacted by the United States Congress which created an early National Guard and codified the circumstances under which the Guard could be federalized. It also provided federal funds to pay for equipment and training, including annual summer encampments. This new entity was to organize units of similar form and quality to those of the regular Army, with intents to meet the same training, education, and readiness requirements as active duty units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4158168",
"title": "Militia (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The Modern English term \"militia\" dates to the year 1590, with the original meaning now obsolete: \"the body of soldiers in the service of a sovereign or a state\". Subsequently, since approximately 1665, \"militia\" has taken the meaning \"a military force raised from the civilian population of a country or region, especially to supplement a regular army in an emergency, frequently as distinguished from mercenaries or professional soldiers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20622",
"title": "Militia",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "With the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and Article 1 Section 8 of the United States Constitution, control of the army and the power to direct the militia of the states was concurrently delegated to the federal Congress. The Militia Clauses gave Congress authority for \"organizing, arming, and disciplining\" the militia, and \"governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States\", with the States retaining authority to appoint officers and to impose the training specified by Congress. Proponents describe a key element in the concept of \"militia\" was that to be \"genuine\" it not be a \"select militia\", composed of an unrepresentative subset of the population. This was an argument presented in the ratification debates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2654666",
"title": "Gun culture in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The militia/frontiersman spirit derives from an early American dependence on arms to protect themselves from foreign armies and hostile Native Americans. Survival depended upon everyone being capable of using a weapon. Prior to the American Revolution there was neither budget nor manpower nor government desire to maintain a full-time army. Therefore, the armed citizen-soldier carried the responsibility. Service in militia, including providing one's own ammunition and weapons, was mandatory for all men—just as registering for military service upon turning eighteen is today. Yet, as early as the 1790s, the mandatory universal militia duty gave way to voluntary militia units and a reliance on a regular army. Throughout the 19th century the institution of the civilian militia began to decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5bmvxf
|
In theory and practice, how did the fascism of Italy and Austria differ from the fascism of Nazi Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "Italian Fascism was a hybrid ideology in practice: it drew elements from socialism (state interventions in economy, an emphasis on welfare policies like public housing schemes, state sanctioned free time activities), liberalism (a tendency to favor industrial and financial interests), totalitarian measures (heavy handed propaganda, total elimination of academic freedom, widespread delation, violent opposition to dissenters) \"old school\" nationalism/traditionalism (militarism, close ties with the Catholic Church, obsequious - if insincere - deference to the monarchy). \n\nThis was just a result of the complex web of political counterweights Mussolini had to move in as a politician. He had many feet in one shoe, having to appease the King, the Pope, the Catholic working masses, the wealthy, the army. \n\nHitler, on the other hand, had a very tense relationship with the religious establishment. He did, however, rule a nation where antisemitism was relatively widespread and historically present - maybe not the raving, all-encompassing hate for Jews he and his cronies adopted, but prevalent enough. \n\nItalians were never that antisemitic, culturally, so Mussolini's platform reflected that.\n\n",
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{
"answer": "I wouldn't say that racism wasn't inherent to Fascism. In fact I would assert the opposite. \n\nOne of the main breaking points in the racial theory (if you can call it that) between the Fascist ideology and the Nazi ideology was due to the Nordic centrist view point. Mussolini and the Fascists rejected this idea as it taught that the Mediterranean people were on a lower rung of society from the 'more pure' Nordics. This ideology was actually devisive within Italy itself, as it divided the more 'Nordic' north from the more 'Latin' south. Instead, the Fascists preached a more pan-Italian nationalism: the Italians were better, and more pure as a race, *because they were Italian.* The Italians themselves were placed on a higher rung than other Mediterranean people because they were they 'only ones' that had united themselves behind a national identity (which was conveniently the one preached by the PNF). The Fascists concocted lists detailing the people in lands to be conquered in terms of value. \n\nIt was thus the duty of the Italian people to spread (through the *spazio vitale* program) their culture to the lands which had once been that of the Roman empire. \n\nNow, Mussolini's own views on not just racism but antisemitism varied wildely throughout his life (much like the majority of his opinions). He is on record giving speeches espousing for the need for an increase in the birthrate of 'Aryans and Mediterraneans' in the early 1920s. This would inform one of Fascisms great disasters of the 'Battle of the Births' in which the Fascists attempted to raise the birthrate of the Italian people but ultimately caused it to plummet. He would also espouse beliefs echoing jewish-banking conspiracies throughout much of Fascism's rise to power while keeping a jewish mistress - Margherita Sarfatti - whom has been called the Jewish Mother of Fascism. Sarfatti also played a heavy role in Fascist Party propaganda and was Mussolini's chief biographer in the 1920s. Ultimately, Fascism would remain clear of encoded antisemitism until 1938. \n\nMussolini would also at times decree that there wasn't such a thing as race, and that it was entirely a mental construct. Once again, this was usually used in connection to the belief that the Italians had formed themselves and thus were the strongest out of the Mediterranean people. \n\n**Reading:** Davide Rodogno, *Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War*; David Kertzer, *The Pope and Mussolini*; Bosworth, *Mussolini's Italy: Life under the Dictatorship*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > However, the fascism present in Mussolini's Italy and, briefly, Dollfus' Italy was apparently quite different. \n\nEngelbert Dollfuß established his dictatorship in 1933 and was assassinated by the Nazis 1934. After that Kurt Schuschnigg took over and lead the regime till 1938 (Anschluß) - so it's more Schuschnigg's Austria than Dollfuß' Austria. (ofc Dollfuß was the one who did the coup in 1933, so I suppose you may call it Dollfuß' Austria, too.)\n\n > Racism is apparently not inherent to fascism. I believe that Mussolini rejected Nazi racialism, at least before Italy and Germany became allies. Before this alliance, Italy and Austria seemed to fear or disprove of Nazi fascism. Why was this?\n\nI can't say much about Italy, but the Austrian Government disproved the Nazis because they were opponents. Until May 1933 the NSDAP was a legal party in Austria - of course they didn't cease to exist when Dollfuß' regime prohibited the party. They killed Dollfuß in 1934 and tried to take over the country, making Dollfuß a martyr who died in a \"war\" against Hitler. It's no big surprise that the regime didn't like the Nazis.\n\nBesides that: Dollfuß' and Schuschnigg's party was the Christlichsoziale Partei ([Christian Social Party](_URL_1_)). \"Christian\" wasn't just a name, they clearly identified themselves as Christian or even Catholic. Like Mussolini they had strong ties with the church (one of their former chancellors even was a Catholic [prelate](_URL_0_)). Hitler otoh didn't like the Catholic church very much. Dollfuß' and Schuschnigg's regime was conservative — they even rehabilitated the Habsburg family, let them return to Austria, returned parts of their confiscated goods and built good connections to Otto Habsburg-Lothringen (the son of the last Austrian emperor and former crown prince).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll leave Italy to /u/sunshinebag and /u/Klesk_vs_Xaero but start off with something that unites the historically fascist movements in their ideology: As a political movement in the context of its time, Fascism understood itself as the viable alternative to both Democracy and Socialism in solving the political and economic problems of its time, especially the class conflict. Rejecting both liberal democracy and socialism aimed at communist utopia, it saw itself as the \"third way\" to unite the nation and lead its people to greatness, mostly through a policy of uniting the classes in the service of the nation, of violently suppressing political dissent, building or at least attempting to build a mass movement, and an ideological emphasize on practice rather than theory, though this is even more present in Nazism than other forms of Fascism.\n\nAustrofascism was ideologically very much inspired by the Katholiche Soziallehre (Catholic Social Tenet or Social Teaching), meaning that they perceived the way to transcend social class conflict during their rule through the establishment of Catholic inspired Corporate State. This meant that instead of class conflict being waged in the form of unions vs. employers or similar, they sought to organize society along the lines of Stände, i.e. your profession, where all members of one profession no matter on which side they stood in class conflict where organized together in order to transcend class conflict in national and catholic way. Austrofascism has been rightly called a form of clerical fascism in this sense.\n\nNazism on the other hand attempted the same in principle but based on a racial and national rather than religious basis. For the Nazis class conflict was something their imaginary Jewish opponent had introduced and used against the German race and thus only a racially homogeneous German nation could transcend it for the benefit of all Aryans.\n\nAustrofascism saw itself in a more \"restauration\" tradition than the especially the early Nazis who embraced a revolutionary rhetoric. This also becomes apparent in the different practices of Antisemitism. While it is obvious that the Nazis wanted Jews to disappear from German society as a whole through a variety of ways, the Austrofascists did embrace discrimination of Jews but along the lines of them being relegated to their \"place\" in society, meaning that they e.g. enacted quotas that Jews were only supposed to be represented in certain professions in line with their percentage of the total population. The Austrofascists' utopia was a Catholic and restorative nation where everyone knew and only acted accordingly to their \"place\". They imagined their state as the restorer of the \"natural\", i.e. willed by the Catholic God, state of things on earth, which in their interpretation meant that e.g. farmers were more valuable than others, a strong emphasize on \"traditional\" professions and so on and so forth.\n\nWhile this restarautive aspect did ideologically include the restoration of the Habsburg Empire on some level, Austrofascism lacked the sort of expansionist agenda seen by Italian or German fascism. In terms of foreign policy, the main goal of the Austrofascist state was to remain independent of Nazi Germany – a plan that didn't really work as we know now.\n\nSo, in short, in Austria fascism we see a restorative ideology strongly influenced by political catholicism while the Nazis took a very different path ideologically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many ways to approach this question. First, though, some distinctions must be made. \n\nItalian Fascism lasted for over twenty years and, during this period – while we can agree that it went solidifying into a more defined character during the 1930s – it changed. The early years Fascism (pre Matteotti murder and Acerbo law) was different from Fascism in the late 1920s and again different from Fascism after the Lateranensi Pacts, which furthermore evolved towards the end of the 1930s with the alliance with Germany.\nThis evolution originated from both internal and external influences.\n\nUnfortunately, as I commented in other circumstances, I find it extremely hard to define Fascism – if not in a very broad sense – without limiting to some subset of its features; which offers very little to a comparison with National socialism, given that the same evolution and complexity – if maybe less marked – exists for the Nazi Regime. I fear therefore that any answer I can attempt will be unsatisfying.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nYet I have been summoned; and thus I will anyway try to point out some things that may add to the discussion.\n\n\nTo avoid repeating it everywhere: my knowledge of National socialism is essentially based on Kershaw's biography of Hitler. The following will include no doubt some major oversimplifications and – likely – mistakes. But I can't try to make a comparison without speaking of Germany too. If you feel like I am wrong about something, it may very well be so.\n\nI also spoke a bit about Italian foreign policy – this is a brief, brief summary of the parts that are relevant to the question. It does not provide a general overview of foreign policy during Fascism.\n\nAlso, I ignore many points of contact between the two regimes and make passing reference to others. They existed but I try to stay focused on the question. In any case, some of these points of contact are more relevant than the distinctions that end up being made about them, so... \n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nFascism lasted for a long period of time without the immediate perspective of a war – and we may argue, up to 1939, with reasonable expectations not to be involved in a major European conflict. This is not true for National Socialism, which increasingly acted within this perspective.\nThis is not to say that Mussolini and the Italian Military did not consider the possibility of a war between European nations; but this was framed in a more conventional foreign policy set up. While on the other hand, it is my understanding that most of the economical and social policies of the National socialists were shaped by the idea of an impending decisive conflict.\n\nThis affected the extent and the rapidity of the transformation of economy – and society to a lesser extent – in a totalitarian sense. A process slower and less definitive in the Italian case.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nFascism had indeed to develop a regime of forced co-operation with two major powers within Italy: the Church and the King. Throughout the twenty years history of the Fascist Regime, these relations were marked by periods of agreement and periods of conflict, with the major conflict involving the figure of Pope Pius XI. \nOn a purely ideological perspective, these relations tempered some of the most extreme tendencies within Fascism and – at the same time – while confining them on the fringe side of politics, they prevented an abrupt resolution. The internal opposition to Mussolini did not end in bloodbaths but in a slow, gradual, marginalization where the Duce carefully severed his opponent's ties to the actual power, while often leaving him with an aura of prestige among local minorities. While the rise and fall of prominent Nazis also proceeded from the Fuhrer, it was often more dramatic and perhaps less craftily orchestrated.\nOn a practical side: the institutions of the Church and the King's bureaucracy, both administrative and military, were able to survive – to a certain extent and not without a struggle (see for example the events surrounding the *Azione Cattolica*)– as parallel, competing ways of power, whose presence was essential to the possibility of “replacing” Mussolini with Badoglio. The comparative absence of these structures within Germany – where the institutions of the Republic had been quite effectively erased – may have contributed to the difficulties in developing an alternative to Hitler's power.\n\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\nThe issue of racism... \n\nI need a short premise to this point. It is often complex to define the core elements of a form of government, where effort must be taken to determine whether these elements are injected into the country by the Regime or rather filtered through the country into the Regime. Many of the characters of Fascism – and legitimate ones to be fair, all worth mentioning – are not original to Fascism; they come from a complex, composite tradition which drew back to the period from late XIX century and the immediate post-war: Nationalism, Trade-Unionism, Pan-Culturalism, Expansionism, Neo-aristocracysm, Trencherism, etc. These elements all took their part in defining the unifying myth of the Anti-Liberal opposition: the New State.\n\nIt is not surprising that a Regime heavily shaped by Mussolini, who had very little personal commitment to great ideals as guides but a hefty reliance on them as tools, would have made use of all these myths, weighting more or less on each one during the different phases of its existence.\n\n\nNow, to my understanding, the italian society was in the years building up to Fascism, realistically speaking, racist. We may argue that it was not a malicious racism, advocating violent actions or depicting other races as enemies, but it was the condescending, paternalistic racism that other countries had previously experienced during their history. It was the kind of racism that allowed comic strips depicting the italian colonists civilizing the African people by “impregnating their women” to be perceived as funny and not disturbing. \nIn this context there is no doubt that the italian society was pervaded by a latent racism, as far as our modern understanding goes. This racism filtered through Fascism and became a part of it. \nI would argue though that it was not a core element of it. It was a part of the italian society that con not be taken apart from the regime, to easily tell where one ends and the other one begins.\n\nWhat was on the other hand legitimately different from the National Socialist Regime, was the fact that italian racism had not – with the exception of fringe cultural elements – the character of an irreducible natural struggle. The context of social, national, class struggle was, within Italy, mostly historical and the idea of history as a sequence of unavoidable clashes was not framed in a racial context; which to my understanding marks another difference from the National Socialist case.\n\nFurthermore the racial issue did not extend as much into antisemitism, given the limited number of Jews living in Italy and their deep integration within italian society. There were some antisemitic instances, but even these were mostly framed in a religious context and not a racial one.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "17546747",
"title": "Fascism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
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"text": "Italian Fascism was expansionist in its desires, looking to create a New Roman Empire. Nazi Germany was even more aggressive in expanding its borders in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Nazis murdered the Austrofascist dictator Dollfuss, causing an uneasy relationship in Austria between fascism and Nazism at an early stage. Italian nationalist and pan-German claims clashed over the issue of Tyrol. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13212",
"title": "History of Europe",
"section": "Section::::1914–1945: Two World wars.:Interwar.:Fascism and authoritarianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Italy adopted an authoritarian system known as Fascism in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian Stanley G. Payne says Fascism in Italy was:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528780",
"title": "International relations (1919–1939)",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism in Europe shortly after the First World War. It dominated Italy (1923–43) and Nazi Germany (1933-45) and played a role in other countries. It was based in tightly organised local groups, all controlled from the top. It violently opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, and tried to control all aspects of society. The foreign policy Militaristic and aggressive. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were critical allies in the second world war. Japan, with an authoritarian government that did not have a well-mobilised popular base, was allied with them to form the Axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "18940658",
"title": "Anti-communism",
"section": "Section::::Anti-communist movements.:Fascism and far-right politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1359,
"text": "Fascism is often considered to be a reaction to communist and socialist uprisings in Europe. Italian Fascism, founded and led by Benito Mussolini, took power after years of leftist unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable. Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in the early 1920s the Nazis were only one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement. The Nazis only came to dominance during the Great Depression, when they organized street battles against German Communist formations. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, his propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels set up the \"Anti-Komintern\". It published massive amounts of anti-Bolshevik propaganda, with the goal of demonizing Bolshevism and the Soviet Union before a worldwide audience. In Europe, numerous far-right activists including some conservative intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists were vocal opponents of Communism. During the late 1930s and the 1940s, several other anti-communist regimes and groups supported fascism: the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS in Spain; the Vichy regime and the Legion of French Volunteers against Bolshevism (\"Wehrmacht\" Infantry Regiment 638) in France; and in South America movements such as Brazilian Integralism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Response to World War I and Italian Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Other Nazis—especially those at the time associated with the party's more radical wing such as Gregor Strasser, Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler—rejected Italian Fascism, accusing it of being too conservative or capitalist. Alfred Rosenberg condemned Italian Fascism for being racially confused and having influences from philosemitism. Strasser criticised the policy of \"Führerprinzip\" as being created by Mussolini and considered its presence in Nazism as a foreign imported idea. Throughout the relationship between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, a number of lower-ranking Nazis scornfully viewed fascism as a conservative movement that lacked a full revolutionary potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10494547",
"title": "National Fascist Party",
"section": "Section::::Influence outside Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1594,
"text": "Italian Fascism was copied by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, the Russian Fascist Organization and the Romanian National Fascist Movement (the National Romanian Fascia and National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement), whereas the Dutch fascists were based upon the \"Verbond van Actualisten\" journal of H. A. Sinclair de Rochemont and Alfred Haighton. The Sammarinese Fascist Party established a government in San Marino with a politico-philosophic basis that was essentially Italian Fascism. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Milan Stojadinović established his Yugoslav Radical Union, which was based on Fascism. Party members wore green shirts, Šajkača caps and used the Roman salute. Stojadinović also took to calling himself \"Vodja\". In Switzerland, pro-Nazi Colonel Arthur Fonjallaz of the National Front became an ardent Mussolini admirer after visiting Italy in 1932 and advocated the Italian annexation of Switzerland, whilst receiving Fascist foreign aid. The country was host for two Italian politico-cultural activities: the International Centre for Fascist Studies (CINEF — \"Centre International d’ Études Fascistes\"), and the 1934 congress of the Action Committee for the Universality of Rome (CAUR — \"Comitato d’ Azione della Università de Roma\"). In Spain, the writer Ernesto Giménez Caballero, in \"Genio de España\" (\"The Genius of Spain\", 1932) called for the Italian annexation of Spain, led by Mussolini presiding an international Latin Roman Catholic empire. He then progressed to be closely associated with Falangism, leading to discarding the Spanish annexation to Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17546747",
"title": "Fascism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Relations between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were initially poor but they deteriorated even further after the assassination of Austria's fascist chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Under Dollfuss Austria was a key ally of Mussolini and Mussolini was deeply angered by Hitler's attempt to take over Austria and he expressed it by angrily mocking Hitler's earlier remark on the impurity of the Italian race by declaring that a \"Germanic\" race did not exist and he also indicated that Hitler's repression of Germany's Jews proved that the Germans were not a pure race: \n",
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"meta": null
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] | null |
9i96y7
|
why and how do electronic devices draw only as much current from a power source as required in that very moment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everything draws only as much as it needs.\n\nElectricity flows a little like water, for ELI5. You open the radio a little when you need just a little, or all the way when you want a lot.\n\nYour television, to pick one, draws just a little power while it waits for you to turn it on. Then when it's on, it draws more to turn on the lights, change the sounds and so on.\n\nMore specifically, like water, the ability to take as much as it wants (up to what's available) is always there. When parts of the electronics are used, and they need more, they take more. Different circuits close, allowing there electrons to flow, and more electricity gets used.",
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"answer": "In some appliances, there is actually a physical rheostat. As you turn the dial, you are physically increasing the contact surface between 2 areas and creating more contact for the electricity to flow through. A familiar use is like the dimmer switch on your wall. (google image search for circular rheostat and you will find good pictures)\n\nThere are also \"digital potentiometers\" which do the same thing but are all electrical. This, for instance, can increase the volume on a tv without a physical control knob.\n\nIn terms of how the TV simply turns on - when the TV get a signal to turn on (either with a physical button or an electronic signal) it electronically \"opens a gate\" to electrical flow. The electrical current would LOVE to rush through your TV, so as soon as that gate is open, the electricity flows through and the TV turns on.\n\nAn electronic device might a combination of on/off gates, and/or variable digital potentiometers as needed.",
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"answer": "Three important equations: V A R, W A V, and W I^2 R. These three allow you to determine all those power flow numbers if you just know two. In each of these, imagine a circle with the top half to itself, and the bottom half further split in two, so like a T in a circle. The first letter goes up top and the other two in the bottom. Multiply the bottom two to get the top one, or divide the top one by one of the bottom ones to get the other bottom one.\n\nIn this case, we'll be using V A R, because we know the voltage from the power source (let's say it's a toaster at 120V). So why does this toaster pull 5 amps? Because of the other half of that bottom bit, the R, or resistance. Volts divided by resistance equals your amperage, so you hook up a meter and get a reading of 24 ohms. 120 / 24 = 5! Voltage is like the pressure trying to push electricity in, and the resistance U\nIs... Well it's the resistance of the \"pipe\" to having that pushed in, which balances out to how much *actually* goes through. You have a pipe pushing So much water pressure and a valve partially shut holding some of that potential flow back, you'll get less gallons per minute.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4397993",
"title": "Decoupling capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Active devices of an electronic system (transistors, ICs, vacuum tubes, for example) are connected to their power supplies through conductors with finite resistance and inductance. If the current drawn by an active device changes, voltage drops from power supply to device will also change due to these impedances. If several active devices share a common path to the power supply, changes in the current drawn by one element may produce voltage changes large enough to affect the operation of others - voltage spikes or ground bounce, for example - so the change of state of one device is coupled to others through the common impedance to the power supply. A decoupling capacitor provides a bypass path for transient currents, instead of flowing through the common impedance. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5304916",
"title": "Voltage converter",
"section": "Section::::Practical voltage converters.:Converters for devices.:Mains converters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Another requirement is to provide low-voltage electricity to a device from mains electricity; this would be done by what is usually called a \"power supply\". Most modern electronic devices require between 1.5 and 24 volts DC; lower-powered devices at these voltages can often work either from batteries or mains. Some devices incorporate a power supply and are simply plugged into the mains. Others use an external power supply comprising either a transformer and rectifier, or electronic circuitry. Switched-mode power supplies have become widespread in the early twenty-first century; they are smaller and lighter than the once-universal transformer converters, and are often designed to work from AC mains at any voltage between 100 and 250 V. Additionally, because they are typically rectified to operate at a DC voltage, they are minimally affected by the frequency of the mains (50 vs 60 Hz). Details on operation are given in the article on power supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219042",
"title": "Power supply",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Uninterruptible power supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1595,
"text": "An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. Instantly here should be defined as the speed of electricity within conductors which is somewhat near the speed of light. That definition is important because transmission of high speed data and communications service must have continuity/NO break of that service. Some manufacturers use a quasi standard of 4 milliseconds. However, with high speed data even 4 ms of time in transitioning from one source to another is not fast enough. The transition must be made in a break before make method. The UPS meeting that requirement is referred to as a True UPS or a Hybrid UPS. How much time the UPS will provide is most often based on batteries and in conjunction with generators. That time can range from a quasi minimum 5 to 15 minutes to literally hours or even days. In many computer installations, only enough time on batteries to give the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to supply power during a utility power outage and the amount of battery time is then dependent upon how long it takes the generator to be on line and the criticality of the equipment served. Such a scheme is found in hospitals, data centers, call centers, cell sites and telephone central offices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66819",
"title": "Root mean square",
"section": "Section::::In common waveforms.:In waveform combinations.:Average electrical power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Electrical engineers often need to know the power, \"P\", dissipated by an electrical resistance, \"R\". It is easy to do the calculation when there is a constant current, \"I\", through the resistance. For a load of \"R\" ohms, power is defined simply as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749012",
"title": "Current source",
"section": "Section::::Current and voltage source comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Most sources of electrical energy (mains electricity, a battery, etc.) are best modeled as voltage sources. Such sources provide constant voltage, which means that as long as the current drawn from the source is within the source's capabilities, its output voltage stays constant. An ideal voltage source provides no energy when it is loaded by an open circuit (i.e., an infinite impedance), but approaches infinite power and current when the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Such a theoretical device would have a zero ohm output impedance in series with the source. A real-world voltage source has a very low, but non-zero output impedance: often much less than 1 ohm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1780823",
"title": "AC power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3270043",
"title": "Electric power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as electric batteries. It is usually supplied to businesses and homes (as domestic mains electricity) by the electric power industry through an electric power grid. Electric energy is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (1 kW·h = 3.6 MJ) which is the product of the power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using an electricity meter, which keeps a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
vcq00
|
Is vaporizing really healthier than smoking?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's healthier since you do not inhale the ash and carcinogens that are present when substances are burned. Smoking involves burning the weed/tobacco, thus chemically carcinogens are formed. Vaporizing relies on heating the substance to a state where certain chemicals are released and ingested via inhalation.",
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"answer": "\"Less detrimental to health\" is likely to be the best ruling you'll get on this, and Boston University Medical Center's study seems to support this position. Here is the relevant quote from the physorg article regarding the research:\n\n > \"Few, if any, chemicals at levels detected in electronic cigarettes raise serious health concerns,\" the authors said. \"Although the existing research does not warrant a conclusion that electronic cigarettes are safe in absolute terms and further clinical studies are needed to comprehensively assess the safety of electronic cigarettes, a preponderance of the available evidence shows them to be much safer than tobacco cigarettes and comparable in toxicity to conventional nicotine replacement products.\"\n\n > The report reviewed 16 laboratory studies that identified the components in electronic cigarette liquid and vapor. The authors found that carcinogen levels in electronic cigarettes are up to 1,000 times lower than in tobacco cigarettes.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "44471109",
"title": "Safety of electronic cigarettes",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1427,
"text": "Repeated exposure over a long time to e-cigarette vapor poses substantial potential risk. Although companies state that e-cigarettes are safe, there is no scientific evidence to support this view. Long-term data showing that vaping is a \"healthier alternative\" than cigarette smoking does not exist. There is little data about their safety, and considerable variability among vaporizers and in their liquid ingredients and thus the contents of the aerosol delivered to the user. The health community, pharmaceutical industry, and other groups have raised concerns about the emerging phenomenon of e-cigarettes, including the unknown health risks from their long-term use. A 2017 review found \"There is a justifiable concern that any broad statement promoting e-cig safety may be unfounded considering the lack of inhalational toxicity data on the vast majority of the constituents in e-cigs. This is particularly true for individuals with existing lung disease such as asthma.\" A 2014 review has stated, there are \"Many unanswered questions about their safety, efficacy for harm reduction and cessation, and total impact on public health.\" There is concern that e-cigarettes may result in many smokers rejecting historically effective quitting smoking methods. Concern exists that the majority of smokers attempting to quit by vaping may stop smoking but maintain nicotine intake because their long-term effects are not clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12254052",
"title": "Smoking",
"section": "Section::::Substances and equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "A less common but increasingly popular alternative to smoking is vaporizers, which use hot air convection to deliver the substance without combustion, which may reduce health risks. A portable vaporization alternative appeared in 2003 with the introduction of electronic cigarettes, battery-operated, cigarette-shaped devices which produce an aerosol intended to mimic the smoke from burning tobacco, delivering nicotine to the user without some of the harmful substances released in tobacco smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "873436",
"title": "Vaporizer (inhalation device)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Vaporizers contain various forms of extraction chambers including straight bore, venturi, or sequential venturi, and are made of materials such as metal or glass. The extracted vapor may be collected in an inflatable bag, or inhaled directly through a hose or pipe. When used properly, cooler temperatures due to lack of combustion result in significantly more efficient extraction of the ingredients. Hence, the irritating and harmful effects of smoking are heavily reduced, as is its secondhand smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13853292",
"title": "Jonathan Gruber (economist)",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- Writing for the National Bureau of Economic Research in 2002, Gruber worked together with Sendhil Mullainathan on a paper titled “Do Cigarette Taxes Make Smokers Happier\", which did find an improvement in smokers’ psychological state because higher taxes were a disincentive to smoking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52958915",
"title": "Electric smoking system",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "A 2018 Public Health England report found \"Compared with cigarettes, heated tobacco products are likely to expose users and bystanders to lower levels of particulate matter and harmful and potentially harmful compounds (HPHC). The extent of the reduction found varies between studies.\" They also noted that the evidence indicates that the levels of nicotine inhaled from heat-not-burn tobacco products is less than that of cigarette smoke. Exposure to mutagenic and other harmful substances is lower than with traditional cigarettes. However, reduced exposure to harmful substances does not mean that health risks are equally reduced. Even low exposure increases the risks for cancers, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases compared to non-smokers. It is still unclear to what extent the reduced levels lead to lowered health risks. Lower levels of harmful emissions has been shown, but lowering the risk to the smoker who transitions to using them has not been shown, as of 2018. Heat-not-burn tobacco products do not reduce being exposed to nicotine or the risk for the potential addiction to nicotine, according to the Committee on Toxicity in 2017. Some of the substances inhaled from using these products are carcinogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11996885",
"title": "Electronic cigarette",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Gateway theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "The \"catalyst model\" suggests that vaping may proliferate smoking in minors by sensitizing minors to nicotine with the use of a type of nicotine that is more pleasing and without the negative attributes of regular cigarettes. A 2016 review, based on the catalyst model, \"indicate that the perceived health risks, specific product characteristics (such as taste, price and inconspicuous use), and higher levels of acceptance among peers and others potentially make e-cigarettes initially more attractive to adolescents than tobacco cigarettes. Later, increasing familiarity with nicotine could lead to the reevaluation of both electronic and tobacco cigarettes and subsequently to a potential transition to tobacco smoking.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60958050",
"title": "Usage of electronic cigarettes",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Gateway theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "The \"catalyst model\" suggests that vaping may proliferate smoking in minors by sensitizing minors to nicotine with the use of a type of nicotine that is more pleasing and without the negative attributes of regular cigarettes. A 2016 review, based on the catalyst model, \"indicate that the perceived health risks, specific product characteristics (such as taste, price and inconspicuous use), and higher levels of acceptance among peers and others potentially make e-cigarettes initially more attractive to adolescents than tobacco cigarettes. Later, increasing familiarity with nicotine could lead to the reevaluation of both electronic and tobacco cigarettes and subsequently to a potential transition to tobacco smoking.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xig8h
|
Light travels so fast that, for all intents and purposes, it's either there or it's not. So what am I seeing when I turn a light off and slowly watch the bulb or housing dim and glow faintly in the dark?
|
[
{
"answer": "If this is a lamp you \"burn\"; one with a filament or an arc-lamp. These work by heating an excitable gas inside the bulb, that gas releases light. That gas and filament are pretty hot, and don't cool instantly, just because you've turn the power off. \nI've seen this with CFLs and other Florescent lamps as well, the issue being basically the same principle. \n\nThis can also result from faulty wiring, in that \"off\" on the switch isn't actually breaking the circuit, that's a hazard. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You do not see lingering light in the bulb. You see a bulb that is hot enough to emit new light, until it cools down so much that the emission stops (or rather, it moves into the infrared spectrum where you can no longer see it.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "885062",
"title": "Min Min light",
"section": "Section::::Appearance and behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Some witnesses describe the light as appearing to approach them several times before retreating. Others report that the lights were able to keep pace with them when they were in a moving motor vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55306858",
"title": "Where His Light Was",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "\"Where His Light Was\" comes from the perspective of when you're walking through a hard time, it feels dark, and you can’t see where you're going, but God said go. If you keep moving forward you will reach your destination and realize you were never alone. Through the mystery and unanswered questions, He was with you the entire time. Don’t give up. Keep going.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2073846",
"title": "Malmquist bias",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the bias.:Magnitudes and brightness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In everyday life it is easy to see that light dims as it gets farther away. This can be seen with car headlights, candles, flashlights, and many other lit objects. This dimming follows the inverse square law, which states that the brightness of an object decreases as , where \"r\" is the distance between the observer and the object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56657682",
"title": "Flicker (light)",
"section": "Section::::Root causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Flicker can also be perceived from naturally modulated light sources like candle light or a sunlit water surface or it may be experienced while driving along a row of trees lit by the sun. TLMs and resulting flicker can be seen also while driving with a certain speed along a street or through a tunnel lit by lighting equipment positioned with a regular spacing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11736738",
"title": "Fizeau interferometer",
"section": "Section::::Fizeau's ether-drag experiment.:Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "According to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be dragged along by the medium, so the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed \"through\" the medium plus the speed \"of\" the medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885062",
"title": "Min Min light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "According to folklore, the lights sometimes follow or approach people and disappear when fired upon, sometimes very rapidly, only to reappear later on, and anyone who chases the lights and catches them will never return to tell the tale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315180",
"title": "De Sitter double star experiment",
"section": "Section::::The effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
199scy
|
How does Gesture Recognition work? (Computing)
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a lot of techniques for this, and it's an active research area in man-machine interaction and artificial intelligence. If all you have to do is write an introductory section, look up some survey or review papers on the field. [This](_URL_1_) ([PDF](_URL_2_)) is a good one, as is [this one](_URL_0_) ([PDF](_URL_3_)). Be advised that most algorithms aren't exactly trivial, and involve some knowledge of AI; nonetheless, those papers should be enough to get you started.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1400452",
"title": "Gesture recognition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Gesture recognition is a topic in computer science and language technology with the goal of interpreting human gestures via mathematical algorithms. Gestures can originate from any bodily motion or state but commonly originate from the face or hand. Current focuses in the field include emotion recognition from face and hand gesture recognition. Users can use simple gestures to control or interact with devices without physically touching them. Many approaches have been made using cameras and computer vision algorithms to interpret sign language. However, the identification and recognition of posture, gait, proxemics, and human behaviors is also the subject of gesture recognition techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1400452",
"title": "Gesture recognition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Gesture recognition can be seen as a way for computers to begin to understand human body language, thus building a richer bridge between machines and humans than primitive text user interfaces or even GUIs (graphical user interfaces), which still limit the majority of input to keyboard and mouse and interact naturally without any mechanical devices. Using the concept of gesture recognition, it is possible to point a finger at this point will move accordingly. This could make conventional input on devices such and even redundant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233942",
"title": "Affective computing",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Body gesture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Gestures could be efficiently used as a means of detecting a particular emotional state of the user, especially when used in conjunction with speech and face recognition. Depending on the specific action, gestures could be simple reflexive responses, like lifting your shoulders when you don't know the answer to a question, or they could be complex and meaningful as when communicating with sign language. Without making use of any object or surrounding environment, we can wave our hands, clap or beckon. On the other hand, when using objects, we can point at them, move, touch or handle these. A computer should be able to recognize these, analyze the context and respond in a meaningful way, in order to be efficiently used for Human-Computer Interaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20245037",
"title": "Hands-on computing",
"section": "Section::::Implementations.:Human signaling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "New developments in hands-on computing have led to the creation of interfaces that can respond to gestures and facial signaling. Often haptic devices like a glove have to be worn to translate the gesture into a recognizable command. The natural actions of pointing, grabbing, and tapping are common ways to interact with the computer interface. The latest studies include using eye signals to indicate selection or control a cursor. Blinking and the gaze of the eye are used to communicate selections. Computers can also respond to speech inputs. Developments in this technology have made it possible for users to dictate phrases to the computer instead of type them to display text on an interface. Utilizing human signal inputs allows more people to interact with computers in a natural way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20736",
"title": "Pointing device gesture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In computing, a pointing device gesture or mouse gesture (or, simply, gesture) is a way of combining pointing device or finger movements and clicks that the software recognizes as a specific computer event and responds in a manner particular to that software. They can be useful for people who have difficulties typing on a keyboard. For example, in a web browser, a user can navigate to the previously viewed page by pressing the right pointing device button, moving the pointing device briefly to the left, then releasing the button.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1400452",
"title": "Gesture recognition",
"section": "Section::::Gesture types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "In computer interfaces, two types of gestures are distinguished: We consider online gestures, which can also be regarded as direct manipulations like scaling and rotating. In contrast, offline gestures are usually processed after the interaction is finished; e. g. a circle is drawn to activate a context menu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20736",
"title": "Pointing device gesture",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "A major drawback of current gesture interaction solutions is the lack of support for two necessary user interface design principles, feedback and visibility (or affordance). Feedback notification is required to indicate whether the gesture has been entered correctly by indicating the gesture recognized and the corresponding command activated, although Sensiva does approach this to some extent in providing voice notification. The other principle is visibility of gestures, providing the user some means of learning the necessary gestures and the contexts they can be used in. Both Mouse Gestures for Internet Explorer and ALToolbar Mouse Gestures display colored tracers that indicate the current motion that the user is taking to facilitate visual clues for the user. pie menus and marking menus have been proposed as solutions for both problems, since they support learning of the available options but can also be used with quick gestures. Most recent versions of Opera (11 and above) uses an on-screen pie menu to simply and instructively display which mouse gestures are available and how to activate them, providing feedback and visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y0e72
|
how significant was finding the rosetta stone?
|
[
{
"answer": "From an archaeological and histological perspective, massively significant. Before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone we were unable to decipher hieroglyphics from ancient Egypt. The Rosetta Stone had 3 blocks of characters on it, the top was Egyptian Hieroglyphics, the middle was Demotic script and the bottom was Ancient Greek. They all said the same thing.\nBecause we already knew and understood Ancient Greek it allowed us to translate the Hieroglyphics. With this knowledge we were then able to learn what Hieroglyphics meant and unlocked all the texts written in tombs and monuments and all that jazz.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Extremely: the Rosetta stone's text contains three copies of the same text -- one in a well known language (Greek), a not-quite-so-well-known language (Demotic), and a language they knew very little about (Heiroglyphics).\n\nNow, there had been other examples (couldn't find links right away) of snippets of the same text in heiroglyphics and another known language, but not enough to really figure out heiroglyphics -- mostly names which were pronounced much the same, so they could figure out what some sounds were, but not necessarily what the words meant.\n\nThe Rosetta stone meant, since linguists had a good grasp of Greek, and sorta understood Demotic, they could compare the same sentences in all three and decode not just how to pronounce heiroglyphics, but what the words actually *meant*.\n\nThis was huge in the language community -- but what it also meant for everyone else is that up until we could translate heiroglyphics the only source of Egyptian history was from later writers who were documenting things in a language we understand. Now that the Rosetta stone helped crack the code, it opened up a bunch of history, written in its original language, for historians to add our understanding of one of the biggest and longest-lived societies in history.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29716954",
"title": "Vetusta Monumenta",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "An 1803 article on the Rosetta Stone was amongst the earliest published research. The first detailed account of the medieval French Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum was published in one of the last papers, of 1904, by Sir Charles Hercules Read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3044224",
"title": "Egypt (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:Part three: \"Champollion\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone to unlock the mysteries of the lost civilisation of Ancient Egypt which had been closed off to Europeans for centuries prior to the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. The stone, discovered by the French in 1799, had been created as a work of propaganda by the Greek-speaking Pharaoh Ptolemy V to establish his place in Egyptian cosmology and flashbacks are included to explain this belief system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26428",
"title": "Rosetta Stone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The Rosetta Stone is a granodiorite stele discovered in 1799 which is inscribed with three versions of a decree issued at Memphis, Egypt in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty on behalf of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic and demotic scripts, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. The decree has only minor differences among the three versions, so the Rosetta Stone became key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, thereby opening a window into ancient Egyptian history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465426",
"title": "Los Lunas Decalogue Stone",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The reported 1880s date of discovery is important to those who believe that the stone is pre-Columbian. However, the Paleo-Hebrew script, which is closely related to the Phoenician script, was well known by at least 1870, thus not precluding the possibility of a modern hoax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27960309",
"title": "Jean-Joseph Marcel",
"section": "Section::::Rosetta Stone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "During the French Campaign in Egypt, the Rosetta Stone was discovered and transported to Cairo for examination by scholars. Jean-Joseph Marcel, who was also a gifted linguist, is credited as the first person to recognise that the middle text of the Rosetta Stone, originally guessed to be Syriac, was in fact the Egyptian demotic script, rarely used for stone inscriptions and therefore seldom seen by scholars at that time. It was Marcel, along with the artist and inventor Nicolas-Jacques Conté, who figured out a way to use the Stone as a printing block. The prints that were made were circulated to scholars in Europe, who started the work of translating the texts, which culminated just over 20 years later, when Jean-François Champollion deciphered the Egyptian texts in 1822.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2635117",
"title": "Demotic (Egyptian)",
"section": "Section::::Decipherment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799. It is inscribed with three scripts: the Greek alphabet, Demotic, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. There are 32 lines of Demotic, which is the middle of the three scripts on the stone. The Demotic was deciphered before the hieroglyphs, starting with the efforts of Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy. Scholars were eventually able to translate the hieroglyphs by comparing the Greek words, which could be readily translated, and the hieroglyphs, in addition to their existing knowledge of Coptic. Egyptologists, linguists and papyrologists who specialize in the study of the Demotic stage of Egyptian script are known as \"Demotists\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1534662",
"title": "Adam Clarke",
"section": "Section::::Rosetta Stone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Clarke was an amateur historian and scholar, and was invited by Brandt, secretary of the Royal Society of Antiquarians to see the newly acquired Rosetta Stone. At that time in 1803, the writing and composition of the stone had not been translated, nor had all three languages been positively identified. Clarke proposed that the stone was basalt, a theory which while recently was found to be incorrect was thought to be correct until the late 1900s when better scanning equipment was developed. He also proposed that the third language was Coptic (it was actually Demotic, which is written almost the same as, and has the same meaning as Coptic), a clue which was used by Jean-François Champollion who successfully completed the translation in 1822.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l0sbi
|
how were cameras allowed inside of concentration camps?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well the Nazi's documented and kept thourough records of the concentration camps. plus the vast amounts of scientific literature garnered from the medical experiments performed on prisoners has proven very usefull in modern medicine",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of what went on was being deliberately documented by the Nazis. As far as they were concerned, they were making historical records for future generations. A lot of them actually believed in what they were doing; they bought into the idea of a master race overcoming the weak, the decadent, the defective, and the evil components of humanity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the allied forces, most notably [General Eisenhower](_URL_0_), liberated the camps; they brought in journalists to document first hand evidence knowing there would be deniers of the holocaust. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Important to point out that there is no film nor any photos of people being gassed. There are things that seem to indicate it was happening and there is a shit-ton of anecdotal evidence, but that, AFAIK, is it.\n\nEven Schindlers List did not show a gassing taking place, preferring instead to focus on the cruel treatment and callous indifference of certain Nazi's toward Jews.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know that they made recordings about the ghettos of Warzaw etc. where people were held in very small buildings with only very little food. Many starved and were buried in mass graves. The nazis made a lot of such recordings for the Wochenschau, a weekly cinema show. It was basically propaganda material, but many recordings were later seen as too cruel for the audience. These are very interresting/disturbing, as many have the original audio commentary by the nazis. I am german, we saw some of this footage in school. It's far more shocking than a horror movie because you know it is real.\n\nI think some of the pictures are taken by the guards, they had a lot of freedom. Then there's some recordings for \"scientific purposes\" and of course the documentation by the allied forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The nazis thought they would rule the world. And they thought they were right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The nazis intended to create a museum about the destruction of a race. They brought the cameras an wanted to document all aspects of what they did so that future generations could see how the \"perfect race\" was created. A site for the museum was even pick out and construction began at one point as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you really seen film of people being tortured in the camps in school? That seems very unlikely. Or you have a different definition of \"tortured\" to mine. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Buchenwald had a very good exhibit a few years ago, it was photography from three sides of the war. Prisoners, Nazis, and Allied Liberation.\n\nPrisoners smuggled things like they do now (and like they've done throughout history). Film and cameras were one of many things smuggled by prisoners. Of course, they weren't allowed, so they had to be very secretive about taking photos. Usually when guards weren't around (like on Sundays, which was a \"day off\"). Usually, film got smuggled by prisoners who had special privilege due to their former professions (journalists, artists, and photographers were made to document whatever the Nazis told them to). They also made their own pinhole cameras.\n\nThere is a very bizarre photo of emaciated prisoners sunbathing on a rare Sunday in the spring when they were literally unsupervised for a few hours. They look dead, but they're all in repose. The photographer went outside with his camera under his shirt, lifted it to expose the film, and went back in his bunk and hid it somewhere inside until he could develop it.\n\nThe Nazis documented everything for posterity and instruction. They were either recording the success of a massive experiment or they were documenting how to do it. Many Nazi photographs are staged and were used for propaganda purposes. However, prison officers lived on site with their families. They had beautiful houses and were separated from the prisoners by chain fences. They kept up German family traditions and had scrapbooks. It's also quite eerie to read \"Papi macht eine witzchen\" (Papa makes a little joke) under a photo of a Nazi officer tickling his toddler.\n\nThe Americans documented crimes, perhaps moreso than prisoners because prisoner photos, while exposing some of the atrocities, also had in them a sense of intimacy. There is no intimacy in American photos. It is from a removed perspective that shows: mass graves, starvation, the far ends of human cruelty.\n\nBonus: Buchenwald also had a zoo with fucking black bears (among other animals) for the enjoyment of the officers' families, and many personal photos from the officers were taken in front of the bears. They all look so.fucking.happy. The bear enclosure, I shit you not, is *right next* to the camp's perimeter. You can see the barracks and fence in family photos IIRC. The kennels built for the guard dogs were way nicer than the prisoners' bunks, too.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "89753",
"title": "Alain Resnais",
"section": "Section::::Career.:1946–1958: short films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "\"Nuit et Brouillard\" (\"Night and Fog\", 1956) was one of the first documentaries about the Nazi concentration camps, but it deals more with the memory of the camps than with their actual past existence. Realising that standard documentary techniques would be incapable of confronting the enormity of the horror (and even risked humanising it), Resnais chose to use a distancing technique by alternating historical black-and-white images of the camps with contemporary colour footage of the sites in long tracking shots. The accompanying narration (written by Jean Cayrol, himself a survivor of the camps) was intentionally understated to add to the distancing effect. Although the film encountered censorship problems with the French government, its impact was immense and it remains one of the director's most admired works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46929453",
"title": "NKVD filtration camp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "NKVD screening and filtration camps (), originally known as NKVD special-purpose camps / NKVD special camps (), were camps for the screening of the Soviet soldiers returned from enemy imprisonment or encirclement. By the end of World War II they handled screening of all people from the Soviet territories occupied by Nazi Germany. The NKVD special-purpose camps were established by NKVD Order No. 001735 of December 28, 1941, titled \"О создании специальных лагерей для бывших военнослужащих Красной Армии, находившихся в плену и в окружении противника\" (\"On the establishment of special camps for former soldiers of the Red Army who were in captivity, or were surrounded by the enemy\"). By NKVD Order No. 00100 of February 20, 1945, they were renamed to \"проверочно-фильтрационные лагеря\" (\"verification and filtration camps\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27265662",
"title": "Postenpflicht",
"section": "Section::::New camp order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Prisoner work details outside a concentration camp were called \"Außenkommandos\" (\"outside commandos\") by the SS. The SS guards would form a \"postenkette\", a cordon of guards to surround the work site and maintain watch. The imaginary boundary formed by the cordon was not to be crossed by a prisoner. Stepping outside the boundary was treated as an escape attempt and the guards, adhering to the \"postenpflicht\", were to fire without warning. If a prisoner did manage to escape, the SS guard was charged with \"negligent release of a prisoner\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23018435",
"title": "Jenny's War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The concentration camp site scenes were shot in the grounds of Thoresby Hall in the Nottingham countryside during the National Union of Miners strike. In the film the prison camp was known as Stalag Luft 4B but in reality it was a group of disused billet huts in some woods at Thoresby Hall, which was then owned by the Coal Board and which has now been turned into a day spa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32244529",
"title": "SS command of Auschwitz concentration camp",
"section": "Section::::Camp guards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Ironically, contrary to the stereotypical image of the \"Concentration Camp Guard\", members of the Guard Battalion seldom, if ever, had direct contact with prisoners. Exceptions occurred due to prisoner escapes or uprisings, of which the 1944 Crematorium Revolt (depicted in the film \"The Grey Zone\" where the Guard Battalion enters and machine guns a crematorium) is one such example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45010321",
"title": "Night Will Fall",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "As the film begins, British forces liberate the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. They took the camp commander, Josef Kramer, and the camp guards as POWs, later forcing them to aid in burial of the masses of dead, whose bodies had been left on the ground all around the camp. Other camps are shown being liberated, including Auschwitz and Majdanek in Poland. The latter camps are shown by footage shot by Soviet cameramen. When Westerners first saw such footage, they suspected that the Soviets had produced atrocity propaganda, as had been the case in some instances. The Allies forced civilians from nearby towns and German servicemen to tour the camps, in order to acknowledge what had taken place under their government and in their neighborhood. They were forced to see the piles of persons who died from starvation, torture and disease; partially burned remains in the crematoria; gruesome displays, including shrunken skulls, and bales of hair, piles of clothing, children's toys, and eyeglasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59049021",
"title": "Cas Oorthuys",
"section": "Section::::Resistance work during World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1237,
"text": "On release Oorthuys connected with (\"the Underground Camera\"), formed around Dolle Dinsdag on the initiative of the German emigrant and the former soldier ; ‘Underground’ because the Nazi occupiers declared a complete ban on \"photographing, filming, drawing, and displaying persons and things in any other way outside of domestic spaces\" from 20 November 1944. The group photographed in any way they could, keeping cameras concealed and shooting 'from the hip'; consequently the quality of the imagery is distinguished by its haphazard nature; often with tilted, uncentered framing and other accidental effects. Their aim was initially to document the Allies’ liberation which was longer in coming than hoped, and instead they recorded a severe winter of hunger and resistance in photos that have become the image of the German occupation, especially Cas Oorthuys’ picture of a woman with a piece of bread in close-up. A variation was published on the cover of \"Amsterdam tijdens den hongerwinter\" (‘Amsterdam During the Winter of Hunger’) published by Contact / De Bezige Bij, in 1947, while the now more famous image from this series reached an audience of nine million through the 1955 exhibition and publication \"The Family of Man.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
br0njb
|
how does the price of the dollar affect the economy of foreign countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the price of the dollar (exchange rate) is low, it means that countries with a different currency can buy the same US products for less money. Example: company A sells 100 products for 100 USD to a foreign company B. Now the exchange rate falls and 100 products now cost 95 dollars. This might look not great for company A, but now company C would also like the cheaper products. Therefore a lower exchange rate makes US products more compatible with foreign products. US firms will probably have more orders and exports.\nThis is one reason why Germany is fairly interested in keeping the Euro low, since it \"boosts\" exports. (Not the best for the Euro area as a whole, since most countries import a lot)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "395888",
"title": "Bretton Woods system",
"section": "Section::::Late application.:Decline.:U.S. monetary influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The shift toward a more pluralistic distribution of economic power led to increasing dissatisfaction with the privileged role of the U.S. dollar as the international currency. As in effect the world's central banker, the U.S., through its deficit, determined the level of international liquidity. In an increasingly interdependent world, U.S. policy greatly influenced economic conditions in Europe and Japan. In addition, as long as other countries were willing to hold dollars, the U.S. could carry out massive foreign expenditures for political purposes—military activities and foreign aid—without the threat of balance-of-payments constraints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5666",
"title": "Central bank",
"section": "Section::::Policy instruments.:Open market operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "All of these interventions can also influence the foreign exchange market and thus the exchange rate. For example, the People's Bank of China and the Bank of Japan have on occasion bought several hundred billions of U.S. Treasuries, presumably in order to stop the decline of the U.S. dollar versus the renminbi and the yen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31649843",
"title": "International use of the U.S. dollar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Economist Paul Samuelson and others (including, at his death, Milton Friedman) have maintained that the overseas demand for dollars allows the United States to maintain persistent trade deficits without causing the value of the currency to depreciate or the flow of trade to readjust. But Samuelson stated in 2005 that at some uncertain future period these pressures would precipitate a run against the U.S. dollar with serious global financial consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13774191",
"title": "Expansionism",
"section": "Section::::21st century.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The dominance of the US dollar in worldwide trade amplifies the effect of American trade sanctions. In pursuit of its foreign policy goals, the United States has imposed sanctions on countries such as Turkey, Russia, Venezuela and Iran.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5258706",
"title": "Currency appreciation and depreciation",
"section": "Section::::Economic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "When a country's currency appreciates in relation to foreign currencies, foreign goods become cheaper in the domestic market and there is overall downward pressure on domestic prices. In contrast, the prices of domestic goods paid by foreigners go up, which tends to decrease foreign demand for domestic products. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314899",
"title": "Hard currency",
"section": "Section::::Turmoil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The US dollar (USD) has been considered a strong currency for much of its history. Despite the Nixon Shock of 1971, and the United States' growing fiscal and trade deficits, most of the world's monetary systems have been tied to the US dollar due to the Bretton Woods System and dollarization. Countries have thus been compelled to purchase dollars for their foreign exchange reserves, denominate their commodities in dollars for foreign trade, or even use dollars domestically, thus buoying the currency's value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47432979",
"title": "Leads and lags",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "A change in exchange rates can be a cause of loss (or gain) in international trade. For example, now, we suppose that the euro to U.S. dollar exchange rate is 1.00 (€1.00 buys one dollar). In addition, we suppose that an importer of U.S. buys goods for €1000 from a European exporter and the U.S. importer will pay the money 1 month later. If the euro to U.S. dollar exchange rate is 2.00 one month later, the U.S. importer must prepare €1000 with $2000 in the foreign exchange market for the payment. On the other hand, If the euro to U.S. dollar exchange rate is 0.50 one month later, the U.S. importer is able to prepare €1000 with $500 for the payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hw4mf
|
what stops the bones in your foot from ripping through your flesh and skin with all the pressure from walking and running?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bones aren't that sharp and your skin isn't that weak. That's really the long and short of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where your bones bear on the outside world they have pads - your heel, for example, has quite a thick pad of for want of a better word, gristle.\n\nElsewhere bones generally bear on other bones - your knees for example rely on cartilage between the two parts of the hinge to allow smooth operation, and is wrapped up in a capsule surrounded by ligaments. There's not really anywhere where it could push its way through without first breaking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49455917",
"title": "Arthritis Australia",
"section": "Section::::About arthritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Arthritis-related problems include pain, stiffness, inflammation and damage to joint cartilage (the tissue that covers the ends of bones, enabling them to move against each another) and surrounding structures. This can result in joint weakness, instability and deformities that can interfere with the most basic daily tasks such as walking, driving a car and preparing food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118524",
"title": "Heel",
"section": "Section::::Cracked heels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Cracked heels is a common health problem and it may cause infections. It is caused by dryness of the foot skin, and accumulation of dead skin. Over time it may cause pain and irritations. Various moisturising creams and foot files are available to cure and prevent it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1025653",
"title": "Ainhum",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "While the groove becomes deeper, compression of tendons, vessels and nerves occurs. Bone is absorbed by pressure, without any evidence of infection. After a certain time all structures distal the stricture are reduced to an avascular cord. The toe’s connection to the foot becomes increasingly slender, and if it is not amputated, it spontaneously drops off without any bleeding. Normally it takes about five years for an autoamputation to occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6330624",
"title": "Sesamoiditis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In humans, excessive forces caused by sudden bending upwards of the big toe, high heels, or a stumble can contribute to sesamoiditis. Once the sesamoid bone is injured it can be very difficult to cure, because every time you walk you put additional pressure on the sesamoid bone. Treatment in humans consists of anti-inflammatory medication, cortisone injections, strapping to immobilize the big toe, and orthotics with special accommodations to keep pressure off the affected bone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324681",
"title": "Metatarsal bones",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The metatarsal bones are often broken by association football players. These and other recent cases have been attributed to the lightweight design of modern football boots, which provide less protection to the foot. In 2010 some soccer players began testing a new sock that incorporated a rubber silicone pad over the foot to provide protection to the top of the foot. Stress fractures are thought to account for 16% of injuries related to sports participation, and the metatarsals are the bones most often involved. These fractures are sometimes called march fractures, based on their traditional association with military recruits after long marches. The second and third metatarsals are fixed while walking, thus these metatarsals are common sites of injury. The fifth metatarsal may be fractured if the foot is oversupinated during locomotion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60749881",
"title": "Ankle problems",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:arthritis (specifically osteoarthritis).:tendinitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "One of the most common causes of pain in the foot or ankle. The muscles of the legs, feet and ankles are fixed to the bones by tendons, which are strong rope-like structures. Tendinitis is inflammation around the tendon. You will have pain in the activity, it usually rests and can only return again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315093",
"title": "Tungiasis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In severe cases, ulcers are common, as well as complete tissue and nail deformation. A patient may be unable to walk due to severe pain if too many of the lesions are present in the feet. Suppuration (pus formation), auto-amputation of digits (via ainhum), and chronic lymphedema may also be seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2b1grt
|
on reddit, why are links to youtube, sometimes written as "_url_0_" (dot after u, before b), next to the title
|
[
{
"answer": "Because that's what youtube gives you when you click the \"link\" option from the \"share\" box. It's designed to save a few extra letters for stuff like twitter where that matters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nIt's just a way to make your link appear shorter. If you share a video through YouTube's interface, it will link to the shortened URL and not the full one. On most sites it doesn't really matter, but on sites like Twitter that limit the length of posts, shorter links are more useful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a moment in my life, I genuinely thought these links would get me on a weird website hosted in Belgium.\n\nI was not a smart man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, it's to have a shorter link for sharing purposes. The reason it works in this case is that it's a [domain hack](_URL_0_). \n\n**.be** is the top-level domain for Belgium, just like *.ca* is for Canada, *.jp* is for Japan, etc. So, in addition to \"normal\" domains like google**.be** and yahoo**.be**, you can be clever and register youtu**.be**.\n\nOther companies have done similar things using domains for other countries, such as instagr**.am** (*.am* is for Armenia) and nyti**.ms** (*.ms* is Montserrat). \n\nReddit does this too. If you look in the sidebar of this page, there's a shortlink for this page: _URL_1_ (*.it* is for Italy).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5151391",
"title": "Googlepedia",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- Linking: Redlinks (Wikipedia links for which no article yet exists) link to the \"edit\" page, instead of the default \"Google search term\". By default, anonymous article creation is not allowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "306422",
"title": "Markov property",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Assume that an urn contains two red balls and one green ball. One ball was drawn yesterday, one ball was drawn today, and the final ball will be drawn tomorrow. All of the draws are \"without replacement\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665839",
"title": "Earth (Brin novel)",
"section": "Section::::Predictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- The World Wide Web (including it as being a major news-media outlet, complete with videos and discussion forums) and blogging. (Brin did not predict the URL, rather using a clumsier numeric form of address.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7561354",
"title": "Sensational spelling",
"section": "Section::::On the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Many popular websites have grown from intentionally misspelling their name such as flickr, reddit, Tumblr, Digg, Google and Scribd. In imageboards such as 4chan and the Encyclopedia Dramatica wiki, \"lulz\", an intentional misspelling of LOL, is used to denote gloating. Doing something \"for the lulz\" (also abbreviated as ftlulz) means doing something \"just for laughs\" and often portrays a hedonistic behaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12431",
"title": "Google Search",
"section": "Section::::Google Doodles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "On certain occasions, the logo on Google's webpage will change to a special version, known as a \"Google Doodle\". This is a picture, drawing, animation or interactive game that includes the logo. It is usually done for a special event or day although not all of them are well known. Clicking on the Doodle links to a string of Google search results about the topic. The first was a reference to the Burning Man Festival in 1998, and others have been produced for the birthdays of notable people like Albert Einstein, historical events like the interlocking Lego block's 50th anniversary and holidays like Valentine's Day. Some Google Doodles have interactivity beyond a simple search, such as the famous \"Google Pacman\" version that appeared on May 21, 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28223359",
"title": "FilesTube",
"section": "Section::::Name and logo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The name and logo of the website are in the style of the video-sharing website YouTube. While the old logo looked almost identical to the YouTube logo (with \"Files\" replacing \"You\" and the logo colour being blue), slight changes have been made to the current logo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520173",
"title": "Google Directory",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Main page.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The main page had links to the 14 main categories, along with the World and Kids and Teens links. There was a big search box on top that allowed users to search the Google Directory. On top of that was the slogan in green letters: \"The web organized by topic into categories.\" On top of that were links to other Google services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kw2is
|
Did the Persians really have massive casualties at the battle of Thermopylae?
|
[
{
"answer": "They suffered heavy casualties *but* that's relative to the losses incurred by a winning side. The thing with ancient and medieval battles is that the majority of losses in a battle were suffered by losers when they routed - the winners could cut them down as they fled. The actual losses on the winners side (losses suffered from the actual hand-to-hand fighting) tended to be low, a fraction of the losers.\n\n\nSo take Herodotus' accounts of Persians being driven on by whips and dying by the score on the end of Greek spears with a massive boulder of salt. There's a lot of Greek tropes present and modern scholars don't believe this is what happened. So the Persians did suffer heavily for a battle that they still won, not Pyrrhic levels but significant. \n\n\nAlso ignore the visuals you usually see of ancient/medieval combat where two sides just smash into each other in a confused melee. We don't know how combat worked but we know it wasn't like that. The current model has the two sides fighting hard for a few minutes then pulling back a safe distance to catch their breath and psych themselves up for the next bout. Rinse and repeat. If the Greeks could rotate their forces (and presumably the Persians with their large army could do the same) they'd keep their forces fresh. Losses in this phase would be low as most would be fighting defensively (e.g. trying not to be hit more than trying to score a hit). Only the most motivated badass/hardcore soldiers would have the nerve to 100% commit to offensive fighting. \n\n\nLastly remember that it was a combined Greek army that fought at Thermopylae and that they rotated contingents so all the Greeks present fought at some time. The final stand was by the Spartans **and** the Thespians. Supposedly the Thebans were also forced to stay behind but surrendered immediately - not sure how accurate that part was, Athens and Thebes did have a rivalry. Furthermore the Helots (Spartan serfs who were traditionally treated atrociously) who accompanied the Spartiates almost certainly died alongside them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46189293",
"title": "Historical examples of flanking maneuvers",
"section": "Section::::Ancient warfare.:Battle of Salamis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "During the second Persian invasion of Greece, after great losses at the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium, the Greeks once again brought the Persians to blows in the Battle of Salamis in the year 480 BC. The Greek fleet numbered 378 triremes while the Persian may have numbered more than four times that. However, in the narrow confines of the straits, the numerical superiority of the Persians became an active hindrance. The Persians became disorganized in the cramped straits, and the Greeks were in a position to flank from the northwest. Retreating Persian ships were befouled by the approaching second and third lines who were advancing to the line of battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234687",
"title": "Battle of Mycale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "Although the Persian forces put up stout resistance, the heavily armoured Greek hoplites again proved themselves superior in combat, and eventually routed the Persian troops, who fled to their camp. The Ionian Greek contingents in the Persian army defected, and the camp was assailed and a large number of Persians slaughtered. The Persian ships were then captured and burned. The complete destruction of the Persian navy, along with the destruction of Mardonius's army at Plataea (allegedly on the same day as the Battle of Mycale), decisively ended the invasion of Greece. After Plataea and Mycale, the allied Greeks would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Mycale was in every sense a decisive victory, it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance (even at the time) as, for example the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or even the Greek defeat at Thermopylae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47968",
"title": "Battle of Salamis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "To block the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated Allied navy engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby straits of Artemisium. In the resulting Battle of Thermopylae, the rearguard of the Greek force was annihilated, whilst in the Battle of Artemisium the Greeks had heavy losses and retreated after the loss at Thermopylae. This allowed the Persians to conquer Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and Euboea. The Allies prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth while the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349571",
"title": "Battle of Plataea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "A large portion of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy allegedly on the same day at the Battle of Mycale, decisively ended the invasion. After Plataea and Mycale the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Plataea was in every sense a resounding victory, it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance (even at the time) as, for example, the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or the Spartan defeat at Thermopylae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46289",
"title": "Xerxes I",
"section": "Section::::Campaigns.:Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11146751",
"title": "Dionysius the Phocaean",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Even as the battle began, many of the Ionian ships under the command of Dionysius still refused to engage with the Persians and eventually almost 120 of the 350 Greek warships abandoned the battle leaving the remaining Greek ships to be annihilated leaving the city of Miletus to the mercy of the Persians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4006762",
"title": "Military history of Iran",
"section": "Section::::Achaemenid Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1295,
"text": "Most Persian failures can be attributed to one or more of these requirements not being met. Thus, the Scythians evaded the Persian army time and again because they were all mounted and conducted only hit-and-run raids on the Persians; at Marathon the Athenians deployed on a rocky mountainous slope and only descended to the plain after the Persian cavalry had reboarded their transport-ships - charging through the arrow-shower to conduct close-combat with spears and swords - a form of combat for which the Athenians were better equipped and better trained; at Thermopylae the Greek army deliberately deployed in a location that negated the Persians ability to use cavalry and missile-power, again forcing them to fight only head-on in close-combat and was forced to retreat only after the Persians were informed of a bypass that enabled them to circumvent this defensive position to defeat the Spartans; at Plataea the Persian attack was poorly coordinated and defeated piecemeal; Alexander the Great's Macedonian army that invaded the Persian empire was composed of a variety of infantry and cavalry types (combined-arms approach) that enabled it, together with Alexander's superior tactical generalship, to negate the Persian capabilities and, once again, force them to fight close-combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7323do
|
physical nature of genes.
|
[
{
"answer": "DNA is a string of nucleotides. some of it codes for proteins, some of it controls the expression of genes, some of it is junk. All of it looks the same, it's the same four amino acids in billions of different patterns.\n\nSections that translate into proteins have special bits at each end tat are known as \"stop codons\", this is a code that tells the cellular machinery transcribing the section to top. You still can't see them, since it's just three more amino acids just like all of the DNA before and after it. \n\nThere is no special appearance of a gene, it's just a section in a long, long, long string of AGATAGAGATAGAAAGGTTAAGGG that means something specific. It doesn't have decorations or beads or clumps.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Genes are separated from each other by non-coding regions on chromosomes. In fact, the majority of the DNA in humans is never expressed as a protein product, and we're not entirely sure what a lot of it is for. \n\nI talked about the structure of DNA in the reply to the above poster,\n adding on to that, every three DNA nucleotides forms a codon - there are special \"Start\" and \"Stop\" codons - the START signal is basically a complex that is designed to attach to the DNA replication machinery in your cells. It will keep reading down the line and producing a mirror image copy of everything it reads until it reaches a \"Stop\" codon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4007073",
"title": "Gene expression profiling",
"section": "Section::::Categorizing regulated genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Genes have other attributes beside biological function, chemical properties and cellular location. One can compose sets of genes based on proximity to other genes, association with a disease, and relationships with drugs or toxins. The Molecular Signatures Database and the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database are examples of resources to categorize genes in numerous ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::How genes work.:Genes make proteins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The function of genes is to provide the information needed to make molecules called proteins in cells. Cells are the smallest independent parts of organisms: the human body contains about 100 trillion cells, while very small organisms like bacteria are just a single cell. A cell is like a miniature and very complex factory that can make all the parts needed to produce a copy of itself, which happens when cells divide. There is a simple division of labor in cells—genes give instructions and proteins carry out these instructions, tasks like building a new copy of a cell, or repairing damage. Each type of protein is a specialist that only does one job, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein to do this job. Similarly, if a cell needs to do something faster or slower than before, it makes more or less of the protein responsible. Genes tell cells what to do by telling them which proteins to make and in what amounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1662015",
"title": "Gene-centered view of evolution",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Organisms as vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Genes are usually packed together inside a genome, which is itself contained inside an organism. Genes group together into genomes because \"genetic replication makes use of energy and substrates that are supplied by the metabolic economy in much greater quantities than would be possible without a genetic division of labour.\" They build vehicles to promote their mutual interests of jumping into the next generation of vehicles. As Dawkins puts it, organisms are the \"survival machines\" of genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9127632",
"title": "Biology",
"section": "Section::::Foundations of modern biology.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways. All organisms, from bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins. Cells transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA into a sequence of amino acids known as a protein. The translation code from RNA codon to amino acid is the same for most organisms. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in humans also codes for insulin when inserted into other organisms, such as plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12266",
"title": "Genetics",
"section": "Section::::Gene expression.:Genetic code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each of which is composed of a sequence of amino acids, and the DNA sequence of a gene (through an RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2354482",
"title": "C-value",
"section": "Section::::Variation among species.:C-value paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "In 1948, Roger and Colette Vendrely reported a \"remarkable constancy in the nuclear DNA content of all the cells in all the individuals within a given animal species\", which they took as evidence that DNA, rather than protein, was the substance of which genes are composed. The term C-value reflects this observed constancy. However, it was soon found that C-values (genome sizes) vary enormously among species and that this bears no relationship to the \"presumed\" number of genes (\"as reflected by\" the complexity of the organism). For example, the cells of some salamanders may contain 40 times more DNA than those of humans. Given that C-values were assumed to be constant because genetic information is encoded by DNA, and yet bore no relationship to presumed gene number, this was understandably considered paradoxical; the term \"C-value paradox\" was used to describe this situation by C.A. Thomas, Jr. in 1971.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::Genes and inheritance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Genes are pieces of DNA that contain information for synthesis of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) or polypeptides. Genes are inherited as units, with two parents dividing out copies of their genes to their offspring. Humans have two copies of each of their genes, but each egg or sperm cell only gets \"one\" of those copies for each gene. An egg and sperm join to form a complete set of genes. The resulting offspring has the same number of genes as their parents, but for any gene one of their two copies comes from their father, and one from their mother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qzj1n
|
Clothing in Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic Greece
|
[
{
"answer": "Clothes in ancient Greece are basically just a variety of rectangles. The most basic garment is a chiton and that is essentially piece of cloth folded around the body in a U shape. The opening fell on one side of the body, under the arm. The garment is then pinned on the shoulder and tied at the waist. If you're really fancy, it might be sewn up on the open side or at the shoulders. Sometimes (especially for women), the garment would be wide enough to make sleeves by sewing/pinning at points along the arm. \n\nThe basic cloak is the himation, again just a giant rectangle of cloth (though usually a wool rather than linen) which men usually wore something like a toga, while women would often drape over their heads.\n\nNow to get on to some of these other questions:\nfor labor or sport a man would either wear a shorter chiton or gird the extra material up into his belt, female huntresses (more myth than reality, though likely there were women who had to do physical labor) also dress like this. Hunters might also wear animal pelts tied around their shoulders or at their belts.\n\nSoldiers wear a distinct short cloak pinned on one shoulder called a chlamys (yes, like chlamydia), a traveler might also wear this as well as a wide-brimmed felt hat called a petasos and might carry a walking stick. Tall, knobby walking sticks appear to be a general affectation of aristocratic city boys as well.\n\nA woman, particularly a higher class one, might wear a peplos, which is essentially the same thing as a chiton, just the top is folded over, creating a kind of ruffle that fell to the waist.\n\nClothes were expensive, so the wealthy had more clothes, more layers, thicker cloths, and more ornament. There's a little uncertainty over use of dyes and the ones they had were likely not very strong, but art suggests that the wealthy probably wore clothes with woven patterns on the edges. The poor would own less clothes and less ornate and shorter. Young children were probably only dressed as much as the weather demanded. Slaves also probably owned little or no clothing depending on what their work required.\n\nIf you're looking for some visuals, I would recommend taking a look at some images on ancient pottery (a lot of museums have pictures of their collection online), some of these tend to the less realistic end of the scale (eg, foreigners wearing animals skin and (!) pants, theatrical costumes idealized naked youths), but they can give you a good idea without the interference of modern aesthetics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21356853",
"title": "Clothing in ancient Greece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Ancient Greek men and women typically wore two pieces of clothing draped about the body: an undergarment (chiton or peplos) and a cloak (himation or chlamys). Ancient Greek clothing was mainly based on necessity, function, materials, and protection rather than identity. Thus, clothes were quite simple, draped, loose-fitting and free flowing. Customarily, clothing was homemade and cut to various lengths of rectangular linen or wool fabric with minimal cutting or sewing, and secured with ornamental clasps or pins, and a belt, or girdle (zone). Pieces were generally interchangeable between men and women. However, women usually wore their robes to their ankles while men generally wore theirs to their knees depending on the occasion and circumstance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10420424",
"title": "Clothing in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greek clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. While no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist from contemporary accounts and artistic depiction. Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes (such as bedding). Despite popular imagination and media depictions of all-white clothing, elaborate design and bright colors were favored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42361734",
"title": "Greek dress",
"section": "Section::::Ancient period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the togas, chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. While no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist in contemporary accounts and artistic depictions. Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes (such as bedding). Despite popular imagination and media depictions of all-white clothing, elaborate design and bright colors were favored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37703810",
"title": "Biblical clothing",
"section": "Section::::Greek men and women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Despite popular imagination and media depictions of all-white clothing, elaborate design and bright colors were favored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981466",
"title": "Tunic",
"section": "Section::::Ancient era.:Greek tunic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted. Later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In ancient Greece, a person's tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived. Tunics might be dyed with bright colours, like red, purple, or green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21356853",
"title": "Clothing in ancient Greece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "While no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist in contemporary accounts and artistic depictions. Clothes were mainly homemade or locally made. Additionally, clothing often served many purposes (such as bedding). All ancient Greek clothing was made out of natural fibers. Linen was the most common fabric due to the hot climate which lasted most of the year. On the rare occasion of colder weather, ancient Greeks wore wool. Common clothing of the time was plain white, or neutral coloured, sometimes incorporating decorative borders. There is evidence of elaborate design and bright colours, but these were less common among lower class citizens. However, noble citizens wore bright colours to express their wealth as dyed clothing was more expensive. The clothing for both men and women generally consisted of two main parts: a tunic and a cloak. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8288124",
"title": "History of clothing and textiles",
"section": "Section::::Ancient textiles and clothing.:Classical Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of wool or linen, generally rectangular and secured at the shoulders with ornamented pins called fibulae and belted with a sash. Typical garments were the peplos, a loose robe worn by women; the chlamys, a cloak worn by men; and the chiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men's chitons hung to the knees, whereas women's chitons fell to their ankles. A long cloak called a himation was worn over the peplos or chlamys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
axn6g7
|
How did amber encapsulations happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "It probably landed on this poor guy or he fell into it. The weight of the Amber is irrelevant, once it's encapsulated the antenna have plenty of time to spring back before the Amber hardens. Bugs die of oxygen deprevation relatively quickly. Amber is not this pretty in nature, this was almost definitely cut/polished to show this little dude off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a cut on a tree that was \"bleeding\" resin. You can spot those e.g. on cherry tries. They are sticky and grow very slowly forming a round droplet that likely won't fall down but will harden still on a tree branch.\n\nThe mantis went on top of such droplet and got stuck, surface tension sucked the mantis slowly for a bit and the continuous flow of resin covered the rest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Composition and formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a macromolecule by free radical polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic acid, cummunol, and biformene. These labdanes are diterpenes (CH) and trienes, equipping the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for polymerization. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization takes place as well as isomerization reactions, crosslinking and cyclization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Composition and formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Heated above , amber decomposes, yielding an oil of amber, and leaves a black residue which is known as \"amber colophony\", or \"amber pitch\"; when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil this forms \"amber varnish\" or \"amber lac\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Historic medicinal uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Amber has long been used in folk medicine for its purported healing properties. Amber and extracts were used from the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece for a wide variety of treatments through the Middle Ages and up until the early twentieth century. Traditional Chinese medicine uses amber to \"tranquilize the mind\", and there is limited evidence that it has a sedative effect in mice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Sometimes amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. It is thought that, in addition to exuding onto the surface of the tree, amber resin also originally flowed into hollow cavities or cracks within trees, thereby leading to the development of large lumps of amber of irregular form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31410048",
"title": "Mythology of Fringe",
"section": "Section::::Amber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "The amber is believed to originally have been developed by Walternate. Extensive quantities of amber have been used: notable examples include the entire area around Madison Square Garden (\"Over There\"), and a large portion of the city of Boston (\"Over There\", \"Entrada\"). The use of amber is an emergency protocol, placing the protection of their universe over the lives of innocents trapped within the \"quarantine zone\" before the amber is released (\"Over There\"). In the episode \"Amber 31422\", Walternate reveals that those trapped in the amber are still alive, a fact kept secret from the public to prevent civil unrest. Furthermore, in the same episode, it is shown that the amber has devices placed around it for the purpose of self-healing; cutting into the amber will cause it to reset to retain its structural properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Composition and formation.:Inclusions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The abnormal development of resin in living trees (\"succinosis\") can result in the formation of amber. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped onto the ground, so the material may be useless except for varnish-making. Such impure amber is called \"firniss\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372",
"title": "Amber",
"section": "Section::::Composition and formation.:Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Molecular polymerization, resulting from high pressures and temperatures produced by overlying sediment, transforms the resin first into copal. Sustained heat and pressure drives off terpenes and results in the formation of amber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9sgnxo
|
if 52*7 is 364 where do we get our extra day to make a 365 day calendar year?
|
[
{
"answer": "52 is just a rough enough guide to how many days there are in a year but if you add the days of each month, you'll get 365.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are 52 FULL weeks in a year, and 365 FULL days. Those extra fractions make the extra day each year and the extra day every four years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The calendar year isn't a whole number of weeks, which is also why a particular date will be one day of the week one year, but another the next year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The year isn't exactly 52 weeks long, it's 52.14 weeks long. This is also why the first of the month moves forward one day of the week each year, and why you'll get an extra paycheck some years if paid weekly or biweekly.\n\n52 weeks is not the definition of a year, it's just a convenient approximation",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there simply isn't 52 weeks in a year, there are 52 weeks and one day or 52.143 weeks. Saying 52 weeks in a year is just a close enough approximation. It's the same when someone says there are 4 weeks in a month even though there isn't exactly 4 weeks. Technically there isn't even 365 days in a year. There is about 365.25 which is why leap years exist to keep everything lined up and even that isn't exactly right. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isnt exactly a five year old question\n\nI have had to program the leap year algorithm in software control units, before those formulas for the algorithms were commonly found in software libraries. \n\nThe formula goes...\nIf the year is wholly divisible by 4 then it is a leap year,\nUnless it is wholly divisible by 100 then it is not a leap year,\nUnless it is wholly divisible by 400, in which it is a leap year.\n\nThis can be expressed by the formula....\nLeap = year % 400 == 0 and not (year % 100 == 0) and year % 4 == 0,\nWhere % is the modulus operator. \n\nSo this means that 2000 was a leap year, coz 2000. % 400 == 0\nAnd 1900 was not a leap year coz 1900 % 100 != 0\nAnd 2020 will be a leap year coz 2020 % 4.== 0\n\nMakes sense now?\n\nBut even that is not the whole story as that too is an approximation, not to mention that the rotation of the earth and the rotation of the earth around the sun is slowing sown, so future corrections will be needed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "936584",
"title": "365 (number)",
"section": "Section::::Timekeeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "There are 365.2422 solar days in the mean tropical year. Several solar calendars have a year containing 365 days. Related to this, in Ontario, the driver's license learner's permit used to be called \"365\" because it was valid for only 366 days. Financial and scientific calculations often use a 365-day calendar to simplify daily rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652165",
"title": "Mesoamerican calendars",
"section": "Section::::365-day calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "This 365-day calendar corresponded was divided into 18 'months' of 20 days each, plus 5 'nameless' days at the end of the year. The 365 day year had no leap year so it varied from the solar year by a quarter of a day each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118020",
"title": "Middle-earth calendar",
"section": "Section::::Calendar of Imladris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Five other days, two between \"coirë\" and \"tuilë\" and three between \"yávië\" and \"quellë\", meant the calendar added up to 365 days. Irregularities were allowed for by adding another three days every twelve years, except the last year of a \"yén\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10634661",
"title": "365-day calendar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "A 365-day calendar consists of exactly 365 days per year (no leap days), and is primarily used in computer models and as an assumption in every-day calculations. For example, a calculation of a daily rate may use an annual total divided by exactly 365.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315929",
"title": "Calendar reform",
"section": "Section::::Proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Most plans evolve around the solar year of a little more than 365 days. This number does not divide well by seven or twelve, which are the traditional numbers of days per week and months per year respectively. The nearby numbers 360, 364 and 366 are divisible in better ways. There are also lunar-centric proposals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118020",
"title": "Middle-earth calendar",
"section": "Section::::Calendar of Imladris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Five or eight extra days outside the seasons make the length of the \"loa\" 365 or 368 days. Most years are 365 days, but every twelfth year is 368 days, resulting in an average year of 365.25 days with the additional suggestion that the 'Reckoning of Rivendell'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "949518",
"title": "Birkat Hachama",
"section": "Section::::The solar calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The 28-year cycle is based on a solar year of 365.25 days, which is only nearly precise. The Hebrew calendar itself uses a solar year of 365.2468 days, but utilizes the less precise approximation of 365.25 for Birkat Hachama so that the blessing might occur with some frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wkwh4
|
Can something be genetically modified "on the fly" and see results in a (relatively) short period of time or is that something that has to be done before birth?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can't just re-engineer a somatic cell (non-sex cell) and expect to see changes in the whole body just because of that one change (all of its daughter cells will be different, but only them). You can re-engineer somatic cells with a virus (a.... retrovirus?) which actually changes the DNA of a cell and then moves on to a new cell and keeps going and going.\n\nOtherwise it would be much easier to re-engineer a zygote, that way the changes will affect the whole body. But, there are issues with that as well. Any changes made will be passed on to that person's offspring, regardless if they would want it or not. \n\nA merging of these two techniques would be something like: grabbing the already-determined, somatic cell in an embryo and changin that. Though I'm not too sure of the pros/cons of that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25174711",
"title": "Genetically modified insect",
"section": "Section::::Modified species.:Mediterranean fruit fly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Opponents argue that the long-term effects of releasing millions of GM-flies are impossible to predict. Dead fly larvae could be left inside crops. Helen Wallace from Genewatch, an organisation that monitors the use of genetic technology, stated \"Fruit grown using Oxitec's GM flies will be contaminated with GM maggots which are genetically programmed to die inside the fruit they are supposed to be protecting\". She added that the mechanism of lethality was likely to fail in the longer term as the GM flies evolve resistance or breed in sites contaminated with tetracycline which is widely used in agriculture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43335980",
"title": "Gene drive",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Bioethics concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In December 2015, scientists of major world academies called for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits that would affect the germline, including those related to CRISPR-Cas9 technologies, but supported continued basic research and gene editing that would not affect future generations. In February 2016, British scientists were given permission by regulators to genetically modify human embryos by using CRISPR-Cas9 and related techniques on condition that the embryos were destroyed in seven days. In June 2016, the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine released a report on their \"Recommendations for Responsible Conduct\" of gene drives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34930586",
"title": "Genome editing",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "According to a September 2016 report by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics, the simplicity and low cost of tools to edit the genetic code will allow amateursor \"biohackers\"to perform their own experiments, posing a potential risk from the release of genetically modified bugs. The review also found that the risks and benefits of modifying a person's genomeand having those changes pass on to future generationsare so complex that they demand urgent ethical scrutiny. Such modifications might have unintended consequences which could harm not only the child, but also their future children, as the altered gene would be in their sperm or eggs. In 2001 Australian researchers Ronald Jackson and Ian Ramshaw were criticized for publishing a paper in the Journal of Virology that explored the potential control of mice, a major pest in Australia, by infecting them with an altered mousepox virus that would cause infertility as the provided sensitive information could lead to the manufacture of biological weapons by potential bioterrorists who might use the knowledge to create vaccine resistant strains of other pox viruses, such as smallpox, that could affect humans. Furthermore, there are additional concerns about the ecological risks of releasing gene drives into wild populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173204",
"title": "Drosophila melanogaster",
"section": "Section::::Transgenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "It is now relatively simple to generate transgenic flies in Drosophila, relying on a variety of techniques. One approach of inserting foreign genes into the \"Drosophila\" genome involves P elements. The transposable P elements, also known as transposons, are segments of bacterial DNA that are transferred into the fly genome. Transgenic flies have already contributed to many scientific advances, e.g., modeling such human diseases as Parkinson's, neoplasia, obesity, and diabetes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20836295",
"title": "Entomological warfare",
"section": "Section::::Genetically engineered insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "It has been suggested that insects could get genetically engineered via technologies such as CRISPR to create GMO \"killer mosquitoes\" that cause plagues that wipe out staple crops. This potential has been indicated in the use of genetically modified mosquitoes to curb the spread of diseases related to mosquitoes, such as Zika, and the West Nile virus using mosquitoes modified using CRISPR to no longer carry the pathogen, which shows the capability to implant diseases or pathogens via genetic modification is potentially present. It has been suggested by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology that current US research into genetically modified insects for crop protection via infectious diseases which spread genetic modifications to crops on mass could lead to the creation of genetically modified insects for use in warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25162957",
"title": "Transposons as a genetic tool",
"section": "Section::::P Elements as a tool (\"Drosophila\").:Methods of usage (\"Drosophila\").:Fly Transformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Grow flies and cross to remove genetic variation between the cells of the organism. (Only some of the cells of the organism will have been transformed. By breeding only the genotype of the gametes is passed on, removing this variation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347326",
"title": "Genderblind",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "A mutation in Genderblind alters the sexual behavior of \"Drosophila\", turning the flies bisexual. \"Drosophila\" given drugs to alter synapse strength, independent of the Genderblind mutation, allowed researchers to \"turn fly homosexuality on and off, within hours\". The researchers believe this effect is due to the flies' altered response to pheromones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zzd7f
|
How can I make water boil faster?
|
[
{
"answer": "Start with hot water",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "change your elevation",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you aren't already doing this, putting a lid on the pot brings water to boil much more quickly. The salt question is addressed [here](_URL_0_), essentially it's equivalent to boiling a smaller quantity of water (so you might as well just make your noodles in a smaller amount of water, skipping the salt.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding salt raises the boiling point. The only way to speed it up is to start with hotter water, increase energy in, or reduce energy lost. Anything else people suggest might cause the water to boil faster, but at a lower temperature. For noodles that is fine, but you know how some foods have different directions for cooking at altitude? That's because water will boil at less than 212F due to lower pressure, and things will need more time at the lower temp. to be cooked the same amount. Also, use a lid if you aren't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "put a lid on it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Buy an electric kettle. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Boil the water in a tea kettle, an electric water heater, or even a pot with the lid on.\n\nDon't salt the water.\n\nYou can start with hotter water, but be aware that it may taste different from cool water, as hot water can dislodge minerals/metals from the plumbing on the way out of the faucet.\n\nSource: practical experience. You can probably test this stuff pretty easily on your own if you have a stopwatch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Start cooking earlier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some suggestions:\n\n* Start with hot water (Less work needed to heat the water to the boiling point)\n* Use less water (Less water to heat up)\n* Use a lid (To prevent heat from escaping)\n* Use a bigger pot (More surface area to transfer heat to the water)\n* Use an aluminium pot instead of a stainless steel one (aluminium is better heat conductor)\n\nAnd lastly:\n\n* Salt the water.\n\nI found an article regarding the salt effect in boiling. I don't know if this mans scientific reasoning is correct, but you can't argue with empirical results.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > Here is the data from the experiment:\n\n > 6 cups with no salt took 8 min 24 sec\n\n > 6 cups with no salt took 8 min 9 sec\n\n > 6 cups with no salt took 8 min 19 sec\n\n > 6 cups with 1 Tablespoon salt took 7 min 23 sec\n\n > 6 cups with 1 Tablespoon salt took 7 min 31 sec\n\n > 6 cups with 1 Tablespoon salt took 7 min 27 sec\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "214701",
"title": "Water purification",
"section": "Section::::Other water purification techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Boiling: Bringing water to its boiling point (about 100 °C or 212 F at sea level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities. For human health, complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than . Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process. In areas where the water is \"hard\" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the \"fur\" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:For making water potable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:In cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Boiling can be done in several ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 °C (158 °F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4044047",
"title": "Boil-water advisory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Under a boil-water advisory (BWA), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that water be brought to a rolling boil for one minute before it is consumed in order to kill protozoa, bacteria and viruses. At altitudes above , boiling should be extended to 3 minutes, as the lower boiling point at high altitudes requires more time to kill such organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11111531",
"title": "Chip heater",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Water had to be run at a trickle in order to heat up to a desirable temperature. The rate of combustion was controlled by the flues and the ash box. With lots of fuel and open flues the water could boil quickly, which was not a desirable result. With practice the correct combination of fuel, flue settings and water flow could result in enough hot water for a shower or bath in approximately 20 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21485435",
"title": "Milk watcher",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Normally, boiling water does not boil over. When fats, starches, and some other substances are present in boiling water, for example by adding milk or pasta, boiling over can occur. A film forms on the surface of the boiling liquid; for example, cream can boil over as milk fat separates from the milk. The increased viscosity of the liquid causes the steam bubbles to form foam trapped under the film, pushing the film up and over the lip of the pot, boiling over. A milk watcher disrupts this process by collecting small bubbles of steam into one large bubble and releasing it in a manner which may puncture the surface film. The device also rattles when boiling occurs, alerting the cook who may then lower the heat setting of the stove.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p3ou9
|
how to legitimately change your last name?
|
[
{
"answer": "I just recently did this! I can't tell you about maybe something weird in your county, but you go to your county of residence. It was super easy. I filled out forms and showed up on the date and time that they have open for name changes. The judge asked why I wanted to change it, I just said I preferred my mother's maiden name, and it was done. It was about $120 I think, and that included three signed and sealed court orders. You'll need those to change your name on your credit cards/bank accounts/drivers license/etc. \n\nThey don't really care that you're doing it or anything, you just swear under oath you're not trying to run from anything (like debts) and you're good. I did it in Snohomish County in WA, if you happen to be from there. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8375279",
"title": "Lindon v. First National Bank",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "A woman who had changed her last name to one that was not her husband's original surname was trying to claim control over her inheritance. The court ruled in her favor, \"At common law a man may change his name, and he is bound by any contract into which he may enter in his adopted or reputed name, and by his known and recognized name he may sue and be sued.\" This set forth many things. By common law, one may lawfully change their name and be \"known and recognized\" by that new name. Also, one may enter into any kinds of contracts in their new adopted name. Contracts include employment (see \"Coppage v. Kansas\" 236 U.S. 1). And one can be recognized legally in court in their new name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58589",
"title": "Name change",
"section": "Section::::Civil law.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "A person can change their forenames by submitting a form to the Department of Home Affairs. An individual's surname, or that of a family, may be changed by applying to the Department and providing a \"good and sufficient reason\" for the change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58589",
"title": "Name change",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Official registration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "A legal name change is merely the first step in the name-change process. A person must officially register the new name with the appropriate authorities whether the change was made as a result of a court order, marriage, divorce, adoption, or any of the other methods described above. The process includes notifying various government agencies, each of which may require legal proof of the name change and that may or may not charge a fee. Important government agencies to be notified include the Social Security Administration, Bureau of Consular Affairs (for passports), the Federal Communications Commission, the Selective Service System and the Department of Motor Vehicles (for a new driver's license, learner permit, state identification card, or vehicular registration). Additionally the new name must be registered with other institutions such as employers, banks, doctors, mortgage, insurance and credit card companies. Online services are available to assist in this process either through direct legal assistance or automated form processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58806",
"title": "New York divorce law",
"section": "Section::::Ancillary issues.:Name change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "According to NY Civil Rights Law Section 65, people have the right to choose, and to change, their name without government approval or involvement; thus, people who chose to change their names in connection with marriage do so according to custom, not law. Legally, one can change one's name at any time simply by using this newly chosen name consistently and without an intend to commit fraud. However, to give people easy \"legal proof\" of a name change made in connection with divorce, every divorce decree mentions the name change option and itself represents legal proof or documentation of any concomitant name change. (A parallel provision in the Domestic Relations Law (Section 15) also renders every marriage certificate legal \"proof\" of a name change upon marriage (if there is one).)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2682894",
"title": "French name",
"section": "Section::::Given names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "To change a given name, a request can be made before a court (\"juge des affaires familiales\"), but except in a few specific cases (such as the Gallicization of a foreign name), it is necessary to prove a legitimate interest for the change (usually that the current name is a cause of mockery or when put together with the surname, it creates a ridiculous word or sentence, e.g.: \"Jean Bon\" sounds \"jambon\" \"ham\", or \"Annick Mamère\" = \"A nique ma mère\", slang for \"she f**ks my mother\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2682894",
"title": "French name",
"section": "Section::::Family names.:Changes of names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Truly changing one's last name, as opposed to adopting a usage name, is quite complex. Such changes have to be made official by a \"décret en Conseil d'État\" taken by the Prime Minister after approbation by the Council of State. Requests for such changes must be justified by some legitimate interest, for instance, changing from a foreign name difficult to pronounce in French to a simpler name, or changing from a name with unfavorable connotations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25430519",
"title": "Naming law in Sweden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The 1982 law states, in part: \"First names shall not be approved if they can cause offense or can be supposed to cause discomfort for the one using it, or names which for some obvious reason are not suitable as a first name\" (§ 34). This text applies both when parents name their children and when an adult wants to change their own name. When changing a name, the first change is free of charge as long as at least one of the names given at birth is kept, and such a change is only allowed once per person. Further name changes require fee payment. The law states nothing about registering which name is used on a daily basis, but the tax authority can register that if requested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
114kfu
|
Would there ever be a way to dissolve plaque without damaging teeth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not quite, dental plaque is a biofilm formed by bacteria, not a crystal. Certainly not made of enamel. As for alternative methods to remove it, I'm not in the field, so I not sure what's available.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11823793",
"title": "Scaling and root planing",
"section": "Section::::Plaque.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Plaque is a soft yellow-grayish substance that adheres to the tooth surfaces including removable and fixed restorations. It is an organised biofilm that is primarily composed of bacteria in a matrix of glycoproteins and extracellular polysaccharides. This matrix makes it impossible to remove the plaque by rinsing or using sprays. Materia alba is similar to plaque but it lacks the organized structure of plaque and hence easily displaced with rinses and sprays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414350",
"title": "Tooth decay",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Oral hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "A toothbrush can be used to remove plaque on accessible surfaces, but not between teeth or inside pits and fissures on chewing surfaces. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from areas that could otherwise develop proximal caries but only if the depth of sulcus has not been compromised. Additional aids include interdental brushes, water picks, and mouthwashes. The use of rotational electric toothbrushes might reduce the risk of plaque and gingivitis, though it is unclear whether they are of clinical importance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Preventative care.:Flossing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Tooth brushing alone will not remove plaque from all surfaces of the tooth as 40% of the surfaces are interdental. One technique that can be used to access these areas is dental floss. When the proper technique is used, flossing can remove plaque and food particles from between the teeth and below the gums. The American Dental Association (ADA) reports that up to 80% of plaque may be removed by this method. The ADA recommends cleaning between the teeth as part of one's daily oral hygiene regime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Sources of problems.:Calculus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The longer that plaque stays on the tooth surface, the harder and more attached to the tooth it becomes. That is when it is referred to as calculus and needs to be removed by a dental professional. If this is not treated, the inflammation will lead to the bone loss and will eventually lead to the affected teeth becoming loose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19159857",
"title": "Remineralisation of teeth",
"section": "Section::::Tooth Remineralisation Treatments & Preventative Strategies.:Plaque control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Oral hygiene practices involve the mechanical removal of plaque from hard tissue surfaces Cariogenic bacteria levels in the plaque determine whether caries will occur or not, therefore, effective removal of plaque is paramount. The removal of plaque inhibits demineralisation of teeth, and reversely increases opportunities for remineralisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2323622",
"title": "Dental plaque",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Progression and build-up of dental plaque can give rise to tooth decay – the localised destruction of the tissues of the tooth by acid produced from the bacterial degradation of fermentable sugar – and periodontal problems such as gingivitis and periodontitis; hence it is important to disrupt the mass of bacteria and remove it. Plaque control and removal can be achieved with correct daily or twice-daily tooth brushing and use of interdental aids such as dental floss and interdental brushes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3489080",
"title": "Pericoronitis",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Definitive treatment.:Tooth extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Removal of the associated tooth will eliminate the plaque stagnation area, and thus eliminate any further episodes of pericoronitis. Removal is indicated when the involved tooth will not erupt any further due to impaction or ankylosis; if extensive work would be required to restore structural damage; or to allow improved oral hygiene. Sometimes the opposing tooth is also extracted if no longer required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tzb5w
|
Did medieval armies have NCO's or something like a centurian to help lead troops into battle?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the albeit limited examples of the Holy Orders, the Templars had Sergeants. [Literary Source here](_URL_1_), as did the Hospitallers. [Additional source here, ](_URL_0_) \n\nI do not know about the Teutonic Knights. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your officers and NCOs would almost certainly be noblemen, the sole exception being if you were fighting in a mercenary company. That said, one of the real problems with medieval warfare is that the leaders and the shock troops come from the same pool of individuals, made up of about 2% of the adult male population. If your trained warrior aristocrats are off making heavy cavalry charges, they're not leading the middle-class infantry.\n\nIn the early middle ages, a king has two ways to assemble an army. One is by mobilizing his household knights, who could number in the hundreds. These would be led by his household officers; the marshal, the constable, etc. These experienced, full-time knights could also be used to form a junior officer corps to oversee the feudal levy, as done in the wars of Edward I.\n\nThe feudal levy is classically perceived as the king planting his standard and the lords of the realm flocking to it to perform their 40-days service (and not an hour more, damn you), but this seems to have rarely worked as intended. Later in medieval England, owing to the demilitarization of society and the gross inefficiency of the levee en masse, a system for contracted military service developed. At the bottom of the pile, you've got the simple esquire with four or five archers, contracting directly with the king. At the top, you've got dukes and earls contracting with scores or hundreds of men under them. \n\nIt's a matter of dispute just what authority these men had once the contracts were signed and they were with the army. At Azincourt, a relatively low-ranking nobleman, a household knight of Henry's, was placed in command of the 5,000-odd archers, while dukes and earls soldiered with the 1,000-odd men-at-arms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Here is an earlier [post I did specifically on the ranks of the Eastern Roman Empire (c. 1000).](_URL_0_)\n\n > Well obviously there is wide latitude in ranks as there are any number of Armies from that era. I'll use one that I have a book handy for as an example.\n > \n > For the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire circa turn of the millenium, the basic unit was the bandon, which is roughly similar to a company in modern military terms.\n > \n > The bandons were commanded by komes (count). With the infantry, the 256 man unit was broken into sixteen platoons of sixteen men each led by a lochaghos and assisted by NCO ranks known as dekarchos, pentarchos, tetrarchos and ourahos. The first three mean \"leader of ten, five and four\" respectively, while the last means \"file closer\".\n > \n > A 300 man cavalry banda was divided into three hekatontarchia, each commanded by a hekatontarchos. The senior hekatontarchos was the illarches, and the second in command to the komes. Later, the hekatontarchia was eliminated and the primary division was into six allaghia commanded by kentarchos (they were still outranked by the hekatontarchos, who oversaw two allaghia each). Allaghia were composed of five dekarchiai of ten men, and the ranks were the same as the infantry there, with dekarchos, pentarchos, tetrarchos and ourahos.\n > \n > Above the bandon level, came the moirai - moirarchai commanding, or dhoungoi - dhoungarii commanding. The number of banda varied, but they seems to have been made up of anywhere from two to five of them. After that was the turmai or merai, commanded by the turmarchai or merarchai respectively, and were made up of three moirai.\n > \n > Now, my book (Byzantine Armies 886-1118 by Ian Heath) doesn't give modern equivalents, but we can make reasonable comparisons (I'm just guessing here roughly based on the number of men they commanded, so don't take this part as certain)\n > \n > Turmarchai/merarchai - Col./Brigadier General\n > \n > Moirarchai/dhoungarii - Lt. Col./Col.\n > \n > Komes - Captain/Major\n > \n > Hekatontarchos -Captain\n > \n > Lochaghos/Allaghia - Lieutenant\n > \n > Dekarchos - Sergeant\n > \n > Pentarchos - Corporal\n > \n > Tetrarchos - Corporal\n > \n > Ourahos - Lance Corporal",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44806303",
"title": "Non-Combatant Corps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) was a corps of the British Army composed of conscientious objectors as privates, with NCOs and officers seconded from other corps or regiments. Its members fulfilled various non-combatant roles in the army during the First World War, the Second World War and the period of conscription after the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197406",
"title": "Praetorian Guard",
"section": "Section::::Under the Roman Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "The designation originated during the Roman Republic, for the guards of Roman generals as early as the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC. There was no permanent guard charged with the protection of military general officers; however, certain military officers chose to surround themselves with guards to ensure their security. For example, during the Siege of Numantia, Scipio Aemilianus formed a troop of 500 men for his personal protection, as sorties were often quite dangerous for the upper ranks. This usage was then emulated and spread, as Roman generals occupied their positions for longer periods of time. Accordingly, this guard was referred to as \"Cohors Prætoria\". In battle, these cohorts would intervene as a final reserve. The consuls, when with an army under non-battle conditions, were protected by the lictors, who would station themselves around the consuls' tents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147012",
"title": "Non-combatant",
"section": "Section::::History.:Non-Combatant Corps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) was a corps of the British Army that was active from 1916 to 1920 and again from 1940 to 1963. It was created to accommodate conscientious objectors who were prepared to contribute to uniformed military service in a non-combatant role. They did not carry weapons and were not given any weapons training. March and April 1916 saw the creation of the first units; by June 1916, 1500 men were officially soldiers in the NCC, and by August 1918 around three and a half thousand men were in the corps. Although most records have been destroyed In recent years, diligent research in recent years has increased that number and it is likely to be closer to 20,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6004204",
"title": "The Recruiting Officer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The Recruiting Officer is a 1706 play by the Irish writer George Farquhar, which follows the social and sexual exploits of two officers, the womanising Plume and the cowardly Brazen, in the town of Shrewsbury (the town where Farquhar himself was posted in this capacity) to recruit soldiers. The characters of the play are generally stock, in keeping with the genre of Restoration comedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37244471",
"title": "Tres militiae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The tres militiae (\"three military posts\") was a career progression of the Roman Imperial army for men of the equestrian order. It developed as an alternative to the \"cursus honorum\" of the senatorial order for enabling the social mobility of equestrians and identifying those with the aptitude for administration. The three posts, typically held over a period of two to four years, were prefect of a cohort (Praefectus cohortis), military tribune (Tribunus angusticlavius), and prefect of an \"ala\" (wing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3242421",
"title": "Special Night Squads",
"section": "Section::::Creation and Deployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The origins of night squads has been discerned in the creation of specialized units in both the northern frontier of India, where Gurkhas were trained to control indigenous insurgents after WW1, and to similar military structures, such as the Black and Tans deployed in Ireland to repress the Irish War of Independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5021645",
"title": "Auxilia",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Foundation of the auxilia under Augustus (30 BC–14 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Auxiliary regiments were now led by a \"praefectus\" (prefect), who could be either a native nobleman, who would probably be granted Roman citizenship for the purpose (e.g. the famous German war leader Arminius gained Roman citizenship probably by serving as an auxiliary prefect before turning against Rome); or a Roman, either of knightly rank, or a senior centurion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qn8vd
|
why do some radio stations (usually more popular or "mainstream ones) raise the pitch or speed up the songs they play?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just so the song is shorter. Sometimes they will cut sections out of songs too. What comes to mind is when Metallica released death magnetic back in '08.\n\n[The shortest song is 5 minutes, and the next shortest is 6:25](_URL_0_)\n\nI forget which songs they were always playing exactly. \"The day that never comes\" was one of them but there was another also. They would chop whole sections out of that song (it is 8 minutes long....), specifically they would chop out a \"bridge\" which Metallica tends to have in their songs and tends to be repetitive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you speed it up it raises the pitch slightly in doing that. They can't get the band to just record another version but faster. They do it for time slots usually. They don't want to play seven minute songs because that can be bad for viewers who don't like that one song. Also, if all songs are about three to four minutes then they can fit commercials in nicely without having to worry about a lot of different songs with different durations. It's pretty much just to keep everything organized",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radio stations these days are often owned by multi-radio station owning conglomerates. They have a few goals. \n\n1. a consistent song length lets them make sure all of their stations switch to commercials at about the same time (no switching stations to avoid commercials) \n\n2. a large mix of the current play list every hour. So just because you dislike song X, it will be over before you get annoyed enough to switch the station. \n\n3. Fast pitch songs have a faster tempo, seem more up beat and hip. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am the guy who is messing with your music. I work for A small Radio Station in germany and have worked for other CHR and HotAC stations. Although in my experience mostly the AC stations use this technic.\n\nBefor there were digital workstations you had to use tape. Music on tape is hard to cut. Speeding it up in the otherhand makes the song shorter and also pitches the song up wich makes it sound \"happyer\"\n\nThe main reasons why music is edited in the first place are\n1. you can play more Songs in an houre if they are shorter\n2. editing out instrumental parts that are deemed problematic (best example is the guitar solo in nothing else matters",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45241531",
"title": "Radio homogenization",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:National advertising model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Radio has always had to balance listeners' desires with the need to deliver a predictable audience to advertisers. In the past, if listeners felt a song was too monotonous or repetitive, they could tune to a different station. Now, however, there is less choice available, and that song might be playing on a nearby station. The radio spectrum is a limited and publicly owned commodity. Since there is a definite amount of space on the radio spectrum, big companies have an incentive to dominate as much of it as they can.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44899232",
"title": "Cultwo Show",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Unlike other radio stations that proceed quietly and introduce songs, they have become very popular due to the candid and ingenious stories and original corners. Recently the audience has been engaged in various corners. This is the program that is currently ranked # 1 in radio listening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1954403",
"title": "Hot 100 Airplay (Radio Songs)",
"section": "Section::::Chart data collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Each week, the Radio Songs chart ranks the 100 songs with the most airplay points (frequently referred to as audience impressions, which is a calculation of the number of times a song is played and the audience size of the station playing the tune). A song can pick up an airplay point every time it is selected to be played on specific radio stations that \"Billboard\" monitors. Radio stations across the board are used, from Top 40 Mainstream (which plays a wide variety of music that is generally the most popular songs of the time) to more genre-specific radio stations such as urban radio and country music. Paid plays of a song or treatment as bumper music do not count as an impression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596708",
"title": "American Top 40",
"section": "Section::::Chart data used by American Top 40.:\"Billboard\" magazine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "This gradually became a wide schism as rock splintered into several formats in the early 1980s. As a result, AT40's weekly playlist could be very diverse in the styles and formats of the songs played. Historians have noted that no one station actually played all of the songs on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 list, because they represented overlapping formats, such as hard rock, mainstream rock, heavy metal, dance, new wave, punk, rap, pop, easy listening/adult contemporary and country. Stations tended to specialize in only one or two of these formats and completely ignore the others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8142462",
"title": "Rotation (music)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Heavy rotation or power rotation is a list of songs that get the most airplay on a radio station. Songs in heavy rotation will be played many times in a 24-hour period. A reason for playing the same song more than once a day is that many listeners tune in expecting to hear their favorite song, and many listeners don't listen to the radio for extended periods of time. Prolonged listening to a station that places songs in heavy rotation can quickly become unpleasant; such stations are not well-suited for retail environments, where employees must listen for hours on end, and doing so can breed contempt for the music and create a hostile work environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58404180",
"title": "Ute music",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Ranges are usually more narrow and often remain within an octave. Most songs tend to start on higher notes and descend down to lower registers as the song progresses. Tones may sound flat or sharp to some because natural modes are used rather than pursuing accuracy of pitch. The majority of these tones remain consistent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1127557",
"title": "Album-oriented rock",
"section": "Section::::Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Most radio formats are based on a select, tight rotation of hit singles. The best example is Top 40, though other formats, like country, smooth jazz, and urban all utilize the same basic principles, with the most popular songs repeating every two to six hours, depending on their rank in the rotation. Generally there is a strict order or list to be followed and the DJ does not make decisions about what selections are played.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20dxn5
|
"for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction". is there anything in the universe where this isn't true?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, sure. There are all kinds of situations of one thing \"acting\" on another without getting \"acted\" on back, because \"acting\" is not a scientific word. That definition of Newton's Third Law is very vague and actually has no real meaning. A better definition is:\n\n\"For every force there is an equal and opposite force\". I'm sitting on a chair now, and the weight of my butt is pressing against the chair with ~195 lbs of force, because I'm fat and not good at dieting. The chair is also pressing against me with 195 lbs of force, and I know that this is the case because my butt is deformed, and I can feel pressure in the nerves on my skin. \n\nIf we restrict the definition to what it properly should be, then yes, this law is universal and applies to all possible scenarios. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13148240",
"title": "Ground reaction force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The use of the word reaction derives from Newton's third law, which essentially states that if a force, called \"action\", acts upon a body, then an equal and opposite force, called \"reaction\", must act upon another body. The force exerted by the ground is conventionally referred to as the reaction, although, since the distinction between action and reaction is completely arbitrary, the expression \"ground action\" would be, in principle, equally acceptable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111581",
"title": "Reaction (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Causal misinterpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The terms 'action' and 'reaction' have the misleading suggestion of causality, as if the 'action' is the cause and 'reaction' is the effect. It is therefore easy to think of the second force as being there because of the first, and even happening some time after the first. This is incorrect; the forces are perfectly simultaneous, and are there for the same reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17636",
"title": "Law of noncontradiction",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations.:Plato's synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Plato's version of the law of non-contradiction states that \"\"The same thing clearly cannot act or be acted upon in the same part or in relation to the same thing at the same time, in contrary ways\"\" (The \"Republic\" (436b)). In this, Plato carefully phrases three axiomatic restrictions on \"action\" or reaction: 1) in the same part, 2) in the same relation, 3) at the same time. The effect is to momentarily create a frozen, timeless state, somewhat like figures frozen in action on the frieze of the Parthenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217717",
"title": "Carbon-burning process",
"section": "Section::::Reaction products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The last reaction is also very unlikely since it involves three reaction products, as well as being endothermic — think of the reaction proceeding in reverse, it would require the three products all to converge at the same time, which is less likely than two-body interactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208460",
"title": "Proximate and ultimate causation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "A proximate cause is an event which is \"closest\" to, or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result. This exists in contrast to a higher-level ultimate cause (or \"distal cause\") which is usually thought of as the \"real\" reason something occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111581",
"title": "Reaction (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "As described by the third of Newton's laws of motion of classical mechanics, all forces occur in pairs such that if one object exerts a force on another object, then the second object exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the first. The third law is also more generally stated as: \"To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.\" The attribution of which of the two forces is the action and which is the reaction is arbitrary. Either of the two can be considered the action, while the other is its associated reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19002397",
"title": "Knowing and the Known",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gyt91
|
Why did the silk road and the other primary east-west trade routes cross through the desert instead of going north through the Eurasian steppes?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's important to remember that very few (if any) traders travelled the entire length of the silk road- it was more like a relay of different traders.\n\nThe central Asian deserts were already populated by nomadic people with a long tradition of trade, which facilitated the establishment of the greater trade routes in the way that they were.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42612543",
"title": "Southern Silk Road: Through Khotan",
"section": "Section::::Was it a linear route?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The general assumption that the Silk Roads connected east and west is an over-simplification. This southern Taklamakan route also connected with trans-Tibetan plateau routes linking Central and South Asia. In addition, the modern hydrology visible on Google Earth suggests a number of south to north courses through the desert; for example from Yotkan to Aksu through Mazar-tagh. The maps published by Aurel Stein also show that movement was not just from east to west, but from south to north as well. However Mazar-tagh is far from the usually accepted Silk Road, in the middle of the desert: there has to be a reason for it being there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783723",
"title": "History of silk",
"section": "Section::::Chinese silk and its commerce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The silk road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century AD. The main road left from Xi'an, going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert, one of the most arid in the world, before crossing the Pamir Mountains. The caravans that employed this method to exchange silk with other merchants were generally quite large, including from 100 to 500 people as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kg (300 lb) of merchandise. They linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean, about one year's travel from Xi'an. In the south, a second route went by Yemen, Burma, and India before rejoining the northern route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54253",
"title": "Silk Road",
"section": "Section::::Routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The Silk Road consisted of several routes. As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China, the overland, intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur. Merchants along these routes where involved in \"relay trade\" in which goods changed \"hands many times before reaching their final destinations.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54100722",
"title": "Caftan (Metropolitan Museum of Art)",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The Silk Road was the great overland trade route of the Ancient World, carrying goods including silks from China to the Mediterranean. By the 6th century C.E., tensions between Byzantium and the Sasanian Empire disrupted trade along the traditional route. Central Asian merchants developed a new route to Byzantium, going north from the Caspian Sea and crossing the Caucasus Mountains via steep passes (most prominently in the North Caucasus, the Darial Gorge). The first caravan carrying Chinese silks traveled via this North Caucasus route in 568. The Caucasus silk routes remained in use through the Middle Ages, losing their importance only in the 14th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2324951",
"title": "Historic roads and trails",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:East Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Prior to the Silk Road an ancient overland route existed through the Eurasian Steppe. Silk and horses were traded as key commodities; secondary trade included furs, weapons, musical instruments, precious stones (turquoise, lapis lazuli, agate, nephrite) and jewels. This route extended for approximately . Trans-Eurasian trade through the Steppe Route precedes the conventional date for the origins of the Silk Road by at least two millennia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54253",
"title": "Silk Road",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century. The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6742",
"title": "Central Asia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe, Western Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. The Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12g9ax
|
What obscure folk tale/s from your area of speciality might have rivalled Grimm's fairytales if they had been helped to spread among Western culture at the right time?
|
[
{
"answer": "The tales of Hershele of Ostropol are quite entertaining. They're relatively well known amongst some Jews and Ukrainians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll refer you to [this story](_URL_0_), which isn't even very well known among Russians, I don't think.\n\nThere's also a hagiography (story of a saint) called *The Tale of Peter and Fevronia*, from eleventh century Russia. I don't have my notes for this one and can't even find my original of it (which was from a version made in the early 18th century, I think), but I'll do my best. I also only have the first half of the story (but it's the part with all the action), so if anyone can and wants to add the rest, they're welcome to.\n\nPrince Paul finds out that his wife is being visited in the night by a serpent disguised as the prince. His wife discovers that the only way to kill the serpent is a magic sword owned by the prince's brother, Prince Peter. They go to Peter and ask him to kill the serpent, and he obliges. However, he gets covered in the serpent's blood after he slays it, and where it touches his skin he breaks out into gross and painful scabby sores. They send for all the doctors in the realm, and not a single one can cure (let alone treat) poor Prince Peter.\n\nSuddenly, word reaches Peter of Fevronia, a young peasant maiden who, they say, will know how to cure him. He leaves Murom to go find her in the countryside, carried by a retinue. When they arrive at her hut, he's carried in, laid on a bed, and his retinue leaves. Fevronia agrees to cure him, on one condition: that he marries her. Peter reluctantly agrees, and Fevronia makes up a salve, applies it to his sores, and they heal instantly. Peter then leaves, and instead of marrying Fevronia, promises to send her plenty of gifts.\n\nIt's not long before Peter's body is again covered in those gross scabby sores, and he returns to Fevronia, and he's pretty mad at her. This time, she makes him swear oaths that he'll marry her if she cures him, and he agrees. She heals him, and they return to Murom together. His brother Paul dies not much later, and they become Prince and Princess of Murom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16238875",
"title": "Grimm Tales (play)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Grimm Tales is a play by British poet Carol Ann Duffy, based on the original fairy tales written down by the Brothers Grimm. The play was first published in 1996. In 1997 she published a sequel, More Grimm Tales. Not all of the stories that were produced by the Brothers Grimm were adapted in the play. The ones that were included \"Cinderella\", \"Snow White\", \"Hansel and Gretal\" and \"The Golden Goose\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3017525",
"title": "Grimms' Fairy Tales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Grimms' Fairy Tales, originally known as the Children's and Household Tales (, ), is a collection of fairy tales by the Grimm brothers or \"Brothers Grimm\", Jakob and Wilhelm, first published on 20 December 1812. The first edition contained 86 stories, and by the seventh edition in 1857, had 211 unique fairy tales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19627556",
"title": "The Big Book Of",
"section": "Section::::Titles.:Grimm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Published in 1999 and written by Jonathan Vankin, the \"Big Book of Grimm\" examines fairy tales. Writer Vankin transcribes the original, unsanitized folk tales that the Brothers Grimm collected in the mid-19th century, detailing child abuse, incest, cannibalism, severed limbs and gouged-out eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43494",
"title": "Fairy tale",
"section": "Section::::History.:Later works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of \"Bluebeard\" was thus rejected, and the tale of \"Little Briar Rose\", clearly related to Perrault's \"The Sleeping Beauty\", was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "418516",
"title": "Weser Uplands",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In addition, many fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm were set in the region, for example, Snow White, which is supposed to have taken place in Alfeld, Rapunzel, who let down her long hair for her prince from a tower at Trendelburg Castle, or Sleeping Beauty, whose castle was based on the now ruined Sababurg near Hofgeismar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41971",
"title": "Brothers Grimm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Many of Grimms' folk tales have enjoyed enduring popularity. The tales are available in more than 100 languages and have been adapted by filmmakers including Lotte Reiniger and Walt Disney, with films such as \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" and \"Sleeping Beauty\". During the 1930s and 40s, the tales were used as propaganda by the Third Reich; later in the 20th century, psychologists such as Bruno Bettelheim reaffirmed the value of the work, in spite of the cruelty and violence in original versions of some of the tales (which the Grimms eventually sanitized).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10501110",
"title": "Early history of fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Romanticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "In the later part of the Romantic tradition, in reaction to the spirit of the Enlightenment, folklorists collected folktales, epic poems, and ballads, and brought them out in printed form. The Brothers Grimm were inspired in their collection, \"Grimm's Fairy Tales\", by the movement of German Romanticism. Many other collectors were inspired by the Grimms and the similar sentiments. Frequently their motives stemmed not merely from Romanticism, but from Romantic nationalism, in that many were inspired to save their own country's folklore: sometimes, as in the \"Kalevala\", they compiled existing folklore into an epic to match other nation's; sometimes, as in \"Ossian\", they fabricated folklore that should have been there. These works, whether fairy tale, ballads, or folk epics, were a major source for later fantasy works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a78y0
|
WW2 - U-boats vs the D-Day invasion fleet
|
[
{
"answer": "It was infeasible because it was suicidal. The invasion convoys were escorted by several dozen destroyers, frigates or other escort ships with Anti Submarine weapons on board. The RAF coastal command flew numerous patrols over the English Chanel, Particularly the western approaches, near Cornwall. \nDoneitz did send four U-Boats to the waters off of Normandy, but all four were sunk, without accomplishing anything, vis-a-vis the dense concentration of merchant ships the Allies had in that area. \nSamuel Elliot Morrison has the complete order of battle for the US Navy, Royal Navy, Canadian Navy and Polish Navy for D-day in his book \"The invasion of France and Germany 1944-1945\" which is part of his fifteen volume set \"History of US Naval Operations in World War II\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what /u/davratta said, the U boats were slow and unwieldy, which would lead to less effective patrol areas and lower chance of survival and attack, so [fast attack craft](_URL_2_) were used more as they could cover larger areas and had a better chance of slipping away. For example, a group of nine schnellboot came across a [practice landing](_URL_0_) on the coast of England about a month and a half before the Normandy landing and sank two, killing at least 638 US personnel, with no German losses.\n\nThere was so much Allied air cover that neither Schnellboats (known as E-boats to the allies) or U-boats could venture forth during the day, and German confusion about the invasion (real versus feint) kept the boats away for the first day, but they did deploy and patrol towards the Allied landing the next day. A decent overview is available on the [_URL_3_ site](_URL_1_), which is perhaps a little off topic for your original question, but I suspect of interest if your are looking for German naval opposition to the landings in general. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598136",
"title": "LCVP (United States)",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The use of these boats during the D-day invasions at Normandy is shown in \"Saving Private Ryan\". The boats were also used in a scene during the 1985 film \"Invasion USA\", in which communist guerrillas land on a Florida beach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598136",
"title": "LCVP (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy of the Higgins boat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The Higgins boat was used for many amphibious landings, including Operation Overlord on D-Day in Nazi German-occupied Normandy, and previously Operation Torch in North Africa, the Allied invasion of Sicily, Operation Shingle and Operation Avalanche in Italy, Operation Dragoon, as well as in the Pacific Theatre at the Battle of Guadalcanal, the Battle of Tarawa, the Battle of the Philippines, the Battle of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24008426",
"title": "Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Initially the U-boat campaign was directed against the British Grand Fleet. Later U-boat fleet action was extended to include action against the trade routes of the Allied powers. This campaign was highly destructive, and resulted in the loss of nearly half of Britain's merchant marine fleet during the course of the war. To counter the German submarines, the Allies moved shipping into convoys guarded by destroyers, blockades such as the Dover Barrage and minefields were laid, and aircraft patrols monitored the U-boat bases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45423755",
"title": "USS PC-552",
"section": "Section::::Deployments.:1944.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "During this phase of the war, \"PC-552\" protected a convoy across the Atlantic as the Western Allies built up the naval fleet in anticipation of the Normandy invasion. It then patrolled the European theatre coasts and was based in Dartmouth, Devon, Plymouth, and Falmouth, Britain, then after D-Day, in Cherbourg, France. On D-Day, it served as the control vessel for Omaha Beach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15449396",
"title": "D-Day naval deceptions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Small boats, along with aircraft from RAF Bomber Command, simulated invasion fleets approaching Cap d'Antifer, Pas-de-Calais and Normandy. Glimmer and Taxable played on the German belief, amplified by Allied deception efforts over the preceding months, that the main invasion force would land in the Calais region. Big Drum was positioned on the western flank of the real invasion force to try to confuse German forces about the scale of the landings. These operations complemented Operation Titanic, which was intended to confuse the Germans about the D-Day airborne forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28702890",
"title": "RAF Coastal Command during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Battle of the Atlantic.:Versus the U-boats, 1939–41.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "In May and June, at the very western end of the English Channel, U-boats began operating effectively. Some 17 attacks were made by aircraft on the U-boats, none successful. The ASB was ordered to be replaced with the DC. No specialised aerial DCs were available. A modified 450 lb Naval DC was used. No effective tactics were available to locate U-boats. By 1940, they attacked at night, and on the surface. ASDIC was useless against surfaced submarines, and flares could not be used at the low altitude required by aircraft to make an attack. To combat this, closer co-operation by the Navy and Coastal Command was needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189945",
"title": "USS Nevada (BB-36)",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Southern France and Iwo Jima.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "After D-Day, the Allies headed to Toulon for another amphibious assault, codenamed Operation Dragoon. To support this, many ships were sent from the beaches of Normandy to the Mediterranean, including five battleships (the United States' \"Nevada\", , , the British , and the Free French ), three US heavy cruisers (, and ), and many destroyers and landing craft were transferred south.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qqx2h
|
how /r/adviceanimals isn't a default sub even though it has more subscribers than /r/explainlikeimfive?
|
[
{
"answer": "It used to be, and redditors got tired of the same misused full-of-shit memes clogging the page. I'm guessing reddit admins did as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53910445",
"title": "Location-based recommendation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Recommender systems are information filtering systems which attempt to predict the rating or preference that a user would give, based on ratings that similar users gave and ratings that the user gave on previous occasions. These systems have become increasingly popular and are used for movies, music, news, books, research articles, search queries, social tags, and products in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22313095",
"title": "Foursquare City Guide",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Ratings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In addition to leaving Tips, Foursquare lets users rate venues by answering questions. The questions help Foursquare determine how people feel about a place, including whether or not a user likes the place, how popular it is, its cleanliness, and its noise level. It also uses these questions to fill in missing venue information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57138067",
"title": "Pi-hole",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The Pi-hole makes use of dnsmasq, cURL, lighttpd, PHP and the AdminLTE Dashboard to block DNS requests for known tracking and advertising domains. The application serves as a DNS server for a private network (replacing any pre-existing DNS server provided by another device or the ISP), with the ability to block advertisements and tracking domains for users' devices. It obtains lists of advert and tracking domains from predefined sources (which can be modified by the user) that the Pi-hole uses to compare DNS queries to. If a match is found within any of the lists, or the user blacklist, the Pi-hole will refuse to resolve the requested domain and respond to the requesting device with a blank webpage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3010800",
"title": "Square dance program",
"section": "Section::::Other program lists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Other groups of callers advocate even smaller lists for the purpose of reducing the barrier to new people getting involved. Examples include the \"ABC\" approach which uses 22 calls, the \"Club Level 50\", and the Danish M23-M45-M53-M69 approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31152938",
"title": "4Q Magazine",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The magazine features dedicated sections of content such as music, comedy, fashion, gaming & technology, and film & entertainment. The focus of \"4Q\" is much more on searching for and championing new acts as opposed to their view of ‘the stagnant approach of the old media’ some of whom have been criticised for playing it safe and focusing only on popular acts of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48033246",
"title": "Peeple (mobile application)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Peeple is a mobile application that allows people to leave recommendations for other people based on professional, personal, and romantic relationships. Initially described as a \"Yelp for People\", the original announcement in October 2015 drew criticism over concerns of harassment, and its creators launched a \"watered-down\" version of Peeple in March 2016. Many critics have noted the similarity of the application and China's upcoming Social Credit System to the \"Nosedive\" episode of the British science fiction anthology series \"Black Mirror\" as well as other fictional works about social media with themes of gender and obsession with image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41170887",
"title": "The Silver Line",
"section": "Section::::National launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "To mark the launch, The Silver Line commissioned ComRes to conduct a survey into loneliness. Their findings can be extrapolated to a figure of 2.5 million older people (15%) feeling lonely often or all the time. 9 out of 10 said that the most effective remedy for loneliness is a chat on the telephone. However, since 84% said it is very difficult to admit to loneliness, even to members of their family because they do not wish to become a \"burden\", The Silver Line offers a general service of information, friendship and advice. The biggest single problem callers talk about is loneliness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42lgk0
|
how much money is there in the world in total and how's it measured?
|
[
{
"answer": "For a while counting is the simplest way to measure money. I say that because eventually it gets tricky.\n\nThere is of course the cash money. Money in our pockets and in the cash drawers of registers. That is the smallest amount. It is counted as it is produced and banks count it as it comes in.\n\nThen there is money on deposit. That also is countable. Once banks count their deposits they are allowed to loan a fraction of this money out. So they like deposits. The money they loaned out was in a sense the money which is deposited. But in another sense it was new money.\n\nSome banks have drawing rights. They are allowed to borrow money on paper, or to be electronically debited. They can loan this money too. This money was created by granting the drawing rights.\n\nNow take the money loaned out as mortgages. They can be bundled and offered for sale. it is future money but can be sold today in a bundle. We just created more money.\n\nIf you are worried those loans will not be paid then the bundle of loans can be discounted. The bundle will be sold for less than their face value because some loans will go into default. \n\nGuarantees can be bought and sold that these bundles will be good. More money is created that way. They are just guarantees. But money will be paid if the defaults exceed the expected amount.\n\nThere is where it gets fuzzy. sometimes these credit default swaps, that is what they are called. are not reported to be counted. The assets of big corporations are used to back the defaults. The regulations are loose. There is not enough accountability and the amount is hard to count. But this kind of money is easily the largest pile of nonexistent money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54304547",
"title": "All the Money in the World",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Box office.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "\"All the Money in the World\" grossed $25.1 million in the United States and Canada and $31.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $56.9 million, against a production budget of $50 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20875871",
"title": "Circulation (currency)",
"section": "Section::::Total currency in circulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In 1990, total currency in circulation in the world passed one trillion United States dollars. After 12 years, in 2002 this figure was two trillion USD, and in 2008 it had increased to four trillion USD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1254412",
"title": "Union of South American Nations",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The highest nominal GDP in 2018 is Venezuela (62nd worldwide) with 96,328 billion dollars, followed by Uruguay (73rd worldwide) with 60,933 billion dollars, and Bolivia (92nd at the global level) with 41,833 billion dollars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55447",
"title": "Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Box office.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "International grosses that exceeded $460 million include those Australia ($27.2 million), France and Algeria ($56.9 million), Germany ($47.3 million), Italy ($11.3 million), Japan ($82.7 million), Mexico ($15.3 million), South Korea ($10.3 million), Spain ($23.8 million), and the United Kingdom and Ireland ($72.8 million).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8034072",
"title": "Laaga Chunari Mein Daag",
"section": "Section::::Box office.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Total lifetime grosses was 41.6 million (approx.) or US$675,102 (7.2% of the total Worldwide Collection), at the Foreign market the collection was 533.1 million (approx.) or US$8,679,460 (92.8% of the total Worldwide Collection). Total Worldwide collection 574.7 million or US$9,354,562 reported until 4 November 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372478",
"title": "Video game industry",
"section": "Section::::International practices.:World trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The largest nations by estimated video game revenues in 2016 are China ($24.4B), the United States ($23.5B) and Japan ($12.4B). The largest regions in 2015 were Asia-Pacific ($43.1B), North America ($23.8B), and Western Europe ($15.6B).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1038887",
"title": "Natural gas vehicle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Worldwide, there were 24.452 million NGVs by 2016, led by China (5.0 million), Iran (4.00 million), India (3.045 million), Pakistan (3.0 million), Argentina (2.295 million), Brazil (1.781 million), and Italy (1.001 million).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vno20
|
why you can get a heart attack if you're shocked or scared.
|
[
{
"answer": "An increase in heart rate and/or blood pressure can dislodge fatty deposits in the arteries that feed the heart. If they break off they can block the supply of blood to parts of the heart. That's a heart attack. The heart muscle then begins to die. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "People with panic attacks often report a fear of dying or heart attack, flashing vision, faintness or nausea, numbness throughout the body, heavy breathing and hyperventilation, or loss of body control. Some people also suffer from tunnel vision, mostly due to blood flow leaving the head to more critical parts of the body in defense. These feelings may provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack began (a consequence of the \"fight-or-flight response\", in which the hormone causing this response is released in significant amounts). This response floods the body with hormones, particularly epinephrine (adrenaline), which aid it in defending against harm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "The symptoms of a panic attack may cause the person to feel that their body is failing. The symptoms can be understood as follows. First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the fight-or-flight response when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), causing compensatory metabolic acidosis activating chemosensing mechanisms which translate this pH shift into autonomic and respiratory responses. The person him/herself may overlook the hyperventilation, having become preoccupied with the associated somatic symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Shortness of breath and chest pain are the predominant symptoms. People experiencing a panic attack may incorrectly attribute them to a heart attack and thus seek treatment in an emergency room. Because chest pain and shortness of breath are hallmark symptoms of cardiovascular illnesses, including unstable angina and myocardial infarction (heart attack), a diagnosis of exclusion (ruling out other conditions) must be performed before diagnosing a panic attack. It is especially important to do this for people whose mental health and heart health statuses are unknown. This can be done using an electrocardiogram and mental health assessments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "People will often experience panic attacks as a direct result of exposure to an object/situation that they have a phobia for. Panic attacks may also become situationally-bound when certain situations are associated with panic due to previously experiencing an attack in that particular situation. People may also have a cognitive or behavioral predisposition to having panic attacks in certain situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear that may include palpitations, sweating, shaking, shortness of breath, numbness, or a feeling that something bad is going to happen. The maximum degree of symptoms occurs within minutes. Typically they last for about 30 minutes but the duration can vary from seconds to hours. There may be a fear of losing control or chest pain. Panic attacks themselves are not typically dangerous physically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Panic disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "In addition to recurrent unexpected panic attacks, a diagnosis of panic disorder requires that said attacks have chronic consequences: either worry over the attacks' potential implications, persistent fear of future attacks, or significant changes in behavior related to the attacks. As such, those suffering from panic disorder experience symptoms even outside specific panic episodes. Often, normal changes in heartbeat are noticed by a panic sufferer, leading them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. In some cases, a heightened awareness (hypervigilance) of body functioning occurs during panic attacks, wherein any perceived physiological change is interpreted as a possible life-threatening illness (i.e., extreme hypochondriasis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "A panic attack is a response of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The most common symptoms include trembling, dyspnea (shortness of breath), heart palpitations, chest pain (or chest tightness), hot flashes, cold flashes, burning sensations (particularly in the facial or neck area), sweating, nausea, dizziness (or slight vertigo), light-headedness, hyperventilation, paresthesias (tingling sensations), sensations of choking or smothering, difficulty moving, and derealization. These physical symptoms are interpreted with alarm in people prone to panic attacks. This results in increased anxiety and forms a positive feedback loop. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ofydt
|
Why did French revolutionaries prefer an emperor to a king?
|
[
{
"answer": "In 1799, the French Directory was a corrupt political machine that used war to divert attention away from problems within France (such as how corrupt they were) and using war to gain funds for both the government and themselves. The coup of 18 Brumaire would drive the corrupt Directory away and place Napoleon with two other consuls as the head of the French government.\n\nThe first thing that was done was clearing away all the rats that plagued the French government and pushing the corruption out and promoting meritocracy within the government. Further, the Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of France) would be unrolled during the first five years before Napoleon would be crowned Emperor. Overall, Napoleon would drive the French government to one of chaos to one of efficiency and quality.\n\nMost importantly, he was popular. In several plebiscites, Napoleon was overwhelmingly elected as Consul for Life and then Emperor (David G. Chandler states in his *Campaigns of Napoleon* that it seems that it was a democratic and fair election process, although the vote for Emperor was tainted with a few hundred odd votes from members of the military clumped together).\n\nI would say that it goes down to the effectiveness of leadership. Louis XVI was a well meaning and kind man that was not a born leader, Napoleon was a man that took charge and had people work toward his will. Further, the people were tired and wanted peace, which Napoleon brought with an effective government, something Louis XVI didn't and couldn't do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22197563",
"title": "Army of the Danube",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "Initially, such rulers of Europe as Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects, and not something in which they should interfere. As the rhetoric grew more strident, the monarchies started to view events with distrust. Leopold, who had succeeded Joseph as Emperor in 1791, saw the situation surrounding his sister, Marie Antoinette, and her children, with greater and greater alarm. As the revolution grew more and more radical, he still sought to avoid war, but in the late summer, he, in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family. They threatened vague, but serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24587366",
"title": "Coronation of Napoleon I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "On May 18, 1804, the Sénat conservateur vested the Republican government of the French First Republic in an Emperor, and preparations for a coronation followed. Napoleon's elevation to Emperor was overwhelmingly approved by the French citizens in the French constitutional referendum of 1804. Among Napoleon's motivations for being crowned were to gain prestige in international royalist and Catholic circles and to lay the foundation for a future dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62583",
"title": "History of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Unification (1814 to 1861).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs were the viceroy of Italy, Eugène de Beauharnais, who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and Joachim Murat, who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the Congress of Vienna (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11188",
"title": "French Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Long-term impact.:France.:Constitutionalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 268,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 268,
"end_character": 1137,
"text": "The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order, but it did not rule out a monarch. Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system (although he remained in full control), and the restored Bourbons were forced to go along with one. After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the monarchists probably had a voting majority, but they were so factionalised they could not agree on who should be king, and instead the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution. The conservative Catholic enemies of the Revolution came to power in Vichy France (1940–44), and tried with little success to undo its heritage, but they kept it a republic. Vichy denied the principle of equality and tried to replace the Revolutionary watchwords \"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity\" with \"Work, Family, and Fatherland.\" However, there were no efforts by the Bourbons, Vichy or anyone else to restore the privileges that had been stripped away from the nobility in 1789. France permanently became a society of equals under the law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13456",
"title": "Head of state",
"section": "Section::::Former heads of state.:Personal influence or privileges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his \"Cent Jours\" escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176739",
"title": "War of the First Coalition",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Revolution in France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of Louis XVI or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of the French Queen Marie Antoinette, had initially looked on the Revolution calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5037280",
"title": "Army of Sambre and Meuse",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "Initially, the rulers of Europe viewed the 1789 revolution in France as an internal matter between the French king and his subjects. In 1790, Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire; by 1791, the danger to his sister, Marie Antoinette and her children, alarmed him. In August 1791, in consultation with French \"émigré\" nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia, Leopold's Declaration of Pillnitz articulated that the interests of the monarchs of Europe were as one with the interests of Louis and his family. He and his fellow monarchs threatened unspecified consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. French \"émigrés\" continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution, and on 20 April 1792 the French National Convention declared war on Austria. In this War of the First Coalition (1792–1798), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing its land or water borders, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1foogw
|
What is the most significant historical artifact that has been stolen or appropriated by a state after rediscovery?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't say that this was a re-discovery, but one of the more interesting examples of something like this was when Texas revolutionists attacked and killed General Santa Anna and his army. They stole his wooden leg, and it was held in a museum in what I believe was Illinois. Apparently, Mexico hates him, but the government still wants it back. We just haven't returned it yet. This is very apparent since he died in exile and was buried in a grave in Los Angeles.. But this was after about 150 years or so of having the museum that held the leg decline to give it to Mexico. \n\nReflecting further on this, I believe it may the Illinois State Military Museum, or something to that affect, just don't quote me on it. There is also a second leg that was captured, again from Santa Anna. However, this one is just a peg leg held in what I know for sure is Oglesby Mansion. It is rumored that Lieutenant Abner Doubleday used it as a baseball bat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "175403",
"title": "Hermitage Museum",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Hermitage since 1991.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The museum announced in July 2006, that 221 minor items, including jewelry, Orthodox icons, silverware and richly enameled objects, had been stolen. The value of the stolen items was estimated to be approximately $543,000 but by the end of 2006 several of the stolen items were recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209846",
"title": "National Museum of Iraq",
"section": "Section::::Damage and losses during 2003 war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "One of the most valuable artifacts looted was a headless stone statue of the Sumerian king Entemena of Lagash. The Entemena statue, \"estimated to be 4,400 years old, is the first significant artifact returned all the way from the United States and by far the most important piece found outside Iraq. American officials declined to discuss how they recovered the statue.\" The statue of the king, located in the center of the museum's second-floor Sumerian Hall, weighs hundreds of pounds, making it the heaviest piece stolen from the museum - the looters \"probably rolled or slid it down marble stairs to remove it, smashing the steps and damaging other artifacts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18951655",
"title": "Archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Current issues and controversy.:Looting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "In 1937, W. F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96-95; 93 Statute 721; ) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3005707",
"title": "Nazi plunder",
"section": "Section::::Post war recovery effort.:Later developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "Although most of the stolen artworks and antiques were documented, found or recovered \"by the victorious Allied armies ... principally hidden away in salt mines, tunnels, and secluded castles\", many artworks have never been returned to their rightful owners. Art dealers, galleries and museums worldwide have been compelled to research their collection's provenance in order to investigate claims that some of the work was acquired after it had been stolen from its original owners. Already in 1985, years before American museums recognized the issue and before the international conference on Nazi-looted assets of Holocaust victims, European countries released inventory lists of works of art, coins and medals \"that were confiscated from Jews by the Nazis during World War II, and announced the details of a process for returning the works to their owners and rightful heirs.\" In 1998 an Austrian advisory panel recommended the return of 6,292 objets d'art to their legal owners (most of whom are Jews), under the terms of a 1998 restitution law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9036122",
"title": "National Museum of Indonesia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In September 11, 2013, four precious golden artifacts from the 10th-century Eastern Medang kingdom period was stolen from the museum. The items were first discovered in the ruins of the Jalatunda ancient royal bathing place and in the temples on the slopes of Mount Penanggungan in Mojokerto Regency, East Java. The four missing artifacts were a dragon-shaped gold plaque, a scripted crescent-shaped gold plaque and one golden-silver Harihara plaque, as well as a small golden box. All the missing items were displayed together in a glass showcase located inside the archaeology gold artifact and treasure room on the second floor of the Gedung Gajah (old wing) building.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209846",
"title": "National Museum of Iraq",
"section": "Section::::Damage and losses during 2003 war.:Attempts to recover lost items.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "United States Marine Colonel, and Manhattan Assistant District Attorney Matthew Bogdanos led the search for these stolen artifacts for over five years from 2003. Up to the year 2006 approximately 10,000 artifacts were recovered through his efforts. Antiquities recovered include the Warka Vase and the Mask of Warka.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7208744",
"title": "Looted art",
"section": "Section::::Looting of countries.:Looting of Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston was forced to return 34 stolen artifacts – including Hellenistic silverware, Etruscan vases and Roman statues. The aforementioned institutions have agreed to hand over the artworks in exchange for loans of other treasures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gte4l
|
What makes gecko feet walk on whatever surface?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea is that Van der Waals force comes into effect as the \"hairs\" on the bottom of gecko's feet are so small.\n\n\nWiki has a good explanation of what this force is:\n > \"The van der Waals force is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or between parts of the same molecule) other than those due to covalent bonds, the hydrogen bonds, or the electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with neutral molecules or charged molecules.\"\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer, we first need to consider the gecko's feet on a larger scale. On the bottom of each foot is thousands of small hairs. At the tip of these hairs are thousands more microextensions. These hairs are the key to the foot's adhesive properties. On the molecular level, the hair interact via van der waals forces with the surface. Van der waal forces are a type of transient force that creates a temporary dipole (more in a bit). \n\nA polar molecule is simply a molecule with an uneven electron distribution, aka an uneven charge. Some molecules are polar, like water, which has a partial positive charge on the hydrogens and a partial negative charge on the oxygen, since more negatively charged electrons are clustered around the oxygen molecule. Other molecules are nonpolar, and have an even distribution of electrons. Methane (CH4) is a nonpolar molecule. The electrons are distributed evenly between Carbon and the four hydrogens. \n\nThere's a common phrase in chemistry that \"like dissolves like,\" which means polar molecules like to mix with other polar molecules and nonpolar molecules like to mix with other nonpolar molecules. Water and ethanol, both polar, mix because of this. Water (polar) and oil (nonpolar) separate and do not mix because of their different polarity properties. \n\nIt's easier to visualize how two polar molecules can mix. Each has a charge (or a partial charge) and opposite charges on the molecules can attract and interact. In the case of how two nonpolar molecules interact, the visualization is a bit more complicated.\n\n Although nonpolar molecules have an overall even electron distribution, there are transient periods in which the molecule does have a slight partial charge. That is to say, the electron distribution is not static. There are random times when one side of the molecule will have a more electrons (and thus be more negatively charged) than another side of the molecule. It has spontaneously become a dipole. Now if we split our imaginary nonpolar molecule in half we can imagine a side that is briefly negatively charged (side A) and a side that is briefly positively charged (side B). Because opposites attract, the molecules that are next to our spontaneous dipole become affected. So a neighboring molecule that is next to negatively charged side A will rearrange it's electrons so it becomes slightly positively charged on the side closest to A. This action has now made a second molecule a temporary dipole. Likewise, molecules closest to positively charged side B will rearrange their electrons so that they are more negatively charged closest to B. Again, we have another dipole! *These are van der waal forces* and are one of the ways nonpolar molecules can interact.\n\nA gecko's feet hair utilizes this mechanism on a molecular level. It's why a gecko can climb equally well up a polar or a nonpolar surface. The number of hairs on the foot, as well as the number of microscopic tendrils coming off of the tips of these hairs, greatly increases the foot's surface area and the number of molecules that will be able to interact with a surface. \n\nSo in brief, the hairs create increased surface area which allows temporary electrostatic interactions to form between the foot and the surface enabling the gecko to crawl up it with grace!\n\nsource: _URL_0_, _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53941569",
"title": "Self-cleaning surfaces",
"section": "Section::::In nature.:Animals.:Gecko feet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "Gecko feet are the most famous reversible adhesion mechanism in nature. The anti-fouling ability of feet allows geckos to run on dusty ceilings and corners without the accumulation of dirt on their feet. In 2000, Autumn et al. revealed the origin of gecko’s strong adhesion by investigating the surface features of the toes under electron microscope. They observed a hierarchical morphology of each foot which is composed of millions of small hair called setae. Moreover, each setae is composed of a smaller hair, and each hair is tailed with a flat spatula and these spatulae are bonded by the van der Waals forces. This surface feature, regardless of the surface type (hydrophobic, hydrophilic, dry, wet, rough etc.), enables geckos to stick the surface. In addition to strong adhesion, the gecko foot has a unique self-cleaning property which does not require water as the lotus leaf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338271",
"title": "Seta",
"section": "Section::::Animal setae.:Vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The pads on a gecko's feet are small hair-like processes that play a role in the animal's ability to cling to vertical surfaces. The micrometer-scale setae branch into nanometer-scale projections called spatulae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31866792",
"title": "Gecko feet",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Chemical structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The interactions between the gecko's feet and the climbing surface are stronger than simple surface area effects. On its feet, the gecko has many microscopic hairs, or setae (singular seta), that increase the Van der Waals forces - the distance-dependent attraction between atoms or molecules - between its feet and the surface. These setae are fibrous structural proteins that protrude from the epidermis, which is made of β-keratin, the basic building block of human skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2547900",
"title": "Synthetic setae",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Geckos are renowned for their exceptional ability to stick and run on any vertical and inverted surface (excluding Teflon). However gecko toes are not sticky in the usual way like chemical adhesives. Instead, they can detach from the surface quickly and remain quite clean around everyday contaminants even without grooming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70657",
"title": "Van der Waals force",
"section": "Section::::Use by geckos and arthropods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The ability of geckos – which can hang on a glass surface using only one toe – to climb on sheer surfaces has been for many years mainly attributed to the van der Waals forces between these surfaces and the spatulae, or microscopic projections, which cover the hair-like setae found on their footpads. A later study suggested that capillary adhesion might play a role, but that hypothesis has been rejected by more recent studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37885690",
"title": "Pachydactylus rangei",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The web-footed gecko has developed many adaptations for living in the harsh desert climate. It has webbed feet, which allow it to burrow in the sand or walk on top of the sand. It also has adhesive pads on the bottom of its feet which allow it to be an extremely good climber. \"The adhesive pads on their toes have rows of plates called lamellae, which are covered with thousands of microscopic hook like projections called villosities. These villosities catch any minor surface irregularity in order to aid the gecko in climbing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4910228",
"title": "Arches of the foot",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The non-human apes (the gibbons, mountain and lowland gorillas, orangutan, chimpanzee and bonobo) tend to walk on the lateral side of the foot, that is with an 'inverted' foot, which may reflect a basic adaptation to walking on branches. It is often held that their feet lack longitudinal arches, but footprints made by bipedally walking apes, which must directly or indirectly reflect the pressure they exert to support and propel themselves do suggest that they exert lower foot pressure under the medial part of their midfoot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dxmbcq
|
5: why is it so hard to replace plastics with another material with similar properties?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cost: plastic is extremely cheap to produce (also to recycle), currently nothing as cheap exists so companies will keep using what makes them the most money. \n\nProperties: there actually aren't many materials with similar properties: \n- recycled/compostable plastics aren't as maleable and mess up the recycling of normal plastics. \n- paper, well just see the outrage of paper straws \n- metal costs too much and is heavy \n- the cutting edge \"plastic killers\" don't currently work on large scale due to lack of technology/knowledge in how to scale (eg. Nanostructures)\n\nIn actuality plastics are probably the most important, useful and revolutionary material technology in history. It would also be the most environmentally friendly material if we would be able to close the loop and recycle most of it. Problems only arise when it ends up in nature, which I personally believe to just be due to severe incompetence on parts of government, companies and to some extent people.\n\nAFAIK \"fact\" to take forward: Producing paper straws rather than plastic ones is often a net loss in terms of GHG emissions, habitat loss and chemical intensity. \n\nUse this to always think about the whole life-cycle of products and on the many different ways the environment can be hurt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two parts to this question: first plastics are largely defined by their properties and composition. If something had all the same propertied then it likely is another plastic.\n\nSecondly for different individual properties (malleable, non biodegradable, non reactive to most things, etc.) there are plenty of alternatives.\n\nNone are as cheap.\n\nThere are also minor issues like paper products breakdown faster, metal things are heavier, etc. that add up to issues over time but the big simple one is that plastic is very very cheap. Its a considerable investment in both short and long term to switch to something else (certainly one worth making but people don’t like to spend money).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plastics are incredible. There isn't one single material capable of having the wide range of material properties plastics can have. They can be cheap, durable, lend themselves well to manufacturing methods such as blow moulding, rotation moulding, injection moulding etc. In the case of thermoplastic elastomers they can be reused (in some capacity anyway). There are food grade plastics, plastics capable of withstanding pretty impressive temperatures (the inner side of many cooking pans are coated with a thin layer of PTFE, better known as Teflon, for non-sticking purposes). They have favourable mechanical properties in that some can act as living hinges in many products (think the lid of a tictac box), meaning no bearings and with that no additional manufacturing processes are required. Sure there are materials with similar properties to _some_ plastic types but you'll be hard pressed to find one which can mimic most let alone all plastic types.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Plastics\" is not a single thing, it is a group of things defined by properties. Specifically the ability to be easily molded into various shapes while being durable.\n\nIf you find something that has the properties of plastic, it's plastic. \n\nFwiw, we already do have plastics that will biodegrade. Made from corn. Not economically practical and cannot replace everything we use plastic for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49255451",
"title": "Economics of plastics processing",
"section": "Section::::Aspects of plastic processing.:Incineration of plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Recycling plastics presents the difficulty of handling mixed plastics, as unmixed plastics are usually necessary to maintain desirable properties. Mixing many plastics results in diminished material properties, with even just a few percent of polypropylene mixed with polyethylene producing a plastic with significantly reduced tensile strength. An alternative to recycling of these plastics and those which can’t be easily recycled such as thermosets is to use degradation to break the polymers down into monomers of low molecular weight. The products of this process can be used to make high quality polymers however energy stored in the polymer bonds is lost during this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1999119",
"title": "Plastic recycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "When different types of plastics are melted together, they tend to phase-separate, like oil and water, and set in these layers. The phase boundaries cause structural weakness in the resulting material, meaning that polymer blends are useful in only limited applications. The two most widely manufactured plastics, polypropylene and polyethylene, behave this way, which limits their utility for recycling. Each time plastic is recycled, additional virgin materials must be added to help improve the integrity of the material. So, even recycled plastic has new plastic material added in. The same piece of plastic can only be recycled about 2-3 times before its quality decreases to the point where it can no longer be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1548441",
"title": "Plastics engineering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Some plastics are manufactured from re-cycled materials but their use in engineering tends to be limited because the consistency of formulation and their physical properties tend to be less consistent. Electrical and electronic equipment and motor vehicle markets together accounted for 58 percent of engineered plastics demand in 2003. Engineered plastics demand in the US was estimated at $9,702 million in 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70157",
"title": "Recycling",
"section": "Section::::Recycling industrial waste.:Plastic recycling.:Physical recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Some plastics are remelted to form new plastic objects; for example, PET water bottles can be converted into polyester destined for clothing. A disadvantage of this type of recycling is that the molecular weight of the polymer can change further and the levels of unwanted substances in the plastic can increase with each remelt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944339",
"title": "Fibre-reinforced plastic",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Disposal and recycling concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 1648,
"text": "As a subset of plastic, FR plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns in plastic waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling because they are derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin states. For this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only 20% to 30% of plastics can be recycled at all. Fibre-reinforced plastics and their matrices share these disposal and environmental concerns. Investigation of safe disposal methods has led to two main variations involving the application of intense heat: in one binding agents are burned off - in the process recapturing some of the sunk material cost in the form of heat - and incombustible elements captured by filtration; in the other the incombustible material is burned in a cement kiln, the fibres becoming an integral part of the resulting cast material. In addition to concerns regarding safe disposal, the fact that the fibres themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP's amplify these challenges. FRP's are inherently difficult to separate into base materials, that is into fibre and matrix, and the matrix is difficult to separate into usable plastics, polymers, and monomers. These are all concerns for environmentally-informed design today. Plastics do often offer savings in energy and economic savings in comparison to other materials. In addition, with the advent of new more environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and UV-degradable plastics, FRP will gain environmental sensitivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2376557",
"title": "Engineering plastic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Engineering plastics have gradually replaced traditional engineering materials such as wood or metal in many applications. Besides equalling or surpassing them in weight/strength and other properties, engineering plastics are much easier to manufacture, especially in complicated shapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11774990",
"title": "Upcycling",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "For example, during the recycling process of plastics other than those used to create bottles, many different types of plastics are mixed, resulting in a hybrid. This hybrid is used in the manufacturing of plastic lumber applications. However, unlike the engineered polymer ABS which hold properties of several plastics well, recycled plastics suffer phase-separation that causes structural weakness in the final product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rgt4a
|
why farmers give their cows nose rings
|
[
{
"answer": "It's to attach a leash to. It's very painful for a cow to pull against a lead when it's attached by the nose, so this allows humans to walk them around. If it were around their neck, there's no wah you'd get them to move unless they wanted to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8050342",
"title": "Nose ring (animal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "A nose ring is a ring made of metal designed to be installed through the nasal septum of pigs (to prevent them from rooting) as well as domestic cattle, usually bulls. In pigs, nose rings are alternatively pierced through the rim of the nose. Nose rings are often required for bulls when exhibited at agricultural shows. There is a clip-on ring design used for controlling and directing cattle for handling. Nose rings are used to encourage the weaning of young calves by discouraging them from suckling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8050342",
"title": "Nose ring (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Bull handling on the farm or ranch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "However, in many regions, particularly in the beef industry, bulls do not have nose rings unless they are to be exhibited and they are generally driven about as other cattle would be. Cows with young calves can be particularly dangerous if protecting their young, and cattle in general, including calves, steers and bullocks, do cause many serious human injuries and deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8050342",
"title": "Nose ring (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Pig nose rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Nose rings specifically designed for pigs usually consist of open copper or steel wire rings with sharp ends, about one inch (about 2.5 cm) in diameter. These are typically clipped to the rim of the nose instead of through the septum, as this is far more painful to the pig and is considered \"thus more effective for deterring the pig from rooting than piercing through the septum is\". As they may sometimes become dislodged, an adult pig may be given three to four rings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7250539",
"title": "Polled livestock",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for polling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Polled livestock are preferred by many farmers for a variety of reasons, the foremost being that horns can pose a physical danger to humans, other livestock and equipment. Horns may also interfere with equipment used with livestock (such as a cattle crush), or they may become damaged during handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28227402",
"title": "Bull",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Handling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "In many areas, placing rings in bulls' noses to help control them is traditional. The ring is usually made of copper, and is inserted through a small hole cut in the septum of the nose. It is used by attaching a lead rope either directly to it or running through it from a head collar, or for more difficult bulls, a bull pole (or bull staff) may be used. This is a rigid pole about long with a clip at one end; this attaches to the ring and allows the bull both to be led and to be held away from his handler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33069847",
"title": "Cropping (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Animal welfare and law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Ear-cropping is still widely practiced in the United States and parts of Canada, with approximately 130,000 puppies in the United States thought to have their ears cropped each year. The American and Canadian Kennel Clubs both permit the practice. The American Kennel Club (AKC) position is that ear cropping and tail docking are \"acceptable practices integral to defining and preserving breed character and/or enhancing good health.\" While some individual states have attempted to ban ear-cropping, there is strong opposition from some dog breed organizations, who cite health concerns and tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8050342",
"title": "Nose ring (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Other designs.:Calf-weaning ring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Calf-weaning nose rings or nosebands provide an alternative to separating calves from their mothers during the weaning period. They have plastic spikes which are uncomfortable for the mother, causing her to reject the calf's efforts at suckling. Weaning nose rings are also available for sheep and goats. These nose rings (usually made of plastic) clip onto the nose without piercing it, and are reusable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ajrel
|
how does mental illness start?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a large category, including different illnesses with several different causes. These can include:\n\n- Chemical imbalances\n- Traumatic experiences\n- Inadequate care during the first 3 years of life\n- Brain injury\n- Genetic abnormalities\n- Long-term stress",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For some illnesses and in some patients, we can say for sure (but it's not always the same cause even for the same illness in different patients, or for different illnesses in one patient!). Some mental illnesses often seem to be something to do with how the chemicals in your brain are made, which in turn is often related to your genetics: but this doesn't tell the whole story, because even if both of your parents have a particular mental illness it doesn't have to mean that you'll get it... and even if neither of them do it doesn't mean that you won't! But we've done lots of studies that have shown that many mental illnesses seem to run in families, and some of those have clear things that you can test for that are different about people who have them.\n\nThere are other big things, though, that affect whether or not you'll be affected by mental illness. Some mental illnesses can be caused during your development in the womb (it's one of the many reasons that pregnant women are generally advised not to drink alcohol!). Some kinds of mental illness can be caused by injury - for example, a blow to the head. There are even some bacteria and viruses that seem to be able to cause long-term mental illness in some people: and some kinds of drugs seem to be associated with some kinds of mental illness, too!\n\nAside from these \"physical\" ways that mental illness can be caused, there are also lots of psychological ways... although they're even harder to understand and pin-down, and we're only just beginning to make sense of them. Abuse and trauma can lead to mood disorders, anxiety, paranoid, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for example. Difficult circumstances in your life, especially when you're a child, seem to be especially effective at triggering depression and might be linked to bipolar disorder.\n\nWe're a long way from understanding exactly what causes mental illness, and it clearly varies from case to case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19356",
"title": "Mental disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitting, or occur as a single episode. Many disorders have been described, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders. Such disorders may be diagnosed by a mental health professional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80381",
"title": "Health",
"section": "Section::::Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people. Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58397",
"title": "Thomas Szasz",
"section": "Section::::Szasz's main arguments.:\"Myth of mental illness\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1445,
"text": "\"Mental illness\" is an expression, a metaphor that describes an offending, disturbing, shocking, or vexing conduct, action, or pattern of behavior, such as packaged under the wide-ranging term, schizophrenia, as an \"illness\" or \"disease\". Szasz wrote: \"If you talk to God, you are praying; If God talks to you, you have schizophrenia. If the dead talk to you, you are a spiritualist; If you talk to the dead, you are a schizophrenic.\" He maintained that, while people behave and think in disturbing ways, and those ways may resemble a disease process (pain, deterioration, response to various interventions), this does not mean they actually have a disease. To Szasz, disease can only mean something people \"have\", while behavior is what people \"do\". Diseases are \"malfunctions of the human body, of the heart, the liver, the kidney, the brain\" while \"no behavior or misbehavior is a disease or can be a disease. That's not what diseases are.\" Szasz cited drapetomania as an example of a behavior that many in society did not approve of, being labeled and widely cited as a disease. Likewise, women who did not bend to a man's will were said to have hysteria. He thought that psychiatry actively obscures the difference between behavior and disease in its quest to help or harm parties in conflicts. He maintained that, by calling people diseased, psychiatry attempts to deny them responsibility as moral agents in order to better control them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3046194",
"title": "Mental Health Act 1983",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Definition of mental disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The term \"mental disorder\" is very loosely defined under the Act, in contrast to legislation in other countries such as Australia and Canada. Under the Act, mental disorder is defined as \"any disorder or disability of mind\". The concept of mental disorder as defined by the Act does not necessarily correspond to medical categories of mental disorder such as those outlined in ICD-10 or DSM-IV. However, mental disorder is thought by most psychiatrists to cover schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa, major depression, bipolar disorder and other similar illnesses, learning disability and personality disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44848260",
"title": "Mental Health Act 1959",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "It also defined the term mental disorder for the first time: \"mental illness as distinct from learning disability. The definition was “mental illness; arrest or incomplete development of mind; psychopathic disorder; and any other disorder or disability of mind”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51606",
"title": "Causes of mental disorders",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "A mental disorder is \"\"a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present disability or with a significantly increased risk of suffering, death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55515563",
"title": "Mental Healthcare Act, 2017",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "It states that mental illness be determined \"in accordance with nationally and internationally accepted medical standards (including the latest edition of the International Classification of Disease of the World Health Organisation) as may be notified by the Central Government.\" Additionally, the Act asserts that no person or authority shall classify an individual as a person with mental illness unless in directly in relation with treatment of the illness .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9l0yl8
|
Why doesn't the water from the river mix with the water from the sea?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is mixing. Just slowly and in places you can't see. The different densities, salinities and turbidities are very large so it will always take a long time to mix. Furthermore both bodies of water are being replenished so the mixing is counterbalanced. It is likely you are seeing the top of a less dense plume here overlying the dense ocean water with a large surface within the water column where mixing takes place. Because fresh water is less dense it stays on top. The waves and turbulence do mix the water but not fast enough to dissipate the plume.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21789178",
"title": "River mouth",
"section": "Section::::Water motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "If the river water has a higher density than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will plunge below the surface. The river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. However, if the river water is lighter than the receiving water, as is typically the case when fresh river water flows into the sea, the river water will float along the surface of the receiving water as an overflow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1427251",
"title": "Alkalinity",
"section": "Section::::Oceanic alkalinity.:Spatial variability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "River dominated mixing also occurs close to the shore; it is strongest close to the mouth of a large river (i.e. the Mississippi or Amazon). Here, the rivers can act as either a source or a sink of alkalinity. A follows the outflow of the river and has a linear relationship with salinity. This mixing pattern is most important in late winter and spring, because snowmelt increases the river’s outflow. As the season progresses into summer, river processes are less significant, and current mixing can become the dominant process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574602",
"title": "Carquinez Strait",
"section": "Section::::Saltwater intrusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Seawater is more dense than fresh water because of its higher concentration of salts. Under stable conditions, this means that an invisible boundary forms where two such streams meet, as where the fresh water from Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers meet the sea water contained in the San Francisco Bay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "703696",
"title": "Great Bitter Lake",
"section": "Section::::Salinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "As the canal has no locks, sea water flows freely into the lake from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. In general, north of the lakes the current reverses seasonally, being north-going in winter and south-going in summer. South of the lakes, the current is tidal, reversing with the tides in the Red Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1165604",
"title": "Gulf Coastal Plain",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:United States section.:Mississippi drainage basin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The load of silt carried down stream by the river finally, after many halts on the way, reaches the waters of the Gulf. There, the decrease of velocity aided by the salinity of the sea water, causes the formation of a remarkable delta, leaving less aggraded areas as shallow lakes (Lake Pontchartrain on the east, and Grand Lake on the west of the river). The ordinary triangular form of deltas, due to the smoothing of the delta front by sea action, is here wanting, because of the weakness of sea action in comparison with the strength of the current in each of the four distributaries or passes into which the river divides near its mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383793",
"title": "Lake Peipus",
"section": "Section::::Topography and hydrography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The lake water is fresh, with a low transparency of about due to plankton and suspended sediments caused by the river flow. Water currents are weak ; they are induced by the wind and stop when it ceases. However, during the spring flood, there is a constant surface current from north to south \"(it does not make sense)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21506762",
"title": "Surf break",
"section": "Section::::Types of surfable waves.:Storm surges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "These form when a large storm or hurricane forces water in front of it, due to the combined action of strong winds over long distances. The water can pile up towards the shore and create a moving surge of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fdhmsz
|
I don't understand how a serf and a slave in Medieval Europe were different? Was serfdom just slavery with extra steps?
|
[
{
"answer": "Serfs were a bit similar to slaves, but a slight bit more well off. While slaves were considered the property of their owners, serfs were not. And while they did not live the luxurious lifestyles of those they served, they still had their place, and had their limited rights (even if these rights may or may not have been actually enforced). Serfs were essentially attached to land, with feudal contracts. The owner of the land could not sell the serf to another and force him to go somewhere else, and if their lord sold the land they lived on to another, the serfs most often followed. \n\nSerfdom was more of a contract. Serfs lived and worked the land that the Lords owned, and in return had the Lord’s protection and a place to live/work. Now a serf could not leave the land without his Lord’s permission, and could not sell the land, they still had a bit of freedom, and a day or two per week when they could work for themselves to raise money. \n\nThis most often began when one accumulated a very large amount of debt. He would then go to a lord, and get into a feudal contract of serfdom. This meant that the Lord would protect the man and slowly pay off his debt, in return for the man living on the land and working the fields for said lord. Then the man’s children became serfs to work off the debt, so on and so forth. \n\nSo unlike slaves, serfs had rights, and actually got something back from their work, even getting paid. \n\nThis actually became an issue for the Lords during the Black Plague, because most serfs died off, allowing the remaining serfs to demand more payment for their work, allowing the serfs more free time to hone crafts skills and move away from their lords, and into the cities for better paying jobs, but that is a whole another story. \n\nTldr: slaves were property and treated as such. Serfs were citizens in contract with their lords, receiving paychecks and actual compensation for their work, as well as having rights, but they were still attached to the land, and leaving serfdom was extremely difficult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "134258",
"title": "Serfdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage, which developed during the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1031900",
"title": "Examples of feudalism",
"section": "Section::::\"Semi-feudal\" (non-Western European) feudalism.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In contrast to other European forms of serfdom and feudalism there was a lack of vassalage and loyalty to the lord whose land the serfs worked. It took a much longer period of time for feudalism to develop but when it did it took on a much harsher form than elsewhere in Europe. Serfs had no rights whatsoever; they could be traded like livestock by their lords. They had no ownership of anything, including their own families, all of which belonged to their lord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39047424",
"title": "History of serfdom",
"section": "Section::::Heyday.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Serfdom as a system provided most of the agricultural labour throughout the Middle Ages. Slavery persisted right through the Middle Ages, but it was rare, diminishing and largely confined to the use of household slaves. Parts of Europe, including much of Scandinavia, never adopted serfdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56220344",
"title": "Barony of Westerwald",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Nevertheless, there were forms of serfdom, because the so-called \"five free hands\" (\"fünf Freihänden\"), the Count of Diez, the Count of Wied, and the Lords of Weidenhahn, Schönhals and Greifenstein had the right of settlement (\"Einzugsrecht\"). That meant that they could settle a certain number of their own people in the baronial territory and impose taxes and service on them. Because there was no \"Wiltfang\" and \"Busen\", these serfs became fewer and fewer. In 1567 Count John did away with the rights of serfdom entirely. In a report by the \"Amtmann\" in Beilstein there were three groups of people were listed in the Westerwald:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134258",
"title": "Serfdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "However, medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire around the 10th century. During this period, powerful feudal lords encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural labor. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that reflected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords were assured that others worked to feed them and were held down, legally and economically, while doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91815",
"title": "Debt bondage",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:European Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "While serfdom under feudalism was the predominant political and economic system in Europe in the High Middle Ages, persisting in the Austrian Empire till 1848 and the Russian Empire until 1861 (details), debt bondage (and slavery) provided other forms of unfree labour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39047424",
"title": "History of serfdom",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "However, medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire around the 10th century. The demise of this empire, which had ruled much of western Europe for more than 200 years, ushered in a long period during which no strong central government existed in most of Europe. During this period, powerful feudal lords encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural labor. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that reflected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords ensured that others worked to feed them and were held down, legally and economically, while doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ti7z2
|
why does it mess up my counting when someone starts saying random numbers
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not just counting which is effected by other people talking. A similar experience can be had when someone else talks to you about a similar topic at the same time as you try to speak (it's often used as a demonstration of what it's like to live auditory hallucinations). Sadly I can't find a video demonstrating the effect but I can speak first hand of it's effectiveness. \n\nI understand this works on similar vine as demonstrated in the following video regarding speech jamming and how the brain takes all it's inputs sound, touch etc and that stronger signals can overpower weaker ones. \n\n_URL_1_\nThis seems to be an international link to the segment in question\n\n_URL_0_\nThis is an alternative source for the same episode with the relevant time stamp for anyone that the first link doesn't work on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::Misconceptions and logical fallacies.:A number is \"cursed\" or \"blessed\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "In a random sequence of numbers, a number may be said to be cursed because it has come up less often in the past, and so it is thought that it will occur less often in the future. A number may be assumed to be blessed because it has occurred more often than others in the past, and so it is thought likely to come up more often in the future. This logic is valid only if the randomisation is biased, for example with a loaded die. If the die is fair, then previous rolls give no indication of future events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20974718",
"title": "Bingo voting",
"section": "Section::::The trusted random number generator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Note that the randomness of the random numbers can be investigated after the election because they are all published: The pre-generated dummy votes are either used, that is they appear on the ballots, or unused and published after the poll. All numbers generated in the booths during the poll are on the ballots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510738",
"title": "Representativeness heuristic",
"section": "Section::::Determinants of representativeness.:Randomness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Irregularity and local representativeness affect judgments of randomness. Things that do not appear to have any logical sequence are regarded as representative of randomness and thus more likely to occur. For example, THTHTH as a series of coin tosses would not be considered representative of randomly generated coin tosses as it is too well ordered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66997",
"title": "Epidemiology",
"section": "Section::::Validity: precision and bias.:Random error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Random error is the result of fluctuations around a true value because of sampling variability. Random error is just that: random. It can occur during data collection, coding, transfer, or analysis. Examples of random error include: poorly worded questions, a misunderstanding in interpreting an individual answer from a particular respondent, or a typographical error during coding. Random error affects measurement in a transient, inconsistent manner and it is impossible to correct for random error.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22346",
"title": "Observational error",
"section": "Section::::Science and experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Random error (or random variation) is due to factors which cannot or will not be controlled. Some possible reason to forgo controlling for these random errors is because it may be too expensive to control them each time the experiment is conducted or the measurements are made. Other reasons may be that whatever we are trying to measure is changing in time (see dynamic models), or is fundamentally probabilistic (as is the case in quantum mechanics — see Measurement in quantum mechanics). Random error often occurs when instruments are pushed to the extremes of their operating limits. For example, it is common for digital balances to exhibit random error in their least significant digit. Three measurements of a single object might read something like 0.9111g, 0.9110g, and 0.9112g.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::In science.:In statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "In statistics, randomness is commonly used to create simple random samples. This lets surveys of completely random groups of people provide realistic data. Common methods of doing this include drawing names out of a hat or using a random digit chart. A random digit chart is simply a large table of random digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243526",
"title": "Dither",
"section": "Section::::Digital audio.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "This leads to the \"dither\" solution. Rather than predictably rounding up or down in a repeating pattern, it is possible to round up or down in a random pattern. If a series of random numbers between 0.0 and 0.9 (ex: 0.6, 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, etc.) are calculated and added to the results of the equation, two times out of ten the result will truncate back to 4 (if 0.0 or 0.1 are added to 4.8) and eight times out of ten it will truncate to 5. Each given situation has a random 20% chance of rounding to 4 or 80% chance of rounding to 5. Over the long haul this will result in results that average to 4.8 and a quantization error that is random noise. This noise result is less offensive to the ear than the determinable distortion that would result otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6k90nb
|
How did the Romans communicate their laws to newly conquered, non-Latin speaking territories?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm going to speak in broad and general terms here, since you've asked a question that concerns a wide area both geographically, as well as temporally and in terms of existing, previous legal practices (conquered Greek or Hellenistic cities, f.e. would have their own extensive bodies of law, while Germans wouldn't, while in other conquered territories local administration was built up *ex nihilo*, f.e. in Germany on the right bank of the Rhine). Roman law is also not a monolithic body, so this is only a general overview.\n\nOften, newly conquered territories weren't directly subject to Roman laws. That was, broadly speaking, the situation of most land that was conquered by Rome in Italy and during republican times until the 1st century B.C. Those lands that didn't directly become Roman territory (*ager romanus*) or were settled by Roman colonies (*colonia civium Romanorum*) were under their own autonomous laws. The allied cities (*civitates foederatae*, *liberae* or *stipendiariae*) were autonomous in internal affairs, while Rome was in control of external matters. \n\nFor the most part, this is also true of the Roman conquest of territories in imperial times, say Gaul, Germany, Britain, the Balkans and Danube region. Roman rule initially was rather indirect, focussed on controlling and integrating the leadership and aristocracy of local groups, generally organized along the lines of *gentes* (peoples) or *civitates*, citizenships or groups centered around ethnic lines. So in newly conquered Roman territories, Roman law wasn't too relevant for most people, since the local *civitates*, client kingdoms, tribes or cities would govern their internal affairs largely after their own fashion. Gradually, they would be more integrated into the Roman polity, or new *civitates* or *coloniae* might be founded. Colonies would have Roman citizenship and generally have municipal laws modelled after the example of Rome, but generally cities retained a degree of local legal autonomy.\n\nIn addition, one thing to understand about Roman law is that it was not so much codified as it was a cumulative body of jurisdiction. There were the famous twelve tables in the beginning in the early republic, but those covered only narrow areas of law and were not applicable to many of the legal questions that would arise later in Rome's history. The most important sources for Roman law - besides the twelve table law and recognized customs - were edicts and judgements arising out of legal practice, as well as statutes or special laws formulated by the public assemblies, the senate or the emperor to deal with very specific circumstances. One of the most important sources for this was the *praetor*, a high ranking office whose responsibility was judging cases between citizens. In the beginning of his annual term of office, the *praetor* would publish an edict in which he stated which types of cases, or actions (*actiones*) he would grant for judication, which remedies he would offer to settle legal disputes, and which not. \n\n*De jure*, he didn't create new law (that wasn't in his powers), but in effect he made what the Romans called *ius honorarium*, by choosing which legal remedies he would grant (or was persuaded to create for unforeseen circumstances), he created a body of legal instruments that could be used and referred to in the future. In the conquered provinces, this role was taken over by the governour similarly to how the *praetores* spoke law at Rome, by their edicts. For the provinces, these edicts by the governour were one important source of law. \n\nA second important source of law for the provinces was the emperor himself, who might either set law by decree, decide to hear cases brought to him by provincials himself or settle legal disputed brought to him by provincials (often the governour himself, of which many examples survive in the letters between Pliny in his function as provincial gouvernor and the emperor Trajan) either by provocation or by letter (*epistula*), to which the emperor gave answer (which was calles subscription, since he wrote his answer below the letter, and later rescript). Appeal to the governour or emperor was one often used example to settle disputes in the provinces.\n\nSo, how were such things made public? Thankfully, we have quite a few examples of these. Usually, they would be inscribed into large bronze tables (many of these legal acts contained a clause that they were to be *in aere incisa*, inscribed into bronze), and hung up in a public place. This is the case for many municipal laws that survive, especially from Spain, for example the municipal law of the *colonia Iulia Genetiva*, modern Urso. [This is one of the tables containing chapter 61-69](_URL_1_), and you can check a translation of the surviving fragmente [here](_URL_0_). Others are known f.e. from Irni, the *lex Irnitana* also being interesting in this context. The lex Irnitana contained a clause that specified up to which amounts in dispute the local magistrates were responsible for judication, and when the case should be brought before the provincial gouvernor, and also (in chapter 85), that the local magistrates were require to put up, in legible writing and in a public place, those edicts of the provincial governour according to which they would judge local cases.\n\nMany of these municipal laws show close parallels to Roman civil law, in the modelling, duties, responsibilites of the magistrates and the political organization itself. Edicts by the senate pertaining to Roman subjects were also published in the same way, the most famous example probably being the *senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus*, which outlawed practice of the Bacchanalian cult throughout Italy (and thus also in allied towns!) and consequently was hewn into bronze tables put up all over Italy, of which one example survives from Tiriolo. \n\nA famous case of imperial judication is well known from several examples found in the Greek provinces. It seems that the provincial governour, the proconsul, had tried to force a Roman senator living in Asia to take a travelling Roman into his home against his will. Against this, the governour petitioned the emperor, and received a harsh reply: \"Sacred letters (from the chancellery of the Emperor, sc. imperial ruling). You seem to us to be ignorant of the *senatus consultum*. For if you had conferred with (your) experts, you would know that a roman senator is not required to take in a guest against his will.\" This decision seems to have been (unsurprisingly) popular with local senators, and so it was put up in inscription in several places such as Antiochia Pisidia, Ephesos and Paros [f.e. CIL III 14203, 8), and surviving examples have been found in urban contexts, so probably close to senatorial estates who thus communicated to possible uninvited guests that they were not really required to house them. They were also put up in latin as well as in Greek, to prevent people from putting the language barrier forward as an excuse.\n\nTo bring this to a conclusion, the Romans were usually quite anxious about having those laws according to which public life was ordered publicly displayed for anyone to see (to read, well, that is an interesting question if you consider that probably only a fifth of people could read, and less comprehend the legalese). Newly conquered people were usually left to govern their own affairs under the patronage of Rome, and cities could be granted their own legal autonomy that would continue throughout imperial times. Relevant laws and legal decisions would be inscribed, either on bronze or sometimes less durable materials like whitewashed wood (which of course do not survive), for anyone to read who was interested and literate. In cases were local law didn't apply, Roman law could be brought in to settle disputes. But since Roman law was a cumulative body of legal decisions, the possibility remained in most cases to petition the local governour or the emperor to pass judgement, and this was done often, and the results (if advantageous), proudly displayed. \n\nSources and further reading:\n\n* D. Johnston, Roman Law in Context (Cambridge 2004)\n\n* D. Knibbe - R. Merkelbach, Allerhöchste Schelte (Zwei Exemplare der Sacrae Litterae aus Ephesos), Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 31, 1978, 229-232.\n\n* E. Metzger, Agree to Disagree: Local Jurisdiction in the *lex Irnitana*, in: A. Burrows, D. Johnston, R. Zimmermann, eds., Judge and Jurist: Essays in Memory of Lord Rodger of Earlsferry (Oxford 2013) 207–225.\n\n* K. Tuori, The Emperor of Law. The Emergence of Roman Imperial Adjudication (Oxford 2016)\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39995742",
"title": "Languages of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Latin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Latin became the language of conquered areas because local people started speaking it, and not because the population was displaced by Latin-speakers. Latin was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule. Saint Augustine observed that Romans preferred for Latin to be adopted \"per pacem societatis\", through a social pact. This language policy contrasts with that of Alexander, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language. Latin was not a requirement for Roman citizenship, and there was no state-supported schooling that privileged it as the medium for education: fluency was desirable for its \"high cultural, political, legal, social and economic value\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The language of the Romans was Latin, which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition. Until the time of Alexander Severus (reigned 222–235), the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire, but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule. This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language. As a consequence of Alexander's conquests, koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor. The \"linguistic frontier\" dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1394882",
"title": "History of Portuguese",
"section": "Section::::Social history.:Romanization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Arriving on the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC, the ancient Romans brought with them Latin, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by arriving Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous civilizations. Later, the inhabitants of the cities of Lusitania and the rest of Romanized Iberia were recognized as citizens of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061136",
"title": "History of education",
"section": "Section::::Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD).:Central and South American civilizations.:Inca.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The official language of the empire was Quechua, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81275",
"title": "Asturleonese language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The language developed from Vulgar Latin with contributions from the pre-Roman languages which were spoken in the territory of the Astures, an ancient tribe of the Iberian peninsula. Castilian (Spanish) came to the area later in the 14th century when the central administration sent emissaries and functionaries to occupy political and ecclesiastical offices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23915",
"title": "Portuguese language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "When the Romans arrived at the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BC, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by Roman soldiers, settlers, and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous Celtic or Celtiberian civilizations established long before the Roman arrivals. For that reason, the language has kept a relevant substratum of much older, Atlantic European Megalithic Culture and Celtic culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3676364",
"title": "Romanization (cultural)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The Latin language was spread, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that many cultures were mostly oral (particularly for the Gauls and Iberians). Anyone who wanted to deal (through writing) with the bureaucracy and/or with the Roman market had to write in Latin. The extent of the adoption is subject to ongoing debate, as the native languages were certainly spoken after the conquests. Moreover, in the eastern half of the Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek, which largely kept its position as lingua franca and even spread to new areas. Latin became prominent in certain areas around new veteran colonies like Berytus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xwfo9
|
What were the most sought after professions in the Ancient and Classic era?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you please specify more exactly what you're interested in? Antiquity encompasses a period of several thousand years, with myriad peoples and cultures interacting with each other for every moment of that time. Depending on time and place there are vastly different cultural and social attitudes and approaches towards various means of accumulating wealth and various trades. For example, while the mercantile classes appear to have been fairly powerful and prestigious at Carthage, you won't find the same respect for merchants in Rome even as late as the Principate. \n\nIn addition to when and where it might be worth it for you to clarify what you mean by a profession and what you mean by \"sought-after.\" The first is mainly for the purposes of semantic (and rather pedantic, sorry) clarity--members of the senatorial class were not ideally supposed to have a profession, as in a trade, and made their money off of land-trading and rents mostly, which we might consider a profession but not an occupation. The latter is essential to your question, however--do you mean professions that are the most respected or those that are sought after because they provide the greatest opportunity for wealth? Those are not necessarily the same thing--to use my Roman example again, while merchants often could amass large fortunes the occupation was dominated in the Principate by non-*nobiles* and freedmen",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48846680",
"title": "World's second oldest profession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "According to the World Almanac website, nominations for the second-oldest profession include: actors, casino gambling, con men, Gangsters, counterfeiting, gigolos, glassmaking, interpreters, journalism, moving companies, pharmacists, pickpocketing, pimpery, piracy, press agents, prostitutes, spying, and quackery. Humorist Erma Bombeck titled one of her books \"Motherhood: The Second Oldest Profession\", since presumably many prostitutes (the \"oldest profession\") got pregnant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47097032",
"title": "Oldest profession (phrase)",
"section": "Section::::Association with prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "In ancient Rome, under the empire, ladies used to go to baths to meet a certain class of men, while men resorted thither to meet a certain class of ladies. The ladies belonged to what has been called “the oldest profession in the world\", a profession which is carried on in Piccadilly, Regent street, and other parts of London with great energy every night … In the same year the \"Pall Mall Gazette\" reported a speech in which \"Mrs. Ormiston Chant … implored us to stand shoulder to shoulder and destroy what Kipling has called 'the oldest profession in the world'\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47097032",
"title": "Oldest profession (phrase)",
"section": "Section::::Earlier sense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The claim to be the oldest profession was made on behalf of farmers, cattle drovers, horticulturalists, barbers, engineers, landscape gardeners, the military, doctors, nurses, teachers, priests, lay preachers and even lawyers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47097032",
"title": "Oldest profession (phrase)",
"section": "Section::::Earlier sense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Perhaps the earliest recorded claim to be the world's oldest profession was made on behalf of tailors. The \"Song in Praise of the Merchant-Taylors\", attested from 1680, which was routinely performed at pageants at the Lord Mayor's Show, London, if the current mayor happened to belong to the tailors' guild, began:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20517149",
"title": "Women's medicine in antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Women as doctors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "It is important to remember that during Classical Antiquity, anyone could be trained as a doctor at one of the many medical schools/hospitals, the Asclepeieon. Training involved mainly practical applications as well as forming an apprenticeship to other doctors. During the Hellenistic era, the Library of Alexandria also served as a medical school, where research and training would take place on the body of the diseased. It also appears that the children, male or female, of famous doctors, would also follow the medical profession, continuing the family tradition. For example, Pantheia, who was the wife of a physician, became one herself, a pattern also seen in the careers of Aurelia Alexandria Zosime and Auguste. Auguste received recognition as a chief doctor of her city, a title her husband also received. Metilia Donata was prominent enough to commission a large public building in Lyon. Anthiochis of Tlos, the daughter of a prominent physician, Diodotus, was recognized by the council of Tlos for her work as a doctor and had a statue of herself erected. She was also a widely discussed expert cited by Galen and others. Aspasia is quoted extensively by Aetius on gynecology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376850",
"title": "Indian martial arts",
"section": "Section::::Weapons & Arts.:Bal Vidya.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 1328,
"text": "64 different types of skills & arts existed in ancient India which lead to well developed individuals boosting their mind, body and intellect making them capable of performing their responsibilities efficiently and effectively on personal, social and national level. Today, unhealthy and irregular lifestyles, frustrations and rising competitions in every sphere of life are affecting the health of people, especially the youth. In such a scenario, one of the ancient Indian arts referred to as “Bal Vidya” can help not only to improve the physical health but also upscale the mental and intellectual well-being of a person. A strong mind and intellect is equally important along with a strong body. Shree Aniruddha Upasana Foundation (Mumbai, India) attempts to review these ancient Indian martial arts form and provides “Bal Vidya” training to both men and women free of charge. Art forms like Mudgal Vidya, Vajra Mushthi, Surya Bhedan, Ashwa and various types of Yashwanti Malla Vidya using various weapons like Laathi (iron-bound bamboo stick), Kaathi (Pole), Fari-Gadga, Dorkhand (rope)and Dandpatta (gauntlet-sword). A book detailing all these art forms with the title “Bhartiya Prachin Bal Vidya” (The Ancient Indian Bal Art) is also available for achieving proficiency through practice post attending training sessions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69313",
"title": "Scribe",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "One of the most important professionals in ancient Egypt was a person educated in the arts of writing (both hieroglyphics and hieratic scripts, as well as the demotic script from the second half of the first millennium BCE, which was mainly used as shorthand and for commerce) and arithmetic. Sons of scribes were brought up in the same scribal tradition, sent to school, and inherited their fathers' positions upon entering the civil service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
153rk4
|
is there an actual quote from bible that condems homosexuality?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on what you believe 1 Corinthians 6:9 says\n\nThe Apostle Paul warns people against being \"arsenokoitai\" in the original Greek language text. Arsenokoitai were male shrine prostitutes that claimed to sell religious ritual sexual experiences.\n\nSome people believe the sin of the arsenokoitai was homosexuality, and that Paul is warning people not to be homosexual. Other people believe the sin of the arsenokoitai was being profane in selling their bodies at the temple, and that Paul is warning people away from that kind of degradation of a holy place in general.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "this verse along with the other verse mentioned by cecikierk, is from Leviticus, which is from before Jesus' time, known as the Old Testament. this is from chapter 20, verse 13.\n > 13 “‘If a man has sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They are to be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads.\nLeviticus is a book from the old testament, which is still relevant, but it was before Jesus' time (I'm not sure how much you know so I'll try and make it as understandable as possible).\n\nthis verse is from after Jesus' time, or the New Testament (see explanation below)\n**1 Corinthians 6:9-10**\n > 9 Or do you not know that wrongdoers will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor men who have sex with men[a] 10 nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God.\n\nJesus came down to earth many years (im not 100% sure, i believe it was at least 1500 years) after Leviticus was written, he lived for around 30 years and then was crucified (killed on a cross) - 3 days later, he rose from the dead. (his birth was used for a basis of the date system, so year 0 was around about when he was born) After these events is when Christianity was formed. A large amount of these first Christians were Jews (Israel). They had many rules and regulations for how one was supposed to live - but they were focusing on following rules and doing good works to get into heaven, rather than redemption from God - and while Jesus was alive, He 'called them out' on it, said that they were 'doing it wrong' and they needed to change. Before - and after - Jesus explained to his followers (the disciples) that the only way to get to heaven is through grace - in laymans terms, not by doing anything, but God accepting you, despite you not deserving being saved (see verse below)\n > For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith--and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God - Ephesians 2:8\n\nso i've deviated here, and my explanation is average, but if you do want to know more, you're welcome to ask me (or i can find someone more knowledgeable and better at explaining)\n\n**TL:DR** there are multiple places in the bible that condemn homosexuality (see the two above as well as Leviticus 18:22). \nAs for Christian's views of homosexuality, there are a few:\n\n~Some say it is ok.\n\n~some are unsure but will accept homosexuals.\n\n~some are unsure but will not accept homosexuals.\n\n~some are opposed, but will not ignore/harass homosexuals.\n\n~and some (the most conservative) are opposed, and are very critical of gay people.\n\nand with all the publicity they have been getting lately, i would say that Westboro is a cult more than a baptist church (just throwing it out there)\n\n\n",
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"answer": "The interesting part is, as far as I know, there is absolutely no reference in the bible, even once, about women having relations/relationships with other women. It only targets males. Even more reason its stupid and should have no bearing on today's society.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another quote I haven't seen mentioned is from the book of Romans (which is a letter written by a guy named Paul to the Christians living in Rome). This was after Jesus.\n\nNear the beginning of the letter, he states that since the creation of the world, God's existence, power, and nature have been evident in his creation. But people chose to ignore the evidence and ignore God. In light of that, he goes on to say:\n\nSo God abandoned them to do whatever shameful things their hearts desired. As a result, they did vile and degrading things with each other’s bodies. They traded the truth about God for a lie. So they worshiped and served the things God created instead of the Creator himself, who is worthy of eternal praise! Amen. That is why God abandoned them to their shameful desires. **Even the women turned against the natural way to have sex and instead indulged in sex with each other. And the men, instead of having normal sexual relations with women, burned with lust for each other. Men did shameful things with other men, and as a result of this sin, they suffered within themselves the penalty they deserved.**\n\nSince they thought it foolish to acknowledge God, he abandoned them to their foolish thinking and let them do things that should never be done. Their lives became full of every kind of wickedness, sin, greed, hate, envy, murder, quarreling, deception, malicious behavior, and gossip. They are backstabbers, haters of God, insolent, proud, and boastful. They invent new ways of sinning, and they disobey their parents. They refuse to understand, break their promises, are heartless, and have no mercy. They know God’s justice requires that those who do these things deserve to die, yet they do them anyway. Worse yet, they encourage others to do them, too.\n\n**You may think you can condemn such people, but you are just as bad, and you have no excuse! When you say they are wicked and should be punished, you are condemning yourself, for you who judge others do these very same things.** And we know that God, in his justice, will punish anyone who does such things. Since you judge others for doing these things, why do you think you can avoid God’s judgment when you do the same things? Don’t you see how wonderfully kind, tolerant, and patient God is with you? Does this mean nothing to you? Can’t you see that his kindness is intended to turn you from your sin?\n\n---\n\ntl;dr, The Bible does say homosexuality is a sin. But in the same breath, it also says hate, gossip, and pride are wrong, and it specifically instructs Christians not to condemn other people for their sin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4083182",
"title": "LGBT rights in Jamaica",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Homophobia based on religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Cecil Gutzmore at the University of the West Indies has written that religious fundamentalists believe that the Bible variously declares homosexuality to be an \"abomination\", a \"vile affection\", \"unseemly\", \"not natural\", or a \"form of ungodliness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2462604",
"title": "Sex in the Hebrew Bible",
"section": "Section::::Homosexuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The Bible refers to homosexuality numerous times in both the Old Testament and New Testament (including by Jesus). Every place it is mentioned it is referred to in a negative light. The teaching from the Scriptures are clearly against homosexual behavior of any kind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3130112",
"title": "Lynn Lavner",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"\"There are 6 admonishments in the Bible concerning homosexual activity and our enemies are always throwing them up to us usually in a vicious way and very much out of context. What they don't want us to remember is that there are 362 admonishments in the Bible concerning heterosexual activity. I don't mean to imply by this that God doesn't love straight people, only that they seem to require a great deal more supervision.\"\" from \"Butch Fatale\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "880197",
"title": "Marvin Andrews",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In February 2006, Andrews controversially labelled homosexuals as \"an abomination\" and said, \"There is a demon in their spirits, their spirits are ill. But God can help them through his church and anyone who doubts this can check the Bible\". In an interview with \"The Guardian\" in October 2007, he sought to clarify his beliefs, claiming that what was written in the 2006 article was \"a misquote and it was taken out of context\" and saying that he didn't have anything against homosexuals themselves, rather that it was homosexual acts that he believed were against God's will.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19629511",
"title": "Sodom and Gomorrah",
"section": "Section::::Religious views.:Jewish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "Jay Michaelson proposes a reading of the story of Sodom that emphasizes the violation of hospitality as well as the violence of the Sodomites. \"Homosexual rape is the way in which they violate hospitality—not the essence of their transgression. Reading the story of Sodom as being about homosexuality is like reading the story of an ax murderer as being about an ax.\" Michaelson places the story of Sodom in context with other Genesis stories regarding Abraham's hospitality to strangers, and argues that when other texts in the Hebrew Bible mention Sodom, they do so without commentary on homosexuality. The verses cited by Michaelson include Jeremiah 23:14, where the sins of Jerusalem are compared to Sodom and are listed as adultery, lying, and strengthening the hands of evildoers; Amos 4:1–11 (oppressing the poor and crushing the needy); and Ezekiel 16:49–50, which defines the sins of Sodom as \"pride, fullness of bread, and abundance of idleness was in her and in her daughters, neither did she strengthen the hand of the poor and needy. And they were haughty, and did \"toevah\" before me, and I took them away as I saw fit.\" Michaelson uses \"toevah\" in place of \"abomination\" to emphasize the original Hebrew, which he explains as being more correctly translated as \"taboo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1527351",
"title": "LGBT rights opposition",
"section": "Section::::Religious reasons for opposition.:Christian opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Passages in the Old Testament that prohibit man \"lie with mankind as with womankind\" and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah have historically been interpreted as condemning sodomy. Several Pauline passages have also been cited against male and female homosexuality. Christians who take a conservative position on homosexuality endorse this reading of these passages in the belief that God is against same-sex sexual activity, while Christians who take a liberal position believe that these same passages refer to more specific situations, such as rape or abuse, and not homosexuality. The largest Christian body, the Catholic Church, condemns homosexual acts as \"gravely sinful\" and \"intrinsically disordered\". The second-largest Christian body, the Eastern Orthodox Church, also condemns homosexual behaviour, as do most denominations of Protestantism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56826939",
"title": "Catholic teaching on homosexuality",
"section": "Section::::Development of the Church's teaching.:\"Persona humana\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "It criticized those who argued that innate homosexuality justified same-sex sexual activity within loving relationships and stated that the Bible condemned homosexual activity as depraved, \"intrinsically disordered,\" never to be approved, and a consequence of rejecting God. As humans have free will, they can choose whether or not to act upon those attractions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
afzqqn
|
how do you get four first degree murder charges from one death?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a case of 'throwing everything at the wall and seeing what sticks'.\n\nOr to put this another way - if you really piss the government or wrong person off they can really fuck up your life.\n\nNormally if you punch your girlfriend that's one count of domestic violence. But if the prosecutor really hates you that can be 5-10 different charges. Just to list a few - threatening (when you make that loud sound as you prepare to hit), first degree assault (when the fist connects), causing bodily injury (the bruise), failure to stop and render medical aid (not calling the ambulance for your girlfriend), endangerment of a child (if there's a kid asleep anywhere in the house), failure to report a crime against a child (for not calling the cops on yourself after you endangered a sleeping child 3 rooms away). I'm sure an actual prosecutor could think up a few dozen more. Some of these are dependant on state.\n\nIn IL you can be charged for murder for any felony that results in a death - so one murder for the murder, one murder for beating her, one murder for having a gun in the house, one murder for the drugs. She could probably have found a dozen more felonies to charge him with murder for if she really wanted to.\n\nNormally acts committed at the same time the sentences are served at the same time - but if the judge doesn't like you he may order them sequentially served with any or no justification.\n\nMurder means, literally, whatever the government says it means. In AZ it can mean \"walked into the wrong house with my friend and the homeowner shot him to death while I laid facedown on the ground with my hands on my head\".\n\nYou're making the mistake of assuming words mean what they normally mean. To the government they can mean literally anything they decide. That's how sexual assault can be a wholesome, enjoyable experience for all involved.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17297988",
"title": "Criminal sentencing in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Sentencing of killers.:Washington.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "In the state of Washington, a person is found guilty of first degree murder when there is a premeditated intent to cause the death of another person. Murder in the first degree is a class A felony. If a person is convicted of first degree murder, he or she will receive a life sentence. If an aggravating circumstance exists in addition to first degree murder, the defendant can be charged with aggravated first-degree murder, which carries only two possible sentences: death or life without parole. Aggravating factors include the killing of a law enforcement officer, murder for hire, or murder committed during the course of kidnapping, rape, robbery, burglary, or arson, or for multiple murders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23742139",
"title": "Shafia family murders",
"section": "Section::::Trial.:Verdict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "On January 29, 2012, the jury completed its deliberation after 15 hours and reached a verdict of guilty, four counts of first degree murder for each of the three defendants. First degree murder carries an automatic sentence of life in prison without a possibility of parole for 25 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17297988",
"title": "Criminal sentencing in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Sentencing of killers.:Michigan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In Michigan, a person is found guilty of first degree murder when murder is perpetrated by means of poison, lying in wait, or any other willful, deliberate, and premeditated killing. In Michigan, first degree murder carries an automatic life sentence without parole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "794311",
"title": "Capital punishment in Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-Confederation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "First-degree murder, which before abolition was the offence of capital murder, now carries a mandatory life sentence without eligibility for parole until the person has served 25 years of the sentence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26346214",
"title": "Murder (United States law)",
"section": "Section::::Sentencing guidelines.:Washington.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In the state of Washington, a person is found guilty of first degree murder when there is a premeditated intent to cause the death of another person. Murder in the first degree is a class A felony in the state of Washington. If a person is convicted of first degree murder, he will not receive anything lower than life imprisonment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26346214",
"title": "Murder (United States law)",
"section": "Section::::Sentencing guidelines.:Florida.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "In Florida, a person is guilty of first degree murder when it is perpetrated from a premeditated design to result in the death of a human being. A person is also guilty of first degree murder if they cause the death of any individual during the commission of a predicate felony regardless of actual intent or premeditation. This is called felony murder. This offense is categorized as capital offense, so if convicted, the offender could possibly receive the death penalty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17012344",
"title": "Capital punishment in South Dakota",
"section": "Section::::Capital crimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "First-degree murder is a Class A Felony in South Dakota, punishable by death or life imprisonment without parole. It is the only Class A Felony in the state. It is only punishable by death if it involves any of the following aggravating factors:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6w7zv
|
why do foreign names get spelled and pronounced differently in english?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they have different origin languages. English is Germanic in origin, converts semi-ok to Romanic languages but not really. Nordic languages have different letter sets, and the Chinese has different inflections on syllables, makes its tough",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I️ always see English translations of Chinese words or names and they utilize letters that can in no way phonetically produce the sound of the word.\n\nThose aren't translations, but *transliterations*. It really only shows up most significantly in Chinese.\n\nThe short version is that there are a lot of sounds in Chinese that just don't have analogues in English or with the Latin alphabet. Worse, Chinese doesn't have a phonetic alphabet. We've gone through successive styles for representing Chinese in Latin characters. The current version (Hanyu Pinyin) is just the latest, and was developed by the Chinese government, and adopted in the US as part of Nixon's push to open up China to the rest of the world.\n\nFor example, if you were referring to that most infamous of Warlords (and of the Kingdom of Wei) from the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history, if you were using the old Wade-Giles system you'd spell it as Ts'ao Ts'ao, which is relatively close to the actual pronunciation. Under the current system, it's Cao Cao.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > Why not spell Xiang as Chiang?\n\nBecause \"x\" and \"ch\" are used to represent two different Chinese sounds, neither of which appears in English (just as the English \"ch\" sound doesn't appear in Chinese). \"Xiang\" and \"Chiang\" would be pronounced completely differently. The sound represented by \"ch\" is closer to an English \"ch\" than anything else in Mandarin Chinese, so it gets represented as \"ch\". Similarly, Mandarin doesn't have the English \"sh\" sound, so the closest thing they have gets represented as \"sh\". The sound represented by \"x\" does also sound kind of like an English \"sh\", but that's already taken by a different sound so they had to pick something else. \"x\" in particular was chosen because the sound is similar to a Portuguese \"x\" sound.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > I️ always see English translations of Chinese words or names and they utilize letters that can in no way phonetically produce the sound of the word\n\nActually, they very much do. *To native-speakers of European languages.*\n\nThe English-language is a composite of a group of languages, specifically the *Indo-European languages*- the core of which is Latin, French and North Germanic.\n\nEuropean-language speakers use the Pinyin system instead of Chinese characters to indicate phonetic sounds of Chinese words.\n\nPinyin is the standard system invented by Zhou Youguang to *romanize* the Chinese characters into phonetic sounds *with the tonal marks* (as you would see in Polish or French) so that they are comprehensible to Indo-European languages, not just for native-English speakers, but for all European languages.\n\nChinese is a *tonal* language with four diacritic-tones *(zhōu; zhòu; zhǒu; zhóu)- the infliction-sound of a Chinese word that goes up and down in four different tones.\n\nBecause other cultures outside the Sino-Tibetian group *(Chinese, Burmese, etc)* do not use a logogram-writing system, it is very difficult for European-speakers to interpret phonetic sounds from Chinese characters *(aka Hanzi)*. \n\nSpelling \"Xiang\" as *Chiang* would not be correct within the Pinyin system. \"Xi\" *(sh-urh)* has a completely different meaning to \"Chi\" *(ch-ee)* when spoken.\n\n'Chiang' in pinyin means it should sound like *\"gee-yang\"*. \n\nIt's a completely different sound to Xiāng *(\"shee-yang\")* In fact, the *\"gee-yang\"* sound should be written in Pinyin as *Jiang.*\n\nIn learning Chinese, it is always useful to visualise both the Chinese character along with the Pinyin-tone word. This is what makes learning Chinese so very difficult and laborious.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "194491",
"title": "Mispronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Pronunciation change.:Adaptation to a different language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Other words (\"e.g.\" the French word \"née\", meaning \"born\", and used with maiden names) have been adopted more recently, and are still considered to be foreign, retaining their diacritics and often being written in italics to show their foreign status. However, they are usually pronounced in an English way (\"e.g.\" \"nay\", with a diphthong instead of a single vowel sound), and it is uncommon for these to be labelled as mispronunciations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194491",
"title": "Mispronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Pronunciation change.:Adaptation to a different language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Still other words, including proper nouns such as names of people and places, are not only written as foreign words, but often given their native pronunciation too. For example, the French term \"mange tout\" (a type of pea) is often pronounced with a nasal vowel. To do otherwise, especially with a proper noun, is often considered a mispronunciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10081",
"title": "English orthography",
"section": "Section::::Spelling irregularities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols and have in the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing \"foreign\" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, \"Hindu\" used to be spelled \"Hindoo\", and the name \"Maria\" used to be pronounced like the name \"Mariah\", but was changed to conform to this system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525193",
"title": "Spelling pronunciation",
"section": "Section::::In other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "A few foreign proper names are normally pronounced according to the pronunciation of the original language (or a close approximation of it), but they retain an older spelling pronunciation when they are used as parts of Italian street names. For exame, the name of Edward Jenner retains its usual English pronunciation in most contexts, but \"Viale Edoardo Jenner\" (a main street in Milan) is pronounced . The use of such old-fashioned spelling pronunciations was probably encouraged by the custom of translating given names when streets were named after foreign people: \"Edoardo\" for \"Edward\", or \"Giorgio\" for \"George\" for \"Via Giorgio Washington\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421004",
"title": "English-language spelling reform",
"section": "Section::::Obstacles and criticisms.:Cognates in other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In some cases, English spelling of foreign words has diverged from the current spellings of those words in the original languages, such as the spelling of \"connoisseur\" that is now spelled \"connaisseur\" in French after a French-language spelling reform in the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65373",
"title": "Lingua franca",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The term is well established in its naturalization to English, which is why major dictionaries do not italicize it as a \"foreign\" term. Its plurals in English are lingua francas and linguae francae, with the former being first-listed or only-listed in major dictionaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17999",
"title": "Latin spelling and pronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Latin spelling and pronunciation today.:Pronunciation.:Loan words and formal study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Latin words in common use in English are generally fully assimilated into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, \"cranium\", \"saliva\". Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs \"ae\" and \"oe\" (occasionally written as ligatures: \"æ\" and \"œ\", respectively), which both denote in English. The digraph \"ae\" or ligature \"æ\" in some words tend to be given an pronunciation, for example, \"curriculum vitae\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bvb0b
|
What is the actual rarity of male calico cats?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a surprisingly complicated question as there's more than one way to get a calico/tortie male cat, including mutant coat patterns that look like calico but aren't produced by the same genes that produce a calico pattern in females. As such, there's no simple answer for \"how rare\".\n\nMore in-depth information can be found here: \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5476304",
"title": "Allergy to cats",
"section": "Section::::Hypoallergenic cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "From among the above cats noted, the most popular cat breeds to be renowned for their hypoallergenic quality are the Siberian and Balinese. These cats produce much fewer protein allergens in comparison to regular domestic household cats or other cat breeds. Cats that have some Balinese ancestry might produce lower amounts protein allergens. Cat breeds that often have some Balinese lineage include the Oriental shorthair, Oriental longhair, and some Siamese cats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6678",
"title": "Cat",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Cats are common pets throughout the world, and their worldwide population exceeds 500 million as of 2007. Although cat guardianship has commonly been associated with women, a 2007 Gallup poll reported that men and women in the United States of America were equally likely to own a cat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "639747",
"title": "Singapura cat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Singapura is one of the smallest breeds of cats, noted for its large eyes and ears, brown ticked coat and blunt tail. Reportedly established from three \"drain cats\" imported from Singapore in the 1970s, it was later revealed that the cats were originally sent to Singapore from the US before they were exported back to the US. Investigations by the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) concluded no wrongdoing and the Singapura kept its status as a natural breed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15685404",
"title": "Catnip",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The names \"catnip\" and \"catmint\" are derived from the intense attraction about two-thirds of cats have towards them (alternative plants exist which attract the other one-third). In addition to its uses with cats, catnip is a popular ingredient in herbal teas (or tisanes), and is valued for its sedative and relaxant properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10226249",
"title": "Calico cat",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "All but about one in three thousand of the rare calico or tortoiseshell male cats are sterile because of the chromosome abnormality, and breeders reject any exceptions for stud purposes because they generally are of poor physical quality and fertility. In any event, because the genetic conditions for calico coloring are X linked, a fertile male calico's coloring would not have any determination in the coloring of any male offspring (who would receive the Y, not the X chromosome from their father).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146031",
"title": "Himalayan cat",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "There is little or no information from the literature or early pictorial representations to indicate how ancient the four main groups of cats are; these being the two varieties of tabby, the single coloured black or white, and the sex-linked orange (marmalade or tortoiseshell cats). In addition, there are other breeds of cat that are more closely controlled by man, such as the Manx, the Persian, Siamese, and Abyssinian, to name but a few. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5476304",
"title": "Allergy to cats",
"section": "Section::::Cat sex and color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Female cats produce a lower level of allergens than males, and neutered males produce a lower level of allergens than unneutered males. In 2000, researchers at the Long Island College Hospital found that cat owners with dark-colored cats were more likely to report allergy symptoms than those with light-colored cats. A later study by the Wellington Asthma Research Group found that fur color had no effect on how much allergen a cat produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e9yc3
|
why does starting task manager when my computer is frozen seem to unfreeze it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Task manager has top priority, so if any other program is hogging up the computer in an endless cycle you can force it to shut down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I can't say the same for my computer...\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Context: Task Manager is a program like any other program and as such is subject to the same resource limitations as any other program. However, because of the nature of the program (I.E. reading other processes and being able to send a terminate signal to said processes) Task Manager runs in what's called an \"elevated user space.\" An elevated user space is a special way of running a program (it much like running a program as administrator, but it is different in a few ways) that allows special privileges. \n\nExplanation: there are two things that go into Task Manager being able to run when the computer appears \"frozen.\" One: different user spaces have different process priority queues in the NT architecture. Task Manager is most likely one of the few programs in its queue, so it gets more processing time in its individual queue than the program that's one of many programs in the normal user space. Two: applications that aren't part of the system invoke parts of the kernel via an API layer, but Task Manager is part of the system. What this means is that Task Manager has direct access to system resources that eliminates the need for extra processing time and delays from making these API calls.\n\nAddendum: running Task Manager will not \"unfreeze\" a computer. It only seems to because it is allotted more processing time (see above.) If a computer is truly locked up Task Manager will **not** start (ctrl+alt+del will probably not do anything either.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like to think that my computer knows shit is about to go down, so it stops playing games with me and gets back to work",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56428964",
"title": "Client-Side Decoration",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Because the window controls are being rendered by the application process, if the application freezes the controls will often become unresponsive too. This can make it more confusing when trying to close unresponsive applications as the display server has to detect this. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19005417",
"title": "Hang (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "In computing, a hang or freeze occurs when either a computer program or system ceases to respond to inputs. A typical example is a graphical user interface that no longer responds to the user's keyboard or mouse, but the term covers a wide range of behaviors in both clients and servers, and is not limited to graphical user interface issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844451",
"title": "Freeze (software engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "BULLET::::- A (complete) feature freeze, in which all work on adding new features is suspended, shifting the effort towards fixing bugs and improving the user experience. The addition of new features may have a disruptive effect on other parts of the program, due both to the introduction of new, untested source code or resources and to interactions with other features; thus, a feature freeze helps improve the program's stability.br For example: \"user interface feature freeze\" means no more features will be permitted to the user interface portion of the code; bugs can still be fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254562",
"title": "Presentation Manager",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "An important problem was that of the single input queue: a non-responsive application could block the processing of user-interface messages, thus freezing the graphical interface. This problem has been solved in Windows NT, where such an application would just become a dead rectangle on the screen; in later versions it became possible to move or hide it. In OS/2 it was solved in a FixPack, using a timer to determine when an application was not responding to events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19484779",
"title": "Deep Freeze (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Deep Freeze can also protect a computer from harmful malware, since it automatically deletes (or rather, no longer \"sees\") downloaded files when the computer is restarted. The advantage of using Deep Freeze is that it uses very few system resources, and thus does not slow down computer performance greatly. The disadvantage is that it does not provide real-time protection, therefore an infected computer would have to be restarted in order to remove malware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19484779",
"title": "Deep Freeze (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Deep Freeze, by Faronics, is a software application available for the Microsoft Windows, and macOS operating systems which allows system administrators to protect the core operating system and configuration files on a workstation or server by restoring a computer back to the saved configuration, each time the computer is restarted. Also known as Reboot to Restore Software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1324867",
"title": "Message passing",
"section": "Section::::Synchronous versus asynchronous message passing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Imagine a busy business office having 100 desktop computers that send emails to each other using synchronous message passing exclusively. Because the office system does not use asynchronous message passing, one worker turning off their computer can cause the other 99 computers to freeze until the worker turns their computer back on to process a single email.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5n6daw
|
what's the deal with yellowstone?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yellowstone National Park sits over what is known as the Yellowstone Caldera. This is the mouth of what's called a supervolcano. There are many predictions online on what would happen if the supervolcano erupted. [Here is one](_URL_0_).\n\nThe worst part, other than the immediate effects is such an eruption would severely hurt growing seasons for most of the farmland in the U.S.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yellowstone is a supervolcano. If it erupted it would cover most of North America in ash, something that is very lethal as volcanic ash is shards of glass. Anything it touches including water and food is contaminated and breathing it in deadly. It would also put enough ash into the air to put the world into a volcanic winter, potentially even starting a new Ice Age if the eruption is big enough. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yellowstone sits over a massive hotspot and is a supervolcano.\n\nWhile it would be very bad if it erupted, the danger is rather hilariously overblown by Hollywood. Granted, Wyoming and parts of Idaho and Montana would be gone, and the states immediately east and southeast of Wyoming (so, Colorado, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas) would have a lot of ashfall and a slight but still significant global temperature shift for a few years (honestly, less than 5 years), that would be it. Anything West of the Rockies, or East of the Appalachians, would be basically unscathed other than a very light dusting of ash.\n\nIt would be less of a \"everyone on Earth is going to die\" and more of a \"North America is going to kind of suck for the next decade\" kind of thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "123585",
"title": "Darby, Montana",
"section": "Section::::Movies and Television filmed in Darby.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "\"Yellowstone\" is an American television series created by Taylor Sheridan that is set to premiere on June 20, 2018 on the Paramount Network. Yellowstone follows \"the Dutton family, led by John Dutton played by Kevin Costner, who controls the largest contiguous ranch in the United States, under constant attack by those it borders — land developers, an Indian reservation, and America’s first National Park. It is an intense study of a violent world far from media scrutiny — where land grabs make developers billions, and politicians are bought and sold by the world’s largest oil and lumber corporations. Where drinking water poisoned by fracking wells and unsolved murders are not news: they are a consequence of living in the new frontier. It is the best and worst of America seen through the eyes of a family that represents both. The series went into production in August 2017 at the Chief Joseph Ranch in Darby, Montana which is standing in as the home of John Dutton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54060698",
"title": "Yellowstone (American TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "\"Yellowstone\" follows \"the Dutton family, led by John Dutton, who controls the largest contiguous ranch in the United States, under constant attack by those it borders—land developers, an Indian reservation, and America's first National Park. It is an intense study of a violent world far from media scrutiny—where land grabs make developers billions, and politicians are bought and sold by the world's largest oil and lumber corporations. Where drinking water poisoned by fracking wells and unsolved murders are not news: they are a consequence of living in the new frontier. It is the best and worst of America seen through the eyes of a family that represents both.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54060698",
"title": "Yellowstone (American TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Yellowstone is an American drama television series created by Taylor Sheridan and John Linson that premiered on June 20, 2018 on Paramount Network. It stars Kevin Costner, Wes Bentley, Kelly Reilly, Luke Grimes, Cole Hauser and Gil Birmingham. The series follows the conflicts along the shared borders of a large cattle ranch, an Indian reservation, land developers and Yellowstone National Park. In June 2019, Paramount renewed the series for a third season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22055561",
"title": "Yellowstone (British TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Yellowstone is a BBC nature documentary series broadcast from 15 March 2009. Narrated by Peter Firth, the series takes a look at a year in the life of Yellowstone National Park, examining how its wildlife adapts to living in one of the harshest wildernesses on Earth. Yellowstone debuted on BBC Two at 8:00pm on Sunday 15 March 2009 and has three episodes. Each 50-minute episode was followed by a ten-minute film called \"Yellowstone People\", featuring visitors to the Park and locals who had assisted the production team. The series was the channel's highest-rated natural history documentary in over five years with audiences peaking at over four million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17967520",
"title": "The Living Edens",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:Yellowstone - America Sacred Wilderness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Yellowstone is a hive of activity. Paul Schullery has been watching wildlife here for 30 years and is one of the world's leading authorities on the park. As he guides us through this fresh, sunlit environment, wolves and grizzly bears mount extraordinary chase sequences in their quest for elk, and mountain lions gambol about without worry. Dramas occur in every season, for Yellowstone isn't just the world's first National Park - it's one of the great success stories in wildlife conservation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22347853",
"title": "Greater Yellowstone Coalition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The Greater Yellowstone Coalition is a conservation organization protecting the lands, waters and wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming. The group was formed in 1983 with the idea that protecting Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks could only be achieved by protecting the wild integrity of the last largely intact temperate ecosystem in North America. The group is based in Bozeman, Montana, and has offices in Driggs, Idaho, Jackson, Wyoming and Cody, Wyoming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668031",
"title": "Expeditions and the protection of Yellowstone (1869–1890)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "When President Ulysses S. Grant created Yellowstone National Park with the signing of the Act of Dedication, March 1, 1872, it was the result of three major expeditions into the region, expeditions that brought the wonders of Yellowstone into public view. Prior to 1869, the Yellowstone region—its rivers, waterfalls, lakes, mountains, valleys and geothermal features were essentially part of an unknown and unexplored territory. Even after the creation of the park, the region remained largely unexplored and its resources unprotected for over a decade until the U.S. Army assumed management of the park in 1886. Even after the U.S. Army took control, legal protection of the park's resources was limited. From 1869 until 1890, a number of notable expeditions contributed not only to the creation of the park, but to a broader public, social and scientific understanding of the park, its resources and wonders. This understanding ultimately led Congress and the Federal Government to adopt much stronger laws to protect the park and its resources culminating in the Lacey Act of 1894.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ua3k7
|
why do people get diarrhea when they are dehydrated?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does, and it's responsible for quite a lot of deaths annually in less developed areas.\n\nThe mechanics of diarrhea are not your body having too much liquid, but rather the balance of things dissolved on one side of your colon versus the other being off. This can happen even when you're dehydrated - in fact, if you're losing lots of electrolytes but bringing in some water, it may even get worse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the most part it's the other way around. People get dehydrated because they have diarrhea due to sickness, etc. When you have diarrhea you aren't absorbing the water from your digestive tract, which causes the dehydration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are exclusively breastfed, however, are normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Exudative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Exudative diarrhea occurs with the presence of blood and pus in the stool. This occurs with inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, and other severe infections such as \"E. coli\" or other forms of food poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258979",
"title": "Malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In those with malnutrition some of the signs of dehydration differ. Children; however, may still be interested in drinking, have decreased interactions with the world around them, have decreased urine output, and may be cool to touch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Osmotic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g. pancreatic disease or coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when the offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31028270",
"title": "Omar Fakhri",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to medical science.:Discovery of role of vitamin K in treating haemorrhagic diathesis in children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Summer diarrhea is a condition prevalent in children in Iraq due to contaminated food. Treatment usually involves a fat free diet, however the resulting lack of fat soluble vitamins, including vitamin K, can result in hemorrhagic diathesis — bleeding from the gut and from under the skin. Children suffering with this condition were typically given blood transfusions, but with little improvement. In 1959, Dr. Fakhri, Tajeldin and Nouri at the Children's Welfare Hospital in Baghdad discovered that these patients suffered from low prothrombin, which is essential for blood clotting. This could be remedied simply with vitamin K, a precursor of prothrombin. With this treatment the condition could be rapidly reversed, saving the lives of hundreds of patients threatened by this disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1091948",
"title": "Survival skills",
"section": "Section::::Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "A lack of water causes dehydration, which may result in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine is a diagnostic indicator of dehydration. To avoid dehydration, a high priority is typically assigned to locating a supply of drinking water and making provision to render that water as safe as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16637675",
"title": "Human feces",
"section": "Section::::Diseases and conditions.:Diarrhea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Diarrhea is most commonly caused by a myriad of viral infections but is also often the result of bacterial toxins and sometimes even infection. In sanitary living conditions and with ample food and water available, an otherwise healthy patient typically recovers from the common viral infections in a few days and at most a week. However, for ill or malnourished individuals diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration and can become life-threatening without treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m5cum
|
What is the best scientific paper you have read?
|
[
{
"answer": "Francis Crick - Molecular Structure of Nucleic acids(DNA)\n_URL_0_\nGreat paper, and very short!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would have to go with [The Hallmarks of Cancer](_URL_0_). (pdf [here](_URL_1_)).\n\nIf you have ever wanted to know how cancer works, this is the paper for you. The authors go step by step through 6 molecular characteristics that almost all cancers share, including what they are, how they arise, and what they do/how they lead to cancer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Why Most Published Research Findings Are False](_URL_0_) by John P. A. Ioannidis.\nInformative *and* open-source.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a starting point, my favorite papers to read are physiology papers from the early 1900s. More specifically, papers regarding muscle physiology.\n\nThese papers are great for a few reasons:\n\n1) The underlying concepts are easy to explain\n\n2) The concepts are easy to visualize\n\n3) They are historically valuable. The concepts introduced in many of the popular papers are the same concepts your undergrad students will learn once they start taking physiology or general biology courses.\n\n4) Some of the experiments were quite simple and crazy sounding, but they worked. It's a good way to illustrate how far science has come.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm utterly biased but short, to the point and revolutionary: [Woese's 1977 paper outlining the discovery of the archaea](_URL_1_) (not formally classified as a separate domain of life until [this paper](_URL_0_)) \n\nApart from that I also love whole exchange around the development of understanding into vesicle trafficking and in particular Jim Rothman's papers (brilliant experiments, great results, somewhat incorrect conclusions) but probably requires to get into field a bit too much to be of use for this exercise. \n\nI also love almost anything by [Sean Nee](_URL_5_) because he does good science, reports it concisely and clearly and is entirely irreverent (for an amusing, single page, incredibly accessible essay by him (not a paper) check out [the Great Chain of Being](_URL_6_).\n\nFinally, for a wonderful example of scientific squabbling and missing each other's points there is [Trewavas' Green Plants as Intelligent Organisms](_URL_4_), to which there was [this 33 prominent author backlash](_URL_2_) followed by Trewavas' [reply](_URL_3_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best example of conciseness that comes to my mind is [Detection of Antiferromagnetism by Neutron Diffraction](_URL_0_), by C.G. Shull and J.S. Smart (Physical Review, 1949).\n\n1 measurement, 2 pages, 1 Nobel prize (physics, 1994).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Einstein's 1905 paper describing special relativity](_URL_0_) is a remarkably easy read; efficient and graceful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* [The Dieter's Paradox](_URL_0_) — because people estimate that more food means less calories. Fascinating!\n\n* Not a paper, but really insightful into a particular set of researchers: [Talking Nets: An Oral History of Neural Networks](_URL_4_).\n\n* [\"How reliable are the results from functional magnetic resonance imaging?\"](_URL_1_) - but I prefer [this version much more!](_URL_3_). — it shows how *not* to do things in fMRI - with fish!\n\n* And [Haxby's](_URL_2_) classic 2001 paper — one of the *coolest* papers to show that there are specific parts of the brain that respond in specific ways to specific types of stimuli.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kahneman & Tversky's prospect theory is great. Here is an easy to read (hard to accept) [review paper](_URL_0_). They won the nobel prize in economics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe \"old\" (2009) news now, but I found George Church's [MAGE paper](_URL_0_) a fascinating read when it came out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Computing Machinery and Intelligence](_URL_0_) by Alan Turing. An easy and enjoyable read even for laymen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Hodgkin and Huxley's classic 1952 papers describing the action potential.](_URL_0_)\n\nTo think that, completely ignorant of the membrane proteins involved, they were able to develop a quantitative model that *accurately corresponds to ion channel subunits discovered decades later* is just fucking beautiful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Best of Nature](_URL_0_) is a great place to look. Surely journal article standards have changed, but there's something missing in contemporary articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always like [George Miller's *The Magical Number Seven (Plus or Minus Two)*.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More is Different - By Nobel prize winner Phil Anderson.\n\nMany advisors make their prospective students read this paper before they are willing to take them on as RA's. I still read this paper about once a year. It helps me stay inspired as a scientist. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Personally I really like [Strong Inference by Platt from 1964](_URL_0_). (PDF download warning) It not only concisely and effectively outlines the reasons why we bother with the scientific method as opposed to observational research but also basically issued a massive 'fuck you' to every field outside of molecular biology and physics. It has some really great lines in it and it's criticisms are easy to follow and still relevant to all fields of science today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is my favorite study: [Effects of remote, retroactive intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients with bloodstream infection: randomised controlled trial.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe most brilliant piece of understated satire I've ever read in a scientific journal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Robert Sapolsky's \"Social Status in Health in Humans and Other Animals\" - concise, clear, AND interesting\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Political Science, but [Bowling Alone](_URL_0_) is masterful and would spark a great discussion about, eg, whether the internet helps or hinders social capital formation. If you want to do that with a bio class.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The market for lemons by akerloff. It makes economics really interesting and had vast implications for the field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not the best I've ever read, but I had it in my hand and it's interesting and it's short.\n\n[Loftus (2004) *Memories of Things Unseen*](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Platt, \"Strong Inference,\"](_URL_0_). It's about doing science. If you're ever going to go into research, it's a really good one to read.\n\nI linked to an html version, but a pdf is readily available.\n\nAlso, [Why Snakes Have Forked Tongues](_URL_1_) just because it's something we've all wondered, and it was a good paper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gould and Lewontin's [Spandrel Paper](_URL_0_) is generally considered to be one of the more important ones, whether or not you agree with it. It was presented to me as something I should be able to say I had read, by a professor who had taken to calling the authors \"The Harvard Commies\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A message from the moderators:\n\nPlease do not post a top-level reply to this thread unless you are contributing a paper from the peer-reviewed literature. If possible, please link to a PDF of the article that can be downloaded by everyone, not just those with journal subscriptions.\n\nAlso, arXiv is not a peer reviewed source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of my favorites: \n\n[Inhibition of Cell Division in Escherichia Coli by Electrolysis Products from a Platinum Electrode](_URL_0_).\n\nThis is especially awesome since they started out with an incorrect hypothesis and still found an effect. Through careful controls they determined the true nature of the novel and serendipitous discovery which became one of the first effective cancer treatments. Its concise and well written as well.\n\nAnother more sobering choice might be:\n\nWinstein, S. Bycycloheptadiene Dibromides. Journal of the American Chemical Society 83, 1516-1517 (1961).\n\nWhat makes this article interesting is the warning at the end, a reminder that lab safety should be paramount even when working with presumably benign substances.\n\n > There is no a priori reason to believe that these \nparticular compounds are more dangerous to man \nthan several related substances widely used as \nindustrial chemicals; however, of the three labora- \ntory workers who have used the dibromides and \nbromohydrin, two later developed similar \npulmonary disorders which contributed to their \nsubsequent deaths. The third has exhibited \nminor skin sensitivity reactions. \n > Although we are aware of no prior toxicological \nhistory of these compounds, one cannot ignore \nthe possibility of an insidious long-term effect \nunknown to medicine. Until further information \nis obtained from toxicological testing, we recom- \nmend that the compounds be handled only with \nextreme caution, and that all persons concerned \nwith their use be informed of their possible danger- \nous propensities. \n\n > We would appreciate any toxicological informa- \ntion on the above-mentioned or related compounds. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Fire and Mello RNAi paper](_URL_0_) Not only is the paper a pleasure to read its importance can't be understated. They were awarded the Nobel Prize 8 years later and this paper has been cited approximately 2x per day since publication. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is the one describing the famous Miller experiment:\n^ Miller, Stanley L. (May 1953). \"Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions\" (PDF). Science 117 (3046): 528. doi:10.1126/science.117.3046.528. PMID 13056598.\n\nWhy? This was a deceptively simple experiment, using simple concepts and reagents and very basic (primitive?) analysis techniques (thin layer chromatography) which produced a groundbreaking result: key insights into how life began. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The tragedy of the commons](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's an interesting paper whose importance grows by the second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading a chemistry journal in iambic pentameter... I have to go find it.\n\nEDIT: Found it! _URL_0_ Bunnett, J. Kearley Jr, F. \"Comparative mobility of halogens in reactions of dihalobenzenes with potassium amide in ammonia\" J. Org. Chem. **1971.** *36.* pp.184-6 This is awesome, particularly footnote 2.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be too obvious, but I've always enjoyed [The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme](_URL_0_) by Stephen J. Gould and Richard C. Lewontin. Made me think a lot about how we can view evolution.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kurt Adelberger (astronomer) is the best writer of scientific papers I've come across. Ha manages to put popular-science-style exciting prose into professional research papers. An example here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe first paragraph:\n\n > As the photons from the microwave background stream towards earth they are gradually joined by other photons, first by those produced in the occasional recombinations of the intergalactic medium, later by those cast off from cooling H2 molecules, later still, after hundreds of millions of years, by increasing numbers from quasars and galaxies, by bremsstrahlung from the hot gas in galaxy groups and clusters, and finally, shortly before impact, by photons emitted by the Milky Way’s own gas and stars and dust. All reach the earth together. They provide a record of the history of the universe throughout its evolution, but it is a confused record. Two photons that simultaneously pierce the same pixel of a detector may have been emitted billions of years apart by regions of the universe that were in vastly different stages of evolution. One of the challenges in observational cosmology is to separate the layers of history that we on earth receive superposed.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Claude Shannon's [A Mathematical Theory of Communication](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "BMJ ran this fabulous little work of satire a few years ago: _URL_0_.\n\nIt's a literature review of the efficacy of parachutes and ends with a recommendation for randomized control trials or something fantastically short-sighted. The paper is structurally and methodologically solid. And it's a great warning against losing perspective while slavishly devoting oneself to format.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not quite a paper (though it has been cited 1000 times) as much as the edited transcript of a technical talk, but Purcell's [Life at Low Reynolds Number](_URL_0_) has spectactular breadth and clarity of content. It is mandatory reading if you're interested in physics at the biological scale. It was a tremendous pleasure to read and read again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"A Mathematical Theory of Communication,\" Claude Shannon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're looking for a more modern paper, [Takahashi and Yamanaka paper](_URL_0_) on iPS cells is a good one, especially if you want to teach methods/concepts used in current research. This is a paper that played a pivotal role in the stem cell field. Classic papers are good; methods and concepts are important to understand, can be demonstrated and largely accepted. The Yamanaka paper is a classic paper of a currently, still evolving, and (somewhat politically) controversial field. The series of studies presented in the paper are really tour-de-force experiments. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hopefully, this doesn't get buried but, [RNAi in C. elegans, work which Fire and Mello recieved a Nobel for in 2006](_URL_0_) \n\nWhile not the best it is still pretty well written. I think it would be a beneficial exercise to have the class, read and critique the content, writing style ect. Of course, you get discussion going and the more critical the class is, the more of a shock you get when you reveal that they won a Nobel for the work. \n\nThis is how this paper was presented to me in a class. It really did a lot in the way of teaching us that papers in high tier journals are not perfect, and moreover that Nobel prize winning work is not perfect. You also get the opportunity to speculate on the implications of their work at that period in time which is fun! \n\nMaybe this outside the realm of your class but maybe not?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Roald Hoffman, How Chemistry And Physics Meet In The Solid State. He emphasizes the intuitive nature of chemistry and explains solid state physics through qualitative arguments ... Really nice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[How to Write a Scientific Paper](_URL_0_) by Whitesides. It's a paper on how to write a paper. It's awesome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution](_URL_0_) seems perfect for your class.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The price of beer and Salary of priests](_URL_0_). Seriously, its a nice talk about statistics",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really like Rodney Brooks' 1999 paper [Intelligence Without Representation](_URL_0_), one of the few papers I remember from when I was studying artificial intelligence. The paper argues against a dominant trend in AI at the time and for a radically different approach. His central rhetorical device --- comparing artificial intelligence to the study of artificial flight --- is an idea that has stuck with me ever since I read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I found [this paper](_URL_0_) to be really interesting because it lays down mathematics to situations with which we have an intuitive understanding of. It discusses swarm theory mathematically, particularly how a few knowledgeable individuals in the swarm can direct the entire swarm. The exact example is in terms of a school of fish in which a few fish know where food is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mendel's paper on inheritance. Foundation for modern genetics.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doll, R. and A.B. Hill. 1950. [Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung](_URL_0_). British Medical Journal 30:739–748. \n\nThis was perhaps the first major use of the case-control method in epidemiology, a methodological approach which allowed the investigation of many long-term public health threats. It also linked smoking and lung cancer, which saved certainly thousands if not millions of lives. It is also relatively simple to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seymour Benzer's \"Fine structure of a genetic region in bacteriophage\" is da shiznit and a classic. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you looked at the papers on [Faculty of 1000](_URL_0_)? I have found a lot of great papers on that website. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The solution to one of the most famous mathematics problems of all time:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFermat's Last Theorem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tversky and Kahneman's [Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases](_URL_0_).\n\nThe work is all about the way people make decisions in life based on an incomplete understanding of probability. Totally changed my life when I read it the first time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite scientific poster:\n[Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem Atlantic Salmon](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hands down: [Who says you cannot get published?](_URL_0_) References papers like: \"Will humans swim faster or slower in syrup?\" \"How chewing gum flavor affects measures of global complexity of multichannel EEG.\" And my personal favorite, \"An analysis of the forces required to drag sheep over various surfaces.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Energy Gap in Superconductors Measured by Electron Tunneling\", by Ivar Giaever [Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 147–148 (1960)](_URL_0_)\n\nA straightforward experiment showing a phenomenal result: the existence of an energy gap in superconductors",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine](_URL_1_) by John McCarthy, and Paul Graham's [article](_URL_0_) about it, made me understand computer programming as a formally definable endeavor and not just a hack",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best three papers we learned about in school were the Framingham studies, the study finding estrogen replacement therapy increases risk for breast cancer, and the study linking folate to the prevention of neural tube defects. The first is one where an entire town has participated in the study generation by generation for decades, and has given really useful data that has shaped how America sees \"health\". The second one is remarkable because unforeseen side effects became so prominent so quickly during the study that they had to cancel it early because continuing it would increase risk of morbidity/mortality unacceptable in the researchers' behalf. The third used and absolutely INGENIOUS method of retrospectively questioning mothers about PNV use and confounding for their guilt in losing their babies.\nThese papers are all great examples of what practice-shaping clinical research is all about. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[E. M. Purcell - Life at Low Reynolds Numbers](_URL_2_) ([Dropbox Public Link](_URL_0_))\nEverything you need to know about Biophysics, even if you don't study biology or physics.\n\n[V. F. Weisskopf - Search for Simplicity](_URL_1_) ([Dropbox Public Link](_URL_1_))\nThe best kind of physics.\n\nBoth of these were suggested by a colleague of mine and have been immensely enjoyable and illuminating. The American Journal of Physics is a great place for these kind of articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I use this paper with my students to get them over the scientific paper intimidation factor: [Detection of Large Woody Debris Accumulations in Old-Growth Forests](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the\nmallard Anas platyrhynchos](_URL_0_) (pdf warning) is concise and quite the interesting topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The importance of stupidity in scientific research](_URL_0_). Pretty self explanatory and a nice handout for a Biology class. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Arms races between and within species by Dawkins & Krebs](_URL_2_)\n\nThey write in a very clear and eloquent style which makes difficult to grasp concepts easy to understand. Its a greatly influential paper--it has been cited nearly 1000 times in biology and life science journals. One of the best biology papers I have had the pleasure to read.\n\nAlso, a few good books, available free online:\n\n[The selfish gene by Richard Dawkins](_URL_1_)\n\n & \n\n[River out of eden by Richard Dawkins](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Linus Pauling - The Nature of the Chemical Bond](_URL_0_)\n\nI'm pretty sure it's the most cited paper in all of chemistry, and for good reason. It's a pretty easy read, and the concepts contained within are still very much relevant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On computable numbers (Theory of Computation) - Alan Turing.\n\nBrilliant.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From Anthropology:\n[Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight](_URL_0_)\nMakes me chortle every time I read it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is [Feline High-rise Syndrome: 119 cases](_URL_0_). I found it a really neat read with pretty cool statistics about cats and apartment buildings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Simon's The Architecture of Complexity](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Edmund Gettier: \"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?\" in Analysis, v. 23. Available at _URL_0_\n3 pages of earth shattering profoundness. Just when philosophers thought they were on the verge of actually solving a problem, along comes Gettier and nips that nonsense in the bud!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Binford's 1962 'Archaeology as Anthropology'](_URL_0_) is one of the landmark articles for archaeology as a discipline. I can name a bunch of other ones that are much more relevant to my specific research interests (Neutron Activation Analysis and Inka Administration in Coastal Peru) but this is the best archaeology article I can give you in terms of being broadly accessible and relavant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not exactly a paper, but it is a fairly quick read. *The Structure of Scientific Revolution* by Thomas Kuhn is indispensable, IMHO.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Evidence](_URL_0_) of van der Waals forces in gecko setae.\n\nRarely do you see evidence presented so simply. Hopes for setae dry-adhesive products in the future have sky-rocketed since this paper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow](_URL_0_) by Ed Lorenz, the founder of Chaos theory. A \"deep, prescient, and surprisingly readable paper.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Market For Lemons](_URL_0_), by George Akerlof. Decades of people taking shots at the neoclassical economy building unsuccesfully, and this guy comes along with the simplest example and tears it down easily. He got a Nobel for it, too.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mathematical Modelling of an Outbreak of Zombie Infection](_URL_0_). Interesting read on the outbreak and spread of zombification.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if somebody else posted this...and also this is by no means the best scientific paper I've ever read but nevertheless it is very interesting and IIRC Feynman called it the best paper he has ever read.\n[N.D.Mermin's experiment to make quantum behavior obvious to 'anybody'](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe Unsuccessful Self Treatment of Writer's Block always gets a laugh, and can provide a nice break for your students.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is one of the more jocular articles I've read:\n\n[Effects of Sexual Activity on Beard Growth in Man](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Geminoid: Teleoperated Android of an Existing Person ](_URL_0_) - For everyone who likes some robotics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ronald Coase's \"The Problem of Social Cost\" is widely considered one of the most important social science papers ever written. It deals with the economics topic of \"externalities.\" It has been massively cited in the social science literature and does not require advanced mathematical, legal or economics knowledge to understand (Coase was a lawyer turned economist). \n\nInterestingly, readers of \"The Problem of Social Cost\" seem to reach quite different conclusions about what what the paper means, with widely differing papers citing it in support of their conclusions.\n\nCoase is considered to have earned his Nobel with this paper and his other classic \"The Nature of the Firm\" (about transactions costs). The papers are available on JSTOR and there are pdf copies around on the web (whose legal availability I cannot speak to).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Grave Shortcomings, Gargett et al 1989. Great article on the reinterpretation of supposed Neandertal ritual behavior, notably burials. Hence the cool title. In addition to being an interesting and accessible topic, it is a fantastic illustration of things that influence all scientific literature and the value of critical thinking and balancing different hypotheses in general. In this case, some previous conclusions (that neandertals had various examples of ritualistic behavior including burying their dead) were influenced by the social and political environment in which they were written, among other things. Gargett takes another look and some of the most famous examples, and alternately applies various hard sciences and occam's razor to dispute some of the original findings. There are plenty of peer responses, as this was in Current Anthropology. Anyway, I haven't read it for 10+ years, and I don't even recall agreeing with all of it, but it should be helpful to discuss ALL sorts of topics related to scientific literature. Especially for that audience.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be a good time to mention that the British Royal Society has released their historical archive to the public. It includes:\n\n[Theory about Light and Colours](_URL_0_content/6/69-80/3075.full.pdf+html?sid=0d477dd8-8dec-4ac3-8187-b6df96d4d670) - Isaac Newton\n\n[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society](_URL_0_) - First ever peer reviewed journal (1665)\n\n[Electric Kite Experiment](_URL_0_content/47/565.full.pdf+html?sid=491066f9-1f77-4232-a45c-3e859a60867e) - Benjamin Franklin\n\n[Search the archive](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Right here.](_URL_0_) I used to work as \"Mr. Concrete\" for a Q and A website, and this was one of the most useful articles I ever used in my research. Who knew concrete was so fascinating?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To me, nothing compares with the Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen paper on the nature of physical reality and quantum mechanics. It's beautiful for the simplicity of its argument, and it is basically the spawning point for all subsequent work in quantum foundations. It can be found here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nStaying with Einstein, his book on special relativity is extremely intuitive and understandable to anyone, and is definitely worth a read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly\"\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Primer](_URL_0_) from the book, but I found 'Structures of Scientific Revolutions' by Kuhn to be impressive and insightful for me as I went through college.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be the best Reddit topic on r/AskScience I've seen in a while! I have [Kaila, Ville. \"Natural Selection for least action\"](_URL_0_) where natural selection is described using physics terms, the law of least action and the 2nd law of thermodynamics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is a short article from Nature in 1985 by Harold Kroto that more or less won a Nobel Prize for him, and pissed off a slew of Exxon researchers who realized that they had observed these \"C60\" structures but just didn't know what they had a year before the article was published.... Gene Dresselhous has a great video about it. This was the first mention of the now ubiquitous Buckyball.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Matrix elasticity can dictate stem cell lineage](_URL_0_)\n\nI find this paper fascinating - mechanotransduction as a field seems to be growing exponentially and showing this profound an effect is really cool. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a good list, with more being added each week:\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work in programming language design and the following paper on planning for growth -- for unexpected uses in the wild -- is a delightful and brilliant read:\n\n[Steele, G. R. Jr. (1999). Growing a language. Higher-order and symbolic computation, 12, 221-236.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe paper works really well as a [talk](_URL_1_) because of its unique and surprising rhetorical structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are very few biology papers in this thread, and the ones that have the most upvotes are very poor representatives of the scientific method. Observational studies on the structure of DNA had a huge impact, but they barely qualify as science. The other articles on the elucidation of action potentials and the hallmarks of cancer both strike closer to the mark, but they are reviews, and do not provide experimental details. I would think that would be the most important part if I were teaching a biology class (rather than a history of science class).\n\nEdit: Just so I'm not throwing stones, I think Mendel's paper on inheiritance is the best example I can think of. [A nod to umdiddly for posting the link first.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really like the following:\n\n[Tonegawa's paper on DNA recombination in immunology](_URL_1_) (Sorry I don't have the PDF available)\n\nBarbara McClintock's paper on transposons (McClintock, B., 1950. The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 36: 344-355.) This paper is socially interesting as much as scientifically. The amount of evidence she felt she needed to have in order to publish a paper (presumably because she was a woman) is astounding. \n\nThe last suggestion is about [Educational Research: The Hardest Science of All?](_URL_0_) which allows you to discuss the differences in science in different fields. In education we can't control all the factors so we have to approach some things differently. Doesn't mean we're less scientific, we just have to make adjustments to our expectations and results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis by Leslie Aiello. The actual article [here](_URL_1_) needs JSTOR access, but she published a very similar paper in the Brazilian Journal of Genetics [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAmazing read. Best article I've ever read on human evolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's one of my favorite's: [\"How long is the coast of Britain?\"](_URL_0_) by Benoit Mandelbrot. An incredibly clear (and incredibly early) discussion of the importance of fractals published years before fractal was a word!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[On the follow of rewarding A while hoping for B](_URL_0_)\n\nA great read on the importance of understanding how rewards work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Smashing the stack for fun and profit\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, friends, I just made a folder of these files for my own purposes, so I t thought I might share it. Here are all of the PDFs and replies for comments above 10 upvotes (at the time of posting). Hope that's okay, mods. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, friends, I just made a folder of these files for my own purposes, so I t thought I might share it. Here are all of the PDFs and replies for comments above 10 upvotes (at the time of posting). Hope that's okay, mods. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What has really helped my scientific writing alot is editing articles in Wikipedia. Perhaps an assignment for your students could be to edit or write (or atleast verify) an article on the site?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure, but the worst ones I've read are definitely the ones I've written & #3232;\\_ & #3232;\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Meselson and Stahl's paper on semi-conservative nature of DNA replication. Historically and scientifically this is recognized as the apex of molecular biology research elegance in the 50s.\n_URL_0_\nRequired reading for any molecular biologist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some German punk wrote [\"On the electrodynamics of moving bodies\"](_URL_0_), but that was a long time ago.\n\nGreat piece though, I think he's on to something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I personally like \"Growth of Graphene from Food, Insects, and Waste\", or how I would have titled it: \"Making the next buzzword in semiconductors out of cookies, cockroach legs, and dog shit.\" < _URL_0_;.\n\nHere's a sample:\n\"Here we demonstrate that much less expensive carbon sources, such as food, insects, and waste, can be used without purification to grow high-quality monolayer graphene directly on the backside of Cu foils under the H2/Ar flow. For food, a Girl Scout cookie and chocolate were investigated. For waste with low or negative monetary value, we used bulk polystyrene plastic, a common solid waste, blades of grass, and dog feces.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Parachute use to prevent death and major trauma related\nto gravitational challenge: systematic review of\nrandomised controlled trials](_URL_0_).\n\nI have never read anything quite as ground-breaking in my life. Though more RCT:s are needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've put a lot of effort into finding good modern science writing for insiders. Until this thread, my best single source of leads has been the Oxford Book of Modern Science Writing, edited by Dawkins. But its mostly popular writing by insiders. I can't say that I've read a post-1980 scientific paper that has made me think \"This is well-written.\" Something happened after the 50s. \n\n\n\nFrom cognitive science, \n\n* I second George Miller's magic number 7+-2 and Herbert Simon's Architecture of Complexity. \nAdding:\n* Tolman (1948) \"Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men\" _URL_0_\n* Shepard, R., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701. _URL_1_ \n\n\n\nI also keep a collection of horrible sentences. \n\n* This is from the abstract of a paper on sentence comprehension: \"\"Arguments are made for autonomy of the lexical access process of a model of semantic context effects is offered.\"\" \nSwinney, D. (1979). Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (Re)consideration of context effects. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 18(6), 645–659.\n* Here is another recent entry into the collection: \n_URL_2_\n* And here is the worst I've seen:\n\"\"A further - quite different - but potentially equally and in the long run probably even more important but also more debated stream of research is the recent combination of neuroscience with experimental and behavioral economics.\"\"\nRiedl, A. (2009). Behavioral and Experimental Economics Can Inform Public Policy: Some Thoughts. CESIFO Working Papers, 1–37.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CTMU - Cognitive Theoretical Model of the Universe. Available online for free, by Robert Langon",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Francis Crick - Molecular Structure of Nucleic acids(DNA)\n_URL_0_\nGreat paper, and very short!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would have to go with [The Hallmarks of Cancer](_URL_0_). (pdf [here](_URL_1_)).\n\nIf you have ever wanted to know how cancer works, this is the paper for you. The authors go step by step through 6 molecular characteristics that almost all cancers share, including what they are, how they arise, and what they do/how they lead to cancer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Why Most Published Research Findings Are False](_URL_0_) by John P. A. Ioannidis.\nInformative *and* open-source.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a starting point, my favorite papers to read are physiology papers from the early 1900s. More specifically, papers regarding muscle physiology.\n\nThese papers are great for a few reasons:\n\n1) The underlying concepts are easy to explain\n\n2) The concepts are easy to visualize\n\n3) They are historically valuable. The concepts introduced in many of the popular papers are the same concepts your undergrad students will learn once they start taking physiology or general biology courses.\n\n4) Some of the experiments were quite simple and crazy sounding, but they worked. It's a good way to illustrate how far science has come.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm utterly biased but short, to the point and revolutionary: [Woese's 1977 paper outlining the discovery of the archaea](_URL_1_) (not formally classified as a separate domain of life until [this paper](_URL_0_)) \n\nApart from that I also love whole exchange around the development of understanding into vesicle trafficking and in particular Jim Rothman's papers (brilliant experiments, great results, somewhat incorrect conclusions) but probably requires to get into field a bit too much to be of use for this exercise. \n\nI also love almost anything by [Sean Nee](_URL_5_) because he does good science, reports it concisely and clearly and is entirely irreverent (for an amusing, single page, incredibly accessible essay by him (not a paper) check out [the Great Chain of Being](_URL_6_).\n\nFinally, for a wonderful example of scientific squabbling and missing each other's points there is [Trewavas' Green Plants as Intelligent Organisms](_URL_4_), to which there was [this 33 prominent author backlash](_URL_2_) followed by Trewavas' [reply](_URL_3_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best example of conciseness that comes to my mind is [Detection of Antiferromagnetism by Neutron Diffraction](_URL_0_), by C.G. Shull and J.S. Smart (Physical Review, 1949).\n\n1 measurement, 2 pages, 1 Nobel prize (physics, 1994).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Einstein's 1905 paper describing special relativity](_URL_0_) is a remarkably easy read; efficient and graceful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* [The Dieter's Paradox](_URL_0_) — because people estimate that more food means less calories. Fascinating!\n\n* Not a paper, but really insightful into a particular set of researchers: [Talking Nets: An Oral History of Neural Networks](_URL_4_).\n\n* [\"How reliable are the results from functional magnetic resonance imaging?\"](_URL_1_) - but I prefer [this version much more!](_URL_3_). — it shows how *not* to do things in fMRI - with fish!\n\n* And [Haxby's](_URL_2_) classic 2001 paper — one of the *coolest* papers to show that there are specific parts of the brain that respond in specific ways to specific types of stimuli.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kahneman & Tversky's prospect theory is great. Here is an easy to read (hard to accept) [review paper](_URL_0_). They won the nobel prize in economics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe \"old\" (2009) news now, but I found George Church's [MAGE paper](_URL_0_) a fascinating read when it came out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Computing Machinery and Intelligence](_URL_0_) by Alan Turing. An easy and enjoyable read even for laymen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Hodgkin and Huxley's classic 1952 papers describing the action potential.](_URL_0_)\n\nTo think that, completely ignorant of the membrane proteins involved, they were able to develop a quantitative model that *accurately corresponds to ion channel subunits discovered decades later* is just fucking beautiful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Best of Nature](_URL_0_) is a great place to look. Surely journal article standards have changed, but there's something missing in contemporary articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always like [George Miller's *The Magical Number Seven (Plus or Minus Two)*.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More is Different - By Nobel prize winner Phil Anderson.\n\nMany advisors make their prospective students read this paper before they are willing to take them on as RA's. I still read this paper about once a year. It helps me stay inspired as a scientist. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Personally I really like [Strong Inference by Platt from 1964](_URL_0_). (PDF download warning) It not only concisely and effectively outlines the reasons why we bother with the scientific method as opposed to observational research but also basically issued a massive 'fuck you' to every field outside of molecular biology and physics. It has some really great lines in it and it's criticisms are easy to follow and still relevant to all fields of science today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is my favorite study: [Effects of remote, retroactive intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients with bloodstream infection: randomised controlled trial.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe most brilliant piece of understated satire I've ever read in a scientific journal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Robert Sapolsky's \"Social Status in Health in Humans and Other Animals\" - concise, clear, AND interesting\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Political Science, but [Bowling Alone](_URL_0_) is masterful and would spark a great discussion about, eg, whether the internet helps or hinders social capital formation. If you want to do that with a bio class.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The market for lemons by akerloff. It makes economics really interesting and had vast implications for the field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not the best I've ever read, but I had it in my hand and it's interesting and it's short.\n\n[Loftus (2004) *Memories of Things Unseen*](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Platt, \"Strong Inference,\"](_URL_0_). It's about doing science. If you're ever going to go into research, it's a really good one to read.\n\nI linked to an html version, but a pdf is readily available.\n\nAlso, [Why Snakes Have Forked Tongues](_URL_1_) just because it's something we've all wondered, and it was a good paper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gould and Lewontin's [Spandrel Paper](_URL_0_) is generally considered to be one of the more important ones, whether or not you agree with it. It was presented to me as something I should be able to say I had read, by a professor who had taken to calling the authors \"The Harvard Commies\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A message from the moderators:\n\nPlease do not post a top-level reply to this thread unless you are contributing a paper from the peer-reviewed literature. If possible, please link to a PDF of the article that can be downloaded by everyone, not just those with journal subscriptions.\n\nAlso, arXiv is not a peer reviewed source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of my favorites: \n\n[Inhibition of Cell Division in Escherichia Coli by Electrolysis Products from a Platinum Electrode](_URL_0_).\n\nThis is especially awesome since they started out with an incorrect hypothesis and still found an effect. Through careful controls they determined the true nature of the novel and serendipitous discovery which became one of the first effective cancer treatments. Its concise and well written as well.\n\nAnother more sobering choice might be:\n\nWinstein, S. Bycycloheptadiene Dibromides. Journal of the American Chemical Society 83, 1516-1517 (1961).\n\nWhat makes this article interesting is the warning at the end, a reminder that lab safety should be paramount even when working with presumably benign substances.\n\n > There is no a priori reason to believe that these \nparticular compounds are more dangerous to man \nthan several related substances widely used as \nindustrial chemicals; however, of the three labora- \ntory workers who have used the dibromides and \nbromohydrin, two later developed similar \npulmonary disorders which contributed to their \nsubsequent deaths. The third has exhibited \nminor skin sensitivity reactions. \n > Although we are aware of no prior toxicological \nhistory of these compounds, one cannot ignore \nthe possibility of an insidious long-term effect \nunknown to medicine. Until further information \nis obtained from toxicological testing, we recom- \nmend that the compounds be handled only with \nextreme caution, and that all persons concerned \nwith their use be informed of their possible danger- \nous propensities. \n\n > We would appreciate any toxicological informa- \ntion on the above-mentioned or related compounds. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Fire and Mello RNAi paper](_URL_0_) Not only is the paper a pleasure to read its importance can't be understated. They were awarded the Nobel Prize 8 years later and this paper has been cited approximately 2x per day since publication. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is the one describing the famous Miller experiment:\n^ Miller, Stanley L. (May 1953). \"Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions\" (PDF). Science 117 (3046): 528. doi:10.1126/science.117.3046.528. PMID 13056598.\n\nWhy? This was a deceptively simple experiment, using simple concepts and reagents and very basic (primitive?) analysis techniques (thin layer chromatography) which produced a groundbreaking result: key insights into how life began. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The tragedy of the commons](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's an interesting paper whose importance grows by the second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading a chemistry journal in iambic pentameter... I have to go find it.\n\nEDIT: Found it! _URL_0_ Bunnett, J. Kearley Jr, F. \"Comparative mobility of halogens in reactions of dihalobenzenes with potassium amide in ammonia\" J. Org. Chem. **1971.** *36.* pp.184-6 This is awesome, particularly footnote 2.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be too obvious, but I've always enjoyed [The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme](_URL_0_) by Stephen J. Gould and Richard C. Lewontin. Made me think a lot about how we can view evolution.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kurt Adelberger (astronomer) is the best writer of scientific papers I've come across. Ha manages to put popular-science-style exciting prose into professional research papers. An example here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe first paragraph:\n\n > As the photons from the microwave background stream towards earth they are gradually joined by other photons, first by those produced in the occasional recombinations of the intergalactic medium, later by those cast off from cooling H2 molecules, later still, after hundreds of millions of years, by increasing numbers from quasars and galaxies, by bremsstrahlung from the hot gas in galaxy groups and clusters, and finally, shortly before impact, by photons emitted by the Milky Way’s own gas and stars and dust. All reach the earth together. They provide a record of the history of the universe throughout its evolution, but it is a confused record. Two photons that simultaneously pierce the same pixel of a detector may have been emitted billions of years apart by regions of the universe that were in vastly different stages of evolution. One of the challenges in observational cosmology is to separate the layers of history that we on earth receive superposed.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Claude Shannon's [A Mathematical Theory of Communication](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "BMJ ran this fabulous little work of satire a few years ago: _URL_0_.\n\nIt's a literature review of the efficacy of parachutes and ends with a recommendation for randomized control trials or something fantastically short-sighted. The paper is structurally and methodologically solid. And it's a great warning against losing perspective while slavishly devoting oneself to format.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not quite a paper (though it has been cited 1000 times) as much as the edited transcript of a technical talk, but Purcell's [Life at Low Reynolds Number](_URL_0_) has spectactular breadth and clarity of content. It is mandatory reading if you're interested in physics at the biological scale. It was a tremendous pleasure to read and read again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"A Mathematical Theory of Communication,\" Claude Shannon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're looking for a more modern paper, [Takahashi and Yamanaka paper](_URL_0_) on iPS cells is a good one, especially if you want to teach methods/concepts used in current research. This is a paper that played a pivotal role in the stem cell field. Classic papers are good; methods and concepts are important to understand, can be demonstrated and largely accepted. The Yamanaka paper is a classic paper of a currently, still evolving, and (somewhat politically) controversial field. The series of studies presented in the paper are really tour-de-force experiments. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hopefully, this doesn't get buried but, [RNAi in C. elegans, work which Fire and Mello recieved a Nobel for in 2006](_URL_0_) \n\nWhile not the best it is still pretty well written. I think it would be a beneficial exercise to have the class, read and critique the content, writing style ect. Of course, you get discussion going and the more critical the class is, the more of a shock you get when you reveal that they won a Nobel for the work. \n\nThis is how this paper was presented to me in a class. It really did a lot in the way of teaching us that papers in high tier journals are not perfect, and moreover that Nobel prize winning work is not perfect. You also get the opportunity to speculate on the implications of their work at that period in time which is fun! \n\nMaybe this outside the realm of your class but maybe not?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Roald Hoffman, How Chemistry And Physics Meet In The Solid State. He emphasizes the intuitive nature of chemistry and explains solid state physics through qualitative arguments ... Really nice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[How to Write a Scientific Paper](_URL_0_) by Whitesides. It's a paper on how to write a paper. It's awesome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution](_URL_0_) seems perfect for your class.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The price of beer and Salary of priests](_URL_0_). Seriously, its a nice talk about statistics",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really like Rodney Brooks' 1999 paper [Intelligence Without Representation](_URL_0_), one of the few papers I remember from when I was studying artificial intelligence. The paper argues against a dominant trend in AI at the time and for a radically different approach. His central rhetorical device --- comparing artificial intelligence to the study of artificial flight --- is an idea that has stuck with me ever since I read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I found [this paper](_URL_0_) to be really interesting because it lays down mathematics to situations with which we have an intuitive understanding of. It discusses swarm theory mathematically, particularly how a few knowledgeable individuals in the swarm can direct the entire swarm. The exact example is in terms of a school of fish in which a few fish know where food is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mendel's paper on inheritance. Foundation for modern genetics.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doll, R. and A.B. Hill. 1950. [Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung](_URL_0_). British Medical Journal 30:739–748. \n\nThis was perhaps the first major use of the case-control method in epidemiology, a methodological approach which allowed the investigation of many long-term public health threats. It also linked smoking and lung cancer, which saved certainly thousands if not millions of lives. It is also relatively simple to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seymour Benzer's \"Fine structure of a genetic region in bacteriophage\" is da shiznit and a classic. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you looked at the papers on [Faculty of 1000](_URL_0_)? I have found a lot of great papers on that website. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The solution to one of the most famous mathematics problems of all time:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFermat's Last Theorem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tversky and Kahneman's [Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases](_URL_0_).\n\nThe work is all about the way people make decisions in life based on an incomplete understanding of probability. Totally changed my life when I read it the first time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite scientific poster:\n[Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem Atlantic Salmon](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hands down: [Who says you cannot get published?](_URL_0_) References papers like: \"Will humans swim faster or slower in syrup?\" \"How chewing gum flavor affects measures of global complexity of multichannel EEG.\" And my personal favorite, \"An analysis of the forces required to drag sheep over various surfaces.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Energy Gap in Superconductors Measured by Electron Tunneling\", by Ivar Giaever [Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 147–148 (1960)](_URL_0_)\n\nA straightforward experiment showing a phenomenal result: the existence of an energy gap in superconductors",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine](_URL_1_) by John McCarthy, and Paul Graham's [article](_URL_0_) about it, made me understand computer programming as a formally definable endeavor and not just a hack",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best three papers we learned about in school were the Framingham studies, the study finding estrogen replacement therapy increases risk for breast cancer, and the study linking folate to the prevention of neural tube defects. The first is one where an entire town has participated in the study generation by generation for decades, and has given really useful data that has shaped how America sees \"health\". The second one is remarkable because unforeseen side effects became so prominent so quickly during the study that they had to cancel it early because continuing it would increase risk of morbidity/mortality unacceptable in the researchers' behalf. The third used and absolutely INGENIOUS method of retrospectively questioning mothers about PNV use and confounding for their guilt in losing their babies.\nThese papers are all great examples of what practice-shaping clinical research is all about. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[E. M. Purcell - Life at Low Reynolds Numbers](_URL_2_) ([Dropbox Public Link](_URL_0_))\nEverything you need to know about Biophysics, even if you don't study biology or physics.\n\n[V. F. Weisskopf - Search for Simplicity](_URL_1_) ([Dropbox Public Link](_URL_1_))\nThe best kind of physics.\n\nBoth of these were suggested by a colleague of mine and have been immensely enjoyable and illuminating. The American Journal of Physics is a great place for these kind of articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I use this paper with my students to get them over the scientific paper intimidation factor: [Detection of Large Woody Debris Accumulations in Old-Growth Forests](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the\nmallard Anas platyrhynchos](_URL_0_) (pdf warning) is concise and quite the interesting topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The importance of stupidity in scientific research](_URL_0_). Pretty self explanatory and a nice handout for a Biology class. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Arms races between and within species by Dawkins & Krebs](_URL_2_)\n\nThey write in a very clear and eloquent style which makes difficult to grasp concepts easy to understand. Its a greatly influential paper--it has been cited nearly 1000 times in biology and life science journals. One of the best biology papers I have had the pleasure to read.\n\nAlso, a few good books, available free online:\n\n[The selfish gene by Richard Dawkins](_URL_1_)\n\n & \n\n[River out of eden by Richard Dawkins](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Linus Pauling - The Nature of the Chemical Bond](_URL_0_)\n\nI'm pretty sure it's the most cited paper in all of chemistry, and for good reason. It's a pretty easy read, and the concepts contained within are still very much relevant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On computable numbers (Theory of Computation) - Alan Turing.\n\nBrilliant.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From Anthropology:\n[Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight](_URL_0_)\nMakes me chortle every time I read it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is [Feline High-rise Syndrome: 119 cases](_URL_0_). I found it a really neat read with pretty cool statistics about cats and apartment buildings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Simon's The Architecture of Complexity](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Edmund Gettier: \"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?\" in Analysis, v. 23. Available at _URL_0_\n3 pages of earth shattering profoundness. Just when philosophers thought they were on the verge of actually solving a problem, along comes Gettier and nips that nonsense in the bud!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Binford's 1962 'Archaeology as Anthropology'](_URL_0_) is one of the landmark articles for archaeology as a discipline. I can name a bunch of other ones that are much more relevant to my specific research interests (Neutron Activation Analysis and Inka Administration in Coastal Peru) but this is the best archaeology article I can give you in terms of being broadly accessible and relavant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not exactly a paper, but it is a fairly quick read. *The Structure of Scientific Revolution* by Thomas Kuhn is indispensable, IMHO.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Evidence](_URL_0_) of van der Waals forces in gecko setae.\n\nRarely do you see evidence presented so simply. Hopes for setae dry-adhesive products in the future have sky-rocketed since this paper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow](_URL_0_) by Ed Lorenz, the founder of Chaos theory. A \"deep, prescient, and surprisingly readable paper.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Market For Lemons](_URL_0_), by George Akerlof. Decades of people taking shots at the neoclassical economy building unsuccesfully, and this guy comes along with the simplest example and tears it down easily. He got a Nobel for it, too.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mathematical Modelling of an Outbreak of Zombie Infection](_URL_0_). Interesting read on the outbreak and spread of zombification.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if somebody else posted this...and also this is by no means the best scientific paper I've ever read but nevertheless it is very interesting and IIRC Feynman called it the best paper he has ever read.\n[N.D.Mermin's experiment to make quantum behavior obvious to 'anybody'](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe Unsuccessful Self Treatment of Writer's Block always gets a laugh, and can provide a nice break for your students.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is one of the more jocular articles I've read:\n\n[Effects of Sexual Activity on Beard Growth in Man](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Geminoid: Teleoperated Android of an Existing Person ](_URL_0_) - For everyone who likes some robotics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ronald Coase's \"The Problem of Social Cost\" is widely considered one of the most important social science papers ever written. It deals with the economics topic of \"externalities.\" It has been massively cited in the social science literature and does not require advanced mathematical, legal or economics knowledge to understand (Coase was a lawyer turned economist). \n\nInterestingly, readers of \"The Problem of Social Cost\" seem to reach quite different conclusions about what what the paper means, with widely differing papers citing it in support of their conclusions.\n\nCoase is considered to have earned his Nobel with this paper and his other classic \"The Nature of the Firm\" (about transactions costs). The papers are available on JSTOR and there are pdf copies around on the web (whose legal availability I cannot speak to).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Grave Shortcomings, Gargett et al 1989. Great article on the reinterpretation of supposed Neandertal ritual behavior, notably burials. Hence the cool title. In addition to being an interesting and accessible topic, it is a fantastic illustration of things that influence all scientific literature and the value of critical thinking and balancing different hypotheses in general. In this case, some previous conclusions (that neandertals had various examples of ritualistic behavior including burying their dead) were influenced by the social and political environment in which they were written, among other things. Gargett takes another look and some of the most famous examples, and alternately applies various hard sciences and occam's razor to dispute some of the original findings. There are plenty of peer responses, as this was in Current Anthropology. Anyway, I haven't read it for 10+ years, and I don't even recall agreeing with all of it, but it should be helpful to discuss ALL sorts of topics related to scientific literature. Especially for that audience.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be a good time to mention that the British Royal Society has released their historical archive to the public. It includes:\n\n[Theory about Light and Colours](_URL_0_content/6/69-80/3075.full.pdf+html?sid=0d477dd8-8dec-4ac3-8187-b6df96d4d670) - Isaac Newton\n\n[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society](_URL_0_) - First ever peer reviewed journal (1665)\n\n[Electric Kite Experiment](_URL_0_content/47/565.full.pdf+html?sid=491066f9-1f77-4232-a45c-3e859a60867e) - Benjamin Franklin\n\n[Search the archive](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Right here.](_URL_0_) I used to work as \"Mr. Concrete\" for a Q and A website, and this was one of the most useful articles I ever used in my research. Who knew concrete was so fascinating?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To me, nothing compares with the Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen paper on the nature of physical reality and quantum mechanics. It's beautiful for the simplicity of its argument, and it is basically the spawning point for all subsequent work in quantum foundations. It can be found here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nStaying with Einstein, his book on special relativity is extremely intuitive and understandable to anyone, and is definitely worth a read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly\"\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Primer](_URL_0_) from the book, but I found 'Structures of Scientific Revolutions' by Kuhn to be impressive and insightful for me as I went through college.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be the best Reddit topic on r/AskScience I've seen in a while! I have [Kaila, Ville. \"Natural Selection for least action\"](_URL_0_) where natural selection is described using physics terms, the law of least action and the 2nd law of thermodynamics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite is a short article from Nature in 1985 by Harold Kroto that more or less won a Nobel Prize for him, and pissed off a slew of Exxon researchers who realized that they had observed these \"C60\" structures but just didn't know what they had a year before the article was published.... Gene Dresselhous has a great video about it. This was the first mention of the now ubiquitous Buckyball.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Matrix elasticity can dictate stem cell lineage](_URL_0_)\n\nI find this paper fascinating - mechanotransduction as a field seems to be growing exponentially and showing this profound an effect is really cool. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a good list, with more being added each week:\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work in programming language design and the following paper on planning for growth -- for unexpected uses in the wild -- is a delightful and brilliant read:\n\n[Steele, G. R. Jr. (1999). Growing a language. Higher-order and symbolic computation, 12, 221-236.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe paper works really well as a [talk](_URL_1_) because of its unique and surprising rhetorical structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are very few biology papers in this thread, and the ones that have the most upvotes are very poor representatives of the scientific method. Observational studies on the structure of DNA had a huge impact, but they barely qualify as science. The other articles on the elucidation of action potentials and the hallmarks of cancer both strike closer to the mark, but they are reviews, and do not provide experimental details. I would think that would be the most important part if I were teaching a biology class (rather than a history of science class).\n\nEdit: Just so I'm not throwing stones, I think Mendel's paper on inheiritance is the best example I can think of. [A nod to umdiddly for posting the link first.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really like the following:\n\n[Tonegawa's paper on DNA recombination in immunology](_URL_1_) (Sorry I don't have the PDF available)\n\nBarbara McClintock's paper on transposons (McClintock, B., 1950. The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 36: 344-355.) This paper is socially interesting as much as scientifically. The amount of evidence she felt she needed to have in order to publish a paper (presumably because she was a woman) is astounding. \n\nThe last suggestion is about [Educational Research: The Hardest Science of All?](_URL_0_) which allows you to discuss the differences in science in different fields. In education we can't control all the factors so we have to approach some things differently. Doesn't mean we're less scientific, we just have to make adjustments to our expectations and results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis by Leslie Aiello. The actual article [here](_URL_1_) needs JSTOR access, but she published a very similar paper in the Brazilian Journal of Genetics [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAmazing read. Best article I've ever read on human evolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's one of my favorite's: [\"How long is the coast of Britain?\"](_URL_0_) by Benoit Mandelbrot. An incredibly clear (and incredibly early) discussion of the importance of fractals published years before fractal was a word!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[On the follow of rewarding A while hoping for B](_URL_0_)\n\nA great read on the importance of understanding how rewards work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Smashing the stack for fun and profit\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, friends, I just made a folder of these files for my own purposes, so I t thought I might share it. Here are all of the PDFs and replies for comments above 10 upvotes (at the time of posting). Hope that's okay, mods. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, friends, I just made a folder of these files for my own purposes, so I t thought I might share it. Here are all of the PDFs and replies for comments above 10 upvotes (at the time of posting). Hope that's okay, mods. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "What has really helped my scientific writing alot is editing articles in Wikipedia. Perhaps an assignment for your students could be to edit or write (or atleast verify) an article on the site?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure, but the worst ones I've read are definitely the ones I've written & #3232;\\_ & #3232;\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Meselson and Stahl's paper on semi-conservative nature of DNA replication. Historically and scientifically this is recognized as the apex of molecular biology research elegance in the 50s.\n_URL_0_\nRequired reading for any molecular biologist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some German punk wrote [\"On the electrodynamics of moving bodies\"](_URL_0_), but that was a long time ago.\n\nGreat piece though, I think he's on to something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I personally like \"Growth of Graphene from Food, Insects, and Waste\", or how I would have titled it: \"Making the next buzzword in semiconductors out of cookies, cockroach legs, and dog shit.\" < _URL_0_;.\n\nHere's a sample:\n\"Here we demonstrate that much less expensive carbon sources, such as food, insects, and waste, can be used without purification to grow high-quality monolayer graphene directly on the backside of Cu foils under the H2/Ar flow. For food, a Girl Scout cookie and chocolate were investigated. For waste with low or negative monetary value, we used bulk polystyrene plastic, a common solid waste, blades of grass, and dog feces.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Parachute use to prevent death and major trauma related\nto gravitational challenge: systematic review of\nrandomised controlled trials](_URL_0_).\n\nI have never read anything quite as ground-breaking in my life. Though more RCT:s are needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've put a lot of effort into finding good modern science writing for insiders. Until this thread, my best single source of leads has been the Oxford Book of Modern Science Writing, edited by Dawkins. But its mostly popular writing by insiders. I can't say that I've read a post-1980 scientific paper that has made me think \"This is well-written.\" Something happened after the 50s. \n\n\n\nFrom cognitive science, \n\n* I second George Miller's magic number 7+-2 and Herbert Simon's Architecture of Complexity. \nAdding:\n* Tolman (1948) \"Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men\" _URL_0_\n* Shepard, R., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701. _URL_1_ \n\n\n\nI also keep a collection of horrible sentences. \n\n* This is from the abstract of a paper on sentence comprehension: \"\"Arguments are made for autonomy of the lexical access process of a model of semantic context effects is offered.\"\" \nSwinney, D. (1979). Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (Re)consideration of context effects. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 18(6), 645–659.\n* Here is another recent entry into the collection: \n_URL_2_\n* And here is the worst I've seen:\n\"\"A further - quite different - but potentially equally and in the long run probably even more important but also more debated stream of research is the recent combination of neuroscience with experimental and behavioral economics.\"\"\nRiedl, A. (2009). Behavioral and Experimental Economics Can Inform Public Policy: Some Thoughts. CESIFO Working Papers, 1–37.\n\n",
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"answer": null,
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"text": "As a result of all these studies, over 120 scientific papers have been published in national and international scientific journals as well as in 14 author's patents. In addition, these findings were included in 14 Ph.D. dissertations by research fellows and assistant professors as well as many student's thesis.\n",
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"section": "Section::::Notable alumni and faculty.\n",
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"text": "Paul Canfield, Sergey Bud'ko, Costas Soukoulis, physics and Ames Laboratory, named to Thomas Reuters' World's Most Influential Scientific Minds 2014. The award recognizes the greatest number of highly cited papers (among the top 1 percent for their subject field and year of publication between 2002 and 2012).\n",
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"title": "Sachi Sri Kantha",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Contributions.\n",
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"text": "In 1992, Sri Kantha published a paper on the prolific productivity of eight prominent scientists, among whom three (Paul Karrer, Giulio Natta and Herbert C. Brown) were chemistry Nobel laureates. As these scientists have published over 1,000 research publications, he gave a humorous tag \"Kilo Base Goliaths\" (KBGs) for these super achievers in the laboratory. While commenting on this paper, Marsh Tenney added that among physiologists, Swiss physiologist Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) should hold the record for writing some 13,000 scientific papers, but I suspect that number more correctly includes his poems and other short pieces that were not scientific. Nonetheless, after they are properly accounted, the record is still astonishing. Recently John Ioannidis and his colleagues had proposed an almost identical phrase ‘hyper-prolific authors’ for the same group of super achievers, identified by Sri Kantha in 1992.\n",
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"text": "He has published more than 600 scientific papers which have been cited more than 34,000 (six papers cited more than 1,000 times, and his h-index is 92). He was the 13th most cited physicist in the world in from 1993-2003.\n",
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eqs5re
|
why are other standards for data transfer used at all (hdmi, usb, sata, etc), when ethernet cables have higher bandwidth, are cheap, and can be 100s of meters long?
|
[
{
"answer": "You had the misconception of ethernet cables having higher bandwidth. That's where your root of your confusion.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "USB cabling and receptacle buses are cheaper than ethernet cables.\n\nUSB has greater port density, and will fit cleanly into thinner form factor platforms.\n\nUSB 3.0 has ~5 gbps transfer rate, whereas cat5e gets stable 1gbps. Getting 10Gbps typically requires cat6e ethernet cables or fiber, which are not exactly flexible and definitely not as cheap.\n\nCopper ethernet is also rated for 100 meters; you would not get very good throughput at 100s of meters on copper. Granted, this isn't typically a requirement for USB based eqpt either.\n\nEli5 edit:\n1. USB cable and especially the equipment you plug into (buses/controllers) cheaper than ethernet\n2. Fit more USB ports in tiny space (known as port density)\n3. USB faster than ethernet for price, especially on modern solutions like USB-C\n4. Ethernet is better at longer distances, which is why networking equipment uses it, but your keyboard does not need to",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Ethernet generally cannot transmit power, or requires quite a bit of componentry on both ends to do so. It therefore doesn't work well for things like keyboards, mice, flash drives that require a power source.\n\nIt doesn't have the sheer bandwidth needed for HDMI or displayport, or the very low latency and, until recently, high bandwidth needed to run SATA.\n\n10Gb/s ethernet endpoints are still very expensive and power consuming.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Gigabit ethernet max. transfer speed: ca. 1 Gb/sec\n\nHDMI 2.1 max. transfer speed: ca. 42 Gb/sec",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you need 100m ethernet cables. That's basically it. And they are cheap because you need a few hundred meters to wire up something, and the bigger the production the cheaper the cost of a single unit. Pair that with a cheap connecter, and you have Ethernet Cables.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "There are many advantages and disadvantages to each type of transportation. Since every industry is unique and has different costs and profit margins, companies choose the method that fits them best. \nFor example, HDMI works best for transferring videos, USB works best for transferring files to small portable devices such as flash drives. SATA works best for external hard drives.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "So what is being conflated here is Ethernet cables and Ethernet, HDMI cables and HDMI, etc. We need to talk about the physical layer and the protocols separately. \n\nEthernet is a protocol that can be run on top of a number of physical layers. Most people think of Ethernet cable as twisted shielded pair. \n\nThis is a type of transmission line that has an impedance of about 100 ohms. Depending on a number of factors like the dielectric loss, and how uniform the impedance of the line is different sorts of transmission lines have different bandwidths. The usable bandwidth of a CAT6A cable is about 500 MHz. The rest of the bandwidth comes from additional channels or QAM modulation techniques. \n\nNow what are SATA cables? Well they are differential pair signals as well. So is HDMI, copper differential signal pairs.\n\nNow imagine you want to send a signal down a transmission line and you want it to switch on and off at 20 GHz. Well you can actually do that on any sort of cable, the question really is just how much of the signal will actually make it to the other end and what it will look like. If its just loss and not lots of horrific reflections then you just need to just put repeaters in the cable or make it short enough. If the transmission line has a lot of dispersion then the shape of the signal will get lost and it will become hard to \"see\". These factors are often shown with something called an eye diagram, the more open the eye is the better the signal integrity of the communication channel. \n\nThe fact that Ethernet can be 100 m long means that the dispersion and the loss of the cable have to be low at the frequencies that protocol is used at. As others have pointed out HDMI has a lot more bandwidth so the cables can't be as long or the transmission line quality has to be better. Cheap cables mean lower transmission line quality. \n\nThe very best cables that are not optical (in terms of bandwidth) tend to be rigid pipes that are quite a lot like coax but have the center conductor basically floating in air with little spacers, these get up above 100 GHz.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This comes down to the intended use of the Device more than anything else. HDMI to Ethernet adapters do exist, and Ethernet can obviously handle the bandwidth required for a 1080p video stream, but a lot of the \"extra pins\" HDMI has cover audio, error detection, frame timing etc. Classically the interface to provide a usable signal on the video output end is provided by the input device, and monitors, TV's, etc tend to follow this pattern.\n\nIn the case of USB, the devices themselves have to be smart enough to tell the computer how they're connecting and what sort of functionality they'll perform.\n\nBandwidth isn't the end all consideration when determining what the most efficient way to transmit information is. While transmitting the required signals via ethernet may be possible it wasn't designed to support the wide array of applications better suited to specific connector types.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Ethernet is the slowest of Transfer standards you mentioned. That's why a USB to Ethernet dongle works at full speed, but HDMI over Ethernet works only with compression.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Follow up eli5. \nWhy is one connector/ cable give better or worse speed? My understanding is that a conductor is a conductor, obviously less resistance based on wire guage, and type of metal, and stranded vs solidcore would be parameters that would effect how much current it can use etc. Also i imagine the specific impedance or capacitance of the wire at that guage and length could affect its ability to transmit frequencies cleanly. And Obviously you would need the correct number of conductors for a particular data protocal. But how would the shape of the connector type at the end have anything to do with transfer speeds? Can't one easily convert any wire to any connector type with similar number of conductors? Shielding and wire guage options aside what is the physics that allow one wire or connector standard to transfer at twice the speed of the next? Also why does the twisted pair or cat5 wires have any affect on transfer speeds vs non twisted 8 conductor wire?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to things others have mentioned, the RJ45 connectors you are probably thinking of aren’t very durable (the clips tend to break off if you unplug and plug back in often). Unlike USBc they also aren’t reversible.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I know this comment will never be seen, but Ill try anyway. Data bandwidth is not the only measurement for a cable, and many cables are used because they fill a role no other cable will fill properly. HDMI for instance was shoved down our collective throats by the media 'powers that be'. It has 19 wires inside it, and performs a massive series of handshakes both to negotiate things like display resolution (through EDID) and copyright protection (HDCP). An ethernet cable cant pass this signal without a translation device (which exists and is known as an HDMI extender). Meanwhile, HDMI wires are notoriously finicky over medium to long distances. \n\n\nRG6 with a BNC connector is often used because the actual termination (bit on the end) can be secured. BNC was actually created by the British Navy iirc for that express purpose. The equipment it is used on does not require ethernet throughput. \n\n\nFiber is frankly very high on the list of wires that are great. Extreme data transmission speeds are possible, and you can run it for extremely long distances without issue. There are also secure connectors that pretty much assure the thing will not pop out by accident. The downsides are its fragility, and lack of easily available equipment for it to be used with.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nTLDR; \nWires are used for all kinds of reasons, not just data throughput.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "for HDMI, it is lossless and has 48Gbps bandwidth (with [hdmi 2.1](_URL_0_)). So it's not quite like you've thought",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethernet at those rates requires high powered high speed data management as well as a hardware interface and network layer computing where as others use more like a hardware chip to do the handling and stream pretty simple digital data streams that talk more on a hardware interface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HDMI is up to 48GB/s. The fastest attainable ethernet you can get in your home is 10GB/s, and that's a signficant cost. Normally, people have 1gbps. 40 and 100 gb ethernet are used in and between datacenters.\n\nEach of these cables has a specific purpose that ethernet cannot nessecarily match. Sometimes it's high bandwidth, sometimes low latency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethernet cables can not be 100s of meters long. They can be up to 100m, a singular hundred.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The easiest answer is that USB has built in standards for device detection, drivers, and is designed to handle a much broader range of devices.\n\nHDMI has built in negotiated standards for DRM, and the port is meant to be easier to install in tighter places.\n\nWith the addition of Thunderbolt to the USB 4.0 specification, fiber optics are now used for handling stuff previously relegated to PCI cards inside computers.\n\nFinally, power. HDMI includes Ethernet for transport. USB can handle up to 100W of power with the proper Type-C cable\n\nBottom line, Ethernet is designed to do one thing - networking. We can sometimes shoehorn it to do these other tasks, but imagine an Ethernet port on a thin tablet today.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "DisplayPort 1.4 is something like 32.4 Gbps. HDMI 2.0 is 14.4 Gbps (a new version is slowly coming out with bandwidth even higher than DisplayPort 1.4). These also require relatively short cables. Ethernet in real use and inexpensively acquired by consumers don't really come close to those speeds.\n\nTo put that in perspective of what you can do with that, DisplayPort 1.4 can easily do 4k/60fps/4:4:4 chroma/10 or 12bit color. I'm not sure exactly what it maxes out at, but at some point you have to start compromising on something. For example the current mainstream HDMI spec, which as stated already has higher bandwidth than what most consumers have access to as far at network gear, is already hitting it's limit with 4k forcing you to choose between 4k/60fps/4:2:2 chroma/10 or 12bit color, 4k/60fps/4:4:4 chroma/8bit color, or 4k/30fps/4:4:4 chroma/10 or 12 bit color. Basically you have to compromise on resolution, chroma subsampling, refresh rate, or color depth. The more you make one go up, the less you can have of the others.\n\nPlease disregard any typos or technical errors. The gist of this reply is to point out that even at really high bandwidths, higher than what most of us have access to with networking gear, compromises have to be made. My current display is a 3440x1440@144hz, 10bit color, 4:4:4 chroma subsampling using DisplayPort. I am not sure the current mainstream HDMI can handle that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Summary/TL;DR**: Different standards exist, because it is impossible to meet all design requirements in one standard that is also inexpensive enough for consumer use. In some cases, it's even impossible to meet them all, period. Like with cabling. Some applications need stable cabling, others need flexible cabling. And some design criteria have only been recently met by Ethernet, whereas other standards have been meeting them for over a decade now.\n\nOkay lets unwrap this a bit:\n\n**USB** was originally designed to be a standard to connect inexpensive peripherals in a way that is unified and easier to handle than previous options. Compared to Ethernet (or really just about anything else) USB has always been both dirt cheap and dead simple to implement. It is also designed to be easy to handle for people with physical disabilities. USB connectors being simple and sliding in and out of their receptacles easily isn't a mistake, it's a deliberate design choice. Same with the cables being thinner and easier to bend. USB also comes with a set of standard drivers that do away with the need to write your own driver software for all but the most unusual devices.\n\n* (+) Much cheaper on the hardware side\n* (+) Simpler to implement, hardware wise\n* (+) Small. Many USB devices are smaller than even an RJ45 socket\n* (+) Connectors specified for a high number of connect/disconnect cycles, almost unbreakable, simple, easy to handle, even for people with physical disabilities\n* (+) Cheaper on the software side as well. (usually no extra drivers needed, can do lots of things)\n* (+) Still cheaper for similar bandwidth for high bandwidth\n* (-) Plugs unplug themselves all the time\n* (-) Historically, relatively low bandwith\n\n**SATA** was specified as point to point high bandwidth low latency short distance bus. Until 10G Ethernet, SATA has been much faster than Ethernet, and because of the point to point design (i.e. there are never more than one receiver and one sender on a connection), things like arbitration (figuring out who gets to send next) are unnecessary, very *very* greatly improving latency, which is what you need for access to local storage devices. The short distance design also makes cables and transceivers (the send/receiver chips at the end) much cheaper to implement.\n\n* (+) Much cheaper on the hardware side\n* (+) Lower latency (Important for storage)\n* (+) Less complexity, one sender, one receiver per cable\n* (+) Until very recently, faster than Ethernet\n* (+) Cheaper per bandwidth unit\n* (-) Single purpose\n\n**HDMI** is actually not that different from SATA, conceptually, but it has a few extra features added. Specifically it is designed for very low latency, it features very high bandwidth (even current 10G Ethernet is slower than an HDMI connection, starting from HDMI 1.3, which was specified in *2006*). Essentially it is designed to meet all needs of a digital A/V connection, which actually aren't that easy to meet with a general purpose network standard. On the other hand, as point to point short range standard it lacks a few of the design requirements of Ethernet, which makes it cheaper to implement. (Btw, pretty much this entire section is also valid for **DisplayPort** and **Thunderbolt**, with with not that very many differences, with Thunderbolt having a few extra features that go beyond what HDMI and DP do)\n\n* (+) Cheaper to implement\n* (+) Much lower, and dependably low latency (important for A/V)\n* (+) Historically, and currently *much* faster than Ethernet\n* (+) Cheaper per bandwidth unit\n* (+) Has special features for A/V transport that aren't easy to implement\n* (-) Single/low number purpose\n\n**Ethernet** was specified to serve a very different purpose than any of these standards. Ethernet's claim to fame is long distance ( > 10m) high bandwidth, something none of the other standards can do. On the other hand it's more expensive to implement, the drivers are clunkier (and don't cover many use cases, i.e. you need lots of stuff on top to cover things like storage or A/V), and Ethernet does not have a guaranteed latency at all, something it inherits from its past of being a shared medium (10Base-2). And lastly, the cabling is rigid, awkward to handle, not specified to me moved around all the time (even flexible Cat cable isn't, really, not the way you move around a mouse cable for instance)\n\n* (-) More expensive to implement (for anything > 1GB still *much* more expensive)\n* (-) Hardware (necessary chips) needs much more space than USB\n* (+/-) Lots of cabling options - > flexibility, but also incompatibility\n* (-) No guaranteed latency\n* (+) Can do much longer distances at high bandwidth than the other options\n* (-) Driver situation is a bit of a mixed bag for anything above layer 2.\n* (-) More expensive per bandwidth unit\n* (-/+) Cabling rigid and hard to move around. Can be a good thing for solidity, but is a bad thing for things like mice or USB sticks",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5 answer: Because it's easier to have different types of plugs for different things.\n\nAs for a more technical explanation, I'm copy/pasting what I've put elsewhere (only slightly edited)\n\n----\n\n200 meters is the limit for Cat5, 100 for Cat7. The bandwidth for Cat7 which is 10 Gbps which beats USB 3 hands down while the newest standard for HDMI is 18Gbps.\n\nThe form factor of RJ45 is only that way because of standards. It doesn't have to be the size or shape that it is but good luck getting every computer and NIC manufacturer to adopt a new one.\n\nAs for the max length of a cable, there are such things as \"repeaters\" which are insanely cheap these days. \n\nAdditionally, AWS 24 ethernet cables have been used for VGA cables in the past. [Here's a link to a converter just for this purpose](_URL_1_)\n\nHDMI nowadays has bandwidth up to 18 Gbps but previous versions went up to 10 Gbps, same as Cat7. In fact, [there are converters just for this purpose](_URL_0_)\n\nSo, now that you've read all of this, the reason is because of technical standards. After all, it would be hella confusing if everything plugged into the back of your computer via RJ45. On the other hand, it's only eight wires and it's extremely easy to wire in another plug on the cable and save yourself some money.\n\n----\n\nEdit: To add some history as to why we have different plugs: Computers didn't always have standards when it came to hardware. Anyone could make a component and as long as it fit the motherboard, you could sell it even if the drivers, software, and cables were completely proprietary. Along came modems, printers, and sound cards and it became such a nightmare to support that eventually standards for things were introduced and manufacturers were expected to conform. By then, we had so many pieces of hardware out there that the most popular ones were (mostly) the ones who benefited since they had the largest market share and had the highest financial agility to adopt or influence the standards. Because of this, those different cable types were kind of cemented in place and became commonly used, spreading forward to the plethora of cable ends we have now.\n\nSometimes, however, technology advances and we can get more into a smaller area. We see this mostly commonly with USB plug types. Sometimes we only need a limited amount of bandwidth or we just plainly have a very small amount of room. For example, could you imagine using one of [these](_URL_2_) on your PlayStation controller???\n\nSo we have different cable connector types for historical, bandwidth, expense, power requirements, or space reasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those other cables do not meet the safety requirements from the insurance industry or government to ensure buildings are safe and cheap. Etherlink usually does meet the safety requirements so it's ok to use inside the walls and ceiling of a building. New cables can and do get invented from time to time but proving they are safe is very expensive, so everyone still uses ethernet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what everyone has already said, Ethernet cables are extremely inflexible. None of those could be reasonably routed inside of a PC case (ie SATA replacement) and would be clunky and fragile to carry around with you constantly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly it comes down to money, and what tech available at the time was not suitable, or it was just an upgrade. \nHDMI came along cause dvi was big, clunky, and did not support audio, and became a defacto standard for such and today got a nearly 50 gbps. \nUSB came along as a method to connect peripherals, be it mouse, keyboard, and so much more, and with it's 5 voltage it became a nice standard for giving power to peripherals as well as becoming an eventual charging standard thanks to the EU. \nSATA is just an upgraded edition of PATA like HDMI and DisplayPort is an upgraded version of DVI and VGAm, and it was generally faster then ethernet was at the same time. \nLastly there is the ethernet cable itself, the third most sold cable after power and phone, and will probably rise above phone any minute now. \nEthernet cables are big, they are chonky, and the good cables are fairly expensive to make as well. \nSo to summarize, each form of data transfer was made for a certain purpose in mind, and at the time it fit that purpose better then all alternatives, pluss money had quite a bit to say about it. \nIt was a tool fit for it's purpose, however all of them could be used as hammers, but hammers are better hammers then non-hammers even when non-hammers can be used as hammers. \nOh and whats more, the highest bandwidth today on ethernet cable is at a slow 400 gbit/s. \nIn comparison PCI express 5.0 is already up into 512 Gbit/s, while NVLink 1.0 is at 640 Gbit/s NVLink 2.0 at 1.2 Tbit/s, and then you got Infinity Fabric, which is part of HT for communications between cpu and gpu and has a max theoretical bandwidth of 4096 Tbit/s",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethernet plugs are brittle, they're not made to be plugged and unplugged several times. USB and HDMI are designed specifically with this in mind.\n\nas for SATA plugs, it's easier and cheaper to just keep using them, than try to adapt everything to a new standard",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think a lot of people on here are caught in the bandwidth of the cable but that's not the answer. The answer is simply that ethernet is made for networking devices. An HDMI for example does that but also a bunch of other stuff because it has 19 pins. If you used ethernet you'd have to add a process that decide what a packet was intended for and that will add latency and cost of manufacturing a new TV or dvd player which would be present with HDMI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well:\n\n- USB is cheaper.\n\n- USB can transmit power, and a lot of it in certain cases.\n\n- Even USB 3.0 ports can deliver 5Gb speeds, while CAT 5E can only do 1GB.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A similar question I always wondered is why we developed all these other cables when regular coax cables have high enough bandwidth for HD signals and fast internet. Also, same question with VGA vs HDMI or Displayport. You could run an HD resolution on a CRT monitor with just a VGA cable 20 years ago. Why did we change these things? I'm sure that they would eventually not be enough, but it seems like we changed them decades before it was necessary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what everyone else said Ethernet cables are usually solid core wire which doesn't flex very well and would probably work harden and break pretty quick when put in the same usage conditions as a USB cable for a phone or something. The RJ45 connector is also much larger and less durable than any of the standards you mentioned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > can be hundreds of meters long\n\nUh... No? They start to degrade the signal after about 300 feet; which is just under 100 meters. It's gonna be the same for any copper cable.\n\nSource: I install internet for a living. After 300 feet of cable, we have to use switches or repeaters then run more cable from that. Though typically, if we have to move it more than 300ft, we just use a PTP system to deliver it wirelessly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides the bits explained already, the biggest advantage HDMI had over other connection forms was that it was built to be HDCP-ready. IE, it was more about control than technical specs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "80506",
"title": "Twisted pair",
"section": "Section::::Unshielded twisted pair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the most common data networking standard, can use UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3492955",
"title": "Fiber to the x",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "While fiber optic cables can carry data at high speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines and ADSL cannot. For example, the common form of Gigabit Ethernet (1Gbit/s) runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling but only to . However, 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometers. Therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the remaining segments can use standard Ethernet or coaxial cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2940457",
"title": "Multi-mode optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The equipment used for communications over multi-mode optical fiber is less expensive than that for single-mode optical fiber. Typical transmission speed and distance limits are 100 Mbit/s for distances up to 2 km (100BASE-FX), 1 Gbit/s up to 1000 m, and 10 Gbit/s up to 550 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3492955",
"title": "Fiber to the x",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Fiber is often said to be \"future-proof\" because the data rate of the connection is usually limited by the terminal equipment rather than the fiber, permitting substantial speed improvements by equipment upgrades before the fiber itself must be upgraded. Still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e.g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24760954",
"title": "Synchronous Serial Interface",
"section": "Section::::Cabling – according to RS-422 standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "When high data rates are used, the application is limited to a shorter cables. It is possible to use longer cables when low data rates are used. The DC resistance of the cable limits the length of the cable for low data rate applications by increasing the noise margin as the voltage drop in the cable increases. The AC effects of the cable limit the quality of the signal and limit the cable length to short distances when high data rates are used. Examples of data rate and cable length combinations vary from 90 kbit/s at 1.2 km to 10 Mbit/s at 5m for RS-422. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537442",
"title": "HDMI",
"section": "Section::::Versions.:Version comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The \"version\" of a connection depends on the versions of the HDMI ports on the source and sink devices, not on the HDMI cable. The different categories of HDMI cable only affect the bandwidth (maximum resolution / refresh rate) of the connection. Other features such as audio, 3D, chroma subsampling, or variable refresh rate depend only on the versions of the ports, and are not affected by what type of HDMI cable is used. The only exception to this is Ethernet-over-HDMI, which requires an \"HDMI with Ethernet\" cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300602",
"title": "Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Hardwired broadband access.:Fiber to the home.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i4ze3
|
how do the moon's phases work
|
[
{
"answer": "The bright part of the moon is simply light reflecting off the sun. So the phase completely depends on the angle between the sun, earth, and moon. So you'll notice on a night with a full moon, the moon is approximately on the complete opposite side of the earth. During a new moon, it's approxmiately in the same area of the sky as the sun. All other phases are simply breaking down the angle. If the sun-earth-moon angle is acute, it'll be a crescent. If it's obtuse, it'll be a gibbeous. At a right angle, it's a half moon.\n\nedit: I say approximately, as they don't always line up perfectly. When they do, we get an eclipse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The lunar phase or phase of the Moon is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Moon as viewed from Earth. The lunar phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days), as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun shift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "Section::::Phases of the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "In western culture, the \"four principal phases\" of the Moon are new moon, first quarter, full moon, and third quarter (also known as last quarter). These are the instances when the Moon's ecliptic longitude and the Sun's ecliptic longitude differ by 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°, respectively. Each of these phases occur at slightly different times when viewed from different points on Earth. During the intervals between principal phases, the Moon's apparent shape is either crescent or gibbous. These shapes, and the periods when the Moon shows them, are called the \"intermediate phases\" and last one-quarter of a synodic month, or 7.38 days, on average. However, their durations vary slightly because the Moon's orbit is rather elliptical, so the satellite's orbital speed is not constant. The descriptor \"waxing\" is used for an intermediate phase when the Moon's apparent shape is thickening, from new to full moon, and \"waning\" when the shape is thinning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5024887",
"title": "Solar eclipse",
"section": "Section::::Predictions.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826161",
"title": "Lunar month",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Anomalistic month.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "The Moon's orbit approximates an ellipse rather than a circle. However, the orientation (as well as the shape) of this orbit is not fixed. In particular, the position of the extreme points (the line of the apsides: perigee and apogee), rotates once (apsidal precession) in about 3,233 days (8.85 years). It takes the Moon longer to return to the same apsis because it has moved ahead during one revolution. This longer period is called the anomalistic month and has an average length of days (27 d 13 h 18 min 33.2 s). The apparent diameter of the Moon varies with this period, so this type has some relevance for the prediction of eclipses (see Saros), whose extent, duration, and appearance (whether total or annular) depend on the exact apparent diameter of the Moon. The apparent diameter of the full moon varies with the full moon cycle, which is the beat period of the synodic and anomalistic month, as well as the period after which the apsides point to the Sun again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66109",
"title": "Eclipse cycle",
"section": "Section::::Periodicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Another thing to consider is that the motion of the Moon is not a perfect circle. Its orbit is distinctly elliptic, so the lunar distance from Earth varies throughout the lunar cycle. This varying distance changes the apparent diameter of the Moon, and therefore influences the chances, duration, and type (partial, annular, total, mixed) of an eclipse. This orbital period is called the anomalistic month, and together with the synodic month causes the so-called \"full moon cycle\" of about 14 lunations in the timings and appearances of full (and new) Moons. The Moon moves faster when it is closer to the Earth (near perigee) and slower when it is near apogee (furthest distance), thus periodically changing the timing of syzygies by up to ±14 hours (relative to their mean timing), and changing the apparent lunar angular diameter by about ±6%. An eclipse cycle must comprise close to an integer number of anomalistic months in order to perform well in predicting eclipses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "Section::::Phases of the Moon.:Waxing and waning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "When the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, the Moon is \"new\", and the side of the Moon facing Earth is not illuminated by the Sun. As the Moon \"waxes\" (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon. The Moon is then said to \"wane\" as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon, and back to new moon. The terms \"old moon\" and \"new moon\" are not interchangeable. The \"old moon\" is a waning sliver (which eventually becomes undetectable to the naked eye) until the moment it aligns with the Sun and begins to wax, at which point it becomes new again. \"Half moon\" is often used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons, while the term \"quarter\" refers to the extent of the Moon's cycle around the Earth, not its shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826161",
"title": "Lunar month",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Draconic month.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The draconic or nodical month is the average interval between two successive transits of the Moon through the same node. Because of the torque exerted by the Sun's gravity on the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates westward, which means the nodes gradually rotate around Earth. As a result, the time it takes the Moon to return to the same node is shorter than a sidereal month, lasting days (27 d 5 h 5 min 35.8 s). The line of nodes of the Moon's orbit precesses 360° in about 6,798 days (18.6 years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3x37yd
|
what is so special about the blu-ray format?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blu Ray isn't a type of video. It is a type of data storage system.\n\nBlu-Ray just uses lower wavelength (bluer) light in the laser it uses to read the disk when compared to a DVD. This lets the system read smaller spots on the disk. The ability to read smaller spots means that a disk of a given size can have more distinct spots (more memory) using blu-ray than using a typical DVD system. The ability to have a single disk with much more memory lets us fit long stretches of high quality video (e.g. 1080p) on a single disk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11015826",
"title": "Blu-ray",
"section": "Section::::Data format standards.:Filesystem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Blu-ray Disc specifies the use of Universal Disk Format (UDF) 2.50 as a convergent-friendly format for both PC and consumer electronics environments. It is used in the latest specifications of BD-ROM, BD-RE, and BD-R. In the first BD-RE specification (defined in 2002), the BDFS (Blu-ray Disc File System) was used. The BD-RE 1.0 specification was defined mainly for the digital recording of high-definition television (HDTV) broadcast television. The BDFS was replaced by UDF 2.50 in the second BD-RE specification in 2005, in order to enable interoperability among consumer electronics Blu-ray recorders and personal computer systems. These optical disc recording technologies enabled PC recording and playback of BD-RE. BD-R can use UDF 2.50/2.60.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2598557",
"title": "External storage",
"section": "Section::::Types of external storage.:Optical storage.:Blu-ray.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a digital optical disc format. It was originally created to take the place of the DVD format due to its expanded storage capacity. The name \"Blu-ray\" is derived from the use of a blue laser that is used to read the disc. This would be in contrast to the red laser used to read DVD Discs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1171525",
"title": "Versatile Multilayer Disc",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.:Disc format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The Blu-ray Disc uses a blue-violet laser, rather than VMD's red laser, which means Blu-ray can store more information per layer. This format has so far only utilized 1 and 2-layered versions. In January 2007, Toshiba announced development on a triple layer HD DVD (TL51) that would have had a capacity of 51 GB. Hitachi announced a 4 and 6 layer version of Blu-ray as well, capable of 100 GB and 200 GB respectively. A standard 4-layer VMD stored 20 GB, which was comparable to a 1-layered HD DVD (15 GB) and 1-layer Blu-ray Disc (25 GB).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11015826",
"title": "Blu-ray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, and is capable of storing several hours of video in high-definition (HDTV 720p and 1080p) and ultra high-definition resolution (2160p). The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as feature films and for the physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The name \"Blu-ray\" refers to the blue laser (actually a violet laser) used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6404869",
"title": "Blu-ray Disc recordable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Blu-ray Disc Recordable (BD-R) refers to two direct to disc optical disc recording technologies that can be recorded on to an optical disc with an optical disc recorder. BD-R discs can be written to once, whereas Blu-ray Disc Recordable Erasable (BD-RE) can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. Disc capacities are 25 GB for single-layer discs, 50 GB for double-layer discs, 100 GB (\"XL\") for triple-layer, and 128 GB for quadruple-layer (in BD-R only).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40883",
"title": "Closed captioning",
"section": "Section::::Uses of captioning in other media.:DVDs & Blu-ray Discs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Blu-ray disc media cannot carry any VBI data such as Line 21 closed captioning due to the design of DVI-based High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) specifications that was only extended for synchronized digital audio replacing older analog standards, such as VGA, S-Video, component video, and SCART. Both Blu-ray disc and DVD can use either PNG bitmap subtitles or 'advanced subtitles' to carry SDH type subtitling, the latter being an XML-based textual format which includes font, styling and positioning information as well as a unicode representation of the text. Advanced subtitling can also include additional media accessibility features such as \"descriptive audio\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11015826",
"title": "Blu-ray",
"section": "Section::::Physical media.:Variants.:Blu-ray Disc recordable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "\"Blu-ray Disc recordable\" (BD-R) refers to two optical disc formats that can be recorded with an optical disc recorder. BD-Rs can be written to once, whereas Blu-ray Disc Recordable Erasable (BD-REs) can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. The current practical maximum speed for Blu-ray Discs is about 12× (54 MB/s). Higher speeds of rotation (10,000+ rpm) cause too much wobble for the discs to be written properly, as with the 20× (27.7 MB/s) and 52× (7.8 MB/s) maximum speeds, respectively, of standard DVDs and CDs. Since September 2007, BD-RE is also available in the smaller 8 cm Mini Blu-ray Disc size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f12kb
|
I've always wondered: if I am in an airplane that is traveling JUST under the speed of sound, and I sprint down the aisle, would I break the sound barrier?
|
[
{
"answer": "No because the air that you're in is moving as fast as you are so your person is never near the speed in its immediate surroundings to break the sound barrier.\n\nNow if you were on the wing or top of said aircraft somehow and could run against the wind, I hypothesize that you would break the sound barrier. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"sound barrier\" is merely the speed of sound... or ~340 meters per second.\n\nIf your plane is going 339 m/s and you run down the aisle at 1 m/s in the same direction as the plane is going in... congratulations, you've broken the sound barrier.\n\nBut I suspect what you're thinking of is sonic boom, and that would not happen. From wikipedia:\n\n > When an object passes through the air, it creates a series of pressure waves in front of it and behind it, similar to the bow and stern waves created by a boat. These waves travel at the speed of sound, and as the speed of the object increases, the waves are forced together, or compressed, because they cannot \"get out of the way\" of each other, eventually merging into a single shock wave at the speed of sound. This critical speed is known as Mach 1 and is approximately 1,225 km/h (761 mph) at sea level and 20 °C (68 °F).\n\nThe hull of the aircraft you're traveling in is what is going to be subject to those pressure waves. Being inside the cabin, you're not subjected to the same forces the outside of the aircraft is. So you won't generate a sonic boom.\n\nEDIT: Forgot two words",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a really shit answer:\r\n\r\nYou would have to be going faster than the sounds you are making yourself to make a sonic boom.\r\n\r\nSound is the energy of the air molecules dancing about, the speed of sound is the rate at which that a dance is propegated to neighbouring molecules.\r\n\r\nIf the nose of a jet makes a noise and that propegates at 10 molecules a second and before the dance is spread ten molecules in radius the nose is already there at number 9, number 9 gets twice the dance. By 50 the dance will be an outright hootenanny. \r\n\r\nInside the plane the air is travelling and dancing at the same relative speed to you as it would be anywhere without a breeze.\r\n\r\nThese should do the trick, read in this order:\r\n\r\n_URL_1_\r\n\r\n_URL_2_\r\n\r\n_URL_0_\r\n\r\n\r\nInterestingly, as the sonic boom proves an object has gone faster than sound, feedback through a microphone and speaker proves electricity has gone faster than sound. A noise is made, recorded and played back over the sound itself and they add together and increase in frequency/amplitude until it's at the threshold of the devices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Furthermore, we are all technically traveling faster than the speed of sound right now. Someone orbiting space would see you spinning below. Someone standing on the sun would see the earth rotating around the sun. Someone in another galaxy would see our solar system whirling through space.\n\nIt's all relative. As others have mentioned, the sonic boom effect happens because you are traveling at the same speed as the sound you are making.\n\nHere's how I like to explain it. Imagine you have a bunch of little toy robots that make noise. They walk with a speed of 2 mph. If you set them down periodically, one by one, someone standing on the other side of the room would hear the slow steady roar of these robots. Now, If you keep setting them down periodically but you are walking in the same direction at a speed of 2 mph you'll be surrounded by noisy robots. Once you get to that person across the room it's going to be really loud all of a sudden. That's how a sonic boom works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you're referring to is called [transonic flight](_URL_0_), where parts of the aircraft have broken the sound barrier, and other parts haven't.\n\nAn easy to understand example would be a helicopter flying near the speed of sound where the portion of the rotors moving in the direction of flight are going faster than sound, and the other bits aren't. This is bad, so it doesn't happen much.\n\nIn your example, you're completely shielded from the outside air, so your speed doesn't matter. Nothing will happen, though the stewardess might give you a look.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You will be moving faster than sound as measured from the ground.\n\nYou will not move faster than sound as measured from your plane seat (or the air inside the plane).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You mixed up i.e. and e.g.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's easier to think about it in terms of reference frames. The air in the airplane is traveling the same speed as you are, so you wouldn't break the sound barrier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25906317",
"title": "Anti-Concorde Project",
"section": "Section::::Case against supersonic transport.:Sonic boom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In subsonic flight, the plane pushes the air ahead of it out of the way as it moves. When a plane is traveling faster than the speed of sound (i.e. faster than air molecules normally travel) the air ahead of it is not pushed out of the way: the air remains still until the plane has approached to within half an inch, at which point the air is forced aside in a few millionths of a second. This creates extreme local compression and heating, and a shockwave spreads outwards in a cone. This pressure wave extends as much as 25 miles on either side of the flight path, and may be experienced as a loud sound, with accompanying vibration severe enough in close proximity to break windows and damage buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166072",
"title": "Sound barrier",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier. These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations. Wagner stated \"I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166072",
"title": "Sound barrier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per second (about 767 mph, 1234 km/h or 1,125 ft/s). The term came into use during World War II when pilots of high-speed fighter aircraft experienced the effects of compressibility, a number of adverse aerodynamic effects that deterred further acceleration, seemingly impeding flight at speeds close to the speed of sound. These difficulties represented a barrier to flying at faster speeds. In 1947 it was demonstrated that safe flight at the speed of sound was achievable in purpose-designed aircraft thereby breaking the barrier. By the 1950s new designs of fighter aircraft routinely reached the speed of sound, and faster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166072",
"title": "Sound barrier",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a \"barrier\" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound. Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical \"wall\", which supersonic aircraft needed to \"break\" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage. Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamic engineers during and after World War II discussed Mach 0.7 as a limit dangerous to exceed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24807279",
"title": "1947 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October–December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- October 14 – The United States Air Force test pilot Captain Chuck Yeager flies a Bell X-1 rocket plane faster than the speed of sound, the first time that this has been accomplished in level flight, or climbing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676668",
"title": "Bow wave",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "A similar thing occurs when an airplane travels at the speed of sound. The overlapping wave crests disrupt the flow of air over and under the wings. Just as a boat can easily travel faster than the wave it produces, an airplane with sufficient power can travel faster than the speed of sound (supersonic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166072",
"title": "Sound barrier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The sound barrier or sonic barrier is the sudden increase in aerodynamic drag and other undesirable effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches the speed of sound. When aircraft first began to be able to reach close to the speed of sound, these effects were seen as constituting a barrier making faster speeds very difficult or impossible. The term \"sound barrier\" is still sometimes used today to refer to aircraft reaching supersonic flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20gj0v
|
Can a beam of light bend if the source rotates or moves in the same way water does from a rotating sprinkler?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am as far from an expert on this subject as you can get, but I'm pretty sure that once water or a laser beam, or any other sort of \"stream\" of particles or molecules leaves whatever source releases it, the source no longer has any effect on it. The water stream bends because gravity pulls it down, and it only seems to turn with the sprinkler because more water is constantly being released. The water that already was released remains on the same trajectory as which it started.\n\nLight beams can be \"bent\" or redirected by objects in their path, but any motion of their source after they have left it should have no effect on them whatsoever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11736738",
"title": "Fizeau interferometer",
"section": "Section::::Fizeau's ether-drag experiment.:Experimental setup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Light reflected from the tilted beam splitter is made parallel using a lens and split by slits into two beams, which traverse a tube carrying water moving with velocity \"v\". Each beam travels a different leg of the tube, is reflected at the mirror at left, and returns through the opposite leg of the tube. Thus, both beams travel the same path, but one in the direction of flow of the water, and the other opposing the flow. The two beams are recombined at the detector, forming an interference pattern that depends upon any difference in time traveling the two paths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30869356",
"title": "Plasmonic metamaterial",
"section": "Section::::Negative index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Normally, light traveling from, say, air into water bends upon passing through the normal (a plane perpendicular to the surface) and entering the water. In contrast, light reaching a negative index material through air would not cross the normal. Rather, it would bend the opposite way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686861",
"title": "Aether drag hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Complete aether dragging.:Problems of complete aether dragging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Sagnac effect shows that two rays of light, emanated from the same light source in different directions on a rotating platform, require different times to come back to the light source. However, if the aether is completely dragged by the platform this effect should not occur at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6752609",
"title": "Underwater vision",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. The human eye is adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), effectively eliminating the cornea's focusing properties. When immersed in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they are focused behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1397700",
"title": "Rectilinear propagation",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Even though a wave front may be bent, (e.g. the waves created by a rock hitting a pond) the individual waves are moving in straight lines. In the sense of the scattering of waves by an inhomogeneous medium, this situation corresponds to the case n ≠ 1, where n is the refractive index of the material. An experiment can be set up to prove this. Three cardboard squares are aligned with a small hole in the centre of each. A light is set up behind the cardboard. The light appears through all three holes from the other side. The light is blocked if any one of the cardboard squares are moved even a tiny bit. This proves that waves travel in straight lines and this helps to explain how humans see things, among other uses. It has a number of applications in real life as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9277",
"title": "Ellipse",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Physics.:Elliptical reflectors and acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 261,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 261,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a prolate spheroid), this property holds for all rays out of the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some document scanners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489992",
"title": "Diving mask",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. Our eyes are adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), so immersion effectively eliminates the cornea's focusing properties. When our eyes are in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they now focus them far behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hs9zm
|
i'm 27 and i'm starting to notice something. are adults looking and acting younger? or is it my perspective on age that's changing?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's just ageing. Everyone notices that sooner or later. I'll be 40 this year, and the local university students look like they shouldn't even be able to drive yet. I can remember thinking my parents were old at an time when, in retrospect, they were a fair amount younger than I am now. Then again, that might have been the 70s and 80s fashions :)\n\nDon't worry about it :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's the fact that you're aging. I'm in my early 40's and I see little kids driving cars and working, having spouses and even babies! Little kids I say.\n\nThe \"hot\" young guys look like *potentially* hot men. I don't look at them and think, \"Hmm, I could eat him up.\" Instead, I think he will be a good looking man when he grows up.\n\nI look in the mirror these days and wonder who the heck is looking back at me, and where this roll of belly fat came from (cause my size 0 jeans don't fit for the first time in my life). \n\nI see men in their late 40's, with gray hair and wrinkles, and I think of them as the opposite sex instead of my dad's buddies.\n\nI read what utes say about politics on the internet, and chuckle because I used to think that way too.\n\nYou're only 27. Just wait, it gets funner! (Ok, not really funner...)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tastes change over time, and often those tastes associated with \"young\" people get locked into a set of ages and are just carried on through. Rock n' Roll is generally now considered something older folks listen to. But, long ago, it was considered soemthing radical and only young folks listened to it. Tastes in clothing do tend to get \"older\" but this is also a function of taste. Most of the things common to a generation are created during that generations teens and early twenties. \n\nCurrently thirty-forty somethings play the most video games. Younger kids are picking them up, but often not the same kinds. \n\nWho knows what kids will pick up in twenty years. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your perspective is changing. Do you remember TGIF, I know right!! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's two things, the first is fashions are changing. You look at top hats and think they were always an older person's style or white wigs and in fact they were the height of fashion even for young people, now it's...oh blast what do the young people wear these days? Eh Hardy and backwards caps. The second is that the people you identified as old are only looking older to you now as you both age so your visual clues of what old looks like is progressing while your internal view of yourself is more or less staying still except for the aha moments where you look in a mirror and say \"Where the fuck did that come from?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that you associate things you did as a kid as things children do, but really, you keep doing those things as you get older, and the new generations have new fads. \n\nFor example: I am 36, and all my friends still play video games and listen to rap music. As a child, I would have never expected to see full grown adults doing those things. My dad, who is 65, hunts and fishes for fun, and listens to country music, which is what he was doing 30 years ago. But he also did those things as a kid, because they didn't have video games or rap music. My friends kids are wearing skinny jeans and listening to dubstep. They will probably be doing that into their 30s, and then into their 60s. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Opinion having also noticed this as well. I think its a combo of things. What we perceive as attractive matures as we do making younger generations appear too young to be as appealing as they used to be (to most). People stay indoors more often and wear more sunscreen making the aging process a bit more forgiving than it used to be. What we do as kids/teenagers are seen as things kids do only but we take some of it with us (yay video games!), making it more of a generational thing later on. Nostalgia happens to everyone but because the generations that are just starting to have these feelings (30 somethings) are more widely integrated into social media than those before them its more easily recognized by the public now than it was before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's your perspective. I'm 63, and every damn cop in the country looks like an adolescent with a gun. On the other hand, the range of beautiful women keeps increasing. (While my interest decreases.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Culture changes over time. When you're young, the 'equilibrium/balance point' of the dominant culture around you is many years older than you are. But as you get older you converge on that balance point until you look around you and feel like the world seems to mostly reflect your own values. And then you diverge from it as you continue to age and you may start complaining about 'the youth of today...' \n\nIt's not that old people are acting younger. It's that your youth (that defined your values) is now shared by many more people and you feel more affinity with them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think part of this is due to social media...follow me for a second. People in their forties and fifties are more in contact with newer fads and styles because they are plugged into FB and Twitter just like their younger counterparts. They aren't disconnected from younger social circles immediately after high school/college like they were fifty years ago. A person in their forties now has similar clothing fashions and hair styles as a person in their early twenties.\n\nAdditionally they have grown up with similar technologies and are attuned to current advances the same, or maybe more so, as younger generations. A forty year old may be more capable of affording the newest iPhone than someone starting out in their twenties. Having access to the newest, most advanced gadgets would be inspiration to stay on top of what said gadget can do. When I was younger, people twenty years older than me swore by older tech...like VHS and cassettes. Now they have the cool new stuff and know how to use it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* you are getting older, and your perspective is changing\n* adults tend to be more responsible and act more grown up around children and especially teens\n* society is becoming less formal\n* people are waiting longer to have children, and having less of them\n* every generation takes things associated with their childhood and tries to bring them into their adulthood...my dad likes to watch Bugs Bunny cartoons, I still play video game",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Signs.:Mental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "BULLET::::- Depressed mood. According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), old age is a risk factor for depression caused by prejudice (i.e., \"deprejudice\"). When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become old themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression. \"People with more negative age stereotypes will likely have higher rates of depression as they get older.\" Old age depression results in the over-65 population having the highest suicide rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1184251",
"title": "Maelstrom (role-playing game)",
"section": "Section::::Aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Age impacts the maximum values that each attribute may have. An inexperienced character may thus have low initial values but great potential while an older character with experience may actually find that their attributes are limited by their age maximum, and continue to decline as they get older. A character starting with many livings will be older than other characters and will thus never achieve the lofty attribute scores a younger character could achieve. Older characters are also more susceptible to disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22648231",
"title": "Ageism",
"section": "Section::::Effects of ageism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1229,
"text": "Ageism has significant effects on the elderly and young people. These effects might be seen within different levels: individual person, selected company, whole economy. The stereotypes and infantilization of older and younger people by patronizing language affects older and younger people's self-esteem and behaviors. After repeatedly hearing a stereotype that older or younger people are useless, older and younger people may begin to feel like dependent, non-contributing members of society. They may start to perceive themselves in terms of the looking-glass self—that is, in the same ways that others in society see them. Studies have also specifically shown that when older and younger people hear these stereotypes about their supposed incompetence and uselessness, they perform worse on measures of competence and memory. These stereotypes then become self-fulfilling prophecies. According to Becca Levy's Stereotype Embodiment Theory, older and younger people might also engage in self-stereotypes, taking their culture's age stereotypes—to which they have been exposed over the life course—and directing them inward toward themselves. Then this behavior reinforces the present stereotypes and treatment of the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Sub-group definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Gerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves. However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "792644",
"title": "Locus of control",
"section": "Section::::Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Age plays an important role in one's internal and external locus of control. When comparing a young child and an older adult with their levels of locus of control in regards to health, the older person will have more control over their attitude and approach to the situation. As people age they become aware of the fact that events outside of their own control happen and that other individuals can have control of their health outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56966729",
"title": "John O'Toole (producer)",
"section": "Section::::Film work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "“Aging is a lifetime process,” O’Toole said in 1988 about \"Modern Maturity\", which was aimed at adults over 50. “You're always involved in it. As you get into it more personally, you're somebody's mother, then somebody's grandmother, and so on. We had to project an image on camera of mature adults doing things. You don't see people over 40 on commercial television – on shows that have some vitality anyway. So we set out to do that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "A basic mark of old age that affects both body and mind is \"slowness of behavior\". This \"slowing down principle\" finds a correlation between advancing age and slowness of reaction and physical and mental task performance. However, studies from Buffalo University and Northwestern University have shown that the elderly are a happier age group than their younger counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ja8zo
|
how can margins of error be trusted?
|
[
{
"answer": "The margin of error isn't \"We know we're only possibly wrong by this much\" it's \"This is the known accuracy of our instrument under what we believe are operational conditions.\"\n\nYou can still be wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Physics has certain ways to calculate uncertainties such as that.\n\nLet's say you've got a ruler and you use it to measure a piece of wood. Your ruler has 1mm divisions in it, and the piece of wood comes up to the line marked \"195mm\". Now, because the smallest division your ruler has is 1mm, it could be anywhere between 194.5mm or 195.5mm. Without using a more precise tool, you can't get more accurate than that, so you record the length of your piece of wood at 195.0mm +/- 0.5mm. \n\nBut let's say you buy a new, more expensive ruler. The first thing you notice is that your old ruler was marked wrong. It should actually have said 200mm. The divisions in your new ruler are the same, so you say the length of your piece of wood is 200.0mm +/- 0.5mm. This is outside the original uncertainty in your first measurement, but that's because you had no way of knowing that it would be that inaccurate.\n\nSo yeah. In physics, uncertainties tend to be more about how good your measurement tools and techniques are. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59146042",
"title": "Accuracy paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The accuracy paradox is the paradoxical finding that accuracy is not a good metric for predictive models when classifying in predictive analytics. This is because a simple model may have a high level of accuracy but be too crude to be useful. For example, if the incidence of category A is dominant, being found in 99% of cases, then predicting that every case is category A will have an accuracy of 99%. Precision and recall are better measures in such cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277379",
"title": "Margin of error",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Like confidence intervals, the margin of error can be defined for any desired confidence level, but usually a level of 90%, 95% or 99% is chosen (typically 95%). This level is the confidence that a margin of error around the reported percentage would include the \"true\" percentage. Hence, for example, we can be confident, at the 95% level, that out of every 100 simple random samples taken from a given population, 95 of them will contain the true percentage or other statistic under investigation, within the margin of error associated with each. Along with the confidence level, the sample design for a survey, and in particular its sample size, determines the magnitude of the margin of error. A larger sample size produces a smaller margin of error, all else remaining equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41932",
"title": "Accuracy and precision",
"section": "Section::::Common technical definition.:Quantification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "A common convention in science and engineering is to express accuracy and/or precision implicitly by means of significant figures. Here, when not explicitly stated, the margin of error is understood to be one-half the value of the last significant place. For instance, a recording of 843.6 m, or 843.0 m, or 800.0 m would imply a margin of 0.05 m (the last significant place is the tenths place), while a recording of 8436 m would imply a margin of error of 0.5 m (the last significant digits are the units).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277379",
"title": "Margin of error",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Margin of error is usually defined as the \"radius\" (or half the width) of a confidence interval for a particular statistic from a survey. One example is the percent of people who prefer product A versus product B. When a single, global margin of error is reported for a survey, it refers to the maximum margin of error for all reported percentages using the full sample from the survey. If the statistic is a percentage, this maximum margin of error can be calculated as the radius of the confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277379",
"title": "Margin of error",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The margin of error has been described as an \"absolute\" quantity, equal to a confidence interval radius for the statistic. For example, if the true value is 50 percentage points, and the statistic has a confidence interval radius of five percentage points, then we say the margin of error is five percentage points. As another example, if the true value is 50 people, and the statistic has a confidence interval radius of five people, then we might say the margin of error is five people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277379",
"title": "Margin of error",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Maximum and specific margins of error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In other words, the maximum margin of error is the radius of a 95% confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50%. If \"p\" moves away from 50%, the confidence interval for \"p\" will be shorter. Thus, the maximum margin of error represents an upper bound to the uncertainty; one is \"at least\" 95% certain that the \"true\" percentage is within the maximum margin of error of a reported percentage for any reported percentage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277379",
"title": "Margin of error",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The margin of error is a statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results. The larger the margin of error, the less confidence one should have that the poll's reported results are close to the \"true\" figures; that is, the figures for the whole population. The margin of error is positive whenever a population is incompletely sampled and the outcome measure has positive variance (that is, it varies).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vgiyq
|
in the u.s. why are female locker rooms (showers etc.) so private when male locker rooms are almost always wide open practically forcing young boys and men into group showering etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "As a guy who found the shower situation in highschool to be extremely awkward, I think men are just raised to be cool with it. I was never cool with it but my class mates had absolutely no problem with it. I was unaware the girls showers were different. We had a square room with shower heads lining the walls, I thought it was normal and I was the weird one for not being okay with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5048086",
"title": "Unisex public toilet",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Supporters of single-sex toilets point to the specific needs of women, such as menstrual hygiene, and argue that these require sex-segregation in public toilets, for reasons of personal comfort and privacy, and this is especially true for teenage girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9084874",
"title": "Female urinal",
"section": "Section::::Problems with implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "However, it is questionable whether the lower level of privacy compared to conventional toilets would be accepted by the general public. Due to socio-cultural conventions, the open use of urinals by men/boys in front of women/girls would likely create awkwardness for both genders and would seem strange and contrary to common morals and etiquette for many users. There are even more practical issues for females, such as women/girls needing toilet paper, having to lower their pants, and sometimes tending to their menstrual hygiene needs while going to the toilet for urination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167644",
"title": "Toilet",
"section": "Section::::Public toilet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Depending on the culture, there may be varying degrees of separation between men and women and different levels of privacy. Typically, the entire room, or a stall or cubicle containing a toilet, is lockable. Urinals, if present in a men's toilet is typically mounted on a wall with or without a divider between them. In the most basic form, a public toilet maybe not much more than an open latrine. Another form is a street urinal known as a \"pissoir\", after the French term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45466513",
"title": "Sauna in the Dutch language area",
"section": "Section::::Public saunas.:Sauna etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Toilet rooms are always gender separated, but dressing and locker rooms are usually mixed gender. Keeping one's clothes or bathing suit on is forbidden. It is considered inappropriate and unsanitary, therefore it is good manners to undress. Nudity is the norm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5048086",
"title": "Unisex public toilet",
"section": "Section::::Designs.:Building-related advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Women/girls often spend more time in toilet rooms than men/boys, both for physiological and cultural reasons. The requirement to use a cubicle rather than a urinal means that urination takes longer and sanitation is a far greater issue, often requiring more thorough hand washing. Females also make more visits to toilets. Urinary tract infections and incontinence are more common in females. Pregnancy, menstruation, breastfeeding, and diaper-changing increase usage. The elderly, who are disproportionately female, take longer and more frequent toilet visits. Unisex public toilets can alleviate this problem by providing equal sanitation space for all genders, eliminating the prospect of unused cubicles in the male toilets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3808439",
"title": "Potty parity",
"section": "Section::::Sex differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Women/girls often spend more time in washrooms than men/boys, both for physiological and cultural reasons. The requirement to use a cubicle rather than a urinal means urination takes longer and hand washing must be done more thoroughly. Females also make more visits to washrooms. Urinary tract infections and incontinence are more common in females. Pregnancy, menstruation, breastfeeding, and diaper-changing increase usage. The elderly, who are disproportionately female, take longer and more frequent bathroom visits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233241",
"title": "Unisex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Hair stylists and beauty salons that serve both men and women are often referred to as unisex. This is also typical of other services and products that had traditionally been separated by sexes, such as clothing shops or beauty products. Public toilets are commonly sex segregated but if that is not the case, they are referred to as unisex public toilets. Unisex clothing includes garments like T-shirts; versions of other garments may be tailored for the different fits depending on one's sex, such as jeans. The sharing of a pool, beach or other water or recreational facility by swimmers and others of various sexes is commonly referred to as mixed bathing. 'Mates' was the first unisex store created by Irvine Sellar in England. When a school admits students of various sexes, it may be called coeducational or a mixed-sex school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
465wv3
|
what will happen with opec planning to halt production? how does it affect oil prices? who is winning and losing?
|
[
{
"answer": "No one is planning to halt production. Saudi Arabia and Russia have agreed to freeze production at current levels. Considering Russia is already running 100% production and Saudi Arabia is damn near 100% and neither Iraq nor Iran will agree to the freeze it is unlikely to mean much of anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Picture this oil gig as one big race, where different oil producing nations are runners.\n\nRight now, some nations are much faster than others - because they can produce at lower costs. Saudi Arabia (the Usain Bolt of oil production) and Iran (also probably very fast - and a newcomer to the race- previously kept out by sanctions, who is going to run extra hard in an effort to catch up) just about lead the pack. Also, they *really* hate each other, which means both are very keen for the other not to win and would love to see their enemy fail.\n\nBut neither of them are going to agree to slow down and allow their slower rivals to catch up and possibly overtake them. They both want other nations to drop out of the race because global interest in this race is waning (fewer people can afford to go, and people are starting to test out other sports - which may someday render the oil race obsolete). Both Saudi Arabia and Iran want fewer nations in this race, to increase their own chances.\n\nAny country that slows down (by cutting production) right now risks being left far behind - and during a similar race in the 80s this is exactly what happened to Saudi Arabia. It was part of a team (OPEC) and they all agreed to run at similar speeds, except it turned out all but the Saudis cheated, and so the Saudis were left far behind in the dust. They ran like mad to catch up, and eventually overtook the others and regained their position, at great cost (oil plunged to $10 a barrel - down from over $100).\n\nSo - no one is going to agree to a cut (they haven't actually agreed to anything in this \"historic OPEC/Russia summit\" except to \"freeze production\" at already record highs and only if Iran comes to the table. Iran has made certain comments suggesting it \"supports\" the deal, but won't participate in it - which is really just waffle. They're really just saying they don't disagree with it - and what could they do if they did? They 'welcome' the deal but have no intention to be part of it, and will not cap their own output, which is about to flood an already flooded market. So we are *firmly* on square one - and if anything we've gone backwards as it very firmly demonstrates an agreement on this is a pipe dream). Really all any of these countries agreeing to a freeze have done (and by the way they've only agreed to one if other countries agree) is rephrased \"we're not going to cut production\" and paid a bit of lip service to their competitors. Also, even if all of OPEC and Russia did freeze, that's a whisker over 50% of the global market - so if other countries don't agree to cut (and let's face it, that's not feasible) nothing useful will come of this but those countries who refuse gaining ground.\n\nCountries like Russia and Venezuela are only calling for a cut now because they are some of the slower members in this race, and are dangerously close to falling behind their break-even prices. And at the end of the day, none of that matters - because a race is a race. Saudi Arabia and Iran would be beyond stupid to slow down now. They want to win.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15190990",
"title": "Megacorpstate",
"section": "Section::::OPEC stability and performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "OPEC claims to generate profits for oil firms by adjusting the petroleum supply and supporting prices. However, the strategy does not help it to substantially dominate the Megacorpstate in order to obtain gradual rise of income and revenues. If the organization decides to adjust supply to increase revenues, the nation states will benefit from temporary gain and simultaneously give rise to macroeconomic variation. Nevertheless, the greater effect of this action will be deceleration of the world economy. If OPEC's oil economy becomes unstable, then the oil production of the member nations may become unstable as well. Hence some nations might choose to quit the organization in order to stabilize their oil sectors. Since OPEC is the dominant entity in the Megacorpstate, fluctuations in its performance will affect the market accordingly. For example, with the increase of its revenue stability, the stability of the market will increase and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4254825",
"title": "1998 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- June 24: OPEC agrees, at its 105th ministerial conference, to another round of oil production cuts. In recent weeks oil prices have fallen to their lowest levels in more than a decade. OPEC members have agreed to cut production by , effective July 1, 1998, bringing the group's total reductions since March 1998 to . Together with promises from non-OPEC nations such as Russia, Oman, and Mexico, world oil producers have pledged to cut worldwide production by approximately . (WP) (WSJ) (NYT)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6021018",
"title": "1990–99 world oil market chronology",
"section": "Section::::1998.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- June 24: OPEC agrees, at its 105th ministerial conference, to another round of oil production cuts. In recent weeks oil prices have fallen to their lowest levels in more than a decade. OPEC members have agreed to cut production by , effective July 1, 1998, bringing the group's total reductions since March 1998 to . Together with promises from non-OPEC nations such as Russia, Oman, and Mexico, world oil producers have pledged to cut worldwide production by approximately . (WP) (WSJ) (NYT)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166346",
"title": "OPEC",
"section": "Section::::History and impact.:2014–2017 oil glut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In spite of global oversupply, on 27 November 2014 in Vienna, Saudi Oil Minister Ali Al-Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices. Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself competitively at lower price levels, strategically rebuilding OPEC's long-term market share by ending the profitability of high-cost US shale oil production. As he explained in an interview:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21152128",
"title": "2001 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "November 14 At its meeting in Vienna, Austria, OPEC announces that it intends to cut its crude oil output quotas by per day effective January 1, but only if non-OPEC producers cut their output by per day as well. The production cuts are an effort to steady or raise world oil prices, which have fallen markedly since September. (DJ)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4255339",
"title": "2004 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "BULLET::::- March 31: OPEC members unanimously agree to implement the cartel’s oil production cuts effective April 1, as agreed to in February. Relatively high prices for oil and petroleum products had prompted several consuming countries, including the United States, to suggest that OPEC members vote to postpone the cuts and put downward pressure on oil prices. According to the cartel’s official communiqué following the meeting, “Notwithstanding prevailing high prices, the Conference observed that the crude oil market remains more than well supplied as the world moves into the traditionally lower seasonal demand period.” (Reuters)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21152128",
"title": "2001 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "July 3 At a meeting of its oil ministers, OPEC agrees to maintain current production quotas. Ministers indicate that, if Iraqi oil returns to the market, they may cut production in response to maintain their desired level of prices. (WP)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62w1df
|
why aren't our pupils always dilated so that we see more all the time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stare into a bright light. How much can you see?\n\nWhen your pupils dilate it is to allow more light into your eyes. Letting in more light in dark situations helps you see better, but letting in more light in a bright situation makes it harder to see and can damage your eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pupils dilate to let more light in, that only means you see more if you are in an area with dim lighting. If you are in an area with bright lighting it means you will see less because you will be blinded. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223840",
"title": "Oculesics",
"section": "Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pupil dilation - Pupil dilation may be harder to detect by most people. Sexual desire may be a cause of such dilation. It may also be an indication of attraction. Physiologically, eyes dilate when it is darker to let in more light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16303126",
"title": "Pupillary response",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The \"latency\" of pupillary response (the time in which it takes to occur) increases with age. Use of central nervous system stimulant drugs and some hallucinogenic drugs can cause dilation of the pupil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74819",
"title": "Pupil",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "One explanation for the evolution of slit pupils is that they can exclude light more effectively than a circular pupil. This would explain why slit pupils tend to be found in the eyes of animals with a crepuscular or nocturnal lifestyle that need to protect their eyes during daylight. Constriction of a circular pupil (by a ring-shaped muscle) is less complete than closure of a slit pupil, which uses two additional muscles that laterally compress the pupil. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2527053",
"title": "Kurt Goldstein",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Professional career.:Holistic approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "If, in examining a man's pupillary reflex, we obtain a relatively constant contraction of the iris, this is possible only because the individual, so to speak, surrenders his eye to us and completely foregoes the usual act of seeing, i.e. the visual prehension of some environmental feature. Of course, it is true that in real vision the diameter of the pupil changes according to the amount of light on the seen object. But it certainly is not true that the same light intensity will produce the same contraction when it affects the organ in isolation (as in the reflex examination), and when it acts upon the eye of the person who deliberately regards an objects. Although it is not easy to prove this experimentally, one only needs to contrast the pupillary reaction of a man looking interestedly at a brightly illuminated object with the reaction of an eye which has been exposed \"in isolation,\" to the same light intensity. The difference in pupillary reaction is immediately manifest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16303126",
"title": "Pupillary response",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "A dilation response (mydriasis), is the widening of the pupil and may be caused by adrenaline, anticholinergic agents or drugs such as MDMA, cocaine, amphetamines, dissociatives and some hallucinogenics. Dilation of the pupil occurs when the smooth cells of the radial muscle, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939670",
"title": "Iris dilator muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The pupillary dilator acts to increase the size of the pupil to allow more light to enter the eye. It works in opposition to the pupillary constrictor. Pupil dilation occurs when there is insufficient light for the normal function of the eye, and during heightened sympathetic activity, for example in the \"fight or flight reflex.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3976105",
"title": "Pupilometer",
"section": "Section::::Pupillary Distance Measurement in Ophthamology.:Pupil response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The extent of dilation of the pupil in the eye could be an indicator of interest and attention. Methods of reliable measurement of cognitive load, such as the dilation or constriction of the pupils, are used in marketing research to assess the attractiveness of TV commercials. Dilation of the pupils reflects an increase in mental processes, whether it be attentiveness, or psychomotor responsiveness. The pupil response has also been found to reflect long-term memory processes both at encoding, predicting the success of memory formation, and at retrieval reflecting the operation of different recognition outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6rq8s0
|
how can there be cameras with large resolutions like 42mp and be just a couple thousand dollars, yet a video camera of that resolution be $40-70,000? why does it seem to be so much more difficult to make?
|
[
{
"answer": " Take your phone into a dim room and take a picture. Now take a video. The picture will be brighter and more detailed even though it's using the exact same sensor. It requires a lot more light sensitivity to take 30 pictures a second than one picture. \n\nIt also takes a lot faster data transfer. (Even if you set your phone to save photos on an SD card, videos will still be recorded on the faster phone memory and transferred later) one photo can fit on a small memory chip and slowly transfer to the removable card. A video doesn't have that luxury because there are continual pictures coming. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sensor size isn't the most important feature of a camera. The optics and the data processing are typically more important. As evidenced by OP's question, large sensor sizes can be made relatively inexpensively but the rest of the features are costly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sensor size + quality (greatly contributes to how much light is being captured by camera), DRAM (How many frames you can shoot per second: the camera has to process the images, so you can't take 5000fps videos even if your smartphone can have a shutter speed of 1/5000s)\n\nRED is also known to be quite expensive",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286567",
"title": "5K resolution",
"section": "Section::::History.:First camera with 5K video capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Some photographic still cameras such as DSLRs can exceed 5K resolution when capturing still images, but not when capturing video. For example, the Canon EOS 5D Mark IV announced in August 2016 has a maximum resolution of 67204480 pixels (around 30 megapixels in a 3:2 aspect ratio) which is used for high resolution still images, but it can only capture video at a maximum of 40962160 and a framerate of 30 Hz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41060696",
"title": "Phantom (high-speed camera brand)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The Phantom v2512, the company's fastest camera as of August 2018, can record video at over 25,000 frames per second (fps) at its full one megapixel resolution, and up to one million frames per second at a reduced resolution of 256 x 32 pixels. The Phantom v2640 records 6,600 fps at its full resolution of four megapixels, and 12,500 fps at full HD resolution. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47955274",
"title": "FASTCAM Super 10K",
"section": "Section::::Overview and features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "The FASTCAM Super 10k native resolution is 512 x 480 pixels x 8 bits at 250 FPS. By reducing the resolution, the frame rate for recording can be increased. As an example, 1000 FPS is achieved with a resolution of 256 x 240 pixels at 8 bits. The 10,000 FPS requires the resolution be reduced to 128 x 34 pixels at 8 bits. The FASTCAM Super 10K came with three different memory storages capabilities. The Processor could hold either 128 MB, 384 MB or 512 MB. With the maximum memory, the camera can record 2,184 images or 8.73 seconds of record time at 250 FPS. Digital image data could be read from the Processor through a SCSI interface. Live video images could be displayed on NTSC or PAL monitors. Ancillary information would be display as OSD (On-Screen-Data). The camera cable could be up to 16m from the Processor. The system could be controlled from a computer through an RS-232 interface sending simple ASCII commands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004947",
"title": "Digital camera back",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The resolution of digital camera backs (in 2017, up to 101 megapixels, IQ3 100) is higher than any fixed sensor digital camera (in 2017, up to 51 megapixels, Hasselblad X1D). and captures more detail per pixel due to the omission of an anti-aliasing filter. Each pixel is also able to capture more dynamic range due to higher quality electronics and larger pixel pitch. The use of active cooling systems such as internal fans and Peltier effect electric cooling systems also contributes to image quality. The Sinar eXact creates images in excess of 1 GB in multi-shot mode from a 49 MB sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48409301",
"title": "FASTCAM Ultima 40K",
"section": "Section::::Overview and features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "The FASTCAM Ultima 40K native resolution is 256 x 256 pixels x 8 bits at 4,500 FPS. By reducing the resolution, the frame rate for recording can be increased. As an example, 40,500 FPS is achieved with a resolution of 64 x 64 pixels at 8 bits. The FASTCAM Ultima 40K processor came with three memory configurations that allowed full frame storage of 8192 images (512 MB), 16,384 images (1GB) or 24,576 images (1.5 GB). At 4,500 fps and maximum memory, the recording time is 5.46 seconds. The Ultima 40K image sensor reads images in blocks which is commonly called a Block Readout sensor. The image sensor is divided into 16 blocks where each block is 256 x 16 pixels. And within one block, one half to one fourth of the block can be partially read out. Digital image data could be read from the Processor through a SCSI interface. Live video images could be displayed on NTSC or PAL monitors. Ancillary information would be display as OSD (On-Screen-Data). The camera cable could be up to 15m from the Processor. The system could be controlled from a computer through an RS-232 interface sending simple ASCII commands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42474866",
"title": "Stereo photography techniques",
"section": "Section::::Types of photography.:Digital photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Newer cameras, such as the Fuji W3, can also be used to shoot full motion 480P video at up 30 frames per second or 720P video at 24 frames per second, thus making amateur 3D video possible. Some cameras can also take images that greatly exceed HDTV resolution at up to ten pictures per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50687117",
"title": "Video management system",
"section": "Section::::Additional capabilities.:Pan tilt zoom control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Digital PTZ has become very common as network cameras have increased in resolution to beyond 1080P. It is no longer possible to directly view all the pixels of some high resolution cameras even with a 4K computer monitor, and digital zooming is required to see the fine detail being captured by the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
681wvm
|
How wide are rainbows if we consider all wavelengths?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has been asked before: _URL_0_\n\nThe gist of it is that water absorbs most light below about 200nm and above perhaps 2000nm, so the edges of the rainbow beyond the visible spectrum start to get dimmer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Supernumerary rainbows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Supernumerary rainbows cannot be explained using classical geometric optics. The alternating faint bands are caused by interference between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in phase, reinforcing each other through constructive interference, creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through destructive interference, and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of uniform size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the wave nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by Thomas Young in 1804.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "From above the earth such as in an aeroplane, it is sometimes possible to see a rainbow as a full circle. This phenomenon can be confused with the glory phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Rainbows span a continuous spectrum of colours. Any distinct bands perceived are an artefact of human colour vision, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photo of a rainbow, only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maximum, then fading towards the other side. For colours seen by the human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, remembered by the mnemonic \"Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain\" (ROYGBIV).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Physics of color.:Spectral colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The familiar colors of the [[rainbow]] in the [[Optical spectrum|spectrum]]—named using the [[Latin]] word for \"appearance\" or \"apparition\" by [[Isaac Newton]] in 1671—include all those colors that can be produced by [[visible light]] of a single wavelength only, the [[spectral color|\"pure spectral\" or \"monochromatic\" colors]]. The table at right shows approximate frequencies (in [[hertz|terahertz]]) and wavelengths (in [[nanometre|nanometers]]) for various pure spectral colors. The wavelengths listed are as measured in air or [[vacuum]] (see [[refractive index]]).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28779877",
"title": "Atmospheric optics",
"section": "Section::::Rainbow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "A rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colors; the distinct bands (including the number of bands) are an artifact of human color vision, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photograph of a rainbow (only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maxima, then fading to a minima at the other side of the arc). For colors seen by a normal human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence, in English, is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet (popularly memorized by mnemonics like Roy G. Biv). However, color-blind persons will see fewer colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "The colour pattern of a rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow owing to the fact that for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle. In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.5°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of a rainbow (2°). Further red of the first supplementary rainbow overlaps the violet of the primary rainbow, so rather than the final colour being a variant of spectral violet, it is actually a purple. The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are particularly large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of a rainbow is variable. If, however, the word \"rainbow\" is used inaccurately to mean \"spectrum\", it is the number of main colours in the spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "924103",
"title": "42nd Infantry Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Rainbow unit insignia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Description: The 4th quadrant of a rainbow with three bands of color: red, gold and blue, each 3/8 inch (.95 cm) in width, outer radius 2 inches (5.08 cm); all within a 1/8 inch (.32 cm) Army green border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
au1umt
|
why dont car batteries need recharging?
|
[
{
"answer": "The alternator uses engine power to charge it while you’re driving. So it is being recharged, but you don’t need to plug it in. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They actually do have to be recharged, and they get recharged while the car is running by a belt moved by what's called the \"alternator\". \n\nHere's a video made by an overly excited guy who does a really great job explaining everything in more detail: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The alternator recharged them but it works by converting the engines movement into electricity to charge the battery. Which is why the battery can die if you leave your lights on while not moving",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The engine constantly charges them while driving along. As long as you have a decent battery and don't leave electrics running for long periods while stationary that's enough to keep it fully charged. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Secondary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164345",
"title": "Automotive battery",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery (ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42027862",
"title": "Rechargeable fuel battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "These batteries could allow electric cars to travel 500 miles before recharging. Replacing the liquid electrodes could only take a few minutes while recharging batteries takes much longer. These batteries don't have the problems of short circuits and overheating. The downsides are that nanoparticles degrade quickly, the technology is new and needs more development, they need to focus on cheaper production, and refilling stations would cost a lot to build.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201487",
"title": "Rechargeable battery",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157736",
"title": "Hybrid vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Engine type.:Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Some battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16105212",
"title": "Battery electric vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Vehicles by type.:Electric cars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed, the lower specific energy of production batteries available in 2015 compared with carbon-based fuels means that electric cars need batteries that are fairly large fraction of the vehicle mass but still often give relatively low range between charges. Recharging can also take significant lengths of time. For journeys within a single battery charge, rather than long journeys, electric cars are practical forms of transportation and can be recharged overnight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8tpl4i
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Andrew Revkin, the strategic advisor for environmental and science journalism at the National Geographic Society-AMA!
|
[
{
"answer": "I feel like [this article](_URL_0_) from 2010 was a wake-up call to the poor state of science journalism. Do you think things have gotten better or worse since then?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How, from your experience, has the awareness and care about the climate and the environment changed in individuals over the last 30 years? Is the amount of people (even very influencial ones) saying climate change is a hoax an increasing trend, or is that just an effect of the current means of communication that has made it so much easier for people to reach an audience with their (informed or uninformed) opinions? (To illustrate, until about 5 years ago i had never heard anyone question climate change). Thank you for your work and doing this AMA, in my humble opinion you are definitely worth more to the environment alive than dead if it is any consolidation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is one thing that regular people don't realize is a major problem and what can they do to help solve it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What’s a very special element of your job that not many other jobs have? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How has Fox's purchase of NG affected the culture? Have we missed out on any stories due to the new management rejecting certain narratives? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can you describe the planning and bureaucracy that has gone into your work, and/or the major complications that prevent you from doing more for your work?\n\nWhat research/ers do you have an ill bias towards and why?\n\nEveryone’s heard of global warming and climate change, but as someone who hasn’t been well informed, what significant changes and/or developments have been found that aren’t highlighted enough in media, and can you provide names or links to find out more about them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The chlorofluorocarbon ban shows that the world *can* come together and really do something - the ozone hole is recovering. What do you think is the chance that something similar will happen with climate change in the next decades?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are some of the most drastic changes you’ve seen over your years of reporting, either in terms of environmental changes or attitudes towards the environment? Has anything surprised you? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi there, thanks for doing this AMA! After 30 years in the field, where do you think the future of climate change and environmental communication is headed, especially as we continue into tougher times?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would you most like to tell us that no one has asked about? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think journalists should be neutral or objective?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who's been your favorite climate scientist to interview over the years and why? What makes for a good interview in your opinion?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think for many scientists, science journalism is an important part of making the case for the necessity and importance of science to the public; which hopefully motivates science funding \n\nWith the changes to journalism and print of the past two decades (social media, shifts in funding structure, decline in total market), do you think the realtionship between scientists, science journalists, and the public has changed? Does it need to evolve further? I would love to hear how you percieve both the upsides and the downsides of how these relationships have evolved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the single most impactful thing I can personally do in the fight against climate change? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What was the most effective thing you've done that you think changed people's minds about a science issue? \n\nOr--what's the most effective thing you've seen, that should be replicated on other hot [so to speak] topics?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see this as a hopeless, unsolvable problem. Too many of the global-scale changes that apparently need to happen immediately would result in entities accustomed to making billions and billions and billions and billions of dollars from fossil fuels having to settle for merely making billions and billions and billions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think we will be able to solve the problem of climate change , and how we should do it ? And what must be the responsibility of current journos and social media influencer in the same ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks, all, for tuning in. Here at the Aspen Ideas Festival, I have to go interview Brock Long, the director of FEMA. Stay in touch via @revkin on Twitter or follow [me on Facebook here.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37876",
"title": "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",
"section": "Section::::Organizational structure.:NOAA Services.:Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "NOAA's research, conducted through the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services that protect life and property and promote economic growth. Research, conducted in OAR laboratories and by extramural programs, focuses on enhancing our understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes, hurricanes, climate variability, solar flares, changes in the ozone, air pollution transport and dispersion, El Niño/La Niña events, fisheries productivity, ocean currents, deep sea thermal vents, and coastal ecosystem health. NOAA research also develops innovative technologies and observing systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2080106",
"title": "Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth. Research, conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA, focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes, hurricanes, climate variability, changes in the ozone layer, El Niño/La Niña events, fisheries productivity, ocean currents, deep sea thermal vents, and coastal ecosystem health. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4772569",
"title": "Environmental Media Services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Their primary activities include holding forums that bring scientists knowledgeable in current environmental issues together with journalists, providing web hosting and support for environmental issues sites like RealClimate, and providing recommendations to journalists trying to locate experts knowledgeable on environmental topics. They also issue press releases related to environmental issues and provide an aggregation service that disseminates recent news on environmental topics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37914572",
"title": "Michelle Nijhuis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Michelle Nijhuis (born 7 January 1974) is an American science journalist who writes about conservation and climate change for many publications, including \"National Geographic\" and \"Smithsonian\" magazines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44779579",
"title": "David Lopez-Carr",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "His current research focuses on links among population, health, rural development, agriculture, and marine and forest resource use and conservation. He has ongoing projects in Latin America, Africa, and Asia and has collaborated with conservation and development organizations including WWF, CI, TNC, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). He was a lead author on the “Land” and ‘’Drivers’’ chapters for the United Nations Environment Program’s (UNEP) Global Environmental Outlook (Geo-5) published as the UN’s position statement for the Rio de Janeiro 2012 World Summit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13416974",
"title": "Environmental Research Letters",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Environmental Research Letters is a quarterly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal covering research on all aspects of environmental science. It is published by IOP Publishing. The editor-in-chief is Daniel Kammen (University of California, Berkeley).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18295502",
"title": "Richard E. Benedick",
"section": "Section::::Environmental affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "Since 1994 Dr. Benedick has also been President of the National Council for Science and the Environment, an organization of about 500 universities, scientific societies, industry and civic groups dedicated to improving the scientific basis for environmental decision making. He is concurrently Visiting Fellow since 1995 at the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (Social Science Research Center). His acclaimed book, Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (Harvard University Press, 1991, enlarged ed. 1998; Japanese ed. 1999), was selected by McGraw-Hill Education for an anthology of twentieth-century environmental classics and is used in universities throughout the world. He has lectured at about 80 professional bodies and universities, serves on several boards, and is consulted by international agencies, governments, foundations and industry. He has organized and/or presided over numerous international conferences and negotiations on environment, development, population, and science policy. In 2005, he served on the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Analysis of Global Change Assessments. He currently focuses on climate policy and has promoted the concept of “an architecture of parallel regimes.” He is regularly cited by U.S. and international media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24jiw1
|
What kind of sounds does a human fetus hear in the womb?
|
[
{
"answer": "Babies hear the lower end of the frequency spectrum when they're in the womb. They can get a lot out of that, though. Byers-Heinlein 2010 presents some compelling evidence that newborns of bilingual mothers actually come out of the womb with an ability to distinguish their mother's two languages. They can do that because even when you filter out frequencies above 200-300 Hz, the frequencies that really contain most of the information we need to process speech, there is still find a lot of stuff particular to certain languages or speakers. You can distinguish between voiced stuff (vowels, consonants like d, z, n, r, l) and not-voiced stuff (consonants like t, s). You get intonational contours and pause durations, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Human fetuses are basically floating in a shallow pond, so sounds are filtered both by the abdominal wall and the impedance difference between air and water. In effect, they are living in a low-pass filtered environment. (This is why as rusoved noted, they can hear voiced sounds, but not unvoiced sounds. Voice sounds have most of their energy in lower frequency harmonics near the fundamentals.) This allows them to hear either very loud lower frequency sounds from the external environment, or similar frequency sounds (but with a much broader sensitivity range) coming directly from the mother. This includes some speech sounds, respiratory and heartbeat sounds and other internal sounds like borborygmy. \n\nHowever they absolutely *cannot* hear ultrasound. Ultrasonic examination uses sounds in the megacycle range. The \"swimming away\" motion referred to by opalrising has nothing to do with hearing and if it happens at all may be due to deformation of the uterine wall from pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3129020",
"title": "Prenatal perception",
"section": "Section::::Prenatal hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Numerous studies have found evidence indicating a fetus's ability to respond to auditory stimuli. Research indicates that fetuses of 33–41 weeks gestational age can not only hear, but also distinguish their mothers' voices from others. See also a UK study on child's \"Hearing and listening in the womb\": and UK material on \"How babies develop hearing\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Sound modality.:Sound stimuli and human fetuses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "A number of studies have shown that a human fetus will respond to sound stimuli coming from the outside world. In a series of 214 tests conducted on 7 pregnant women, a reliable increase in fetal movement was detected in the minute directly following the application of a sound stimulus to the abdomen of the mother with a frequency of 120 per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4450529",
"title": "Health effects from noise",
"section": "Section::::Child physical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "According to Lester W. Sontag of The Fels Research Institute (as presented in the same EPA study): “There is ample evidence that environment has a role in shaping the physique, behavior, and function of animals, including man, from conception and not merely from birth. The fetus is capable of perceiving sounds and responding to them by motor activity and cardiac rate change.\" The effects of noise exposure are highest when it occurs between 15 and 60 days after conception, a period in which major internal organs and the central nervous system are formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2190913",
"title": "Prenatal development",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "There is evidence that the acquisition of language begins in the prenatal stage. After 26 weeks of gestation, the peripheral auditory system is already fully formed. Also, most low-frequency sounds (less than 300 HZ) can reach the fetal inner ear in the womb of mammals. Those low-frequency sounds include pitch, rhythm, and phonetic information related to language. Studies have indicated that fetuses react to and recognize differences between sounds. Such ideas are further reinforced by the fact that newborns present a preference for their mother’s voice, present behavioral recognition of stories only heard during gestation, and (in monolingual mothers) present preference for their native language. A more recent study with EEG demonstrated different brain activation in newborns hearing their native language compared to when they were presented with a different language, further supporting the idea that language learning starts while in gestation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101970",
"title": "Tinnitus",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The sound perceived may range from a quiet background noise to one that can be heard even over loud external sounds. The specific type of tinnitus called pulsatile tinnitus is characterized by hearing the sounds of one's own pulse or muscle contractions, which is typically a result of sounds that have been created by the movement of muscles near to one's ear, or the sounds are related to blood flow of the neck or face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9014",
"title": "Developmental psychology",
"section": "Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.:Infant perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hearing is well-developed prior to birth, unlike vision. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages. Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb. Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101970",
"title": "Tinnitus",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Tinnitus can be perceived in one or both ears or in the head. It is the description of a noise inside a person’s head in the absence of auditory stimulation. The noise can be described in many different ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j99br
|
Concerning the SR-71 Blackbird: What did the USSR know about the plane? What did they think it was capable of? Did they attempt any similar designs of their own?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might consider asking r/aviation too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Finally something I can help answer! My senior thesis was done on the A-12 program. \n\nSo firstly, I need to mention that the SR-71 was a variant of the A-12 Oxcart program developed by Lockheed for the CIA. Most of my information is coming from the development of the A-12.\n\nFor your first question. The USSR was aware of the capabilities of the SR-71 as a result over overhead satellite reconnaissance that the Soviet Union carried out over important military installations. In this case being the Nevada Test and Training Range and Groom Lake. Around 1964 the Ambassador to the USSR in Moscow was given a sketch of the A-12's top down silhouette that had been drawn after space based infa-red cameras had gotten a picture on the runway. (Interesting note. The ground crews would draw absurd plane shapes on the runway and heat them up with lamps to mess with Soviet intelligence when the A-12 project was temporarily grounded after this incident) \n\nThe soviets also had a trawler monitoring A-12 reconnaissance flights leaving Japan during overflight of Vietnam and North Korea during the USS Pueblo incident. The Advanced notice of the trawler allowed SAM crews in Vietnam to successfully track the A-12s overflight even though they couldn't engage it.\n\nCan't speak on 2 or 3 because I don't know that much about soviet black projects. But there was an incident before the Gary Powers shoot down where Khrushchev threatened to shoot down the next U-2 that the CIA sent over Russia.\n\nStealth edit while I sit in the waiting room of the dentist. There actually was a nuclear interceptor variant of the blackbird ordered by the air force known as the YF-12 that would have carried 2 nuclear weapons. The initial order of 12 was either included in the first batch or SR-71s or canceled in favor of the 71. Its difficult to find any information on them other than that it was planned.\n\nSources are from the Official CIA release of A-12 program documents. [link](_URL_0_)\n\nI will be happy to answer other questions relating to this wonderful plane. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Modified from an [earlier answer on Soviet aerial reconnaissance](_URL_0_)\n\nCompared to the US, the Soviets' recce aircraft were largely converted or modified versions of frontline aircraft. The Yak-25RV, for example, took the Yak-25 interceptor and added a longer straight wing for high-altitude reconnaissance. The resulting aircraft was less than satisfactory; its interceptor engines were too overpowered for the type of high-altitude work and could easily push the Yak-25RV past its safe speed limit. Yet for most of the 1960s the Yak-25RV was the only dedicated reconnaissance aircraft the Soviets deployed. It saw action over the Soviet borders in China, India, and Pakistan and Yak-25RV units were stationed in East Germany and Hungary, although they probably never overflew West Germany. The Soviets also modified Tu-16 bombers to serve as reconnaissance role. Two of the Badgers actually overflew a portion of southwest Alaska in March 1963 which prompted a the US to strengthen Alaska's air defenses. Tu-16s also performed maritime reconnaissance in the Atlantic and over Egypt. The Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB also developed several tactical reconnaissance versions of the MiG-21 with uprated engines. Because of the the limited size, these MiG-21s often had their recon equipment stored in a streamlined belly fairing. These versions of the venerable MiG became some of the backbone of tactical reconnaissance and saw action throughout the 1970s and 80s in the Middle East and in Afghanistan. In the former case, Arab pilots usually flew these missions, but sometimes the job would fall on the shoulders of Soviet advisers.\n\nThe most capable recon platform deployed by the Soviets was the multiple versions of the MiG-25. Unlike the Yak-25RV, the virtues of the MiG-25 as an interceptor greatly enhanced its role as a fast short-range reconnaissance aircraft. Development converting the Ye-155 into a reconnaissance aircraft started in 1961 and the lower nose had a interchangeable payload for different missions like photo recon or signals intelligence. The initial version, the MiG-25R, deployed to Egypt in the aftermath of the Six-Day War to give Egypt a strategic reconnaissance asset. Some commentators claim that early versions of the Foxbat might have flown over the Israeli Dimona nuclear reactor in May 1967. But Michael Oren argues that the aircraft in question were MiG-21s, while the book *Foxbats over Dimona* cites interviews that claim they were MiG-25s. That assertion rests on relatively thin evidence, especially given that had they been Mig-25s, they would have been prototypes of the reconnaissance models as the Soviets were still undergoing flight-testing at this stage. The famous July 1967 Moscow flypast were all relatively new prototypes. The later detachment to Egypt was a dedicated reconnaissance unit, the 63rd Independent Air Detachment (Det 63), and manned by experience Soviet personnel. Det 63 started sorties over Israel and the Sinai in May 1971 and evaded Israeli defenses, prompting a complaint by Israel to the UN about Soviet overflights. Det 63's successes was a vindication for the MiG-25 program and added impetus to developing the MiG-25R into a dual reconnaissance-strike aircraft, the MiG-25RB/K/RBSh. The Soviets would export MiG-25Rs to several client states and they saw action there. Iraq's MiG-25s provided the Iraqis much needed intelligence prior to its invasion of Kuwait. The Soviets also used the MiG-25 as in Afghanistan as well as patrolling the Soviet border and monitoring the Chinese.\n\nDespite these developments, there were a number of factors that mitigated against a manned reconnaissance program on the scale of the USAF and CIA. One problem working against the Soviets was a technological gap in aerospace. Although this narrowed over time, Soviet aerospace could not produce the aircraft with the performance (speed and range) equivalent to their US counterparts. For example, the MiG-25 became the basis for the main reconnaissance aircraft, and while its speed approached SR-71 levels, the MiG's range was quite terrible compared to either the U-2 or SR-71 (and to be fair, the MiG-25 was designed for a different purpose). The Soviets never developed the tanker infrastructure to support the global operations undertaken by the US. \n\nThe Soviets at one point in the early 1960s had an equivalent to the SR-71 in development, the Tsybin RSR. While not quite as bleeding edge as Lockheed's aircraft, the RSR was a large dedicated strategic reconnaissance aircraft. But the Tsybin design bureau ran afoul of both the Tupolev and Mikoyan bureaus who wanted to use the resources demanded by the development of the RSR. The failure of the RSR illustrates a structural hindrance to the development of a manned strategic reconnaissance program: the nature of Soviet military procurement. As it evolved in the 1930s and ossified in the Stalin Era, aerospace design bureaus had become powerful constituencies within the Soviet state. The state compounded this problem further by designating certain bureaus as their go-to for certain aircraft types (Tupolev= bombers, Sukhoi= ground attack/strike, Mikoyan = fighters, etc.). This squashed innovation to a degree, so a Soviet analogue to the Skunkworks had to fight an uphill battle against an entrenched bureaucracy. \n\nFinally, the Soviets, like the US, tended to shift towards satellite reconnaissance for overflights. This was partly because of the Soviet's intensive development of SAM systems rendered overflights very hazardous. Even the SR-71s did not risk direct overflights of the USSR, and while it could handle the SA-2s that downed Francis Gary Powers, the USAF brass was less confident that it could beat the 1970s generation of air defense missiles. In the runup for Operation Eldorado Canyon, there was a serious concern that the Libyan's SA-5s posed a risk to SR-71 operations. Although the SR-71 proved to be more than capable in Libya, there was a persistent concern in the 1980s that a skilled air defense network could defeat the SR-71. \n\n*Sources*\n\nButtler, Tony, and E. Gordon. *Soviet Secret Projects: Bombers Since 1945*. Leicester: Midland, 2004.\n\nCrickmore, Paul F. *Lockheed Blackbird: Beyond the Secret Missions*. Oxford: Osprey, 2004. \n\nGordon, Yefim. *MiG-25 'Foxbat', MiG-31 'Foxhound': Russia's Defensive Front Line*. Leicester: Aerofax, 1997.\n\n_. *Soviet Spyplanes of the Cold War*. London: Pen and Sword Aviation, 2013.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693886",
"title": "Korean Air Lines Flight 902",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "The Soviet Union refused to cooperate with international experts while they investigated the incident and did not provide any data from the plane's \"black box\". The airplane was dismantled and all equipment transferred by helicopter onto a barge in Kandalaksha Gulf. The deputy chief commanding officer of Soviet air defense, Yevgeniy Savitsky, personally inspected the aircraft's cockpit. The crew of Flight 902 blamed navigational error for the plane's course—passengers said that Kim had told them upon landing that he had suspected the aircraft's navigation equipment was in error but had followed it anyway; after being released from Soviet custody, navigator Lee said similarly that the navigational gyro had malfunctioned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30875037",
"title": "Project RAINBOW",
"section": "Section::::Early flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The U-2 was developed by Lockheed Aircraft Corporation for the CIA to perform aerial reconnaissance overflights of the Soviet Union. Project director Richard M. Bissell assured President Dwight Eisenhower that the aircraft's high altitude (70,000 feet) would render it invisible to Soviet radars. However, the earliest flights in July 1956 were, in fact, tracked. On 5 July, an A-100 \"Kama\" radar detected Carmine Vito as he flew over Smolensk, en route to Moscow. The operators even calculated his altitude as , which was later rejected by experts who did not believe that an aircraft could fly that high. S-25 Berkut missiles (NATO designation SA-1 Guild) were not kept at the air defense sites around Moscow, and no intercept was attempted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193885",
"title": "Boeing B-47 Stratojet",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Reconnaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The only B-47s to see anything that resembled combat were the aerial reconnaissance variants. The first overflight of Soviet territory with a B-47B, equipped \"with special radar and photographic cameras installed in the bomb bay,\" took place on 15 October 1952, when one flying out of Alaska overflew Soviet airfields in Northeastern Siberia. RB-47s operated from almost every airfield that gave them access to the USSR, and they often probed Soviet airspace. On occasion, their pilots were caught in situations from which they escaped mostly through speed and evasion. At least five of these aircraft were fired on, and three were shot down. The RB-47s fired back with their tail turrets, although it is uncertain if they scored any kills; these were the only shots fired in anger by any B-47.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35562491",
"title": "Antonov A-9",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Oleg Antonov had designed sailplanes since the early 1930s, most memorably the Red Front 7 which, flown by Olga Klepikova, set a world distance record of 749 km (466 mi) that stood from 1939 to 1951. The A-9 is seen as a development of that aircraft, though detailed information from this period of Soviet aviation is often limited. The fuselages and tail units of the two aircraft were very similar but the wings were quite different.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "562289",
"title": "Tupolev Tu-4",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.:First public appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The aircraft was first displayed during a flyover at the Aviation Day parade on 3 August 1947 at the Tushino Airport in Moscow. Three aircraft flew overhead. It was assumed that these were merely the three B-29 bombers that were known to have been diverted to the USSR during World War II. Minutes later a fourth aircraft appeared. Western analysts realized that the Soviets must have reverse-engineered the B-29. The appearance of an obviously Superfortress-derived Tu-70 transport over the crowd removed any doubt about the success of the reverse-engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8182",
"title": "Dwight D. Eisenhower",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1953–1961).:Foreign policy.:1960 U-2 incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that a \"spy-plane\" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a \"weather research aircraft\" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed \"difficulties with his oxygen equipment\" while flying over Turkey. The Soviets put Captain Powers on trial and displayed parts of the U-2, which had been recovered almost fully intact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20998880",
"title": "US signals intelligence in the Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Strategic SIGINT targeting of the USSR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "In the fifties, only aircraft platforms could obtain SIGINT over the USSR. A Soviet source pointed out that aircraft were of limited usefulness, due to being vulnerable to fighters and antiaircraft weapons. (Translator's estimate: in the period 1950-1969, about 15 US and NATO reconnaissance aircraft were shot down over the USSR, China, the GDR and Cuba). The US, therefore, undertook the WS-117L reconnaissance satellite project, approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1954, within which was a signal intercept subsystem under Project PIONEER FERRET. By 1959, WS-117L had split into three programs:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qq755
|
Why is it impossible for objects weighing less than 0.02 milligrams to form a black hole?
|
[
{
"answer": "A black hole of mass less than around .02 milligrams or so would have a Schwarzschild radius of around a Planck length or less. At this scale, general relativity cannot be trusted; we need a theory that incorporates general relativity and quantum field theory. Thus, at the very least, we can say that such a black hole could not be described by general relativity. \n\nBut we can go further. Quantum mechanics tells us that an object with such a mass would have a Compton wavelength greater than its Schwarzschild radius, which would make it not possible to constrain this mass to be in a small enough region to form a black hole. It is reasonable to expect this to hold even in the eventual quantum theory that incorporates gravity, and if so, that would preclude the formation of a black hole with such a mass.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "206115",
"title": "Schwarzschild radius",
"section": "Section::::Black hole classification by Schwarzschild radius.:Primordial black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A small mass has an extremely small Schwarzschild radius. A mass similar to Mount Everest has a Schwarzschild radius much smaller than a nanometre. Its average density at that size would be so high that no known mechanism could form such extremely compact objects. Such black holes might possibly be formed in an early stage of the evolution of the universe, just after the Big Bang, when densities were extremely high. Therefore, these hypothetical miniature black holes are called primordial black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23922614",
"title": "Primordial black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Since primordial black holes did not form from stellar gravitational collapse, their masses can be far below stellar mass (c. ). Hawking calculated that primordial black holes could weigh as little as .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37775617",
"title": "NGC 1277",
"section": "Section::::Supermassive black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "More recently, a new group made observations using the larger Keck Telescope with superior spatial resolution, and calculated that a black hole with mass fits best. Moreover, this value is an order of magnitude smaller than first reported by van den Bosch, and was noted to probably be an upper limit due to the edge-on rotating disk in NGC 1277.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37749068",
"title": "Extreme mass ratio inspiral",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Scientific potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The mass and angular momentum of the central object to an accuracy of 1 in 10,000.\" By gathering the statistics of the mass and angular momentum of a large number of supermassive black holes, it should be possible to answer questions about their formation. If the angular momentum of the supermassive black holes is large, then they probably acquired most of their mass by swallowing gas from their accretion disc. Moderate values of the angular momentum indicate that the object is most likely formed from the merger of several smaller objects with a similar mass, while low values indicate that the mass has grown by swallowing smaller objects coming in from random directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Evaporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "If a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. A black hole with the mass of a car would have a diameter of about 10 m and take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity of more than 200 times that of the Sun. Lower-mass black holes are expected to evaporate even faster; for example, a black hole of mass 1 TeV/\"c\" would take less than 10 seconds to evaporate completely. For such a small black hole, quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could hypothetically make such a small black hole stable, although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate this is the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "In the theory of general relativity, a black hole could exist of any mass. The lower the mass, the higher the density of matter has to be in order to form a black hole. (See, for example, the discussion in Schwarzschild radius, the radius of a black hole.) There are no known processes that can produce black holes with mass less than a few times the mass of the Sun. If black holes that small exist, they are most likely primordial black holes. Until 2016, the largest known stellar black hole was 15.65±1.45 solar masses. In September 2015, a rotating black hole of 62±4 solar masses was discovered by gravitational waves as it formed in a merger event of two smaller black holes. , XTE J1650-500 was reported by NASA and others to be the smallest-mass black hole currently known to science, with a mass 3.8 solar masses and a diameter of only 24 kilometers (15 miles). However, this claim was subsequently retracted. The more likely mass is 5–10 solar masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37749068",
"title": "Extreme mass ratio inspiral",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Several alternative processes for the production of extreme mass ratio inspirals are known. One possibility would be for the central supermassive black hole to capture a passing object that is not bound to it. However, the window where the object passes close enough to the central black hole to be captured, but far enough to avoid plunging directly into it is extremely small, making it unlikely that such event contribute significantly to the expected event rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lnwvz
|
why are humans and most other species dependant on water? is it just coincidence that 70% of earth is covered in it?
|
[
{
"answer": "If 70% of earth was covered in liquid methane, it's likely we would have evolved to drink methane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We need a liquid that can act as a medium for our bodies to do all the important things it does. \n\nWater is an easily accessible one that is made up of two commonly found atoms. It's electrically neutral, non corrosive/toxic/flammable and doesn't react with a lot of stuffs. It's melting and boiling temperature range is just right to not damage the structure of cells at the distance that the Earth is from the sun. \n\nThere is no other liquid that fulfills all of the aforementioned criteria. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution. If it were another liquid substance primarily on earth perhaps we'd require that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our bodies are basically space ships for single celled organisms that are supposed to live in water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it's important to understand that we evolved on this planet. evolution will increase our ability to survive our environment, and the environment happens to be water-rich. in simpler terms, we (living beings) use water because it's abundant",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hydrogen is abundant in our galaxy, the Milky Way and our sun is mostly and produces lots and lots of the stuff, paired with two oxygen atoms, another abundant element, creates a polar molecule with properties that are convenient for reactions and stuff due to its bent structure, electron configuration of the molecule (I forget the term for that), mass, etc. \n\nWater is especially handy in keeping things alive because of its chemistry and reactivity. Life anywhere in any case would require consistent conditions, and water is especially good at it because it takes a decent amount of energy to increase the energy between molecules and raise its temperature (specific heat capacity). Water is also pretty light in mass, so for things like a brain or veins water is not extremely large or massive, so it won't clog or land in a spot. Water is also polar, meaning it has a difference in positive charge and negative charge and it can attract or separate other polar molecules, which is useful for rxns.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21161137",
"title": "Water security",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "Lawrence Smith, the president of the population institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth. Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability, even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs. Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who may have earlier lacked it. The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970. to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004, parallel with rising population. This trend is projected to continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47521",
"title": "Condensation",
"section": "Section::::Biological adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Numerous living beings use water made accessible by condensation. A few examples of these are the Australian thorny devil, the darkling beetles of the Namibian coast, and the coast redwoods of the West Coast of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2387970",
"title": "Polar ecology",
"section": "Section::::Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Water is an important part of human survival. Because of its cold temperature, much of the earth's water comes from the polar regions. 90% of the world's water comes from the Antarctic ice cap although a lot of this water is not used. Water environments are important for many species around the world. Many bacteria thrive there as well as algae and flora.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20006105",
"title": "Farm water",
"section": "Section::::Scarcity of water in agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 839,
"text": " years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. Affluence was not as high, individuals consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now nearly eight billion people on the planet, their consumption of meat and vegetables is rising. Competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops is rising congruently. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to make strides to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11322595",
"title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "With oceanic water covering 71% of its surface, Earth is the only planet known to have stable bodies of liquid water on its surface, and liquid water is essential to all known life forms on Earth. The presence of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18581463",
"title": "Water resources",
"section": "Section::::Water uses.:Agriculture.:Increasing water scarcity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "Around fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation biofuel crops, and water reliant food items. In the future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth's population is forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050. An additional 2.5 or 3 billion people, choosing to eat fewer cereals and more meat and vegetables could add an additional five million kilometres to the virtual canal mentioned above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4224324",
"title": "Origin of water on Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The origin of water on Earth is the subject of a significant body of research in the fields of planetary science, astronomy, and astrobiology. Earth is unique among the rocky planets in the Solar System in that it is the only planet with oceans of liquid water on its surface. Liquid water, which is necessary for life, continues to exist on the surface of Earth because the planet is distant enough from the Sun that it does not lose its water to the runaway greenhouse effect, but not so far that low temperatures cause all water on the planet to freeze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4uv4jt
|
How well does the movie "Master and Commander" portray the life of 19th century British sailors?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pretty well, actually. The costumes, props, sets, everything was pretty meticulously researched and they do a very good job of avoiding anachronisms or introducing stuff that's just flat out fiction. About the only thing that *really* made me raise my eyebrows was the fact that the *Acheron* was supposedly a \"44 gun privateer, Boston-built\". That means it would have construction very similar to the *USS Constitution*, which needed a crew of about 450, including a complement of Marines. That's obscenely huge for a truly independent privateer, unless the term privateer was supposed to be a colloquialism for an actual French warship operating independently in foreign waters. \n\nThe clothes, the battle scenes, and how the men conducted themselves on the ship day-to-day is spot on. They did a great job showing how cramped, wet, dirty, and smelly life aboard a sloop or sixth-rate frigate would be. The little things, like a servant for every officer during the dinner scene in Aubrey's cabin, and how messy and disgusting the surgery scenes in the wardroom were during the battles were excellent. Showing the separate room for the lantern adjacent to the magazine, and the powder room sailors going barefoot were good too. The *Rose* is a replica of the *HMS Rose* of the era, so the construction of the ship is about as accurate as we'll get without using the *Victory* to film scenes, or going back in time. \n\nPeople like to complain about little technicalities, like the amount of live-fire gunnery practice they did halfway through the movie, in the middle of nowhere, with no chance of re-supply. That's a needless and expensive expenditure of shot and powder; the vast majority of gun exercises would have been \"dry runs\", where everybody went through the motions but didn't actually touch off any rounds. However, it's a movie and they needed to fold that \"getting better\" montage in somewhere sensible, so I get it. \n\n**TL;DR-** A few minor, minor quibbles, but the movie is pretty spot. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "77647",
"title": "Wake Island (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The film was a fictional account with Brian Donlevy's character being based on Major James P. S. Devereux, commander of the Wake Marine detachment. MacDonald Carey's was based on Major Henry T. Elrod and Captain Frank Cunningham. Walter Abel played the naval commander who in real life was Commander Winfield S. Cunningham.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370858",
"title": "Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The film is drawn from the Aubrey-Maturin novels by Patrick O'Brian, but matches the events in no one novel. The author drew from real events in the Napoleonic Wars, as he describes in the introduction to the first novel, \"Master and Commander\". Many have speculated on which Royal Navy captain matches the fictional character most. The author claims no one real captain was the model for his fictional character. The Royal Navy Museum considers Captain Lord Cochrane as the inspiration for the character in the first novel, \"Master and Commander\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657119",
"title": "Post Captain (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Literary significance and criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "\"Master and Commander\" raised almost dangerously high expectations, \"Post Captain\" triumphantly surpasses them. Mr O'Brian is a master of his period, in which his characters are finely placed, while remaining three-dimensional, thoroughly human beings. This book sets him at the very top of his genre; he does not just have the chief qualifications of a first-class historical novelist, he has them all. The action scenes are superb; towards the end, far from being aware that one is reading what is, physically, a fairly long book, one notes with dismay that there is not much more to come...A brilliant book.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25841110",
"title": "Under Ten Flags",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Loosely based on actual events during World War II, the film depicts real-life German Captain Bernhard Rogge commanding the navy raider \"Atlantis\", which from May 1940 to November 1941 sank 22 Allied merchant ships. The story alternates between scenes at the Admiralty and scenes at sea, particularly showing Captain Rogge's humanity and chivalrous conduct of his military engagements. Rogge was one of the few German flag rank officers who was not arrested by the Allies after the war, due to his conduct as a military officer. After eighteen months of successful raids, \"Atlantis\" is sunk on 22 November 1941 by the British cruiser \"Devonshire\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1341768",
"title": "Cecil Parker",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "He often played a touchy senior officer or British upper class character, and his last two films were true to form: \"The Magnificent Two\" (1967) with the British comedy double act Morecambe and Wise and Richard Attenborough's version of \"Oh! What a Lovely War\" (1969).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530535",
"title": "Marshall Pugh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Marshall Pugh (born 1925) is a British journalist and author. He wrote a book called \"Commander Crabb\" based on the true story of a British officer who learned deep sea diving to thwart Italian frogmen who were sabotaging British naval forces. He later adapted it into a movie called \"The Silent Enemy\" which was released in 1958.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36140709",
"title": "John Treasure Jones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Captain John Treasure Jones (15 August 1905 – 12 May 1993) was a British sea officer who became a well-known media figure in the mid-1960s following his appointment as the last master of the Cunard liner, . He has been described as one of the 20th century's most distinguished mariners, in war and in peacetime. His forebears were men of the sea, who had captained sailing ships, and he elected to follow in their tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7a4hzm
|
Musketball vs. Bayonet
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in [this older answer](_URL_0_) from u/PartyMoses on bayonets and their (non)use in warfare, which posits that bayonets were never much actually used for stabbing, but for intimidation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3583649",
"title": "Bayonet lug",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "A bayonet lug is a standard feature on most military muskets, rifles, and shotguns, and on some civilian longarms. It is intended for attaching a bayonet, which is typically a long spike or thrusting knife. The bayonet lug is the metal mount that either locks the bayonet onto the weapon or provides a base for the bayonet to rest against, so that when a bayonet thrust is made, the bayonet does not move or slip backwards. Less than 400 years ago, bayonet lugs or their predecessors that allowed them to slip over the barrel did not exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15068",
"title": "Infantry",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- Both ranged and close weapons: the bayonet fixed to a firearm allows infantrymen to use the same weapon for both ranged combat and close combat. This started with muskets and continued with rifles to automatic firearms. Use of the bayonet has declined with modern automatic firearms, but still generally kept as a weapon of last resort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53436",
"title": "Bayonet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "A bayonet (from French \"baïonnette\") is a knife, sword, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit on the end of a rifle's muzzle, allowing it to be used as a spear. From the 17th century to World War I, it was considered the primary weapon for infantry attacks. Today, it is considered an ancillary weapon or a weapon of last resort. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32873905",
"title": "British soldiers in the eighteenth century",
"section": "Section::::A soldier in the army.:Equipment and weaponry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Bayonets were used in conjunction with the musket for close range fighting – the bayonet was fitted into the socket the musket barrel, allowing it to be fired while the bayonet was fixed (unlike earlier screw or plug bayonets) and effectively turned the musket into a pike-like instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53436",
"title": "Bayonet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Plug bayonets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "The first recorded instance of a bayonet proper is found in the Chinese military treatise published in 1606. It was in the form of the , a breech-loading musket that was issued with a roughly long plug bayonet, giving it an overall length of with the bayonet attached. It was labelled as a \"gun-blade\" (traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ) with it being described as a \"short sword that can be inserted into the barrel and secured by twisting it slightly\" that it is to be used \"when the battle have depleted both gunpowder and bullets as well as fighting against bandits, when forces are closing into melee or encountering an ambush\" and if one \"cannot load the gun within the time it takes to cover two bu (3.2 meters) of ground they are to attach the bayonet and hold it like a spear\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15068",
"title": "Infantry",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Modern infantrymen now treat the bayonet as a backup weapon, but may also have handguns or pistols. They may also deploy anti-personnel mines, booby traps, incendiary or explosive devices defensively before combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4321287",
"title": "M7 bayonet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The M7 bayonet is a bayonet that was used by the U.S. military for the M16 rifle, it can also be used with the M4 carbine as well as many other assault rifles, carbines and combat shotguns. It can be used as a fighting knife and utility tool. It was introduced in 1964, when the M16 rifle entered service during the Vietnam War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ukwox
|
why do middle/high schools start so early when students are going through growth spurts and need the most sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's mostly for extra-curricular activities. Most sports need reasonable daylight hours, and it would be tough to get faculty to work later through normal dinner / family hours.\n\nIt students need more sleep, they can go to bed earlier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was once told that elementary, middle and high school start time were offset so they could use the same buses for all three. \n\nAs to why the older students get the earliest start? I'd guess it's because older students can take care of themselves for the time between when they get off school and their parents get off work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39218390",
"title": "Start School Later movement",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety impact of early school hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Due to the fact that almost 70% of teens don't get enough sleep, there are increases in stimulant abuse, weight gain, risk of diabetes, immune disorders, mood swings, depression, and suicidal ideation, as well as reduced impulse control. In addition, early school start times have been associated with drowsy driving in new teen drivers and higher car crash rates. Schools ending early in the afternoon may also increase the risk of engaging in unhealthy, risky behaviors among sleep-deprived adolescents. Sending children to school before sunrise also means they must wait or walk in dark, with low visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39218390",
"title": "Start School Later movement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Advocates of a return to later school start times argue that sleep and school hours should be viewed as a public health issue, citing evidence linking early school start times to widespread sleep deprivation among teenagers as well as a wide array of acute and chronic physical, psychological, and educational problems. Not only do students consistently get significantly more sleep on school nights when their schools move to later start times, but later school hours have been consistently linked with improved school performance, reduced impulsiveness, and greater motivation, as well as with lower rates of depression, tardiness, truancy, and morning automobile accidents. Recent (2011) studies suggest that early school start times disproportionately hurt economically disadvantaged students and may even negatively impact future earning potential of students, offsetting any financial savings to the school system attributed to earlier hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18597893",
"title": "Sleep deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In 1997, University of Minnesota research compared students who started school at 7:15 am with those who started at 8:40 am. They found that students who started at 8:40 got higher grades and more sleep on weekday nights than those who started earlier. One in four U.S. high school students admits to falling asleep in class at least once a week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39218390",
"title": "Start School Later movement",
"section": "Section::::Shifted Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Deprivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Proponents of a return to later school hours cite abundant evidence that starting middle and high school before about 8:30 or 9 a.m. is incompatible with the biological clocks of teenagers and young adults. In 1993, a team led by Mary Carskadon, PhD, of Brown University showed that changes in circadian biology during puberty drive a \"sleep-phase delay,\" a shift in the sleep-wake patterns of adolescents that leads them to fall asleep and wake up later than younger and older people. Subsequent studies have confirmed these findings, explored the impact of school start times on the sleep needs and patterns of adolescents., and demonstrated a \"phase shift\" in the release of melatonin at puberty, which appears to be involved in shifting the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39218390",
"title": "Start School Later movement",
"section": "Section::::Call for Reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1387,
"text": "Today numerous health, educational, and civic leaders are calling for a return to later, healthier school start times, including former U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan, the National Sleep Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health. In 2014 the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a policy statement recommending that middle and high schools start no earlier than 8:30 a.m. as an effective means of addressing the serious public health issue of insufficient sleep in adolescents, a position echoed in 2015 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and in 2016 by the American Medical Association, and supported by the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Thoracic Society, the National Association of School Nurses, and the Society of Pediatric Nurses. The National Education Association issued a resolution supporting school schedules that follow research-based recommendations regarding the sleep patterns of age groups. Several state medical societies have issued position statements or resolutions supporting later school start times, as have both the Washington and Virginia state Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs) and the Seattle Educators Association A move to a later school start time is also consistent with the Healthy People 2020 Objective to increase the proportion of students in grades 9 to 12 who get sufficient sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113055",
"title": "Temperament",
"section": "Section::::Main models.:Thomas and Chess's nine temperament characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "- Parents of middle class children were more likely to report behavior problems before the age of nine and the children had sleep problems. This may be because children start preschool between the ages of three and four. Puerto Rican children under the age of five showed rare signs of sleep problems, however, sleep problems became more common at the age of six.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27811",
"title": "Sleep and learning",
"section": "Section::::Sleep in relation to school.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Sleep has been directly linked to the grades of students. One in four U.S. high school students admit to falling asleep in class at least once a week. Consequently, results have shown that those who sleep less do poorly. In the United States sleep deprivation is common with students because almost all schools begin early in the morning and many of these students either choose to stay awake late into the night or cannot do otherwise due to delayed sleep phase syndrome. As a result, students that should be getting between 8.5 and 9.25 hours of sleep are getting only 7 hours. Perhaps because of this sleep deprivation, their grades are lower and their concentration is impaired. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a4nmr5
|
how do you order complex numbers?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's no total order for complex numbers, at least not one that is consistent with the arithmetic operations on the complex numbers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suppose if you want order, the magnitude would help not only with purely imaginary numbers following the real numbers (i, 2i, 3i...) But also with complex numbers with real and imaginary parts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only one-dimensional quantities have the property of 'order' you're talking about.\n\nAs a result, if you want to 'order' a multi-dimensional value you first need to project it into a single dimension. The common ways to do this for complex numbers would be to either take the magnitude (distance away from the origin) or the angle (rotation off the x-axis).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "186057",
"title": "Quaternions and spatial rotation",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Quaternions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The complex numbers can be defined by introducing an abstract symbol which satisfies the usual rules of algebra and additionally the rule . This is sufficient to reproduce all of the rules of complex number arithmetic: for example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16260460",
"title": "HP 35s",
"section": "Section::::Feature details.:Complex numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Complex numbers can be entered in either rectangular form (using the key) or polar form (using the key), and displayed in either form regardless of how they were entered. They can be decomposed using the (radius \"r\") and (angle \"Θ\") functions. There are no functions for extracting real and imaginary parts, though that can be worked around, using the formulas and .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239964",
"title": "F Sharp (programming language)",
"section": "Section::::Language overview.:Functional programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "forms a sequence of squares of numbers from 0 to 14 by filtering out numbers from the range of numbers from 0 to 25. Sequences are generators – values are generated on-demand (i.e., are lazily evaluated) – while lists and arrays are evaluated eagerly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563662",
"title": "Stooge sort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "It is important to get the integer sort size used in the recursive calls by rounding the 2/3 \"upwards\", e.g. rounding 2/3 of 5 should give 4 rather than 3, as otherwise the sort can fail on certain data. However, if the code is written to end on a base case of size 1, rather than terminating on either size 1 or size 2, rounding the 2/3 of 2 upwards gives an infinite number of calls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18133348",
"title": "Siamese method",
"section": "Section::::The method.:Other values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Any sequence of numbers can be used, provided they form an arithmetic progression (i.e. the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant). Also, any starting number is possible. For example the following sequence can be used to form an order 3 magic square according to the Siamese method (9 boxes): 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 (the magic sum gives 75, for all rows, columns and diagonals).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191788",
"title": "Algebra over a field",
"section": "Section::::Definition and motivation.:First example: The complex numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Any complex number may be written \"a\" + \"bi\", where \"a\" and \"b\" are real numbers and \"i\" is the imaginary unit. In other words, a complex number is represented by the vector (\"a\", \"b\") over the field of real numbers. So the complex numbers form a two-dimensional real vector space, where addition is given by (\"a\", \"b\") + (\"c\", \"d\") = (\"a\" + \"c\", \"b\" + \"d\") and scalar multiplication is given by \"c\"(\"a\", \"b\") = (\"ca\", \"cb\"), where all of \"a\", \"b\", \"c\" and \"d\" are real numbers. We use the symbol · to multiply two vectors together, which we use complex multiplication to define: (\"a\", \"b\") · (\"c\", \"d\") = (\"ac\" − \"bd\", \"ad\" + \"bc\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7489",
"title": "Collation",
"section": "Section::::Automated collation.:Issues with numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, \"Figure 7b\" goes before \"Figure 11a\", even though '7' comes after '1' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Microsoft Windows does this when sorting file names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yuuzq
|
what is groundhog day and why is it important? (i'm from the uk)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's February 2nd. If the groundhog sees its shadow (i.e. if it's sunny), then there will be six more weeks of winter, otherwise spring will come early. It is not important whatsoever.",
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"answer": "Groundhog day is a movie directed by Harold Ramis (who died today) and stars Bill Murray (Reddit Royalty) and also has Stephen Tobolowsky in it who recently did a AMA. It is said to be \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". ",
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"wikipedia_id": "28790036",
"title": "Groundhog Day",
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"text": "Groundhog Day (Pennsylvania German: \"Grund'sau dåk\", \"Grundsaudaag\", \"Grundsow Dawg\", \"Murmeltiertag\"; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular tradition celebrated in Canada and the United States on 2 February. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog (\"Marmota monax\", also called \"woodchuck\"; Deitsch: \"Grundsau\", \"Grunddax\", \"Dax\") emerging from its burrow on this day sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den and winter will persist for six more weeks, and if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early. While the tradition remains popular in modern times, studies have found no consistent correlation between a groundhog seeing its shadow or not and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "142327",
"title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
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"text": "The phrase \"Groundhog Day\" has entered common usage as a reference to an unpleasant situation that continually repeats. Goldberg paraphrased the common meaning as \"same stuff, different day\". In the military, referring to unpleasant, unchanging, repetitive situations as \"Groundhog Day\" became widespread soon after the movie's release in February 1993. A magazine article about the aircraft carrier mentions its use by sailors in September 1993. The film was a favorite among the Rangers deployed for Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia in 1993, because they saw the film as a metaphor of their own situation, waiting monotonous long days between raids. In February 1994, crew members of the aircraft carrier referred to their deployment in the Adriatic Sea, in support of Bosnia operations, as Groundhog Station. A speech by President Clinton in January 1996 specifically referred to the movie and the use of the phrase by military personnel in Bosnia. Fourteen years after the movie's release, \"Groundhog Day\" was noted as common American military slang for any day of a tour of duty in Iraq, often as a successor to the World War II-era slang term \"SNAFU\" (\"Situation Normal: All Fucked Up\").\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3399724",
"title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
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"text": "The common American holiday Groundhog Day originated in Ancient Rome as Hedgehog Day and is still celebrated as such through much of the world. There are no native hedgehogs in the United States, so the early settlers chose the groundhog as a substitute. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "167427",
"title": "Groundhog",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
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"text": "In the United States and Canada, the yearly February 2 Groundhog Day celebration has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film \"Groundhog Day\" references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at the Yellow River Game Ranch outside Atlanta, Georgia.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "28790036",
"title": "Groundhog Day",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Germany.:Groundhog as badger.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
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"text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun′daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"\"Der zwet Hær′ning is Grund′sau dåk. Wânn di grundau îr schâtte sent\" ... (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow ...)\" is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "28790036",
"title": "Groundhog Day",
"section": "Section::::Other locations.\n",
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"text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States, including Wiarton Willie of Wiarton, Ontario, and Shubenacadie Sam in Nova Scotia which, due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "46687636",
"title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
"section": "",
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"text": "Groundhog Day is a musical comedy with music and lyrics by Tim Minchin, and book by Danny Rubin. Based on the 1993 film of the same name written by Rubin and Harold Ramis, the musical made its world premiere at The Old Vic in London in summer 2016 and opened at the August Wilson Theatre on Broadway on 17 April 2017. The plot centres around Phil Connors, an arrogant Pittsburgh TV weatherman who, during an assignment covering the annual Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, finds himself in a time loop, repeating the same day again and again.\n",
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8ae7be
|
What is the current state of Japanese historical scholarship in Japan itself?
|
[
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"answer": " > how much access do Western (English-speaking, primarily) historians have to Japanese primary sources?\n\nAre you asking how easy is it for foreign historians to gain physical access to Japanese primary sources or are you asking to what extent have Japanese primary sources been translated into foreign languages?",
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"answer": "This is a really good question and there are a few things going on here. First of all, I'm not a historian and I don't read Japanese, so this answer will also explain how I go about things as an educator who stumbled on a lot of peoples hunger for reliable answers about Japanese history. I began explaining the academic work I was consuming, and here I am five years later. I'm sure a real Bakumatsu historian could do a better job at answering questions, but I like to think I know *how* to explain and teach.\n\n**i.** The first issue is why so many questions are answered with reference to Western observations. This isn't because there are no Japanese historical accounts, or that English-language historians of Japan don't have access to primary sources. Its because Western observers had very different priorities for what they recorded than did Japanese people. Westerners like Louis Frois or Engelbert Kaempfer were interested in recording everything about the customs of Japan, their clothing, hair, material goods etc. and how they differed from the West. A lot of this is the stuff that their contemporary Japanese counterparts would have seen no reason to document. There is, of course, plenty of evidence in Japanese sources for these subjects, as well as the archaeological record and survival of art and material culture, but these Western ethnographies are a really good eyewitness report of things that often aren't addressed head on. So, for example, Louis Frois wrote\n\n > Because of our buttons and lacings, we cannot easily keep our hands close to our bodies; since Japanese men and women are not thus restricted, they always leave their sleeves hanging empty and pull their hands in close to their bodies, especially in winter.\n\nThis observation of a behaviour that was completely normal to anyone in Japan over most of its history isn't the sort of thing that'd make it into a Sengoku chronicle. \n\nWestern accounts are Japan seen through the eye of a stranger, and may be confused and biased and wrong, but they are really valuable just for bringing that perspective of a stranger.\n\n**ii.** There absolutely is a lack of translated Japanese texts and translations of Japanese historical works. Even if translated, many texts are very diffiult to access. This isn't the biggest problem for historians. To be a real historian of Japanese history, I think you should be able to read Japanese. Professional English language historians communicate with their Japanese counterparts, work together on projects, and learn from each other. International cmmunication among historians has lots of problems, and often the English language and Japanese historians don't communicate as well as they could, but there's not a void between English and Japanese history. If you pick up any English academic book about Japanese history, it'll cite Japanese work, thank Japanese colleagues etc. Respected English language scholars do research in Japanese archives; they don't stay at home and just read translations of Japanese work. Luke S. Roberts, for instance, is a *master* of the Tosa domain archives. \n\nBut for the English-language reader, the gaps in the translations are *huge*. Important Japanese historical work, if it's ever translated at all, is translated many years after. There are so many untranslated primary documents. The amateur history-lover or undergraduate student is definitely restricted. This is my position. I'm in the very lucky position of having access to a university library and its databases, but I only read English. I'm not a historian, though I've had some good training from history professors and a talent for remembering and searching up stuff. Answering questions here to the best of my ability involves using English resources. This can be rather frustrating when I know from conversations or google-translate that there is an easy answer to be found in Japanese materials, but I don't have enough knowledge to properly reference it. \n\nThe translation gap is much more significant for older eras. There is a *lot* of stuff about the Edo Period in English, never as much as I'd like, but translations, analysis of data, amazing articles and books about many subjects. For the Sengoku, on the other hand, good up-to-date English academic work is way scarcer. Historical research in all areas of Japan is proceeding at a fast clip, and I'd say translations are coming out and becoming more widely available (via ebook format etc.) so the future looks bright, but it's still a challenge.\n\n**iii.** There are of course way fewer primary sources as you go backwards in Japanese history, and the type of sources preserved will depend on the era's priorities. Even a Japanese scholar immersed in medieval sources will be very aware of the large gaps in the record. A closer example to our time: we have many, many records of the Late Edo Period, most of which take no interest in the ordinary lives of women. To reconstruct their lives, we have to search for sources, and tease out information from censuses, legal proceedings, satirical literature etc. Writing around the unknown, piecing together clues to construct fragments of an uncompletable puzzle, is the work of the historian. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "658454",
"title": "Japanese studies",
"section": "Section::::Japanese studies organizations and publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "Scholarship on Japan is also within the purview of many organizations and publications dealing with the more general field of East Asian studies, such as the Association for Asian Studies or the Duke University publication \"\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "32717008",
"title": "The Cambridge History of Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Cambridge History of Japan is a multi-volume survey of Japanese history published by Cambridge University Press (CUP). This was the first major collaborative synthesis presenting the current state of knowledge of Japanese history. The series aims to present as full a view of Japanese history as possible. The collaborative work brings together the writing of Japanese specialists and historians of Japan.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "33592448",
"title": "Campus of the University of Tokyo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The campus of the University of Tokyo is the location of the first modern Japanese university. The campus is of historical note for two reasons. First, it was not damaged by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake nor by air raids during World War II. Second, many university buildings have been declared National Treasures of Japan as they are examples of historic architectural design. This article focuses on registered cultural heritage.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "40323369",
"title": "Delmer Brown",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "In 1998, Brown started the process of establishing the Japanese Historical Text Initiative (JHTI), which is a searchable online database of Japanese historical documents and English translations. It is part of the Center for Japanese Studies at the University of California, Berkeley. The development of JHTI involved negotiations with the University of Tokyo Press and Japan's National Institute of Japanese Literature.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "38394046",
"title": "Historiography of Japan",
"section": "",
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"text": "The earliest work of Japanese history is attributed to Prince Shōtoku, who is said to have written the \"Tennōki\" and the \"Kokki\" in 620CE. The earliest extant work is the \"Kojiki\" of 712. The \"Nihon Shoki\" followed by 720. These two works formed the base of a history of the nation based in great part on Japanese mythology, in particular that of the Shinto religion. The works were inspired by Chinese historiography and were compiled with the support of the Japanese state. Five more works between 797 and 901 completed what had begun with the \"Nihon Shoki\"; the six are known as the \"Rikkokushi\" (\"six national histories\").\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5651812",
"title": "Kokugakuin University",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
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"text": "From its beginnings as the Office of Japanese Classics Research (an organization created in 1882 to seek deeper meaning in Shinto after controversies over certain deities), Kokugakuin University was one of the first universities in Japan to gain legal approval to be recognized as such under the university system (which preceded the Imperial university system, but was repealed in 1947).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "16179718",
"title": "Durham University Oriental Museum",
"section": "Section::::Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
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"text": "BULLET::::- Japan: The Japanese collection spans mostly the Edo and Meiji periods of Japanese history but also contains objects from the Muromachi and Momoyama periods, along with a bronze Buddha head from the Kamakura era.\n",
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2zty7o
|
In one my my professor's lectures, he mentioned that Japan tried to surrender before Hiroshima, and the US rejected the proposal. After Nagasaki, they accepted a nearly identical proposal to the one they rejected. Is this true?
|
[
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"answer": "Like most stuff that gets introduced in lecture courses, it's mostly right, but more complicated.\n\nPrior to the decision to drop the bomb, some members of the Japanese political leadership were working behind the scenes to try to negotiate a conditional surrender whose terms did (in many ways) closely resemble the unconditional terms of peace that was later accepted.\n\nBut both the American public and the American government were hostile to the idea of a conditional Japanese surrender, while the Japanese public and military were vehemently opposed to the idea of an unconditional surrender. \n\nSo much so, in fact, that even if U.S. forces had been willing to consider a conditional surrender and it had been a politically feasible option, U.S. military strategists believed that, even if Japan's political elite were acting in good faith during negotiations, they would never be able to convince the Japanese hardliners in the military to accept the negotiated outcome and actually surrender.\n\nSo your prof is right in that there were negotiations and discussions on the table to end the war without the bomb, largely on terms that wound up being acceptable after the bomb. But whether or not that alone made the bomb unnecessary depends on whether or not one believes that those negotiations would have been politically feasible to the people and powers that be on either side of the Pacific without the bomb.\n\nIf you're looking for sources on it, \"Marshall, Truman, and the Decision to Drop the Bomb\" by Gar Alperovitz, Robert L. Messer and Barton J. Bernstein talks about this a bit, as does (iirc) John Chappell's *Before the Bomb*.",
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"answer": "Someone else has mentioned that the Japanese offered conditional surrender before the bombings - the most important condition being that **the Emperor was spared**. The U.S., meanwhile, were adamant about only accepting unconditional surrender.\n\n\"The Potsdam declaration in July, demand[ed] that Japan surrender unconditionally or face 'prompt and utter destruction.' MacArthur was appalled. He knew that the Japanese would never renounce their emperor, and that without him an orderly transition to peace would be impossible anyhow, because his people would never submit to Allied occupation unless he ordered it. Ironically, when the surrender did come, it was conditional, and the condition was a continuation of the imperial reign. Had the General's advice been followed, the resort to atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki might have been unnecessary.\" (from a biography about McArthur - \"American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur\" by William Manchester).\n",
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"answer": "Yes, there is some truth to the statement, but as others have already said it was more complicated, and hinged on the question of whether it was a conditional or an unconditional surrender. Despite the fact that the final surrender was unconditional, the terms imposed by the US were rather similar to the conditional surrender that the peace faction of the Japanese leadership had imagined.\n\nSince it is topical, allow me to re-post a more in depth timeline of the surrender decision, cobbled together from some posts that I wrote a while back.\n\nThe best English language book on the Japanese side of the decision to surrender is Hasegawa's [Racing the Enemy](_URL_1_). \n\nHe uses the diaries of key decision makers among the big six, the recollections of people close to them, and the minutes of their meetings, to argue that the Japanese leadership was more concerned with the Soviets declaring war than they were with the atomic bombs. Illogical as it might sound, the Japanese leadership hoped to secure Soviet mediation to gain a more favorable surrender. The goal of this surrender was always preserving the *kokutai* (国体 - national polity / national essence - which can mean anything from the national structure to the mythic godhood of the Japanese Emperor and his unity with the people) Second, they didn't know about the longer term effects of atomic bombs, and Japanese cities being destroyed wasn't a new thing; 1 bomb instead of thousands, but the end result looked similar in terms of death toll and destruction.\n\nHere is a breakdown of the Japanese activity in the final months. Page numbers are from Hasegawa.\n\nAlthough the Soviet Union had renounced the Japanese neutrality pact in April of 1945, and the Japanese ambassador knew that looking for soviet mediation in the surrender was a lost cause, Japanese leaders largely ignored their ambassador's advice and insisted on pursuing the possibility of Soviet mediation. \n\nJune 18th, the [Supreme War Council](_URL_0_) decided to pursue \"option 3,\" seeking Soviet mediation, and Hirohito endorsed this action in a meeting with the Big 6(The Supreme War Council, minus the Emperor) on June 22nd (106). \n\nJune 30th, Sato, Ambassador to Moscow, telegrammed Togo, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, to tell him that the plan \"...is nothing but pinning our hopes to the utterly impossible.\" Togo told him to do it anyway (123). Clearly, they were looking for a way to surrender months before they actually did, but they wanted it on their terms.\n\nJuly 12, Not to be deterred, Hirohito decided that Japan should try harder if negotiations weren't going well, and appointed Prince Konoe special envoy to Moscow to secure Soviet mediation. The same day Togo Telegrammed Sato and asked him to relay their intentions to Molotov, but Sato was unable to contact him before he departed for Potsdam. Even though their ambassador had been rebuffed, the Japanese high command either did not relay the full message up to the Emperor, or they did not understand the gravity of the situation (123-124). Sato's messages of the impossibility of this task continued through the rest of July, and Togo responded by telling him that seeking Soviet mediation was the imperial will (144).\n\nAugust 2nd, Togo continued to reject advice that Japan should accept the Potsdam Procalmation, and told Sato that the Emperor was concerned with the progress of the Moscow negotiations, adding that \"the Premier and the leaders of the Army are now concentrating all their attention on this one point\"(172).\n\nAug. 7, After the Hiroshima bomb, Togo telegramed Sato in Moscow regarding the Konoe mission, stating that the situation was getting desperate and that \"We must know the Soviet's attitude immediately\" (185). Obviously, they still hadn't given up hope on Soviet aid, and the possibility of Soviet mediation still seemed to be an alternative to surrendering unconditionally, even to the peace party. Molotov and Sato met on the 8th, and Molotov read him the declaration of war against Japan. Sato's telegram informing Tokyo never arrived.\n\nAug. 9th, Japanese Domei News intercepted a radio broadcast of the Russian declaration of war and Tokyo learned of it. Early in the morning Togo and top foreign ministry officials met and decided there was no choice but to accept the terms of the Potsdam Proclamation (197). Togo then secured the agreement of Navy Minister Yonai and Prince Takamatsu. Hirohito independently learned of the Soviet entry to the war and summoned Kido at 9:55 am, telling him \"The Soviet Union declared war against us, and entered into a state of war as of today. Because of this it is necessary to study and decide on the termination of the war,\" according to Kido's Journal (198). Prime Minister Suzuki deferred to the Emperor's wishes and convened the War Council. Clearly, among the peace party, Soviet entry to the war swayed them to end the war not through Soviet mediation, but by accepting the Potsdam proclamation. \n\nThe war party was also shocked, as the diary of Army Deputy Chief Kawabe notes considerably more shock regarding the Soviets than it does regarding the bombing of Hiroshima. Nonetheless, Army Minister Amami was not ready to surrender.\n\nAt that meeting, the Big 6 learned of the Bombing of Nagasaki. According to the official history of the Imperial General Headquarters, \"There is no record in other materials that treated the effect [of the Nagasaki Bomb] seriously.\" Similarly, neither Togo nor Toyoda mention it in their memoirs of the meeting (204). In the meeting the war party continued to defend the idea of defending the home islands to force favorable terms, but slowly fell to the peace faction. By the end, they had agreed to accept Potsdam, but still debated 1 condition vs 4.\n\nAfter this, members of the peace faction arranged to meet with Kido urging him to urge the Emperor to support a single condition acceptance (\"preservation of the imperial house\" [peace] or \"preservation of the Emperor's status in national laws\" [war] depending on who phrased it). Kido then met with the Emperor, and afterward the Emperor agreed to call an imperial conference, at which he supported Togo's proposal, saying \"My opinion is the same as what the Foreign minister said.\" All the members, including the war party signed the document in the early hours of August 10th (213). With that, the basic outline of surrendering was complete, although they changed the single condition changed to acceptance \"on the understanding that the Allied Proclamation would not comprise any demand which would prejudice the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign Ruler,\" which became a sticking point in its potential to preserve the emperor's status as a god and commander of the military (212).\n\nOn the common debate about this \"sacred decision,\" it is true that the Emperor was the deciding \"vote,\" but the deliberations show his decision was shaped by those who were convinced to surrender by Soviet declaration of war to put his weight behind the plan they had laid out. His own statements also show the effect that Soviet Entry to the war was a major concern for him. Similarly, Soviet entry and lack of the possibility of negotiated peace weakened the war party's case. \n\nIn the intervening days between the 10th and the 15th things were fairly chaotic. The war faction got key members of the peace faction to agree that they would continue the war if the conditional acceptance were rejected. However, members of the Foreign Ministry believed they had to accept the Bynes note, informing them of the US rejection of the conditional acceptance, when they got it on the 12th. The army thought it was an unacceptable violation of their understanding of the *kokutai,* leading to a stalemate in the leadership. While leadership argued back and forth, members of the army General Staff plotted a coup on the 12th and 13th. Fearing Military action, Kido met with Hirohito on the morning of the 14th and convinced him to convene a combined conference of the Supreme War council and the Cabinet to impose his decision for unconditional acceptance of the Bynes note. \n\nThe decision to accept was made around 11:00 am on the 14th, starting debates about how to phrase the announcement to the people. Leadership feared that poor phrasing, especially regarding the *kokutai,* might result in army action against the decision. Meanwhile, the coup plotters planned to occupy the imperial palace and prevent the Emperor from informing the nation.\n\nThe Coup took place on the night of the 14th, with forged orders telling the imperial guards to protect the emperor. They occupied the palace and shut down all the communications in and out. Coup members who went to the Eastern Army for help found the army opposed and determined to put the coup down by force, which they apparently did successfully, as the coup was over by morning. When asked to support the coup a final time, Anami informed them that he was going to commit suicide, and did so.\n\nThe Emperor's speech was broadcast on Aug. 15th (planned for back on the 11th). It cited the bombs as a reason for surrender, but that is not sufficient evidence to determine the reasons for ending the war. First, that speech was carefully prepared and edited for public, military, and American consumption. Second, it is only one of several sources. Of the contemporary sources on why Japan surrendered, 3 (Konoe on Aug.9th, Suzuki's statements to his doctor on Aug. 13th, and Hirohito's Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Officers on Aug. 17th) speak only of the Soviets, 2 (Hirohito's Imperial Rescript on the 15th and Suzuki's statements at the cabinet meeting of Aug. 13th) speak exclusively about the bombs, and 7 speak of both (297-298). Both played a role, but the deciding edge likely belonged to to Soviet entry.",
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"wikipedia_id": "13121116",
"title": "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::Opposition.:Militarily unnecessary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
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"text": "Ward Wilson wrote that \"after Nagasaki was bombed only four major cities remained which could readily have been hit with atomic weapons\", and that the Japanese Supreme Council did not bother to convene after the atomic bombings because they were barely more destructive than previous bombings. He wrote that instead, the Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria and South Sakhalin removed Japan's last diplomatic and military options for negotiating a \"conditional\" surrender, and this is what prompted Japan's surrender. He wrote that attributing Japan's surrender to a \"miracle weapon\", instead of the start of the Soviet invasion, saved face for Japan and enhanced the United States' world standing.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "13121116",
"title": "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki",
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"text": "On 26 July 1945, United States President Harry S. Truman, United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Chairman of the Chinese Nationalist Government Chiang Kai-shek issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for the Empire of Japan as agreed upon at the Potsdam Conference. This ultimatum stated if Japan did not surrender, it would face \"prompt and utter destruction\". Some debaters focus on the presidential decision-making process, and others on whether or not the bombings were the proximate cause of Japanese surrender.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "730658",
"title": "Strategic bombing during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:United States bombing of Japan.:Nuclear bombing.\n",
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"text": "Six days after the detonation over Nagasaki, Japan announced its surrender to the Allied Powers on 15 August 1945, signing the Instrument of Surrender on 2 September 1945, officially ending the Pacific War and World War II. The two atomic bombings generated strong sentiments in Japan against all nuclear weapons. Japan adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, which forbade the nation from developing nuclear armaments. Across the world anti-nuclear activists have made Hiroshima the central symbol of what they are opposing.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "15982510",
"title": "Kyūjō incident",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Decision to accept the Potsdam Declaration.\n",
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"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "On August 9, 1945, the Japanese government, responding to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to the declaration of war by the Soviet Union and to the effective loss of the Pacific and Asian-mainland territories, decided to accept the Potsdam Declaration. On the same day the Supreme Council for the Direction of War opened before the Japanese Imperial court. In the Council the Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki, the Navy Minister Mitsumasa Yonai, and the Minister for Foreign Affairs Shigenori Tōgō suggested to Hirohito that the Japanese should accept the Potsdam Declaration and unconditionally surrender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36880",
"title": "Nuclear warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:1940s.:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "On July 26, 1945, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of China issued a Potsdam Declaration that called for the unconditional surrender of Japan. It stated that if Japan did not surrender, it would face \"prompt and utter destruction\". The Japanese government ignored this ultimatum, sending a message that they were not going to surrender. In response to the rejection, President Truman authorized the dropping of the atomic bombs. At the time of its use, there were only two atomic bombs available, and despite the fact that more were in production back in mainland U.S., the third bomb wouldn't be available for combat until September.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516918",
"title": "Jose P. Laurel",
"section": "Section::::Presidency.:Dissolution of the regime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "On July 26, 1945, the Potsdam Declaration served upon Japan an ultimatum to surrender or face utter annihilation. The Japanese government refused the offer. On August 6, 1945, Hiroshima, with some 300,000 inhabitants, was almost totally destroyed by an atomic bomb dropped from an American plane. Two days later, the Soviet Union declared war against Japan and invaded Manchuria. The next day, August 9, 1945, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. The Allied Forces' message now had a telling effect: Japan unconditionally surrendered to the Allied Powers on August 15, 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183897",
"title": "Empire of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Pacific War (1941–1945).:Surrender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Having ignored (mokusatsu) the Potsdam Declaration, the Empire of Japan surrendered and ended World War II after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the declaration of war by the Soviet Union and subsequent invasion of Manchuria. In a national radio address on August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender to the Japanese people by \"Gyokuon-hōsō\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sxrw4
|
why did it snow recently in the middle east and why does it happen so rarely?
|
[
{
"answer": "Deserts aren't big on precipitation of any kind. They also play host to violent temperature extremes. Below zero temperatures in winter nights contrast with sun hot enough to kill. The cold is just as bad for snow as the heat, as you need water in the air to form the snow, before it can fall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a minor point: The Middle East isn't one big desert. It's a huge area with many different climates. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On Earth we live at the bottom of a soup of gases, which are constantly moving in all directions, this is what makes up the atmosphere. The interaction between warm tropical air, the mid-latitude air (medium temperature air) and cold arctic air is what drives most of the weather in the Northern Hemisphere (top half of the planet). When the different sections of air meet, strong winds high above us called *jet streams* are created. \n\nThe jet stream does not move in a straight line. It goes up and down like the humps of a camel. The air can be pulled from different regions of the world because of the jet stream. When cold air was drawn to Western Europe because of changes to the jet stream, the right side of the big lump of cold polar air hit the Middle East region. Cold temperature and rain clouds passing by meant that higher regions encountered snow and lower regions had heavy rain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27930306",
"title": "Global storm activity of 2007",
"section": "Section::::The events of 2007.:March.:March 14–15.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Much of the Middle East usually have little or no snow during the winters due to much warmer conditions caused by the moderate sea effects from the Mediterranean Sea. However 3 feet (90 cm) of snow fell in a storm 2004, which was the worst since 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27731272",
"title": "Global storm activity of 2008",
"section": "Section::::Events of 2008.:January.:January 29.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "A major snowfall event affected portions of the Middle East including Israel, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. One of the areas mostly affected was Jerusalem where schools (including the Hebrew University of Jerusalem), stores and transportation were shut down after 5 to of snow fell. The main highway between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem was also shortly closed because of the snow. The weather event had topped local headlines eclipsing a critical government report related to the 2006 Lebanon War and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52818631",
"title": "January 2017 European cold wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "A period of exceptionally cold and snowy winter weather in January 2017 occurred in Eastern and Central Europe. In some areas, flights and shipping services were suspended, and there was major disruption to power supplies and other essential infrastructure. The weather was the result of stationary high pressure over western Europe, resulting in strong winds circulating from Russia and Scandinavia towards eastern Europe. On 9 January, the Continental Arctic (cA) air mass extended from Germany across the Balkans, resulting in deep snow in Greece and strong bora winds affecting Croatia in particular. In addition, heavy snow in central and Southern Italy was the result of cold air flowing across the warmer Adriatic Sea. At least 61 deaths were attributed to the cold wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52430801",
"title": "2016 Saudi Arabian snowstorm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Snow was first reported in northern parts of Saudi Arabia on 23 November. By 25 November, temperatures as low as were reported in Turaif, in Northern Borders Region, and there was snow cover in central and northeastern regions. Normal seasonal temperatures do not fall below . Many Saudis enjoyed unusual outdoor activities such as building snowmen and sliding; however, the snow was followed by rain and lightning that caused flooding and led to the deaths of at least 7 people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41560533",
"title": "Early 2014 North American cold wave",
"section": "Section::::Related extreme weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Heavy snowfall or rainfall occurred on the leading edge of the weather pattern, which travelled all the way from the American Plains and Canadian prairie provinces to the East Coast. Strong winds prevailed throughout the freeze, making the temperature feel at least ten degrees Fahrenheit colder than it actually was, due to the wind chill factor. In addition to rainfall, snowfall, ice, and blizzard warnings, some places along the Great Lakes were also under wind warnings. Europe also saw the 2013-2014 Atlantic winter storms in Europe which has been linked to the cold winter in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25484472",
"title": "Winter of 2009–10 in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The winter of 2009–2010 in Europe was unusually cold. Globally, unusual weather patterns brought cold, moist air from the north. Weather systems were undergoing cyclogenesis from North American storms moving across the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and saw many parts of Europe experiencing heavy snowfall and record-low temperatures. This led to a number of deaths, widespread transport disruption, power failures and postponed sporting events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30655949",
"title": "Arab Spring",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.:Arab Winter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In the aftermath of the Arab Spring in various countries, there was a wave of violence and instability commonly known as the Arab Winter or Islamist Winter. The Arab Winter was characterized by extensive civil wars, general regional instability, economic and demographic decline of the Arab League and overall religious wars between Sunni and Shia Muslims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nz8cg
|
if someone really did have multiple personalities and each personality had no idea what the others do, what would happen if one of the personalities murdered someone or committed another terrible crime?
|
[
{
"answer": "Realistically, if we're assuming this is in the United States, this condition would be brought forward and evaluated by a designated mental health official. If it was determined that the crime was committed as a result of these personalities, the individual would likely get to plead insanity and be admitted to a mental hospital for rehabilitation and treatment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been answered fairly well by others, but for interest sake: \nThis condition is extremely rare. While dissociative experiences are common, experienced by more than half of the population at some point, the symptoms are vaguely experienced and poorly recalled (perhaps like when you auto-pilot your drive home and can't remember most of the drive and pray you didn't break any laws on the way). Many or most dissociative episodes are fleeting or do not cause significant distress or dysfunction, and therefore do not warrant a specific DSM-5 diagnosis. \n\nAccording to the DSM-5 (latest diagnostic book for psychiatric disorders), it is now dissociative identity disorder. To be diagnosed you need: two or more distinct personalities with noticeable shifts in memories, behaviour, and perceptions of reacting to self and the environment that are persistent. What is new is that the patient can self proclaim this shift rather than if needing to be reported by a third person. The difference between the above common fleeting episode would be the persistence of the different personality types. The second criteria is amnesia must occur, defined as gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information and/or traumatic events. The events cannot be brought on by drugs or alcohol, must not be related to culture or religion, and must cause distress. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5357590",
"title": "To Live Again (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "These personalities can then be transplanted (upon the person's actual death) to other people, \"living\" alongside the Host, providing him or her with a new insight on life, and on their field of expertise. As the possession of extra personalities can be a mark of prestige, it has become fashionable in high society to buy and possess as many personalities as they have money for. Occasionally, the personalities of strong minded individuals can overwhelm the personalities of their hosts, resulting in the destruction of the host body's personality. The personality is said to have gone \"dybbuk\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36749205",
"title": "Multiplicity (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Rita Carter says evidence for multiplicity abounds and is found in history, and that when an individual states that they have been taken over by a spirit, soul, or ghost, they are saying that they are experiencing another personality. She says that feeling happy and carefree while in the company of your friends, but less so at home with family, is an example of multiple personality styles, while this is not necessarily the case. It is also sometimes possible to hear your other personalities talk to you in your head, if they are distinct enough.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42112603",
"title": "Perpetrator trauma",
"section": "Section::::As a psychiatric disorder.:Dream motifs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "One is that of having the tables turned and being the one killed, or being very vulnerable in the same situation. Another motif is that of the victims accusing the dreaming person or demanding to know why he or she did it. Also possible is a motif of the self being split in two so that the killer part of the person is seen as actually being a different person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26613488",
"title": "Rewriting the Soul",
"section": "Section::::History of multiple personality disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "As cases of multiple personality began to emerge in the 1970s, they attracted the interest not only of therapists and the psychiatric profession, but also of the media. Awareness and discussion of Multiple Personality Disorder became widespread. Multiple Personality Disorder became a kind of mental illness. It became a kind of thing that someone could have. This is what Hacking refers to as “semantic contagion” (p. 238). Before its meaning became prevalent in society, one could not describe oneself as a person of that kind. There were confused individuals who were (either deliberately or pre-reflectively) seeking to dissociate themselves from memories of painful events. These people, however, could not have described themselves as having the Disorder, nor could people in psychology diagnose their patients with this term. Once MPD became a kind of thing, it became a way for individuals to understand themselves and understand people around them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632800",
"title": "Anna O.",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "He noted that when in one condition she could not remember events or situations that had occurred in the other condition. He concluded, \"it is difficult to avoid saying that she dissolved into two personalities, one of which was psychically normal and the other mentally ill.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312805",
"title": "Reasons and Persons",
"section": "Section::::Personal identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "At time 1, there is a person. At a later time 2, there is a person. These people seem to be the same person. Indeed, these people share memories and personality traits. But there are no further facts in the world that make them the \"same person\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34490463",
"title": "Dead & Buried (House)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "However, House has thought about how people can have multiple sides to their personality. He goes to tell Iris that he found her boyfriend and he ran away and was hit by a car. Iris tells him he's lying. House asks how she knows. She starts swearing at House says it's because “I‘m right here”. House realizes the patient has dissociative identity disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8j7jlm
|
what is that pressure sensation we feel in our chest when we get a spike of anxiety?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe it is adrenaline, the fight or flight reflex. But modern man doesn’t necessarily have the same fight or flight reflex as our ancestors - it’s more fight, flight or freeze. Most people freeze but the body still release the adrenaline used from the original fight or flight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And in a real fight or flight scenario your last concern is going to be chest pain, it will be survival. After that your body will notice it’s in pain. Have you ever heard of someone chopping their finger off but not noticing? That’s because of the adrenaline.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its literally blood being shunted to vital areas of the body as part of the fight or flight response, which is the body's automatic response to fear. Your sympathetic nervous system signals your heart and lungs through hormones like adrenaline to begin working harder to supply you with extra oxygen in important areas, just in case you actually need it to defend yourself or run away. Your blood pressure, pulse, and respirations will usually measure higher (sometimes dramatically) when you are scared or anxious. You may, in addition to the pressure in your chest, feel things like a cold knot in your stomach (from blood leaving the digestive system), jitteriness or shaking, and/or sweating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "446499",
"title": "Palpitations",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Psychiatric problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1116,
"text": "Anxiety and stress elevate the body's level of cortisol and adrenaline, which in turn can interfere with the normal functioning of the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in overstimulation of the vagus nerve. Vagus nerve induced palpitation is felt as a thud, a hollow fluttery sensation, or a skipped beat, depending on at what point during the heart's normal rhythm the vagus nerve fires. In many cases, the anxiety and panic of experiencing palpitations causes a sufferer to experience further anxiety and increased vagus nerve stimulation. The link between anxiety and palpitation may also explain why many panic attacks involve an impending sense of cardiac arrest. Similarly, physical and mental stress may contribute to the occurrence of palpitation, possibly due to the depletion of certain micronutrients involved in maintaining healthy psychological and physiological function. Gastrointestinal bloating, indigestion and hiccups have also been associated with overstimulation of the vagus nerve causing palpitations, due to branches of the vagus nerve innervating the GI tract, diaphragm, and lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31307752",
"title": "State-Trait Anxiety Inventory",
"section": "Section::::The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Feelings of unease, worry, tension, and stress can be defined as anxiety. It is usually accompanied by a situation that causes these feelings for example, a big test or interview. It can also be caused by anxiety disorders such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) or Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). The STAI tests two different types of anxiety, state and trait anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146000",
"title": "Amygdala",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity.:Anxiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The emotional effects of anxiety may include \"feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank\" as well as \"nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Medical conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Many medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death. Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety; the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions. Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents, and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well. Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "600102",
"title": "Stage fright",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "When someone starts to feel the sensation of being scared or nervous they start to experience anxiety. According to a Harvard Mental Health Letter, \"Anxiety usually has physical symptoms that may include a racing heart, a dry mouth, a shaky voice, blushing, trembling, sweating, lightheadedness, and nausea\". It triggers the body to activate its sympathetic nervous system. This process takes place when the body releases adrenaline into the blood stream causing a chain of reactions to occur. This bodily response is known as the \"fight or flight\" syndrome, a naturally occurring process in the body done to protect itself from harm. \"The neck muscles contract, bringing the head down and shoulders up, while the back muscles draw the spine into a concave curve. This, in turn, pushes the pelvis forward and pulls the genitals up, slumping the body into a classic fetal position\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied by nervous behaviour such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination. It is the subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events, such as the feeling of imminent death. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
662tph
|
why are people so polarised?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my opinion, that polarization has been there. The difference is that now everyone has an anonmomous voice and the more extreme elements are the ones that get all the attention. Not every Christian wants to kill abortion doctors. Not every Liberal is a Sociallist. Most people just want to live their lives. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are they? One argument is that re-sorting of political parties has led to the appearance of greater polarization. Actual political attitudes may not have shifted that dramatically. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and measurements.:Popular polarization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Popular polarization, or mass polarization, occurs when the electorate's attitudes towards political issues, policies, and people are starkly divided along partisan lines. Members of the electorate and general public typically become less moderate in cases of popular polarization. In the U.S., media accounts typically simplify popular polarization to a divide between red states and blue states or a \"culture war\" between values-voters and progressives. Political scientists, though, generally agree that such accounts are too simplistic and ignore the complex factors that can account for polarization. Many political scientists consider political polarization a top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to – or at least precedes – popular polarization. However, polarization among elites does not necessarily produce polarization within the electorate, and polarized electoral choices can often reflect elite polarization rather than voters' preferences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In politics, polarization (or polarisation) can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. When polarization occurs in a two-party system, like the United States, moderate voices often lose power and influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511676",
"title": "Group polarization",
"section": "Section::::Real-life applications.:Politics and law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Group polarization has been widely discussed in terms of political behavior (see political polarization). Researchers have identified an increase in affective polarization among the United States electorate, and report that hostility and discrimination towards the opposing political party has increased dramatically over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:The public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Morris P. Fiorina (2006, 2008) posits the hypothesis that polarization is a phenomenon which does not hold for the public, and instead is formulated by commentators to draw further division in government. Other studies indicate that cultural differences focusing on ideological movements and geographical polarization within the United States constituency is correlated with rises in overall political polarization between 1972 and 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The implications of political polarization \"are not entirely clear and may include some benefits as well as detrimental consequences.\" While its exact effects are disputed, it clearly alters the political process and the political composition of the general public. Solomon Messing and Sean J. Westwood state that individuals do not necessarily become polarized through media because they choose their own exposure, which tends to already align with their views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:The public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Some scholars argue that polarization lowers public interest in politics, party identification and voter turnout. It encourages confrontational dynamics between parties that can lower overall public trust and approval in government., and causes the public to perceive the general political debate as less civil, which can alienate voters. More polarized candidates, especially when voters aren't aware of the increase, also tend to be less representative of the public's wishes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:The public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Opinions on polarization's effects on the public are mixed. Some argue that the growing polarization in government has directly contributed to political polarization in the electorate, but this is not unanimous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
anfgg8
|
how does removing a storage device from a computer too soon damage the files on the storage device?
|
[
{
"answer": "The computer could be in the middle of writing to the device and you'd get corrupted stuff. Especially bad if it was updating the file index which tells the computer where everything is on the drive.\n\nGenerally if you've written your files and give it maybe a second or two more it's perfectly safe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you are drinking water out of a cup through a straw and pull the straw out of the cup mid sip, you wont get all the water out. Now imagine you have different cups with different liquids. If you put the straw in the wrong cup, you might get koolaid instead of water. No big deal. However, you could also put it into poison and die. \n\nWith respect to the SD card or flash drive, if you pull it out while it is in the middle of writing data, you run the risk of corrupting the file because the transfer was incomplete because the device was removed. \n\nI am sure this is a terrible explanation, so I will wait until a better one comes along, lol. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3738839",
"title": "Features new to Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::Shell & User interface.:Windows Explorer.:File operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "If an external data storage device is unexpectedly disengaged or accidentally removed while copying files onto it, the user is given the chance to retry the operation without restarting that file copy operation from the beginning; this gives the user the chance to reconnect that external data storage device involved and retry the operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4426607",
"title": "Brick (electronics)",
"section": "Section::::Cause and prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Some devices include two copies of firmware, one active and the other stored in fixed ROM or writable non-volatile memory and not normally accessible to processes that could corrupt it, as well as a way to copy the stored firmware over the active version, even if corrupt, so that if the active firmware is damaged, it can be replaced by the copy and the device will not be bricked. Other devices have minimal \"bootloader\" firmware, enabled usually by operating a switch or jumper, which does not enable the device to work normally but can reload the main firmware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1661475",
"title": "Green computing",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Materials recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The recycling of old computers raises an important privacy issue. The old storage devices still hold private information, such as emails, passwords, and credit card numbers, which can be recovered simply by someone's using software available freely on the Internet. Deletion of a file does not actually remove the file from the hard drive. Before recycling a computer, users should remove the hard drive, or hard drives if there is more than one, and physically destroy it or store it somewhere safe. There are some authorized hardware recycling companies to whom the computer may be given for recycling, and they typically sign a non-disclosure agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3137188",
"title": "Initial ramdisk",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Another complication is kernel support for hibernation, which suspends the computer to disk by dumping an image of the entire contents of memory to a swap partition or a regular file, then powering off. On next boot, this image has to be made accessible before it can be loaded back into memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7066791",
"title": "Disk encryption",
"section": "Section::::Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Although this has the advantage that the disk cannot be removed from the device, it might create a single point of failure in the encryption. For example, if something happens to the TPM or the motherboard, a user would not be able to access the data by connecting the hard drive to another computer, unless that user has a separate recovery key.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58506548",
"title": "EaseUS Data Recovery Wizard",
"section": "Section::::Recovery process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "When data is deleted from storage devices, the references to the data are removed from the directory structure. The space can then be used, or overwritten, with data from other files or computer functions. The deleted data itself is not immediately removed from the physical drive and often exists as a number of disconnected fragments. This data, so long as it is not overwritten, can be recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1252517",
"title": "File deletion",
"section": "Section::::Problem with sensitive data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "The common problem with sensitive data is that deleted files are not really erased and so may be recovered by interested parties. Most file systems only remove the link to data (see undelete, above). But even overwriting parts of the disk with something else or formatting it may not guarantee that the sensitive data is completely unrecoverable. Special software is available that overwrites data, and modern (post-2001) ATA drives include a secure erase command in firmware. However, high security applications and high-security enterprises can sometimes require that a disk drive be physically destroyed to ensure data is not recoverable, as microscopic changes in head alignment and other effects can mean even such measures are not guaranteed. When the data is encrypted only the encryption key has to be unavailable. Crypto-shredding is the practice of 'deleting' data by (only) deleting or overwriting the encryption keys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7zf0fz
|
Is there any evidence to suggest that biracial people are less susceptible to genetic diseases?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are certain diseases that are more common in populations with more restricted gene pools--Tay-Sachs and Ashkenazi Jews, for example.\n\nHowever, keep in mind that what we think of as \"race\" is not a particularly useful concept in terms of genetics. [There's likely more genetic diversity *within* Sub-Saharan Africa](_URL_0_)(what we would call \"black people) than there is *outside* of it! A man from Nigeria and a woman from Lesotho might be more genetically different than a man from Nigeria and a woman from Germany. The idea of race looks at a specific set of obvious but fairly arbitrary phenotypes (skin colour, hair texture and colour, eye colour) and ignores other phenotypes, both obvious (like height!) and not visible (biochemistry).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but it depends on which genetic diseases.\n\nMany genetic diseases are found almost entirely in individuals from a specific geographical area or ethnicity. For example, hemochromatosis is a recessive genetic disease affecting iron metabolism that occurs almost entirely in people of Northern European or Celtic descent. A biracial individual with one parent from outside Northern Europe would be virtually guaranteed to avoid having hemochromatosis, since the non-European parent would almost certainly have a \"good\" version of the hemochromatosis gene.\n\nSome genetic diseases occur spontaneously. For example the most common form of Down Syndrome is caused by meiotic disjunction (chromosomes not separating properly) during gamete formation. In this case, being biracial makes no difference to the incidence of the disorder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the challenges when it comes to multiracial people is that it can produce less common combinations of the various factors that play into transplantation. As I recall this is especially true in the case of bonemarrow transplants and/or stem cells. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9819863",
"title": "Race and health",
"section": "Section::::Race and disease.:Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Some diseases are more prevalent in some populations identified as races due to their common ancestry. Thus, people of African and Mediterranean descent are found to be more susceptible to sickle-cell disease while cystic fibrosis and hemochromatosis are more common among European populations. Some physicians claim that race can be used as a proxy for the risk that the patient may be exposed to in relation to these diseases. However, racial self-identification only provides fragmentary information about the persons ancestry. Thus, racial profiling in medical services would also lead to the risk of underdiagnosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1483646",
"title": "Race and genetics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Some genetic variants that contribute to the risk of complex diseases are differently distributed among human populations. It is debated whether self-identified race ought to be used by medical practitioners as a proxy for the probability that an individual possesses risk-related variants. Such practice may result in false attribution of causality, stigmatisation of high-risk populations, or underestimation of risk for other populations. There is also a large body of evidence that environmental risk factors for complex diseases track racial categories in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38978117",
"title": "Native Americans and reservation inequality",
"section": "Section::::Healthcare.:Genetic predisposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "However, more than genetic predisposition plays a significant role the afflictions of Native American populations. According to the 1997 study, \"genetic susceptibility plays a significant role in some diseases, such as diabetes, while for others, the generally lower socioeconomic status, higher prevalence of certain health risk behaviors and lower utilization of preventative services in the Native American population are important determinants.\" Also, before WWII, diabetes in Native American Communities was essentially non-existent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63526",
"title": "Coeliac disease",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "People of African, Japanese and Chinese descent are rarely diagnosed; this reflects a much lower prevalence of the genetic risk factors, such as HLA-B8. People of Indian ancestry seem to have a similar risk to those of Western Caucasian ancestry. Population studies also indicate that a large proportion of coeliacs remain undiagnosed; this is due, in part, to many clinicians being unfamiliar with the condition and also due to the fact it can be asymptomatic. Coeliac disease is slightly more common in women than in men. A large multicentre study in the U.S. found a prevalence of 0.75% in not-at-risk groups, rising to 1.8% in symptomatic people, 2.6% in second-degree relatives (like grandparents, aunt or uncle, grandchildren, etc.) of a person with coeliac disease and 4.5% in first-degree relatives (siblings, parents or children). This profile is similar to the prevalence in Europe. Other populations at increased risk for coeliac disease, with prevalence rates ranging from 5% to 10%, include individuals with Down and Turner syndromes, type 1 diabetes, and autoimmune thyroid disease, including both hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) and hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33462899",
"title": "Minority stress",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical development.:Emergence.:Social selection hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "One causal explanation for minority health disparities is the social selection hypothesis, which holds that there is something inherent to being in a minority group (e.g., genetics) that makes individuals susceptible to health problems. In general, this view has not been supported by empirical research. If minority individuals were genetically predisposed to poor health outcomes, the vast majority of them should face health disparities. However, large-scale empirical studies have shown that most of LGB individuals do not suffer psychopathology and that many African Americans do not have heart disease. Instead, research suggests that environmental factors explain minority health disparities better than do genetic factors. While the social selection hypothesis is still debated, it is clear that genetic and dispositional factors do not fully explain the health disparities observed in minority groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "287299",
"title": "Sarcoidosis",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "The differing incidence across the world may be at least partially attributable to the lack of screening programs in certain regions of the world, and the overshadowing presence of other granulomatous diseases, such as tuberculosis, that may interfere with the diagnosis of sarcoidosis where they are prevalent. There may also be differences in the severity of the disease between people of different ethnicities. Several studies suggest the presentation in people of African origin may be more severe and disseminated than for Caucasians, who are more likely to have asymptomatic disease. Manifestation appears to be slightly different according to race and sex. Erythema nodosum is far more common in men than in women and in Caucasians than in other races. In Japanese persons, ophthalmologic and cardiac involvement are more common than in other races.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1483646",
"title": "Race and genetics",
"section": "Section::::Race and medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1515,
"text": "There are certain statistical differences between racial groups in susceptibility to certain diseases. Genes change in response to local diseases; for example, people who are Duffy-negative tend to have a higher resistance to malaria. The Duffy negative phenotype is highly frequent in central Africa and the frequency decreases with distance away from Central Africa, with higher frequencies in global populations with high degrees of recent African immigration. This suggests that the Duffy negative genotype evolved in Sub-Saharan Africa and was subsequently positively selected for in the Malaria endemic zone. A number of genetic conditions prevalent in malaria-endemic areas may provide genetic resistance to malaria, including sickle cell disease, thalassaemias and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Cystic fibrosis is the most common life-limiting autosomal recessive disease among people of European ancestry; a hypothesized heterozygote advantage, providing resistance to diseases earlier common in Europe, has been challenged. Scientists Michael Yudell, Dorothy Roberts, Rob DeSalle, and Sarah Tishkoff argue that using these associations in the practice of medicine has led doctors to overlook or misidentify disease: \"For example, hemoglobinopathies can be misdiagnosed because of the identification of sickle-cell as a 'Black' disease and thalassemia as a 'Mediterranean' disease. Cystic fibrosis is underdiagnosed in populations of African ancestry, because it is thought of as a 'White” disease.'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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