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5fk5gh
|
graphic card memory
|
[
{
"answer": "Graphics card memory is RAM that's built directly into the video card itself.\n\nUnlike general RAM which can be used for whatever, this stuff is reserved for *just* graphics, and being hooked right to the GPU makes it fast and easy fo rthe GPU to use it.\n\nTypically, things like textures are stored in this memory. More memory means higher resolution textures can be stored, [which gives you nice graphics like this.](_URL_0_). Things like lighting and shadows also use memory, if there isn't enough memory available to remember what's in light or shadow the game may simplify or skip over how it handles lights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The graphics card is like a small computer with its own processor, memory, bus, input and output. Notice that ASUS and Gigabyte are motherboard manufacturers while AMD and Intel are making both kinds of processors, both CPU and GPU. When you are playing the game there are different types of workload. All the logics of the game like the AI, game rules, etc. is best handled by a linear processor like the CPU. However drawing graphics (and physics but this is often using spare CPU power) requires the same operation multiple times and is best handled on a parallel processor like the GPU. This means that all assets needed to draw the graphics will be loaded into the graphics memory for easy access by the GPU so it does not have to go to the main memory all the time. The CPU tells the GPU where the camera and other objects are in the scene but the graphics memory contains all the polygons and textures in the scene. If you have more memory you can fit more details such as more polygons or higher resolution textures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2598557",
"title": "External storage",
"section": "Section::::Types of external storage.:Flash memory devices.:Memory card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Memory cards are flash memory storage media used to store digital information in many electronics products. The types of memory cards include CompactFlash, PCMCIA, secure digital card, multimedia card, memory stick etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5367049",
"title": "Memory card reader",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "A memory card reader is a device for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4397518",
"title": "Card reader",
"section": "Section::::Memory card readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "A memory card reader is a device, typically having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113624",
"title": "Video card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Usually the graphics card is made in the form of a printed circuit board (expansion board) and inserted into an expansion slot, universal or specialized (AGP, PCI Express). Some have been made using dedicated enclosures, which are connected to the computer via a docking station or a cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212855",
"title": "Memory card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A memory card or memory cartridge is an electronic data storage device used for storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly used in portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop, computers, tablets, PDAs, portable media players, video game consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and digital pianos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212855",
"title": "Memory card",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "PC Cards (PCMCIA) were the first commercial memory card formats (type I cards) to come out, but are now mainly used in industrial applications and to connect I/O devices such as modems. Since 1994, a number of memory card formats smaller than the PC Card arrived, the first one was CompactFlash and later SmartMedia and Miniature Card. The desire for smaller cards for cell-phones, PDAs, and compact digital cameras drove a trend that left the previous generation of \"compact\" cards looking big. In digital cameras SmartMedia and CompactFlash had been very successful. In 2001, SM alone captured 50% of the digital camera market and CF had captured the professional digital camera market. By 2005 however, SD/MMC had nearly taken over SmartMedia's spot, though not to the same level and with stiff competition coming from Memory Stick variants, as well CompactFlash. In industrial and embedded fields, even the venerable PC card (PCMCIA) memory cards still manage to maintain a niche, while in mobile phones and PDAs, the memory card has become smaller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315794",
"title": "SD card",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:File system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Like other types of flash memory card, an SD card of any SD family is a block-addressable storage device, in which the host device can read or write fixed-size blocks by specifying their block number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1h8qs3
|
Terms in electrolysis which confuses me.
|
[
{
"answer": "Current is said to flow from positive to negative because scientists guessed it did a long time ago. It turns out they were wrong and it was particles moving in the other direction, but it was too late to change all the books and terms so electrons are said to flow from negative to positive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work with electrochemistry and you have NO IDEA how annoying the terminology is. So literally every time I go through any conversation, I restate what I mean by each term. There are 2 conventions that use opposite meanings. \n\nHere are the facts:\n\n1) Electrons have a negative charge\n\n2) Crowding electrons together builds up negative charge, and makes that space have a higher energy\n\n3) Things always flow from higher energy to lower energy\n\n\nSo anode can mean either one. ALWAYS SPECIFY WHAT YOU MEAN. Electrons move away from the negatively charged electrode (which I call the anode) and towards the positively charged electrode (which I call the cathode).\n\n\nEDIT: Let me clarify that I am using terms opposite of IUPAC convention. I will restate with current conventions.\n\nFor most people, think of the perspective from the device measuring current, not the solution. You have some potentiostat (or battery, or voltameter) hooked up to 2 electrodes. It receives electrons from one and gives electrons to the other. The electrode it is receiving electrons from is called the ANODE. In the solution, ANIONS move towards it and give off an electron (this means the anion in the solution is being OXIDIZED) that is carried to the device. So electrons are flowing solution -- > anode -- > measuring device. Likewise the CATHODE is the one that the device is giving electrons to. In the solution CATIONS move towards it and receive an electron (this means the cation in the solution is being REDUCED) and thus pull electrons from the cathode. So electrons are flowing measuring device -- > cathode -- > solution.\n\nI hope this clarifies it some.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The anode is ALWAYS the electrode where the oxidation reaction occurs. Similarly, the cathode is the electrode where reduction reaction occurs. Just remember \n\n*AnOx, RedCat*\n\nThe anode and cathode switch depending on whether the cell is galvanic or electrolytic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My time to shine. The word anode is originated from the greek word *anodos* 'way up', from *ana* 'up' + *hodos* 'way'. Now, picture how most electrolysis chambers are built. As /u/Spewis mentions, anode is where oxidation, or a net loss of electrons, occurs. As in, electrons escape from the chamber via this electrode (think up up and away).\n\nSimilarly cathode is *kathodos* 'way down', from *kata-* 'down' + *hodos* 'way'. This is where reduction happens (a net gain of electrons), or where electrons go down into the chamber.\n\nEdit: wording, grammar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38257",
"title": "Electrolysis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Electrolysis is the passing of a direct electric current through an ionic substance that is either molten or dissolved in a suitable solvent, producing chemical reactions at the electrodes and a decomposition of the materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38257",
"title": "Electrolysis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Process of electrolysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by some physical processes. For example, in the electrolysis of brine to produce hydrogen and chlorine, the products are gaseous. These gaseous products bubble from the electrolyte and are collected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38257",
"title": "Electrolysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "906156",
"title": "Hydrogen economy",
"section": "Section::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Experimental production methods.:High-pressure electrolysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen gas (H) by means of an electric current being passed through the water. The difference with a standard electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around 120-200 bar (1740-2900 psi, 12–20 MPa). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, through a process known as chemical compression, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18790726",
"title": "High-pressure electrolysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "High-pressure electrolysis (HPE) is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen gas (H) due to the passing of an electric current through the water. The difference with a standard proton exchange membrane electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around at 70 °C. By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal differential pressure compression is around 3%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38257",
"title": "Electrolysis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The word \"electrolysis\" was introduced by Michael Faraday in the 19th century, on the suggestion of the Rev. William Whewell, using the Greek words \"amber\", which since the 17th century was associated with electric phenomena, and \"\" meaning \"dissolution\". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure elements, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3206764",
"title": "Electrolysis of water",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:High-pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "High-pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water with a compressed hydrogen output around 12–20 MPa (120–200 Bar, 1740–2900 psi). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated; the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17s69i
|
what would happen to italy if we got out the euro?
|
[
{
"answer": "No one really knows and that is what makes it so scary.\n\nOne problem is that your debt would still be in Euros, so going back to the Lira would not get you back in control of your debt. While debtors do not like the idea that you would inflate your way out of debt, they prefer that to the idea of default. So it is easier to borrow if you can borrow in your own money because debtors know that if push comes to shove, you can always print money to pay them back. But with you debt in Euros, lenders would worry about default.\n\nThere is also the problem of contracts written in euros. What would happen to those. Would a contract between Italians be translated into Lira? How about a contract between an Italian and a German. What about your bank deposits. You put Euros in the bank. But would you get Lira when you take it out? Probably so. It would probably all get translated into Lira at some rate. That means it all has to be done quickly and as a surprise to avoid a run on the backs because people would have more faith in the euro and want to get euros in had before the switch.\n\nAnd if Italy had to default on it debt in Euros, it might make it very hard for them to get new loans in Lira.\n\nSo the fear is that there would be confusion and chaos. \n\nBut it might be better the continuing with German demands for more and more austerity. The problem with austerity, is that every time you cut back on government spending to reduce the debt, the economy takes a hit, unemployment goes up, and tax receipts go down. The reduction in taxes offsets your cut in spending so that your deficit is no better but your economy is worse. There is no way to pay off your debts with so many people unemployed not producing any wealth to pay off the debts with. If you had the Lira, its value would be going down as people became worried about the debt, and everyone would take a hit. The whole country would be poorer because their money would be worth less, but the would still have their jobs and would still be producing wealth that lets you dig your way back out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "926945",
"title": "Nouriel Roubini",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Economic forecast.:Global economy.:2006.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "With regards to Europe, Roubini predicted that Italy, and possibly a series of other eurozone countries (Portugal, Spain, Greece) might have to exit the eurozone if they did not implement \"serious economic reforms.\" \"[It] is not a foregone conclusion but, if Italy does not reform, an exit from EMU within 5 years is not totally unlikely. Indeed, like Argentina, Italy faces a growing competitiveness loss given an increasingly overvalued currency and the risk of falling exports and growing current account deficit. The growth slowdown will make the public deficit and debt worse and potentially unsustainable over time. And if a devaluation cannot be used to reduce real wages, the real exchange rate overvaluation will be undone via a slow and painful process of wage and price deflation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50350826",
"title": "Withdrawal from the Eurozone",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Speculation followed about other countries as well, such as Italy, withdrawing from the Eurozone, with economist Nuriel Roubini submitting that \"Italy may, like other periphery countries [of the Eurozone], need to exit the euro and go back to a national currency, thus triggering an effective break-up of the Eurozone.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35826350",
"title": "Greek withdrawal from the eurozone",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The prospect of Greece leaving the euro and dealing with a devalued drachma prompted many people to start withdrawing their euros from the country's banks. In the nine months to March 2012 deposits in Greek banks had already fallen 13% to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6982420",
"title": "African emigrants to Italy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "In 2016, Italy’s finance minister pushed for financial compensation from the European Union for his country’s financial losses because of mass migration. As of 2016, the European Union had put forth only 1.8 billion euros for the entirety of Africa's refugee efforts in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50350826",
"title": "Withdrawal from the Eurozone",
"section": "Section::::Economic considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "At the American Economic Association's annual meeting of 2015, Berkeley University economic historian Barry Eichengreen predicted that the withdrawal of a member state, such as Greece, from the Eurozone, would \"set off [a] devastating turmoil in financial markets.\" At the same event, Harvard professor of Public Policy and professor of Economics Kenneth Rogoff characterised the overall common-currency project in Europe a \"historic disaster\", while Harvard professor of Economics and NBER president emeritus Martin Feldstein opined that \"there may be no way to end to [the] euro crisis,\" and suggested that to avoid a break-up and \"ensure the Euro's survival,\" the best way forward \"would be for each individual Eurozone member-state to enact its own tax policies to spur demand, including cutting the value-added tax for the next five years to increase consumer spending.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37691543",
"title": "European debt crisis contagion",
"section": "Section::::Affected countries.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Bank of England governor Mervyn King stated in May 2012 that the Eurozone is \"tearing itself apart without any obvious solution.\" He acknowledged that the Bank of England, the Financial Services Authority, and the British government were preparing contingency plans for a Greek exit from the euro or a collapse of the currency, but refused to discuss them to avoid adding to the panic. Known contingency plans include emergency immigration controls to prevent millions of Greek and other EU residents from entering the country to seek work, and the evacuation of Britons from Greece during civil unrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35826350",
"title": "Greek withdrawal from the eurozone",
"section": "Section::::Immediate economic fallout inside Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "On 29 May 2012 the National Bank of Greece (not to be confused with the central bank, the Bank of Greece) warned that \"[a]n exit from the euro would lead to a significant decline in the living standards of Greek citizens.\" According to the announcement, per capita income would fall by 55%, the new national currency would depreciate by 65% vis-à-vis the euro, and the recession would deepen to 22%. Furthermore, unemployment would rise from its current 22% to 34% of the work force, and inflation, which was then at 2%, would soar to 30%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9vg7qy
|
How do you store plasma?
|
[
{
"answer": "Magnetic fields can be used to store a plasma. This is done in fusion reactors, for example. Alternatively you can just keep it in a regular container but keep supplying energy to ionize new atoms while others become neutral.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603211",
"title": "Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition",
"section": "Section::::Discharges for processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "A plasma is any gas in which a significant percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized. Fractional ionization in plasmas used for deposition and related materials processing varies from about 10 in typical capacitive discharges to as high as 5–10% in high density inductive plasmas. Processing plasmas are typically operated at pressures of a few millitorr to a few torr, although arc discharges and inductive plasmas can be ignited at atmospheric pressure. Plasmas with low fractional ionization are of great interest for materials processing because electrons are so light, compared to atoms and molecules, that energy exchange between the electrons and neutral gas is very inefficient. Therefore, the electrons can be maintained at very high equivalent temperatures – tens of thousands of kelvins, equivalent to several electronvolts average energy—while the neutral atoms remain at the ambient temperature. These energetic electrons can induce many processes that would otherwise be very improbable at low temperatures, such as dissociation of precursor molecules and the creation of large quantities of free radicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751638",
"title": "Reactive-ion etching",
"section": "Section::::Method of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Plasma is initiated in the system by applying a strong RF (radio frequency) electromagnetic field to the wafer platter. The field is typically set to a frequency of 13.56 Megahertz, applied at a few hundred watts. The oscillating electric field ionizes the gas molecules by stripping them of electrons, creating a plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32004278",
"title": "Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins",
"section": "Section::::Fabrication techniques.:Plasma treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Plasma techniques are especially useful because they can deposit ultra thin (a few nm), adherent, conformal coatings. Glow discharge plasma is created by filling a vacuum with a low-pressure gas (ex. argon, ammonia, or oxygen). The gas is then excited using microwaves or current which ionizes it. The ionized gas is then thrown onto a surface at a high velocity where the energy produced physically and chemically changes the surface. After the changes occur, the ionized plasma gas is able to react with the surface to make it ready for protein adhesion. However, the surfaces may lose mechanical strength or other inherent properties because of the high amounts of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251318",
"title": "Plasma window",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Plasma is any gas whose atoms or molecules have been ionized, and is a separate phase of matter. This is most commonly achieved by heating the gas to extremely high temperatures, although other methods exist. Plasma becomes increasingly viscous at higher temperatures, to the point where other matter has trouble passing through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88857",
"title": "Blood transfusion",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:Medical advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 mL bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. Dr. Charles R. Drew was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the test tube methods into the first successful technique for mass production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "413679",
"title": "Blood bank",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medical advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. Charles R. Drew was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the test tube methods into the first successful mass production technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8661211",
"title": "Dielectric barrier discharge",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Usage of the generated plasma.:Industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The plasma itself is used to modify or clean (plasma cleaning) surfaces of materials (e.g. polymers, semiconductor surfaces), that can also act as dielectric barrier, or to modify gases applied further to “soft” plasma cleaning and increasing adhesion of surfaces prepared for coating or gluing (flat panel display technologies).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lx6ac
|
Is it possible to generate every possible combination of every pixel on your screen to create every image that could ever be taken? (For a specific resolution, anyways)
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll assume a 1920x1080 resolution. Each pixel has three red, green, and blue sub-pixels that can each be in one of 256 brightness values, therefore each pixel can display as many as 256^3 = 16,777,216 colors.\n\nA 1920x1080 resolution screen has 1920*1080 = 2,073,600 pixels. Therefore, there are 16,777,216^2,073,600 possible images that a screen with that many pixels could display. That number has nearly 15 _million_ decimal digits. That's a big number. At this point I think you can see that even the most advanced technologies would still take an incomprehensible amount of time to go through all of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's pretty easy to write code that will iterate through every color value for every pixel. The problem is that the number of iterations is unimaginably huge and all but a tiny, tiny fraction of those images will be completely meaningless noise.\n\nFor example, trying to generate valid English words by trying every combination of letters. For 3 letters, there's 3^26 = 17,576 combinations, but only a few hundred of them are valid words (_URL_0_). At 5 seconds a word it'd take just over 24 hours to check the entire list for valid words by hand.\n\nNow extrapolate that for (x*y)^c where x*y is your resolution and c is the number of colors. Before you get to a resolution where any meaningful images can be made, you've got more iterations than you could go check for meaning in a lifetime.\n\nI suppose you could connect it to some kind of computer vision system that would try to extract meaning from the images so you didn't have to look at every single one, but that would still generate a huge number of false positives.\n\ntl;dr - You can ~~do it~~ generate the images easily enough, but most of the images will be garbage and there's no way of easily extracting the meaningful images from the noise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that [this thread](_URL_0_) would interest you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is conceptually similar to [The Library of Babel](_URL_0_), a thought experiment in which a library contains every possible combination of letters that could compose a 410 page book. I figured you might be interested.\n\nIn the library is a 410 page book about the first year of your life. And another one about the second. And so on. There are books with 410 page summaries of your entire life, including years you have not yet lived. But there are many, many more books of 410 page summaries of your entire life that are only accurate up to this current moment, and they diverge from there, with no way to tell in advance which one is right, out of the nearly infinite copies that have your life right so far. Oh, and there are accurate translations of all of the above into all the languages covered by the alphabet you use in the library. \n\nMostly, though, almost all the books are pure gibberish.\n\nTaken to the current thought experiment, you'd have many accurate photos of your own life - when you were born, your first day at school (from every angle), etc., including photos of you in the future doing things you'll actually do. There's an even larger set of inaccurate photos of you. There are even textual descriptions of things not yet discovered.\n\nBut again, almost every image is ugly, ugly noise.\n\nPhilosophically, that brings me to my next point. Quine's reductio (see wikipedia page I linked) allows you to actually recreate the Library of Babel using finite resources, just repeating pages as necessary. In that way, you could just have some sort of Library of Pixels where the physical manifestation of the image you're looking up is generated on the fly as you search for it, from the search algorithm itself. So yes, it is possible to generate the library of images in a human-conceivable amount of time and computation power, but the images won't actually come into existence until you pull them up.",
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"answer": "Assume 320 x 200 with four colors, i.e. CGA circa 1981.\n\nThat is 64,000 pixels, each with one of four color states.\n\nThis is 4^64000 different screen images.\n\nThat is approximately 7 x 10^38531.\n\nThat is a horrific number and well beyond anything you handle if you are talking about physical reality.\n\nThe algorithm is simple, it just takes essentially infinity time.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I created simulation in JavaScript [here](_URL_0_). It clearly shows how ludicrous amount of time it would take.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can create something functionally equivalent to having the results of this image generation.\nLet's say you finish this task. You now have a folder full of images which let's say you've named according to the order in which you generated them (1.jpg,2.jpg,...N).\nNow you want to go open a specific image. It's way too much to scroll, so you just type in a number. \n > > open 123409871234.jpg\n\nExcellent! You've gotten very lucky, and this is a historically accurate rendering of Abe Lincoln riding a velociraptor.\n\nWell, as you can see from other comments, this is a very unlikely scenario because the size of the universe puts some pretty serious limits on how many images you'll be able to save to your hard drive.\n\nHowever, it would be pretty easy to write a program that allows you to act as if you have all the files on your computer already. The program could make it so that\n > > open 123409871234.jpg\n\nWould simply cause the 123409871234th image to be generated and displayed.\n\nMy point is that there is no reason to actually save all the images. Regardless of what you use them for, it will always be better to simply generate them on demand. Any possible agent that interacts with the set of all images would do better to simply interact with a program that generates the Nth image.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "256 bit color, which is what you probably have, supports 255^3 or 16581375 colors.\n\nFor k pixels, there would be k^16581375 possible images. For instance, my screen is 1440 by 900. That would be 1296000^16581375 images, or 10^80 images. If they were to flash on the screen for 1/60th of a second, about the time it takes for you to see 1 frame of vision, it would take about 10^70 years to finish, or about 10^60, that's 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 times the amount of time the universe has been around.\n\nTheoretically possible, yes. Tractable? No.\n\nAnd, as stated above, one pixels requires 256 bits of color. So multiply 10^80 by 256 to get a rough amount of the bits required to store all of it.",
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"answer": "I'll assume a 1920x1080 resolution. Each pixel has three red, green, and blue sub-pixels that can each be in one of 256 brightness values, therefore each pixel can display as many as 256^3 = 16,777,216 colors.\n\nA 1920x1080 resolution screen has 1920*1080 = 2,073,600 pixels. Therefore, there are 16,777,216^2,073,600 possible images that a screen with that many pixels could display. That number has nearly 15 _million_ decimal digits. That's a big number. At this point I think you can see that even the most advanced technologies would still take an incomprehensible amount of time to go through all of them.",
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"answer": "It's pretty easy to write code that will iterate through every color value for every pixel. The problem is that the number of iterations is unimaginably huge and all but a tiny, tiny fraction of those images will be completely meaningless noise.\n\nFor example, trying to generate valid English words by trying every combination of letters. For 3 letters, there's 3^26 = 17,576 combinations, but only a few hundred of them are valid words (_URL_0_). At 5 seconds a word it'd take just over 24 hours to check the entire list for valid words by hand.\n\nNow extrapolate that for (x*y)^c where x*y is your resolution and c is the number of colors. Before you get to a resolution where any meaningful images can be made, you've got more iterations than you could go check for meaning in a lifetime.\n\nI suppose you could connect it to some kind of computer vision system that would try to extract meaning from the images so you didn't have to look at every single one, but that would still generate a huge number of false positives.\n\ntl;dr - You can ~~do it~~ generate the images easily enough, but most of the images will be garbage and there's no way of easily extracting the meaningful images from the noise.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I think that [this thread](_URL_0_) would interest you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is conceptually similar to [The Library of Babel](_URL_0_), a thought experiment in which a library contains every possible combination of letters that could compose a 410 page book. I figured you might be interested.\n\nIn the library is a 410 page book about the first year of your life. And another one about the second. And so on. There are books with 410 page summaries of your entire life, including years you have not yet lived. But there are many, many more books of 410 page summaries of your entire life that are only accurate up to this current moment, and they diverge from there, with no way to tell in advance which one is right, out of the nearly infinite copies that have your life right so far. Oh, and there are accurate translations of all of the above into all the languages covered by the alphabet you use in the library. \n\nMostly, though, almost all the books are pure gibberish.\n\nTaken to the current thought experiment, you'd have many accurate photos of your own life - when you were born, your first day at school (from every angle), etc., including photos of you in the future doing things you'll actually do. There's an even larger set of inaccurate photos of you. There are even textual descriptions of things not yet discovered.\n\nBut again, almost every image is ugly, ugly noise.\n\nPhilosophically, that brings me to my next point. Quine's reductio (see wikipedia page I linked) allows you to actually recreate the Library of Babel using finite resources, just repeating pages as necessary. In that way, you could just have some sort of Library of Pixels where the physical manifestation of the image you're looking up is generated on the fly as you search for it, from the search algorithm itself. So yes, it is possible to generate the library of images in a human-conceivable amount of time and computation power, but the images won't actually come into existence until you pull them up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assume 320 x 200 with four colors, i.e. CGA circa 1981.\n\nThat is 64,000 pixels, each with one of four color states.\n\nThis is 4^64000 different screen images.\n\nThat is approximately 7 x 10^38531.\n\nThat is a horrific number and well beyond anything you handle if you are talking about physical reality.\n\nThe algorithm is simple, it just takes essentially infinity time.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I created simulation in JavaScript [here](_URL_0_). It clearly shows how ludicrous amount of time it would take.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can create something functionally equivalent to having the results of this image generation.\nLet's say you finish this task. You now have a folder full of images which let's say you've named according to the order in which you generated them (1.jpg,2.jpg,...N).\nNow you want to go open a specific image. It's way too much to scroll, so you just type in a number. \n > > open 123409871234.jpg\n\nExcellent! You've gotten very lucky, and this is a historically accurate rendering of Abe Lincoln riding a velociraptor.\n\nWell, as you can see from other comments, this is a very unlikely scenario because the size of the universe puts some pretty serious limits on how many images you'll be able to save to your hard drive.\n\nHowever, it would be pretty easy to write a program that allows you to act as if you have all the files on your computer already. The program could make it so that\n > > open 123409871234.jpg\n\nWould simply cause the 123409871234th image to be generated and displayed.\n\nMy point is that there is no reason to actually save all the images. Regardless of what you use them for, it will always be better to simply generate them on demand. Any possible agent that interacts with the set of all images would do better to simply interact with a program that generates the Nth image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "256 bit color, which is what you probably have, supports 255^3 or 16581375 colors.\n\nFor k pixels, there would be k^16581375 possible images. For instance, my screen is 1440 by 900. That would be 1296000^16581375 images, or 10^80 images. If they were to flash on the screen for 1/60th of a second, about the time it takes for you to see 1 frame of vision, it would take about 10^70 years to finish, or about 10^60, that's 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 times the amount of time the universe has been around.\n\nTheoretically possible, yes. Tractable? No.\n\nAnd, as stated above, one pixels requires 256 bits of color. So multiply 10^80 by 256 to get a rough amount of the bits required to store all of it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "97923",
"title": "Binary image",
"section": "Section::::Operations on binary images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "An entire class of operations on binary images operates on a 3×3 window of the image. This contains nine pixels, so 2 or 512 possible values. Considering only the central pixel, it is possible to define whether it remains set or unset, based on the surrounding pixels. Examples of such operations are thinning, dilating, finding branch points and endpoints, removing isolated pixels, shifting the image a pixel in any direction, and breaking H-connections. Conway's Game of Life is also an example of a 3×3 window operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7681",
"title": "ClearType",
"section": "Section::::How ClearType works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6095845",
"title": "Digital scan back",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Now instead of doing it with one array, we do it with three arrays at the same time (one for each component in RGB), where the first array would be making an exposure at x, the second at x-1, and the third at x-2. The resulting image would be 10,000 x 10,000, or 100 million pixels, with full color information for each pixel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23665",
"title": "Pixel",
"section": "Section::::Technical.:Sampling patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "For convenience, pixels are normally arranged in a regular two-dimensional grid. By using this arrangement, many common operations can be implemented by uniformly applying the same operation to each pixel independently. Other arrangements of pixels are possible, with some sampling patterns even changing the shape (or kernel) of each pixel across the image. For this reason, care must be taken when acquiring an image on one device and displaying it on another, or when converting image data from one pixel format to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4073399",
"title": "UKNC",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Graphics: max 640×288 with 8 colors in one line (16 or 53 colors on whole screen), it is possible to set an individual palette, resolution (80, 160, 320, or 640 dots per line) and memory address for each of 288 screen lines; no text mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19562",
"title": "Mandelbrot set",
"section": "Section::::Computer drawings.:Escape time algorithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "To render such an image, the region of the complex plane we are considering is subdivided into a certain number of pixels. To color any such pixel, let formula_1 be the midpoint of that pixel. We now iterate the critical point 0 under formula_36, checking at each step whether the orbit point has modulus larger than 2. When this is the case, we know that formula_1 does not belong to the Mandelbrot set, and we color our pixel according to the number of iterations used to find out. Otherwise, we keep iterating up to a fixed number of steps, after which we decide that our parameter is \"probably\" in the Mandelbrot set, or at least very close to it, and color the pixel black.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1172087",
"title": "Font rasterization",
"section": "Section::::Types of rasterization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Most computer displays have pixels made up of multiple subpixels (typically one each for red, green, and blue, which are combined to produce the full range of colours). In some cases, particularly with flat panel displays, it is possible to exploit this by rendering at the subpixel resolution rather than using whole pixels, which can increase the effective resolution of the screen. This is generally known as subpixel rendering. One proprietary implementation of subpixel rendering is Microsoft's ClearType.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lmuu4
|
I just recently read that there's a black hole at the center of our galaxy, would it be logical to assume that there might be one at the center of most galaxies and nebulae, thus causing them to contract in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not really. Most galaxies have them yes but not nebulae. For galaxies it's still a chicken an egg question, did supermassive black holes form very early and take part in galactic formation, if so how did they collapse? Or were they simply an outcome of the collapse of the central regions of proto-galaxies already forming? Right now it isn't known. We can see similar things in some globular clusters but smaller black holes, intermediate mass black holes. Again which came first isn't known . To be clear these black holes are not massive enough to cause the entire galaxy or cluster to orbit them but they may be a disruptive presence which assists collapse and formation.\n\nOn the topic of nebulae there are a few types. Planetary nebula and supernova remnants are from dying stars, they didn't collapse to form the nebula. Star forming regions and diffuse nebulae do collapse but it is not really due to one gravitational body, as far as I'm aware a supermassive black hole has never been found in a nebulae (ignoring galactic centres, which are sometimes somewhat nebulous). You do sometimes find black holes in star forming regions but this is to be expected, stars are forming including massive ones (which can die fast) and gas is collapsing (direct collapse to a black hole is possible). It does not mean they formed the nebula, I'm quite sure none found in nebulae are massive enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "207619",
"title": "Elliptical galaxy",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Every massive elliptical galaxy contains a supermassive black hole at its center. Observations of 46 elliptical galaxies, 20 classical bulges, and 22 pseudobulges show that each contain a black hole at the center. The mass of the black hole is tightly correlated with the mass of the galaxy, evidenced through correlations such as the M–sigma relation which relates the velocity dispersion of the surrounding stars to the mass of the black hole at the center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Accretion of matter.:Galactic nuclei.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "It is now widely accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy, not just active ones, contains a supermassive black hole. The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy's bulge, known as the M-sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3728106",
"title": "NGC 4526",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The inner nucleus of this galaxy displays a rise in stellar orbital motion that indicates the presence of a central dark mass. The best fit model for the motion of molecular gas in the core region suggests there is a supermassive black hole with about (450 million) times the mass of the Sun. This is the first object to have its black-hole mass estimated by measuring the rotation of gas molecules around its centre with an Astronomical interferometer (in this case the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4417259",
"title": "Double Helix Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "This nebula is seen as circumstantial evidence that the magnetic fields at the center of the galaxy are extremely strong, more than 1,000 times stronger than those of the Sun. If so, they may be driven by the massive disc of gas orbiting the central super-massive black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864424",
"title": "Sombrero Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Nucleus.:Central supermassive black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In the 1990s, a research group led by John Kormendy demonstrated that a supermassive black hole is present within the Sombrero Galaxy. Using spectroscopy data from both the CFHT and the Hubble Space Telescope, the group showed that the speed of revolution of the stars within the center of the galaxy could not be maintained unless a mass 1 billion times the mass of the Sun, or , is present in the center. This is among the most massive black holes measured in any nearby galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "970666",
"title": "NGC 3115",
"section": "Section::::Black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In 1992 John Kormendy of the University of Hawaii and Douglas Richstone of the University of Michigan announced what was observed to be a supermassive black hole in the galaxy. Based on orbital velocities of the stars in its core, the central black hole has mass measured to be approximately one billion solar masses (). The galaxy appears to have mostly old stars and little or no activity. The growth of its black hole has also stopped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214077",
"title": "Messier 87",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Supermassive black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "A 2010 paper suggested that the black hole may be displaced from the galactic center by about . The displacement was claimed to be in the opposite direction of the jet, indicating acceleration of the black hole by the jet. Another suggestion was that the change in location occurred during the merger of two supermassive black holes. However, a 2011 study did not find any statistically significant displacement, and a 2018 study of high-resolution images of M87 concluded that the apparent spatial offset was caused by temporal variations in the jet's brightness rather than a physical displacement of the black hole from the galaxy's center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hv5e2
|
In animals with a larger brains than humans, what is the purpose of their extra brain mass and volume?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Surely an elephant leg, despite being much bigger than a human leg, wouldn't require over triple the brain mass to control a limb that is functionally equivalent to the scaled-down human version.\n\nThat's where you're wrong. While the elephant's leg is effectively just a blown up version of a human leg on a macroscopic level, at a microscopic level the cells are all basically the same size. Larger limbs means larger muscles, and that means more muscle cells and therefore more motor neurons required. The same thing goes for sensory neurons - more surface area and volume mean more sensory receptors, which means more sensory neurons are required in the CNS to receive and process all of those signals.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "326837",
"title": "Toothed whale",
"section": "Section::::Life history and behaviour.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales around the two-thirds or three-quarters exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males, in comparison to the average human brain which averages in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9061",
"title": "Dolphin",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Killer whales have the second largest brain mass of any animal on earth, next to the sperm whale. The brain to body mass ratio in some is second only to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305649",
"title": "Oceanic dolphin",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Killer whales have the second largest brain mass of any animal on earth, next to the sperm whale. The brain to body mass ratio in some is second only to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33777",
"title": "Whale",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males, in comparison to the average human brain which averages in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838",
"title": "Mammal",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3717",
"title": "Brain",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7626",
"title": "Cetacea",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of intelligence. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately two-thirds or three-quarter exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such an analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as an indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans. In some whales, however, it is less than half that of humans: 0.9% versus 2.1%. The sperm whale (\"Physeter macrocephalus\") is the largest of all toothed predatory animals and possesses the largest brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l9p0e
|
Why do baby boys or boys below puberty age get boners?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why questions are very difficult to answer, as they frequently have very nebulous answers. Adult males get erections every night. It's one of the methods they use to detect whether impotence is psychological or physical. They put a paper band tightly around the base of the penis, and if it breaks in the night, then your problem probably isn't physical.\n\nGiven that it seems to be a conserved biological mechanism like that, it's probably got an important function. A plausible hypothesis might be that it serves a function in maintaining the correct functioning of the erectile tissues of the penis. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19833554",
"title": "Klinefelter syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "During puberty, the physical traits of the syndrome become more evident; because these boys do not produce as much testosterone as other boys, they have a less muscular body, less facial and body hair, and broader hips. As teens, XXY males may develop breast tissue and also have weaker bones, and a lower energy level than other males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83859",
"title": "Adolescence",
"section": "Section::::Biological development.:Puberty in general.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "The timing of puberty can have important psychological and social consequences. Early maturing boys are usually taller and stronger than their friends. They have the advantage in capturing the attention of potential partners and in becoming hand-picked for sports. Pubescent boys often tend to have a good body image, are more confident, secure, and more independent. Late maturing boys can be less confident because of poor body image when comparing themselves to already developed friends and peers. However, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, despite the fact that their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651370",
"title": "Precocious puberty",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Though boys face fewer problems upon early puberty than girls, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, although their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19833554",
"title": "Klinefelter syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "As babies and children, XXY males may have weaker muscles and reduced strength. As they grow older, they tend to become taller than average. They may have less muscle control and coordination than other boys of their age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155117",
"title": "Pubic hair",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "At puberty, many girls find the sudden sprouting of pubic hair disturbing, and sometimes as unclean, because in many cases young girls have been screened by their family and by society from the sight of pubic hair. Young boys, on the other hand, tend not to be similarly disturbed by the development of their pubic hair, usually having seen body hair on their fathers. However, to a young boy, the sight of the female pubic region is usually a mystery, and young girls are taught to \"guard\" their \"private area\" from inquisitive young eyes and hands. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651370",
"title": "Precocious puberty",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Central.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Central precocious puberty can also be caused by brain tumors, infection (most commonly tuberculous meningitis, especially in developing countries), trauma, hydrocephalus, and Angelman syndrome. Precocious puberty is associated with advancement in bone age, which leads to early fusion of epiphyses, thus resulting in reduced final height and short stature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4475349",
"title": "Child development stages",
"section": "Section::::Milestones by age.:Twelve-year-old.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 569,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 569,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Changes in boys less dramatic, but puberty normally begins for boys at this age beginning with enlargement of the testicles and later the penis along with growth of fine pubic hair and frequent, random erections\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xrin2
|
AskScience, why is the landing of Curiosity so important?
|
[
{
"answer": "Curiosity rover is the biggest, most sophisticated explorer we've landed on another planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "briefly; Recent exploration of Mars has failed to find sub surface water reservoirs, and hence no likely spots for this water to reach the surface are known. With no water there's little point sending up another life finding laboratory, NASA has plenty of other things to spend the money on.\n\nSo it's sent a geologist to see if there is historical evidence of water exisiting on the surface, investigating parts that seem to have been created by flowing water etc. This will allow a historical perspective on the atmosphere and surface conditions. ie the question has changed from is there life?, to is there water? to was there water?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "453544",
"title": "Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cost overruns, delays, and launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "\"Curiosity\" successfully landed in the Gale Crater at 05:17:57.3 UTC on August 6, 2012, and transmitted Hazcam images confirming orientation. Due to the Mars-Earth distance at the time of landing and the limited speed of radio signals, the landing was not registered on Earth for another 14 minutes. The \"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\" sent a photograph of \"Curiosity\" descending under its parachute, taken by its HiRISE camera, during the landing procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Curiosity is a car-sized rover designed to explore the crater Gale on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission (MSL). \"Curiosity\" was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC. The Bradbury Landing site was less than from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a journey. The rover's goals include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology; assessment of whether the selected field site inside Gale has ever offered environmental conditions favorable for microbial life, including investigation of the role of water; and planetary habitability studies in preparation for human exploration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "Section::::Coverage, cultural impact and legacy.:Awards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The NASA/JPL Mars Science Laboratory/\"Curiosity\" Project Team was awarded the 2012 Robert J. Collier Trophy by the National Aeronautic Association \"In recognition of the extraordinary achievements of successfully landing \"Curiosity\" on Mars, advancing the nation's technological and engineering capabilities, and significantly improving humanity's understanding of ancient Martian habitable environments.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35282817",
"title": "Mount Sharp",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft exploration.:\"Curiosity\" mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "As of 08, 2020, \"Curiosity\" has been on the planet Mars for sols ( total days; ) since landing on August 6, 2012. Since September 11, 2014, \"Curiosity\" has been exploring the slopes of Mount Sharp, where more information about the history of Mars is expected to be found. As of late January 2019, the rover has traveled over and climbed over in elevation to, and around, the mountain base since landing at \"Bradbury Landing\" in August 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36665815",
"title": "Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Current status.:Location and travel statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "As of 08, 2020, \"Curiosity\" has been on the planet Mars for sols ( total days; ) since landing on August 6, 2012. Since September 11, 2014, \"Curiosity\" has been exploring the slopes of Mount Sharp, where more information about the history of Mars is expected to be found. As of late January 2019, the rover has traveled over and climbed over in elevation to, and around, the mountain base since landing at \"Bradbury Landing\" in August 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36665815",
"title": "Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Landing (2012).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "\"Curiosity\" landed in the Gale Crater at 05:17 UTC on August 6, 2012. Upon reaching Mars, an automated precision landing sequence took over the entire landing events. A cable cutter separated the cruise stage from the aeroshell and then the cruise stage was diverted into a trajectory for burn-up in the atmosphere. Landing was confirmed simultaneously by 3 monitoring Mars orbiters. \"Curiosity\" landed on target and only from its center. The coordinates of the landing site (named \"Bradbury Landing\") are: .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31390793",
"title": "Curiosity (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Curiosity: The Questions of Our Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The development of \"Curiosity: The Questions of Our Life\", was announced in September 2009. It was to answer questions and mysteries in fields like space, biology, geology, medicine, physics, technology, nature, archaeology, history, and the human mind. It was considered as a groundbreaking series for Discovery like the BBC's Planet Earth and Life. Originally, this series was to be a monthly show airing 12 one-hour episodes each year for 5 years beginning in January 2011. Dan Riskin was initially slated to host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1370dw
|
Discounting infant mortality, at about what rate has our life expectancy been increasing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Wolfram alpha has the data. try:\n_URL_0_\n\nBetween 1980 and 2000, life expectancy for 5 year olds males in the US has increased from about 71 years to 75 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2850474",
"title": "Bolivarian missions",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The infant mortality rate went down 5.9% between 1999 and 2013. The Gini coefficient fell from 47.8 in 1999 to 44.8 in 2006. The government earmarked 44.6% of the 2007 budget for social investment, with 1999-2007 averaging 12.8% of GDP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4185921",
"title": "Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The decline in the human mortality rate before the 1950s was mostly due to a decrease in the age-independent (Makeham) mortality component, while the age-dependent (Gompertz) mortality component was surprisingly stable. Since the 1950s, a new mortality trend has started in the form of an unexpected decline in mortality rates at advanced ages and \"rectangularization\" of the survival curve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5222",
"title": "Colombia",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.1 per thousand in 2016. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17564022",
"title": "Shah A M S Kibria",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Term as Finance Minister.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Expectation of life at birth rose from 58.7 years in 1995–96 to 61.8 years in 2000–2001. Per capita calorie intake went up from 2206.1 to 2274.2 kilocalories in rural areas and from 2220.2 to 2283.3 kilocalories in urban areas during his term as finance minister. Literacy rate for 15 old and above was 47.3 percent in 1995–96; the rate went up to 64 percent in 2000. Infant mortality rate, which was 67 per thousand in 1995–96, went down in 1998 to 57 per thousand live births.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191305",
"title": "Mortality rate",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Historically, mortality rates have been adversely affected by short term price increases. Studies have shown that mortality rates increase at a rate concurrent with increases in food prices. These effects have a greater impact on vulnerable, lower-income populations than they do on populations with a higher standard of living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4185921",
"title": "Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality describes the age dynamics of human mortality rather accurately in the age window from about 30 to 80 years of age. At more advanced ages, some studies have found that death rates increase more slowly – a phenomenon known as the late-life mortality deceleration – but more recent studies disagree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748060",
"title": "Sheppard–Towner Act",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Infant mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The overall U.S. infant mortality rate in 1922 was 76.2 deaths per 1000 live births. By the time that Sheppard-Towner was repealed in 1929, the infant mortality rate had fallen to 67.6, with a net decrease of 9.6 deaths per 1000 live births. There was already a downward trend in infant mortality during the 1920s; not all of the decrease was due to Sheppard-Towner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10e2yq
|
What is the formula to convert gigabytes to gibibits and which is right, google or ddg?
|
[
{
"answer": "Google is wrong, Wolfram Alpha is right.\nA Gigabyte is 10^9 bytes. A gibibit is 2^30 bit.\n\nThe giga- prefix is defined in base 10, the gibi- prefix in base 2.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia's article on [binary prefixes](_URL_0_) also answers your question and gives the correct conversion factors, along with some history and other information you might find useful.\n\nAnd tliff answered your second question -- Google is wrong, Wolfram Alpha is right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147000",
"title": "Gibibyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The gibibyte is closely related to the gigabyte (GB), which is defined by the IEC as 10 bytes = , ≈ . 1024 gibibytes are equal to one tebibyte. In the context of computer memory, gigabyte and GB are customarily used to mean 1024 (2) bytes, although not in the context of data transmission and not necessarily for hard drive size. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30657",
"title": "Terabyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A related unit, the tebibyte (TiB), using a binary prefix, is equal to 1024 bytes. One terabyte is about 0.9095 TiB. Despite the introduction of these standardized binary prefixes, the terabyte is still also commonly used in some computer operating systems, primarily Microsoft Windows, to denote (1024 or 2) bytes for disk drive capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9756",
"title": "Exabyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The exabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. In the International System of Units (SI), the prefix \"exa\" indicates multiplication by the sixth power of 1000 (10). Therefore, one exabyte is one quintillion bytes (short scale). The unit symbol for the exabyte is EB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12570",
"title": "Gigabyte",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 1000 bytes and gibibyte denote 1024 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST, and in 2009 it was incorporated in the International System of Quantities. Nevertheless, the term gigabyte continues to be widely used with the following two different meanings:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582340",
"title": "Quadratic sieve",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The quadratic sieve algorithm (QS) is an integer factorization algorithm and, in practice, the second fastest method known (after the general number field sieve). It is still the fastest for integers under 100 decimal digits or so, and is considerably simpler than the number field sieve. It is a general-purpose factorization algorithm, meaning that its running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored, and not on special structure or properties. It was invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981 as an improvement to Schroeppel's linear sieve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56459958",
"title": "Zettabyte Era",
"section": "Section::::The zettabyte.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "A zettabyte is a digital unit of measurement. One zettabyte is equal to one sextillion bytes or 10 (1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) bytes or, one zettabyte is roughly equal to a trillion gigabytes. To put this into perspective, consider that \"if each terabyte in a zettabyte were a kilometre, it would be equivalent to 1,300 round trips to the moon and back (768,800 kilometers)\". Or, as former Google CEO Eric Schmidt puts it, from the very beginning of humanity to the year 2003, an estimated 5 exabytes of information was created, which corresponds to the 0.5% of a zettabyte only. In 2013 that amount of information (5 exabytes) took only two days to create and that pace is continuously growing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29719643",
"title": "Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing",
"section": "Section::::Packet framing and stuffing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "COBS transforms an arbitrary string of bytes in the range [0,255] into bytes in the range [1,255]. Having eliminated all zero bytes from the data, a zero byte can now be used to unambiguously mark the end of the transformed data. This is done by appending a zero byte to the transformed data, thus forming a packet consisting of the COBS-encoded data (the \"payload\") to unambiguously mark the end of the packet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pjbgs
|
If I traveled back in time with modern medical knowledge, would I be able to make antibiotics/vaccines?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak to vaccines, but I work with antibiotics, so I'll just comment to that effect.\n\nCould you make penicillin? Maybe. In order to make it you'd need to do two things: 1. find a microbe that produces it, and 2. purify it from the microbe.\n\nPart 1 might be relatively easy, if you knew what you were looking for. You could culture a normal bacterium, then add environmental samples until one produces [a zone of clearing](_URL_0_) around your sample. From there, you just get more and more fine separations until you find the microbe (eg. penicillium fungus) that produces the antibiotic. The challenge would probably actually be making sterile media without modern lab apparatus. Today, we use [autoclaves](_URL_1_) to sterilize nutrient broth, and add [agar](_URL_2_) as a solid support. You might be able to get away with a different sterilization method, and gelatin can work in the place of agar, but it would be pretty work-intensive. \n\nPart 2. is harder. It took [Chain and Florey](_URL_3_) 15 years to isolate penicillin after [Fleming](_URL_4_) found it. To make the antibiotic it takes large sterile growth vats, followed by chemical separation techniques to get the pure antibiotic. That's really hard to do without at least 1900's lab equipment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I remember correctly my highschool history book talked about Native Americans using some kind of mold to treat infected wounds which turned out to be a primitive form of penicillin. \n\nAs for small pox several people groups developed ways of [Inoculating](_URL_0_) against small pox. One such practice was to make an incision in one's shoulder. Then take a small portion of puss from an infected person's sores, which would be placed in the shoulder before sewing the cut back up. This had a much higher mortality rate than more modern versions on the vaccine, but it was still a drastic improvement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What /u/superhelical said. More generally, with few exceptions, the timing of inventions and discoveries is not a coincidence; there is usually a long chain of enabling technologies that leads to a particular discovery, and another long chain of enabling technologies that leads to a widely available invention. \n\nFor example, you won't be able to create a safe and widely available vaccine without hypodermic needles and sterilization equipment, which depend on metallurgy and manufacturing that became available in 18th and 19th century. \n\nThere was an excellent show on PBS called \"How We Got To Now\" that explores this type of cumulative advancement. Highly recommended. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Penicillin: If you prepared for it by learning how the extraction was done before you left.... I think you could. The mold itself is easy to identify and grow. The rest would be a simple acid/salt extraction. Figuring the process out took a long time, but in the end the process was not all that complicated. The hard part would be getting the organic and inorganic chem knowledge to make the extraction reagents you need...but I think that's doable.\n\nVaccines....it depends. You could certainly recapitulate the smallpox vaccine. Just learn to identify cowpox and use the fluid from those lesions. Others...it gets more complicated. There are two main ways we make vaccine : inactivated virus and attenuated virus. \n\nFor inactivated virus, you just get a bunch of it and kill it with heat or chemicals. Killing it is easy. \"Getting a bunch\" is hard. You would need some kind of system that allows you to grow enough of the virus safely. That would be difficult.\n\nAttenuated may be easier, if you prepare. For attenuated virus, you take the regular virus and infect some non-optimal host (some other animal). The easiest would be something that works in fertilized eggs. You then harvest the virus that comes out and pass that through the same non-optimal host. Repeat that over and over, and eventually Darwin gives you a virus that is better suited to that host. That's your vaccine. \n\nYou'd have to learn all the ways it's done before you went on your little jaunt. The actual making of the drugs and vaccines generally isn't very hard. The hard part is figuring out how to make them. And that part you can take with you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of mouldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt, China, Serbia, Greece and Rome. The first person to directly document the use of moulds to treat infections was John Parkinson (1567–1650). Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) discovered modern day penicillin in 1928. After realizing the great potential there was in penicillin, Fleming pursued the challenge of how to market it and translate it to commercial use. With help from other biochemists, penicillin was finally available for widespread use. This was significantly beneficial during wartime. Unfortunately, it didn't take long for resistance to begin. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2515404",
"title": "Production of antibiotics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1364,
"text": "Production of antibiotics is a naturally occurring event, that thanks to advances in science can now be replicated and improved upon in laboratory settings. Due to the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the efforts of Florey and Chain in 1938, large-scale, pharmaceutical production of antibiotics has been made possible. As with the initial discovery of penicillin, most antibiotics have been discovered as a result of happenstance. Antibiotic production can be grouped into three methods: natural fermentation, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. As more and more bacteria continue to develop resistance to currently produced antibiotics, research and development of new antibiotics continues to be important. In addition to research and development into the production of new antibiotics, repackaging delivery systems is important to improving efficacy of the antibiotics that are currently produced. Improvements to this field have seen the ability to add antibiotics directly into implanted devices, aerosolization of antibiotics for direct delivery, and combination of antibiotics with non antibiotics to improve outcomes. The increase of antibiotic resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria has led to an increased urgency for the funding of research and development of antibiotics and a desire for production of new and better acting antibiotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1073708",
"title": "Buruli ulcer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "If treated early, antibiotics for eight weeks are effective in 80% of people. This often includes the medications rifampicin and streptomycin. Clarithromycin or moxifloxacin are sometimes used instead of streptomycin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2515404",
"title": "Production of antibiotics",
"section": "Section::::Strains used for the production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "In the earliest years of antibiotic discovery the antibiotics being discovered were naturally produced antibiotics and were either produced by fungi, such as the antibiotic penicillin, or by soil bacteria, which can produce antibiotics including streptomycin and tetracycline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21208262",
"title": "Western culture",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and technological inventions and discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "In medicine, the pure antibiotics were created in the West. The method of preventing Rh disease, the treatment of diabetes, and the germ theory of disease were discovered by Westerners. The eradication of smallpox, was led by a Westerner, Donald Henderson. Radiography, Computed tomography, Positron emission tomography and Medical ultrasonography are important diagnostic tools developed in the West. Other important diagnostic tools of clinical chemistry including the methods of spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay were first devised by Westerners. So were the stethoscope, electrocardiograph, and the endoscope. Vitamins, hormonal contraception, hormones, insulin, Beta blockers and ACE inhibitors, along with a host of other medically proven drugs were first utilized to treat disease in the West. The double-blind study and evidence-based medicine are critical scientific techniques widely used in the West for medical purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4429176",
"title": "Ischemic colitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Antibiotics are sometimes given in moderate to severe cases; the data supporting this practice date to the 1950s, although there is more recent animal data suggesting that antibiotics may increase survival and prevent bacteria from crossing the damaged lining of the colon into the bloodstream. The use of prophylactic antibiotics in ischemic colitis has not been prospectively evaluated in humans, but many authorities recommend their use based on the animal data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454231",
"title": "Chronic lymphocytic leukemia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Management of early disease is generally with watchful waiting. Infections should more readily be treated with antibiotics. In those with significant symptoms, chemotherapy or immunotherapy may be used. As of 2019 ibrutinib is often the initial medication recommended. The medications fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab were previously the initial treatment in those who are otherwise healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o6som
|
Given that energy can't be created or destroyed, will wind/tidal power remove energy from the wind/tides and thus affect the environment in their own way?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does. But so does erecting tall buildings that block the wind and form turbulence. Ultimately, the amount of energy extracted is insignificant compared to the amount present, even scaled up to supply the world's energy needs thousands of times over. A mature hurricane, for example, is driven by moist convection with an energy output equivalent to a 10 megaton nuclear explosion every 20 minutes - an energy level sufficient to cover the entire world's energy needs as defined in the 1993 World's Almanac. And that's just *one* hurricane. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30718",
"title": "Tide",
"section": "Section::::Observation and prediction.:Power generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Tidal energy can be extracted by two means: inserting a water turbine into a tidal current, or building ponds that release/admit water through a turbine. In the first case, the energy amount is entirely determined by the timing and tidal current magnitude. However, the best currents may be unavailable because the turbines would obstruct ships. In the second, the impoundment dams are expensive to construct, natural water cycles are completely disrupted, ship navigation is disrupted. However, with multiple ponds, power can be generated at chosen times. So far, there are few installed systems for tidal power generation (most famously, La Rance at Saint Malo, France) which face many difficulties. Aside from environmental issues, simply withstanding corrosion and biological fouling pose engineering challenges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3550633",
"title": "Ontario tobacco belt",
"section": "Section::::Replacements for tobacco.:Wind generators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "By harvesting the local wind energy, it is assumed that electricity could be created closer to home without using fossil fuels and without polluting the atmosphere or the water that people need to live. However, one of the side effects has been the unexplained killing of the bald eagle species that is being rehabilitated in the area. Wind energy supporters have stated in the past that fossil fuel-based power plants affect the birds in a less humane manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22246284",
"title": "Low head hydro power",
"section": "Section::::Tidal power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Ocean and tidal currents can provide an indefinite supply of emission-free renewable energy. Since tidal and river currents exist everywhere in the world and are either constantly flowing or extremely predictable, converting the energy in these currents to electricity could provide a predictable, reliable and, in some cases, base load supply of electricity to the electric power systems or remote sites in many parts of the world. 70% of the world's population lives within of an ocean. Accordingly, ocean current energy could become a vital part of the world's energy future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32115739",
"title": "Wind hybrid power systems",
"section": "Section::::Wind-hydro system.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Wind and its generation potential is inherently variable. However, when this energy source is used to pump water into reservoirs at an elevation (the principle behind pumped storage), the potential energy of the water is relatively stable and can be used to generate electrical power by releasing it into a hydropower plant when needed. The combination has been described as particularly suited to islands that are not connected to larger grids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17946",
"title": "Lake Erie",
"section": "Section::::Lake environment.:Climate.:Windy conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1858,
"text": "Strong winds have caused lake currents to shift sediment on the bottom, leading to \"wickedly shifting sandbars\" that have been the cause of shipwrecks. But winds can have a peaceful purpose as well; there have been proposals to place electricity–producing wind turbines in windy and shallow points in the lake and along the coast, both in the United States and Canada. In 2010, there were plans for GE to develop five wind turbines to generate 20 megawatts of power by 2012 with plans to generate 1,000 megawatts by 2020; one proposal called for \"gearless turbines\" with 176-foot long blades helped along with magnets. A nonprofit development group near Cleveland was developing plans to construct hundreds of turbines in the lake. A former steel mill site on the eastern edge of the lake in Buffalo, NY has been redeveloped as an urban wind farm in 2007. Known as Steel Winds, the project currently houses 14 turbines capable of generating up to 35 megawatts of electricity. A plan by Samsung to build an offshore wind farm on the north shore of the lake, from Port Maitland to Nanticoke for a distance of , but the plan has been met with opposition from residents for a number of reasons. Canadians near Leamington and Kingsville have organized protest groups to thwart attempts to bring wind turbines to the lake; reasons against the turbines include spoiling lake views as well as possible adverse effects regarding drinking water and commercial fishing. Plans to install turbines in Pigeon Bay, south of Leamington were met with opposition as well. The notion that bird and bat migration may be hurt by the wind turbines has been used to argue against the wind turbines; a reporter in \"The Globe and Mail\" wrote \"Given the tendency of turbines to make mincemeat of things airborne, it doesn't require great imagination to figure out what would happen.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25784",
"title": "Renewable energy",
"section": "Section::::Mainstream technologies.:Hydropower.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially. A demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy, location of world's highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, currently has no economic feasibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23962040",
"title": "Internal tide",
"section": "Section::::Location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "It is not clear where the energy that leaves the generation site is dissipated, but there are 3 possible processes: 1) the internal tides scatter and/or break at distant midocean topography, 2) interactions with other internal waves remove energy from the internal tide, or 3) the internal tides shoal and break on continental shelves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1529d7
|
- why do we only ever see white people with down syndrome
|
[
{
"answer": "Nobody is exempted from having Down Syndrome. But, there may be a variety of factors at play that have resulted in your lack of encounters with non-white people with Down Syndrome.\n\nFirst, according to the Centers for Disease Control, the mortality rate for black infants with Down Syndrome is higher than for white infants. \n\nSecond, there is some interesting sociological evidence to suggest something called homophily in general social networks, which means that people tend to interact, by and large, with people like themselves. I'm assuming some things about you with this explanation: You're relatively young, white, middle-class, and from the US. If my assumptions are accurate, your exposure to a wide enough range of black/mexican/asian folks is limited enough that you're less likely to encounter someone in those racial groups with Down Syndrome.\n\nThird, DS is fairly rare. 1 in 691 children, roughly, is born with DS. (again, according to the CDC). It occurs more often in children whose mothers are over the age of 35. There may also be some cultural/sociological issues at stake there too, younger motherhood rates amongst those populations in the US, for example. (That's just a guess on my part, though I wouldn't be surprised to discover it to be the case)\n\nBut, I suspect that the second reason is the most likely explanation, at least in part, for why you haven't ever noticed a black/latino/asian person with DS. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only 0.1 percent of the world's population have down syndrome. White is the most common demographic (in most western countries). The reason why you never see a black or Asian with down syndrome is because there are simply less people total to get the condition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2220463",
"title": "Missing white woman syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Cited instances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The following missing person cases have been cited as instances of missing white woman syndrome; media commentators on the phenomenon regard them as garnering a disproportionate level of media coverage relative to contemporary cases involving missing girls or women of non-white ethnicities, and missing males of all ethnicities. The date of death or disappearance is given in parentheses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8303",
"title": "Down syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race, John Langdon Down used the term \"mongoloid\". He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related. In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2314874",
"title": "Tragic mulatto",
"section": "Section::::Tragic mulatta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- A woman who appears to be white and thus passes as being so. It is believed that she is of Greek or Spanish descent. She has suffered little hardship in her life, but upon the revelation that she is mixed race, loses her social standing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56667124",
"title": "Transient myeloproliferative disease",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:Down syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "Down syndrome is caused be the presence of an extra chromosome 21 (i.e. trisomy 21) due to a failure in normal chromosomal pairing or premature unpairing during the cell division of meiosis in egg or sperm cells. In these cases, virtually all cells in Down syndrome individuals bear an extra chromosome 21. However, there are other genetic changes that may either cause Down syndrome or cause an individual without Down syndrome to bear disease susceptibilities of the syndrome. These genetic changes include: a) genetic mosaicism in which some body cells bear a normal chromosome complement while others bear an extra chromosome 21; a) a part of chromosome 21 is located on another chromosome due to a Robertsonian translocation; b) partial trisomy 21 in which only part of chromosome 21 is duplicated; c) an isochromosome in which chromosome 21 contains two long but no short arms; and d) key genes on chromosome 21 are duplicated on this or other chromosomes. These genetic changes do occur in rare cases of individuals who do not have Down syndrome but nonetheless develop transient myeloproliferative disease due to the presence of extra copies of key genes normally found on chromosome 21 genes caused by mosaic, Robertsonian translocation, partial trisomy 21, isochromosome formation, or duplication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5347230",
"title": "Racial classification of Indian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Identity.:Self-identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "However, South Asians often attempt to be identified as white in order to try to distance themselves from African-Americans and Hispanics. Even though South Asians \"insist on being called 'brown', the plea of Indian immigrants not to be called black is what is most audible\". This is due to considerable anti-blackness and anti-Hispanic prejudice in some segments of the South Asian population. This prejudice is often accompanied by a fear of being mistaken for Black or Hispanic, described as \"an almost paranoid response to even being thought of as black\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2220463",
"title": "Missing white woman syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Missing white woman syndrome is a phenomenon noted by social scientists and media commentators of the extensive media coverage, especially in television, of missing person cases involving young, white, upper-middle-class women or girls. The phenomenon is defined as the Western media's undue focus on upper-middle-class white women who disappear, with the disproportionate degree of coverage they receive being compared to cases of missing women of color, women of lower social classes and missing men or boys. Although the term was coined to describe disproportionate coverage of missing person cases, it is sometimes used to describe similar disparities in news coverage of other violent crimes. Instances have been cited in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3658544",
"title": "John Langdon Down",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "In 1866, he wrote a paper entitled \"Observations on an Ethnic Classification of Idiots\" in which he put forward the theory that it was possible to classify different types of conditions by ethnic characteristics. He listed several types including the Malay, Caucasian and Ethiopian types. In the main the paper is about what is known as Down syndrome, named after him, but which he classified as the Mongolian type of idiot. As a result, Down syndrome was also known as \"Mongolism\" and people with Down syndrome referred to as \"Mongoloids\". Down's paper also argued that if mere disease is able to break down racial barriers to the point of causing the facial features of the offspring of whites to resemble those of another race, then racial differences must be the result of variation, affirming therefore the unity of the human species. Down used this reasoning to argue against a tendency he perceived in his day to regard different races as separate species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
snbl7
|
Does torture work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Torture is *very* good at getting people to talk. Unfortunately, it is *not* good at getting people to tell the truth. The victims usually just end up admitting to whatever their torturer wants them to admit, regardless of how true it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Torture works best to confirm information that you already have. If you don't have any information, as the others below have noted, you won't know if what you are getting is fact, or if the person is admitting to something to make the pain stop. In that role, and if the victim sincerely believes he or she will not be killed, it works.\n\nOTOH, if you just like a guy for a crime and you beat the shit out of him, he may confess to the crime, but you will still have to prove it in court.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24401",
"title": "Psychology of torture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The psychology of torture refers to the psychological processes underlying all aspects of torture including the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim, the immediate and long-term effects, and the political and social institutions that influence its use. Torture itself is the use of physical or psychological pain to control the victim or fulfill some needs of the perpetrator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24401",
"title": "Psychology of torture",
"section": "Section::::Psychological effects of torture.:Perpetrator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Many people who engage in torture have various psychological deviations and often they derive sadistic satisfaction. Torture may fulfill the emotional needs of perpetrators when they willingly engage in these activities. They lack empathy and their victims' agonized painful reactions, screaming and pleading give them a sense of authority and feelings of superiority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47702",
"title": "Torture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Torture (from Latin \"tortus\": to twist, to torment) is the act of deliberately inflicting severe physical or psychological suffering on someone by another as a punishment or in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or force some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act; deeds which unknowingly or negligently inflict suffering or pain, without a specific intent to do so, are not typically considered torture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8356507",
"title": "Declaration of Tokyo",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Preamble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "For the purpose of this Declaration, torture is defined as the deliberate, systematic or wanton infliction of physical or mental suffering by one or more persons acting alone or on the orders of any authority, to force another person to yield information, to make a confession, or for any other reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423330",
"title": "Mega-City One",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Torture is normally illegal, but in extreme circumstances and with orders from the Chief Judge they employ it (both physical and psychological), for example when time is of the essence, due to the city being in severe danger (or the Justice Departments authority is). They used that reason to torture Total War cell leaders leading to the deaths of several of them. The Judges covered this up, \"arresting\" them by faking heart attacks, strokes or whatever was realistic or convenient at that time and then told their next of kin they had died, with this they could do whatever they wanted to them. They also used torture on the leading democrats before the democratic march, such as keeping an elderly democrat awake all night and then releasing him without charge, knowing he would have to march all day the following day and making severe threats to another involving his young children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47702",
"title": "Torture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "Torture has been carried out or sanctioned by individuals, groups, and states throughout history from ancient times to modern day, and forms of torture can vary greatly in duration from only a few minutes to several days or longer. Reasons for torture can include punishment, revenge, extortion, persuasion, political re-education, deterrence, coercion of the victim or a third party, interrogation to extract information or a confession irrespective of whether it is false, or simply the sadistic gratification of those carrying out or observing the torture. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict psychological pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, but torture may result in a deliberate death and serves as a form of capital punishment. Depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible (such as half-hanging). In other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47702",
"title": "Torture",
"section": "Section::::Methods and devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 190,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 190,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Psychological torture also includes deliberate use of extreme stressors and situations such as mock execution, shunning, violation of deep-seated social or sexual norms and taboos, or extended solitary confinement. Because psychological torture needs no physical violence to be effective, it is possible to induce severe psychological pain, suffering, and trauma with no externally visible effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
471u02
|
What was life like for a Spanish citizen living in the new world in the 16th and early 17th centuries
|
[
{
"answer": "A reply to /u/thomasin500\n\nThe situation was different at different periods in different locations. But in the 16th-17th centuries, what tended to happen was that explorers came first, while clergy and administrators came later, and sometimes much later. This is due to the limited extent that the Spanish monarchs were able to control their own agents. Columbus' own efforts at exploration and colonization serve as a good example whereby he had quite a bit of time to truly mess things up before a proper administration was put in place, and clergy sent to ensure the spiritual aspects are looked after. This same pattern repeated itself with each exploration effort. \n\n > small communities existing around catholic churches\n\nSo this is highly vague, I am not sure what you mean exactly. \n\nIn the early phase of exploration in a new area, the church had to catch up with the explorers/colonists. Later on, as the Spanish wanted to stabilize their frontier in the north, the church came first and then built small colonies around the churches. \n\nYou should read /u/RioAbajo 's posts [here](_URL_0_), and /u/anthoropology_nerd 's post [here](_URL_1_). In the northern frontiers, Franciscan missionaries established *missions* that are built around the church, and are run in the *encomienda* fashion. \n\nAs for the day-to-day activities, you may want to look up the *encomienda* system as it provides a starting point that became the effective template in the colonization / extraction phase. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9869104",
"title": "British Latin American",
"section": "Section::::Mexico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "During the Colonial era, the Spanish restricted the entrance of other Europeans, however, some non-Spanish Europeans were present. In 1556, the English adventurer Robert Thomson encountered the Scotsman Thomas Blake (Tomás Blaque), who had been living in Mexico City for more than twenty years. Blake is the first known Briton to have settled in what would become Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43562712",
"title": "Britons in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "During the Colonial era, the Spanish restricted the entrance of other Europeans, however, some non-Spanish Europeans were present. In 1556, the English adventurer Robert Thomson encountered the Scotsman Tomás Blaque (Thomas Blake), who had been living in Mexico City for more than twenty years. Blaque is the first known Briton to have settled in what would become Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29844042",
"title": "Spanish diaspora",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "For three centuries (333 years), between 1565 and 1898, Mexicans, Spaniards, and Latin Americans sailed to and from the Spanish East Indies as government officials, soldiers, priests, settlers, traders, sailors and adventurers in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon, assisting Spain in its trade between Europe and Latin America (Spanish America); and Latin America and China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149661",
"title": "Piracy in the Caribbean",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early seventeenth century, 1600–1660.:Changes in demography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "In the early 17th century, expensive fortifications and the size of the colonial garrisons at the major Spanish ports increased to deal with the enlarged presence of Spain's competitors in the Caribbean, but the treasure fleet's silver shipments and the number of Spanish-owned merchant ships operating in the region declined. Additional problems came from shortage of food supplies because of the lack of people to work farms. The number of European-born Spaniards in the New World or Spaniards of pure blood who had been born in New Spain, known as peninsulares and creoles, respectively, in the Spanish caste system, totaled no more than 250,000 people in 1600.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9052729",
"title": "White Latin Americans",
"section": "Section::::Populations.:Caribbean.:Puerto Rico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "During the 19th century, hundreds of Corsican, French, Middle Eastern, and Portuguese families, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America, arrived in Puerto Rico. Other settlers have included Irish, Scots, Germans, and Italians. Thousands of immigrants were granted land from Spain during the \"Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815\" (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23462",
"title": "Demographics of Puerto Rico",
"section": "Section::::History of migration.:Immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "During the 19th century large numbers of immigrants from Spain, as well as numerous Spaniards living in former Spanish colonies in South America, also arrived in Puerto Rico (See Spanish immigration to Puerto Rico). Although the vast majority of settlers came from Spain, Catholics from France, Ireland, Italy and other European countries were also granted land by Spain as one of the provisions of the \"Real Cédula de Gracias de 1815\" (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815). These immigrants were allowed to settle on the island, with a certain amount of free land and enslaved persons granted to them. In return, they had to profess fealty to the Spanish Crown. During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s. Puerto Rico's economic boom of the 1950s attracted a considerable number of Jewish families from the U.S. mainland, who were joined after 1959 by an influx of Jewish emigres from Castro's Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5465121",
"title": "Italian immigration to Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "During the colonial era there was a small number of non-Spanish European entrants, in particular Catholic missionaries. There are records of a few Italian soldiers and mariners in early New Spain. Prominent among the Italians was Juan Pablos (born Giovanni Paoli in Brescia), who founded the first printing shop in the Americas. The most important missionary was Eusebio Kino who led the evangelization of Pimería Alta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ohj8u
|
How does the polarized light that reflects off of the screen in a 3D movie theater retain its polarity?
|
[
{
"answer": "The light is partially scattered/randomised by the screen but not entirely, visible light has a wavelength of 400-700nm which is fairly big from a molecular point of view, imagine throwing a frisbee at a bumpy wall, it is unlikely to bounce back rotated 90 degrees. The majority of light rays will be at roughly the same orientation they hit the screen at. Polarised filters also allow polarised light through at a wide range of angles although it gets dimmer the larger the angle. This is why 3D movies are dimmer when viewed with glasses than when viewed without.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also worth noting that some 3D Film projections aren't vertically/horizontally polarised, but rather circularly polarised in different directions (otherwise the effect wouldn't work if you turned your head).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6079030",
"title": "RealD 3D",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "RealD 3D cinema technology is a polarized 3D system that uses circularly polarized light to produce stereoscopic image projection. The advantage of circular polarization over linear polarization is that viewers are able to tilt their head and look about the theater naturally without seeing double or darkened images. However, as with other systems, any significant head tilt will result in incorrect parallax and prevent the brain from correctly fusing the stereoscopic images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788642",
"title": "Polarized 3D system",
"section": "Section::::System construction and examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Polarized light reflected from an ordinary motion picture screen typically loses most of its polarization, but the loss is negligible if a silver screen or aluminized screen is used. This means that a pair of aligned DLP projectors, some polarizing filters, a silver screen, and a computer with a dual-head graphics card can be used to form a relatively high-cost (over US$10,000 in 2010) system for displaying stereoscopic 3D data simultaneously to a group of people wearing polarized glasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "950041",
"title": "Stereo display",
"section": "Section::::Types – Stereoscopy vs. 3D.:Stereo displays.:Polarization systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Polarized light reflected from an ordinary motion picture screen typically loses most of its polarization. So an expensive silver screen or aluminized screen with negligible polarization loss has to be used. All types of polarization will result in a darkening of the displayed image and poorer contrast compared to non-3D images. Light from lamps is normally emitted as a random collection of polarizations, while a polarization filter only passes a fraction of the light. As a result, the screen image is darker. This darkening can be compensated by increasing the brightness of the projector light source. If the initial polarization filter is inserted between the lamp and the image generation element, the light intensity striking the image element is not any higher than normal without the polarizing filter, and overall image contrast transmitted to the screen is not affected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3414930",
"title": "Aluminized screen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Some projection screens have an aluminized surface, usually an aluminium paint rather than a solid sheet of the metal. They reflect polarized light without altering its polarization. This is necessary when showing 3D films as left-eye and right-eye views which are superimposed but oppositely polarized (typically at opposite 45 degree angles to the vertical if linearly polarized, right-handed and left-handed if circularly polarized). Audience members wear polarized glasses that allow only the correct image to be seen by each eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788642",
"title": "Polarized 3D system",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Particularly with the linear polarization schemes popular since the 1950s, the use of linear polarization meant that a level head was required for any sort of comfortable viewing; any effort to tilt the head sideways would result in the polarization failing, ghosting, and both eyes seeing both images. Circular polarization has alleviated this problem, allowing viewers to tilt their heads slightly (although any offset between the eye plane and the original camera plane will still interfere with the perception of depth).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246007",
"title": "3D film",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Displaying 3D films.:Polarization systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "All types of polarization will result in a darkening of the displayed image and poorer contrast compared to non-3D images. Light from lamps is normally emitted as a random collection of polarizations, while a polarization filter only passes a fraction of the light. As a result, the screen image is darker. This darkening can be compensated by increasing the brightness of the projector light source. If the initial polarization filter is inserted between the lamp and the image generation element, the light intensity striking the image element is not any higher than normal without the polarizing filter, and overall image contrast transmitted to the screen is not affected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2722105",
"title": "Polarizer",
"section": "Section::::Circular polarizers.:Absorbing and passing circularly polarized light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Circular polarizers can also be used to selectively absorb or pass right-handed or left-handed circularly polarized light. It is this feature which is utilized by the 3D glasses in stereoscopic cinemas such as RealD Cinema. A given polarizer which creates one of the two polarizations of light will pass that same polarization of light when that light is sent through it in the other direction. In contrast it will block light of the opposite polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zwrt4
|
why is michael jackson so associated with pedophilia? has he ever even been convicted of it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Michael Jackson reportedly had a large collection of 'paedophilic' content at his Neverland Ranch in 2003, according to police reports cataloging the property following a search. \n\nThis info was released to the public just recently.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "951581",
"title": "Trial of Michael Jackson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Jackson had previously been accused of child sexual abuse in 1993. He denied the allegations and settled with the accuser's family out of court, which ended the lawsuit. Prosecutors dropped the criminal investigation after the accuser refused to cooperate following his settlement. In the 2005 case, Jackson was accused of abusing Arvizo at his Neverland Ranch estate in Los Olivos, California. The investigation was touched off by a 2003 documentary, \"Living with Michael Jackson\", that showed Jackson holding hands with Arvizo and defending his practice of giving his bed to children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951581",
"title": "Trial of Michael Jackson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "People v. Jackson (full title: \"1133603: The People of the State of California v. Michael Joe Jackson\") was a 2005 criminal trial held in Santa Barbara County Superior Court in Santa Maria, California, in which American singer Michael Jackson was charged with molesting Gavin Arvizo, a cancer patient in remission who was thirteen years old at the time of the alleged abuse. Jackson was indicted on four counts of molesting a minor, four counts of intoxicating a minor to molest him, one count of attempted child molestation, one count of conspiring to hold the boy and his family captive, and conspiring to commit extortion and child abduction. The trial spanned approximately four months, from jury selection that began on January 31, 2005 to the not guilty verdict on June 13, 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32099725",
"title": "Second Baptist Church (Los Angeles)",
"section": "Section::::Selected chronology.:1970s and beyond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "BULLET::::- February 19, 1994: A group of African-American ministers held a press conference at Second Baptist Church denouncing \"persecution frenzy\" directed at singer Michael Jackson, who had been accused of child molestation. The ministers criticized press coverage for trying and convicting Jackson in the media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22159765",
"title": "2003 in British television",
"section": "Section::::Events.:February.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "BULLET::::- 3 February – UK screening of the Martin Bashir documentary \"Living with Michael Jackson\" on ITV1. The revelations of Jackson's controversial personal life in the programme is one of the many factors that leads to his trial for child molestation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44973649",
"title": "Michael Levine (publicist)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Levine was Michael Jackson's publicist in 1993 and 1994 during which time Jackson was accused of molesting a 13-year-old by the name of Jordan Chandler. Prior to that time, Levine helped Jackson disseminate the story of Jackson sleeping in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, a story fabricated by Jackson. In later interviews, Levine described the Jackson molestation accusations as one of the toughest public relations battle that he faced. After Jackson's death in 2009, Levine was interviewed by numerous media outlets about Jackson's conditions through those years. Levine described Jackson's life as a self-destructive journey and was quoted as saying, \"His talent was unquestionable, but so too was his discomfort with the norms of the world. A human simply can not withstand this level of prolonged stress.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54485718",
"title": "Randall Sullivan",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Writing career.:\"Untouchable\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1543,
"text": "Published in November 2012, was Sullivan's book on the life and death of pop star Michael Jackson: \"Untouchable: The Strange Life and Tragic Death of Michael Jackson.\" The book was met with some controversy, mainly because Sullivan argued that Jackson was not a \"child molester\" and rather, that he was \"pre-sexual\" having never engaged in sexual intercourse at all. The book also detailed much of Jackson's drug abuse in his later years, money trouble, and \"spending habits\"—which upset many of Jackson's diehard fans. Some fans started an online campaign against the book's sale on Amazon. However, as Guardian columnist Deborah Orr points out: many of Jackson's more fanatic followers tend to criticize \"any\" negative press about Jackson's life, regardless of evidence or argument. Others called into question Sullivan's source material, and though Sullivan \"does an adequate job of chronicling Jackson’s over-the-top fame,\" he relies on too few verifiable sources to draw his conclusions. Nonetheless, Jackson's long time attorney, Tom Mesereau, who was also one of Sullivan's main sources for his research on Jackson, came to Sullivan's defense and praised the book for its insight and accuracy. Still others praised the book; for example, there was \"a glowing recommendation from broadcaster and journalist Danny Baker\" who called it the \"best\" book about Jackson; and The New Yorker praised the book's in-depth research, viz., for bringing to light the \"financial profligacy and wrongheadedness\" of Jackson's life and business choices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "592554",
"title": "Alphonso Jackson",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.:Increase in minority contracting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "This accomplishment led to a federal investigation and caused some to think Jackson was wrongly targeted because of his efforts. Indeed, some of his supporters deride the scrutiny of his casual friendships as a racist effort to undermine a prominent black official and several respected black businessmen, noting that no one has been charged with a crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ei971
|
How similar (or different) are the techniques used for cloning both animals and human cells?
|
[
{
"answer": "At the heart of it, cloning is the same. However, the difficulty in successfully cloning varies between species. Cloning frogs is relatively easy and was first done several decades ago. Cloning mammals is more difficult and so that's why Dolly the sheep was publicised so much in the 90s. However, cloning primates is more difficult still. Scientists have not been able to clone monkeys but they have been able to create an early embryo from which they can extract stem cells that are genetically identical to the donor monkey. This research has led to the latest news where this was done in humans. Again, cloning in humans is even more difficult because the egg cells are more fragile.\n\nThe techniques across all of these species is largely the same, but the method is continuously being improved and modified to allow cloning of more complex organisms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "207754",
"title": "Somatic cell",
"section": "Section::::Cloning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "In recent years, the technique of cloning whole organisms has been developed in mammals, allowing almost identical genetic clones of an animal to be produced. One method of doing this is called \"somatic cell nuclear transfer\" and involves removing the nucleus from a somatic cell, usually a skin cell. This nucleus contains all of the genetic information needed to produce the organism it was removed from. This nucleus is then injected into an ovum of the same species which has had its own genetic material removed. The ovum now no longer needs to be fertilized, because it contains the correct amount of genetic material (a diploid number of chromosomes). In theory, the ovum can be implanted into the uterus of a same-species animal and allowed to develop. The resulting animal will be a nearly genetically identical clone to the animal from which the nucleus was taken. The only difference is caused by any mitochondrial DNA that is retained in the ovum, which is different from the cell that donated the nucleus. In practice, this technique has so far been problematic, although there have been a few high-profile successes, such as Dolly the Sheep and, more recently, Snuppy, the first cloned dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910",
"title": "Cloning",
"section": "Section::::Organism cloning.:Artificial cloning of organisms.:Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "Reproductive cloning generally uses \"somatic cell nuclear transfer\" (SCNT) to create animals that are genetically identical. This process entails the transfer of a nucleus from a donor adult cell (somatic cell) to an egg from which the nucleus has been removed, or to a cell from a blastocyst from which the nucleus has been removed. If the egg begins to divide normally it is transferred into the uterus of the surrogate mother. Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA. Additionally, the mitochondria in the cytoplasm also contains DNA and during SCNT this mitochondrial DNA is wholly from the cytoplasmic donor's egg, thus the mitochondrial genome is not the same as that of the nucleus donor cell from which it was produced. This may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168927",
"title": "Somatic cell nuclear transfer",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Reproductive cloning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "This technique is currently the basis for cloning animals (such as the famous Dolly the sheep), and has been theoretically proposed as a possible way to clone humans. Using SCNT in reproductive cloning has proven difficult with limited success. High fetal and neonatal death make the process very inefficient. Resulting cloned offspring are also plagued with development and imprinting disorders in non-human species. For these reasons, along with moral and ethical objections, reproductive cloning in humans is proscribed in more than 30 countries. Most researchers believe that in the foreseeable future it will not be possible to use the current cloning technique to produce a human clone that will develop to term. It remains a possibility, though critical adjustments will be required to overcome current limitations during early embryonic development in human SCNT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168927",
"title": "Somatic cell nuclear transfer",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Stem cell research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Though there has been numerous successes with cloning animals, questions remain concerning the mechanisms of reprogramming in the ovum. Despite many attempts, success in creating human nuclear transfer embryonic stem cells has been limited. There lies a problem in the human cell's ability to form a blastocyst; the cells fail to progress past the eight cell stage of development. This is thought to be a result from the somatic cell nucleus being unable to turn on embryonic genes crucial for proper development. These earlier experiments used procedures developed in non-primate animals with little success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910",
"title": "Cloning",
"section": "Section::::Cell cloning.:Cloning stem cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The process of cloning a particular farm animal using SCNT is relatively the same for all animals. The first step is to collect the somatic cells from the animal that will be cloned. The somatic cells could be used immediately or stored in the laboratory for later use. The hardest part of SCNT is removing maternal DNA from an oocyte at metaphase II. Once this has been done, the somatic nucleus can be inserted into an egg cytoplasm. This creates a one-cell embryo. The grouped somatic cell and egg cytoplasm are then introduced to an electrical current. This energy will hopefully allow the cloned embryo to begin development. The successfully developed embryos are then placed in surrogate recipients, such as a cow or sheep in the case of farm animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2505951",
"title": "Ryuzo Yanagimachi",
"section": "Section::::Cloning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The Yanagimachi laboratory and his former associates continued to make advances in cloning. The first male animal cloned from adult cells was announced in 1999. In 2004 the laboratory participated in the cloning of an infertile male mouse. This advance may be used to produce many infertile animals for use in research in human infertility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1321047",
"title": "Pet cloning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Pet cloning is the cloning of a pet animal. One common way in which an animal is cloned is by somatic cell nuclear transfer. In this process an oocyte is taken from a surrogate mother and put through a process called enucleation, which removes the nucleus from inside oocyte. Somatic cells are then taken from the animal that is being cloned, transferred into the blank oocyte and fused using an electrical current. The oocyte is then re-inserted into the surrogate mother. The end result is the formation of an animal that is genetically identical to the animal the somatic cells were taken from. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fk0x4
|
why is dreaming about not wearing pants such a common childhood nightmare?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's embarrassing in today's society to be naked. In a child's brain, which (among other things) is highly concerned with social groups and social development, the fear of being put in social situations where you are made to feel vulnerable and losing social status frequently manifests itself as nightmares. Of course, culture plays a role--you hear about how people get nightmares of being naked, and therefore you learn to fear that yourself.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiology.:REM sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "During most dreams, the person dreaming is not aware that they are dreaming, no matter how absurd or eccentric the dream is. The reason for this may be that the prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain responsible for logic and planning, exhibits decreased activity during dreams. This allows the dreamer to more actively interact with the dream without thinking about what might happen, since things that would normally stand out in reality blend in with the dream scenery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Cultural meaning.:In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Most dreams in popular culture are, however, not symbolic, but straightforward and realistic depictions of their dreamer's fears and desires. Dream scenes may be indistinguishable from those set in the dreamer's real world, a narrative device that undermines the dreamer's and the audience's sense of security and allows horror film protagonists, such as those of \"Carrie\" (1976), \"Friday the 13th\" (1980) or \"An American Werewolf in London\" (1981) to be suddenly attacked by dark forces while resting in seemingly safe places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265936",
"title": "Sleep and emotions",
"section": "Section::::Dreaming as a Mood-Regulation System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "It is hypothesized that dreaming might be a way of improving mood in non-clinical populations. The evidence for this phenomenon has been collected from home dream reports in psychotherapy and from laboratory dreams collected after waking a participant in a REM sleep phase. Adults often remember dreams which have a negative emotional component, whereby women recall more dreams than men and dream recall is associated with a higher level of anxiety and lighter sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Color vs. black and white.:Relationship with medical conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "There is evidence that certain medical conditions (normally only neurological conditions) can impact dreams. For instance, some people with synesthesia have never reported entirely black-and-white dreaming, and often have a difficult time imagining the idea of dreaming in only black and white.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434018",
"title": "Gaudapada",
"section": "Section::::Mandukya Karika.:Contents.:Chapter Two: Unreality (Vaitathya).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Unreal are the dream objects during sleep, states Gaudapada, because the one who dreams never actually goes to place he dreams of, and because whatever situation he dreams about is something he leaves upon waking up. This is in the scripture Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52292500",
"title": "While You Were Sleeping (2017 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "\"While You Were Sleeping\" is a combination of the legal drama and fantasy genres, focusing on the tale of three young adults who have acquired the ability to see the future through their dreams: field reporter Nam Hong-joo (Bae Suzy), rookie prosecutor Jung Jae-chan (Lee Jong-suk), and police officer Han Woo-tak (Jung Hae-in). Some of these dreams show crimes that Jae-chan has to investigate and disastrous events that either the three of them have to suffer. Troubled by these dreams, the trio collaborate with each other to prevent these ominous dreams from turning into reality and to take down one of their archenemies, the corrupt lawyer Lee Yoo-beom (Lee Sang-yeob).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35347567",
"title": "Antti Revonsuo",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Threat Simulation Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Cross-cultural surveys find that the most typical dream theme is that of being chased or attacked. Other common negative themes include falling, drowning, being lost, being trapped, being naked or otherwise inappropriately dressed in public, being accidentally injured/ill/dying, being in a human-made or natural disaster, poor performance (such as difficulty taking a test), and having trouble with transportation. Some themes are positive, such as sex, flying, or finding money, but these are less common than dreaming about threats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rflvn
|
How do we get footage inside insect colonies? (And other insect and ant film questions)
|
[
{
"answer": "**1)**The [BBC's website](_URL_0_) provides a clue as to how filmmaker John Brown filmed honeypot ants: \n\n > To film them he caught some females that had just mated and set them up in a fake colony in his studio. He also had a wild nest in the field where he filmed the above ground behaviour of the ants.\n\n**2)** In many ant species, queens can be found during their [nuptial flight](_URL_1_) phase.\n\n**3)** [Dr. Scott Powell](_URL_2_) provides some insight into how a living ant bridge begins:\n\n > \"When the ants bump into a hole they cannot cross, they edge their way around it and then spread their legs and wobble back and forth to check their fit. If they are too big, then they carry on and another ant will come along and measure itself in the same way. This carries on until an appropriately sized ant plugs the hole.\"\n\n**Edit**: added more references.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While my take might say Micrbiology|Microbial Symbiosis, I actually work on the microbes associated with particular types of ants, and I work in an \"ant lab\". We've had a few filming groups come in a few times since I've been here to film our lab colonies and interview various people in the lab about what makes ants unique and awesome to study.\n\nI'm not incredibly familiar with the ants (African driver ants) in your linked video, but there are a few ways to get footage like that. For the surface stuff, regular macro video will work. And there are people who specialize in filming things like insects. One way to get the internal colony shots is with endoscopy cameras. For some of the species I work on, they live in trees. So other groups will drill a small whole into the tree, tape it shut, give the colony a week or so to settle down, and then return and put the camera in. That's how we've gotten footage of some of their behavior that happens only inside the tree.\n\nBased on what I saw in the video, I would assume African driver ants are near impossible to maintain in the lab. But for the types of ants that can be maintained in a lab, that is obviously another source of where footage can come from.\n\nEDIT: Oh, as to your finding a queen question. Again, I can't speak to African driver ants, but I can tell you for the field station I've been at in Costa Rica, there are people who work there that have an idea of where to find the larger mobile colonies (army ants are the most notorious in Costa Rica). They can generally help guide filming crews and help them find colonies. Often times the footage isn't as in the middle of nowhere as it appears.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't let a thread about ant colonies go by without linking [this classic](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\n\nTo piggyback on this, how do they get this footage of wasp larva inside of a caterpillar: _URL_0_ (kind of NSFL depending on how squeamish you are.)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2418022",
"title": "Butterfly (lighting)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "In cinematography, butterflies (also known as overheads) are structures on which materials are mounted so to control lighting in a scene or photograph. Materials commonly used on butterflies include: flags (black, opaque materials), nets (layers of neutral-colored bobinette), and diffusions (translucent white materials of different densities) for the purposes of blocking, dimming, and scattering light respectively. In general, butterflies are used only for very large materials (6 ft x 6 ft or greater), while smaller sizes are usually sewn on to portable frames (similar in construction to picture frames) for ease of placement and storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36484005",
"title": "Ant-Man (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Post-production.:Visual effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Method and Luma both worked on creating the various ants seen in the film, with Method creating the several species of ants, to share among the vendors. Luma also handled many of the scenes at Pym Technologies when Ant-Man attempts to acquire the Yellowjacket. ILM worked on the Falcon fight sequence, having done Falcon visual effects in \"The Winter Soldier\". Using practical suit pieces built by Legacy Effects, ILM mixed live-action shots with digital take-overs and fully digital shots to create the sequence. ILM also handled the sequences in the quantum realm, providing an array of microscopic and largely psychedelic imagery for the subatomic shrinking, taking advantage of procedural fractal rendering techniques the studio had utilized on \"Lucy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2875397",
"title": "Empire of the Ants (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Special effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "As with most Bert I. Gordon films, the director himself oversaw most of the special effects. To create the effect of giant ants, the director often used the technique of process shots, where close-up images of live ants were combined with images of the actors on set, reacting to the menacing insects. Another more crude effect used by Gordon was one he borrowed from his previous film \"Beginning of the End\", where he would place live insects in a miniature set lined with still photographs of the location and let them crawl around. The shortcomings of this technique were highlighted in a scene where the ants are climbing the outside of a sugar refinery, and some of them appear to suddenly crawl off the building and walk vertically into the sky. When the film called for actors to be attacked by the ants, large rubber mock-ups were used, which were animated by crew members who wiggled the gigantic props in front of the camera. Joan Collins later said she did not like working with the ant props as they bumped and scratched the actors, including herself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405504",
"title": "The Trials of Life",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Meanwhile, a bivouac of army ants in Panama was able to be filmed internally with the aid of a medical endoscope. Furthermore, a new type of camera lens enabled tree ants to be filmed in enlarged close-up just in front of Attenborough — with both subjects in sharp focus. This gave the illusion that the insects were much larger than their actual size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48825068",
"title": "Insects (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Insects () is a surreal comedy film directed by Jan Švankmajer, the film is based on the play \"Pictures from the Insects' Life\" by Karel and Josef Čapek. Švankmajer stated that the film would be his last. It premiered on 26 January 2018 at International Film Festival Rotterdam. The film follows amateur actors rehearsing \"Pictures from the Insects' Life.\" The actors find themselves living out their characters' roles and hallucinating insects. \"Insects\" is intercut with the creative process of the film itself and interviews with the actors about their dreams. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53643626",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of insect specimens",
"section": "Section::::Core aspects of conservation.:Documentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The documentation of insect specimens is carried out in many different aspects of a specimen's existence. Documented information begins with the capture of an insect. The collector records information about capture method, place and date of capture and any relevant habitat information in field notes. This information is then transferred to labels and collection records. The documentation path then continues with every recorded observation or treatment the specimen receives. Killing agents, preservation agents, rehydrating agents, and fumigants are all important to record. This then informs any future decisions for conservation actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30857681",
"title": "It's Tough to Be a Bug!",
"section": "Section::::Movie clips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Empire of the Ants\" – During the part where Hopper takes over the show, he shows a clip from \"Empire of the Ants\" (although in black and white) to show how humans depict insects as \"monsters\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i93ej
|
What are some good books on the Battle of Kursk?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can confirm that *Kursk: the Greatest Battle* is a good book, it has a few bits and pieces that could be better. But its a solid work none the less. However another good book is *Armor and Blood: The Battle of Kursk* by Dennis Showalter.\n\nYou can't go wrong with either one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "847396",
"title": "Theodor Busse",
"section": "Section::::Books by Busse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Kursk: The German View\" by Steven H. Newton. The first part of the book goes to a new translation of a study of Operation Citadel (the great tank battle of Kursk) edited by General Theodor Busse, which offers the perspectives of key tank, infantry, and air commanders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33102",
"title": "Battle of Kursk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1038,
"text": "The Battle of Kursk was a Second World War engagement between German and Soviet forces on the Eastern Front near Kursk ( south-west of Moscow) in the Soviet Union, during July and August 1943. The battle began with the launch of the German offensive, Operation Citadel (), on 5 July, which had the objective of pinching off the Kursk salient with attacks on the base of the salient from north and south simultaneously. After the German offensive stalled on the northern side of the salient, on 12 July the Soviets commenced their Kursk Strategic Offensive Operation with the launch of Operation Kutuzov () against the rear of the German forces in the northern side. On the southern side, the Soviets also launched powerful counterattacks the same day, one of which led to a large armoured clash, the Battle of Prokhorovka. On 3 August, the Soviets began the second phase of the Kursk Strategic Offensive Operation with the launch of Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev () against the German forces in the southern side of the Kursk salient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26929961",
"title": "The Raid (story)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "\"The Raid\" (Russian language: Набег, Nabeg) is a short story by Russian author Leo Tolstoy, first published in 1853. The story, set in the Caucasus, takes the form of a conversation between the narrator and a military captain about the nature of bravery. The story is based on Tolstoy's own experiences as an artillery cadet stationed in the Caucuses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33722625",
"title": "Orel–Kursk operation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The Orel–Kursk operation (known in Soviet historiography as the Orel–Kromy operation) was an offensive conducted by the Southern Front of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic's Red Army against the White Armed Forces of South Russia's Volunteer Army in Orel, Kursk and Tula Governorates of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic between 11 October and 18 November 1919. It took place on the Southern Front of the Russian Civil War and was part of the wider October counteroffensive of the Southern Front, a Red Army operation that aimed to stop Armed Forces of South Russia commander Anton Denikin's Moscow offensive. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8269176",
"title": "Robert M. Citino",
"section": "Section::::External links.:Videos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Kursk, The Epic Armored Engagement\": , via the official channel of The National WWII Museum; session by Citino and the historian Jonathan Parshall at the 2013 International Conference on World War II\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864619",
"title": "Kursk",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The first written record of Kursk is dated 1032. It was mentioned as one of Severian towns by Prince Igor in \"The Tale of Igor's Campaign\": \"\"Saddle, brother, your swift steeds. As to mine, they are ready, saddled ahead, near Kursk; as to my Kurskers, they are famous knights—swaddled under war-horns, nursed under helmets, fed from the point of the lance; to them the trails are familiar, to them the ravines are known, the bows they have are strung tight, the quivers, unclosed, the sabers, sharpened; themselves, like gray wolves, they lope in the field, seeking for themselves honor, and for their prince, glory\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3286381",
"title": "Westmark (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "\"The Kestrel\" features Westmark invaded by a larger, more militaristic neighboring kingdom, Regia -- possibly an analogue of Prussia, as Westmark is of France. Theo becomes one of the leaders of the resistance fighters operating behind the Regian lines, under the nom de guerre \"the Kestrel\". One reviewer calls it \"an imaginary kingdom with a post-Napoleonic cast\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48o3v3
|
why do people tend to idealize the past and catastrophize the future?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's good for us as species to pick stuff that were succesfull in the past and make decisons so that the same success continues in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Entropy applies where thermodynamics are concerned, but as far as human civilization goes thus far, the overwhelming trend is that things get better. In general, people live longer, are healthier, wealthier, and less likely to die in particularly horrible ways (famine, war, disease) the closer you get to today. \n\nPeople tend to idealize the past because the past is a known quantity (or at least they think so). The future is unknown, and that naturally scares people. Also, people only tend to do this if their past was actually nice, which, compared to the world in general, is a startling minority of people. You don't often find racial or ethnic minorities, homosexuals, women, or people in developing countries romanticizing the past, because for them the further back in time you go the more likely they are to be persecuted, treated as property, or live in destitution. If you go back far enough, even us straight white dudes start to get that treatment. \n\nEDIT: If your grandpa is American, and is nostalgic about the mid to late 70s, he misses Muhammad Ali and Fleetwood Mac and the free, easy days of his youth. If your grandpa is Cambodian, and he is nostalgic about the mid to late 70s, he is probably a murderous psychopath. The mid to late 70s were a great time in Cambodia. A great time, that is, to be a murderous psychopath.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look back at your high school years or college years. You probably think of those years as being fun and awesome (for at least some of us). People tend to remember the good times and not the small day to day shitty stuff. Sure you'll remember something that may have traumatized you or something that was really bad but mostly people remember the past as being a better time because they don't remember the bad. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ultimately, because the past is completely safe for us, no mattter how unpleasant it may have been, and the future is deadly. After all, there's a 0% chance that you will die in the past, and a 100% chance that you will die in the future (even if you have access to time travel, you can't die in your personal past, only in your personal future). So our brains interpret that as \"Well, we already know we can survive that; let's keep things that way!\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly because humans have a selective memory. They tend to forget bad things over a long period of time, or at least convince themself the bad things wern't that bad. At the same time, humans are way better to remember good things. \nThis doesn't happen over night tho, so memorys close to the present time are more accurate and, therefore more negative then old memorys. So the past always seems better compared to the present. \nThat is the idolizing the past part.\n\nI'm not one hundred percent certain on the future thing, but I would guess that it's partially because you think it can never be as good as the past - since in your memories, the present already is worse than the past - and partially because the future is something unknown, which scares a lot of people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "568631",
"title": "Daydream",
"section": "Section::::Functions of daydreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Future thinking, also known as autobiographical thinking, serves as a way to speculate and anticipate future events. Though it's costly for current external activities performances, the benefit will be paid off later since future thinking allows better plan and preparation of the future goals. Actually people are more likely to have future-focused daydreams than present-focused and past-focused ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27647529",
"title": "Ernest Norman",
"section": "Section::::Early days of Unarius, Science of Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "So let us be practical. If I can give you one single bit of worthwhile advice, it would be simply this: Quit indulging yourself in your past in the negative way, which has, up until this time, been your chief source of personal satisfaction. The past should be looked upon objectively as a series of stepping stones in attaining comparative and constructive knowledge of your evolution — not as a system of self-justifications whereby you can deify yourself. The future should also be so viewed, not with ambitions to obtain mastery over the material worlds but rather, obtaining knowledge to enable you to live in Higher Worlds beyond these material worlds with the complete understanding that you are gradually becoming a more unified, constructive entity in the infinite prospectus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171302",
"title": "Nostalgia",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:As a political tool.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In a 2014 study conducted by Routledge, he and a team observed that the more people reported having major disruptions and uncertainties in their lives, the more they nostalgically longed for the past. Routledge suggests that by invoking the idea of an idealized past, politicians can provoke the social and cultural anxieties and uncertainties that make nostalgia especially attractive — and effective — as a tool of political persuasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14167225",
"title": "Cluster criticism",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "It's time to idealize, but it's very practical to make sure our own house is in perfect order before we attempt the miracle of Old World stabilization. Call it the selfishness of nationality if you will. I think it's an inspiration to patriotic devotion to safeguard America first, to stabilize America first, to prosper America first, to think of America first, to exalt America first, to live for and revere America first. Let the internationalist dream and the Bolshevist destroy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6788558",
"title": "Richard D. Wolff",
"section": "Section::::Early life and education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "\"[E]verything you expect about how the world works probably will be changed in your life, that unexpected things happen, often tragic things happen, and being flexible, being aware of a whole range of different things that happen in the world, is not just a good idea as a thinking person, but it's crucial to your survival. So, for me, I grew up convinced that understanding the political and economic environment I lived in was an urgent matter that had to be done, and made me a little different from many of my fellow kids in school who didn't have that sense of the urgency of understanding how the world worked to be able to navigate an unstable and often dangerous world. That was a very important lesson for me.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14979362",
"title": "Westinghouse Time Capsules",
"section": "Section::::Messages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "\"We know now that the idea of the future as a \"better world\" was a fallacy of the doctrine of progress. The hopes we center on you, citizens of the future, are in no way exaggerated. In broad outline, you will actually resemble us very much as we resemble those who lived a thousand, or five thousand, years ago. Among you too the spirit will fare badly. It should never fare too well on this earth, otherwise men would need it no longer. That optimistic conception of the future is a projection into time of an endeavor which does not belong to the temporal world, the endeavor on the part of man to approximate to his idea of himself, the humanization of man. What we, in this year of Our Lord 1938, understand by the term \"culture\" a notion held in small esteem today by certain nations of the western world is simply this endeavor. What we call the spirit is identical with it, too. Brothers of the future, united with us in the spirit and in this endeavor, we send our greetings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21204142",
"title": "First inauguration of Richard Nixon",
"section": "Section::::Inaugural address.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "We see the hope of tomorrow in the youth of today. I know America's youth. I believe in them. We can be proud that they are better educated, more committed, more passionately driven by conscience than any generation in our history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3u0e2r
|
What is the "youngest" species we have discovered?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to [this](_URL_0_) BBC article, the answer may be senecio eboracensis, having originated mere decades ago. It's worth keeping in mind, though, that there's no clear set of guidelines for what makes an organism a separate species. The definition has been changed numerous times with new scientific discoveries, and will probably always be arbitrary. Single mutations that don't immediately leave the gene pool are enough to make the mutated line different, but wouldn't be considered a new species.\n\nUltimately, what makes a species a species is arbitrary, and the concept of species only exists to us humans. Just as there's no fundamental measurable \"Tuesday\" in the universe like there are neutrons or hydrogen, the concept of species is one we invented to try to keep track of a complex phenomenon. Also like days of the week, they aren't perfect, and as we continue to make new scientific discoveries (such as now knowing we need to add leap seconds to force our concept of days of the week to continue to work), \"species\" as a concept will almost certainly evolve and be redefined again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26974345",
"title": "Batodonoides",
"section": "Section::::Species.:\"B. vanhouteni\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "\"B. vanhouteni\", described in 1998 by Bloch and colleagues, is the oldest species, and was discovered in Wasatchian deposits in Wyoming, USA. It is based on a juvenile specimen, consisting of a mandible and some teeth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1970948",
"title": "Castoroides",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Fossils of the older species, \"C. leiseyorum\", from Florida are from 1.4 Mya, while fossils of the younger species, \"C. ohioensis\", from Toronto, Ontario, and the Old Crow Basin, Yukon Territory, are 130,000 years old (with an occurrence of 60,000 years ago), but \"Castoroides\" may have died out about 10,000 years ago, along with several other American species, such as mammoths, mastodons, and ice-age horses. No Alaska and the Yukon Territory (AK–YT) fossils of the \"Castoroides\" have been recorded after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) about 18,000 years BP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21219782",
"title": "Triops cancriformis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "This species is considered to be one of the oldest living species on the planet at around 200 million years old. Fossils of this species from the Upper Triassic (Norian) period appear virtually unchanged compared to modern day members of the species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1792302",
"title": "Pachyrhinosaurus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Three species have been identified. \"P. lakustai\", from the Wapiti Formation, the bonebed horizon of which is roughly equivalent age to the upper Bearpaw and lower Horseshoe Canyon Formations, is known to have existed from about 73.5-72.5 million years ago. \"P. canadensis\" is younger, known from the lower Horseshoe Canyon Formation, about 71.5-71 Ma ago and the St. Mary River Formation. Fossils of the youngest species, \"P. perotorum\", have been recovered from the Prince Creek Formation of Alaska, and date to 70-69 million years ago. The presence of three known species makes this genus the most speciose among the centrosaurines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7737084",
"title": "Pterodactyloidea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "In 2014, fossils from the Shishugou Formation of China were classified as the most basal pterodactyloid yet found, \"Kryptodrakon\". At a minimum age of about 161 my, it is about 5 million years older than the oldest previously known confirmed specimens. Previously, a fossil jaw recovered from the Middle Jurassic Stonesfield Slate formation in the United Kingdom, was considered the oldest known. This specimen supposedly represented a member of the family Ctenochasmatidae, though further examination suggested it belonged to a teleosaurid stem-crocodilian instead of a pterosaur. O'Sullivan and Martill (2018) described a partial synsacrum from the Stonesfield Slate identified as possibly pterodactyloid based on the number of incorporated sacrals although they commented that the morphology was perhaps closer to that of wukongopterids. If correctly identified, it would be the oldest pterodactyloid fossil known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203116",
"title": "Vulpes",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The oldest known fossil species within \"Vulpes\" is \"V. riffautae\", dating back to the late Miocene of Chad, which is within the Neogene. The deposits where these fossils are found are about 7 million years old, which might make them the earliest Canidae in the Old World. They are estimated to have weighed between 1.5 and 3.5 lb. \"V. skinneri\", from the Malapa fossil site from South Africa, is younger than \"V. riffautae\" by roughly 5 million years, and shows up in the early Pleistocene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31550227",
"title": "Mongolarachne",
"section": "Section::::History and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "If it had been confirmed, placement of \"Mongolarachne jurassica\" in the genus \"Nephila\" would have made it the oldest described species of the genus \"Nephila\", extending the known fossil range of the genus back 130 million years. and making \"Nephila\" the longest lived modern spider genus known. However, with the removal of \"M. jurassica\" the oldest species in \"Nephila\" is again the Late Eocene species \"Nephila pennatipes\" from Colorados Florissant Formation. The oldest recognized member of the family Nephilidae is the Cretaceous species \"Cretaraneus vilaltae\" of Spain. Fossils of female specimens are known only from \"N. pennatipes\", all other fossil nephilids having been described from male specimens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8hijrh
|
the stomach has neurons, but what are they for?
|
[
{
"answer": "most of your body has neurons, thats just what your nerves are called. Your stomach uses them to tell your brain if there is pain like any other neuron.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How would you feel if you had pain in your stomach or the temperature changes in your stomach.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neurons are not only useful for sensation you feel but to allow areas of the body to communicate information to other areas. For example if the senses detect food it is helpful to be able to start up the digestive process such as salivation and increased stomach activity. Similarly the stomach is going to need to be able to sense when there is food inside it in order to digest it, both with muscle action and balancing acidity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "some opiate receptors are in the stomach, this is one of the reasons the chyme travels slower and leads to peristalsis or constipation.\n\npressing a receptor will do different things, enhancing mucus secretion or acid production, sometimes it will cause vomiting of a gag reflex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39747",
"title": "Stomach",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Comparative anatomy and evolution.:\"Identified\" neurons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1290,
"text": "The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons. In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of \"Mauthner cell analogs\" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39747",
"title": "Stomach",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital digestive organ. In the digestive system the stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following chewing. It performs a chemical breakdown due to enzymes and hydrochloric acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33658047",
"title": "Solmarisidae",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Members of this family have dome-shaped bells and numerous tentacles set above the undulating margin of the bell. They do not have gastric pouches as do other members of the order. The gonads are situated inside the wall of the stomach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7626",
"title": "Cetacea",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales), which is then followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13959121",
"title": "Fiona pinnata",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Digestive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The oesophagus is a short and rather slender tube. It leads from the upper part of the buccal mass towards, and opens into, the anterior margin of a distinct pyriform stomach. The stomach has the broad end forward, is placed above the reproductive system, and lies quite in the anterior portion of the visceral cavity. The internal surface of the stomach is not lamellated. The intestine leads from posterior end of the stomach, and is inclining slightly to the right side and passes backwards to the tubular anus. The anus is placed a little to the right of the median line of the back, immediately behind the heart. The intestinal tube is rather short, of equal diameter throughout, and internally plicated longitudinally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3558454",
"title": "Scipionyx",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Soft tissues.:Digestive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The digestive tract can mostly be traced, either because the intestines are still present or by the presence of food items. The position of the oesophagus is indicated by a five millimetre long series of small food particles. Below the ninth dorsal vertebra the location of the stomach is shown by a cluster of bones of prey animals, the organ itself likely having been dissolved by its own stomach acid shortly after death. The rather backward position of the cluster suggests the stomach was dual in structure, with a forward enzyme-secreting proventriculus preceding a muscular gizzard. Gastroliths have not been reported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pejjy
|
air quality index (aqi) reports
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no standardized way to measure \"air quality\", everyone is free to label it as they wish. The number indicated by one system isn't intended to be compared with other systems, but with itself over time. If the number is going up the quality is deteriorating, that kind of thing. It's like ranking temperature outside on a 1-10 scale, everyone has their own idea of what 1 and 10 represent. But at least we can all agree that a 6 is better than a 2, whatever they might be.\n\nActual concentrations of pollutants are always given with the unit of measurement included: parts-per-billion, milligrams per cubic meter, whatever. If you want to compare results, compare the actual measured concentrations, not the AQI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The three factors that go into most aqi, or aqhi, are pm2.5, ozone, and NO2, all of whoch have health impacts.\nDifferent places can have different measurements (air quality, especially for NOx, is very volatile) or different weightings for the equations. A lot of east asian cities have SO2 included, which is pretty nasty, but SO2 levels in most western cities is functionally 0.\n\nAny major metropolitan area is not going to have great air quality, but just try to live a little away from a highway and/or tall buildings and you will be just fine.\n\nI actually research this stuff so let me know if you have questions about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942366",
"title": "Air quality index",
"section": "Section::::Indices by location.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed an Air Quality Index that is used to report air quality. This AQI is divided into six categories indicating increasing levels of health concern. An AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality and below 50 the air quality is good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142223",
"title": "Air pollution in British Columbia",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality Health Index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed to help understand the impact of air quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing behavioral change to reduce the ecological footprint. This index pays particular attention to people who are sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health risks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942366",
"title": "Air quality index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "An air quality index (AQI) is used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become. Public health risks increase as the AQI rises. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different national air quality standards. Some of these are the Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), and the Pollutant Standards Index (Singapore).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41300273",
"title": "2013 Eastern China smog",
"section": "Section::::Pollutants.:Index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed an Air Quality Index that is used to report air quality. This AQI is divided into six categories indicating increasing levels of health concern. A PM concentration lower than 12 µg/m indicates good air quality and between 12 and 35 µg/m the airquality is moderate. An AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality and below 50 the air quality is good. In December 2013, huge areas of Eastern China reached \"hazardous\" level for multiple days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942366",
"title": "Air quality index",
"section": "Section::::Indices by location.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The \"Common Air Quality Index\" (CAQI) is an air quality index used in Europe since 2006. In November 2017, the European Environment Agency announced the \"European Air Quality Index\" (EAQI) and started encouraging its use on websites and for other ways of informing the public about air quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31737916",
"title": "Air Quality Health Index (Canada)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "The Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) is a scale designed in Canada to help understand the impact of air quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing behavioral change to reduce the environmental footprint. This index pays particular attention to people who are sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health risks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942366",
"title": "Air quality index",
"section": "Section::::Indices by location.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The Air Quality Health Index provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. On occasion, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight, and tomorrow, and provides associated health advice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4y0ryq
|
Is there any species of mammal where there are not sex differences in behavior/temperament?
|
[
{
"answer": "AFAIK, mammals all reproduce sexually and use hormones as a mechanism to differentiate sexually during development. This difference in development includes differences in brain development, at the very least for sex-related behaviors. [This review article](_URL_0_) goes into greater detail about how hormones affect the development of the mammalian brain.\n\n > Despite many unresolved issues, it is now clear that steroid hormones effect permanent changes in the development of multiple interconnected regions of the mammalian forebrain that participate in the neural control of reproduction and influence other homeostatic functions as well. Estrogen and testosterone regulate most major developmental events including neurogenesis, neuronal migration, cell death, and neurotransmitter plasticity. In addition, sex steroid hormones specify sex-specific patterns of neuronal connectivity by affecting axonal guidance and synaptogenesis. The signaling events mediating these developmental activities interact at multiple levels with neurotrophin and neurotransmitter signal transduction pathways. In addition, sex steroid hormones signal to the nucleus through their ligand-activated receptors to influence a broad array of gene-expression events that contribute to the important developmental role of these hormones in specifying the architecture of forebrain pathways that are fundamental to propagation of mammalian species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48764123",
"title": "Male warrior hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Sex differences in parental investment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The MWH argues that the sex differences in attitudes towards outgroup members may be a result of the different reproductive strategies used by males and females—specifically, the greater competition among males for mates. In mammals, males and females have distinct reproductive strategies based on the physiology of reproduction. Because females gestate, birth, feed, and invest more overall resources in each of their offspring, they are more selective with their mates but have greater certainty of being able to reproduce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9125728",
"title": "Marc Breedlove",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Breedlove did research on the sex differences in animals in order to understand the sex differences in humans. It was found in rats that the males had more cell numbers in the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB) than the female rats. These motor neurons appear in both male and female rats, but fade with age in the female rats. Testosterone was also found as the key hormone that is responsible for the differences between males and females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822196",
"title": "Molecular neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::Neuronal gene expression.:Sex differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Animal models such as rodents, \"Drosophila melanogaster\", and \"Caenorhabditis elegans\", have been used to observe the origins and/or extent of sex bias in the brain versus the hormone-producing gonads of an animal. With the rodents, studies on genetic manipulation of sex chromosomes resulted in an effect on one sex that was completely opposite of the effect in the other sex. For example, a knockout of a particular gene only resulted in anxiety-like effects in males. With studies on \"D. menlanogaster\" it was found that a large brain sex bias of expression occurred even after the gonads were removed, suggesting that sex bias could be independent of hormonal control in certain aspects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26789",
"title": "Sexual selection",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Sexual dimorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1181,
"text": "In most sexual species the males and females have different equilibrium strategies, due to a difference in relative investment in producing offspring. As formulated in Bateman's principle, females have a greater initial investment in producing offspring (pregnancy in mammals or the production of the egg in birds and reptiles), and this difference in initial investment creates differences in variance in expected reproductive success and bootstraps the sexual selection processes. Classic examples of reversed sex-role species include the pipefish, and Wilson's phalarope. Also, unlike a female, a male (except in monogamous species) has some uncertainty about whether or not he is the true parent of a child, and so is less interested in spending his energy helping to raise offspring that may or may not be related to him. As a result of these factors, males are typically more willing to mate than females, and so females are typically the ones doing the choosing (except in cases of forced copulations, which can occur in certain species of primates, ducks, and others). The effects of sexual selection are thus held to typically be more pronounced in males than in females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337310",
"title": "Rodent",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male-male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice. It is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks, males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles, sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles, females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of the lack of predators and greater competition between males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "503581",
"title": "Sex ratio",
"section": "Section::::Examples in non-human species.:Polyandrous and cooperatively breeding homeotherms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Male-biased adult sex ratios have also been shown to correlate with cooperative breeding in mammals such as alpine marmots and wild canids. This correlation may also apply to cooperatively breeding birds, though the evidence is less clear. It is known, however, that both male-biased adult sex ratios and cooperative breeding tend to evolve where caring for offspring is extremely difficult due to low secondary productivity, as in Australia and Southern Africa. It is also known that in cooperative breeders where both sexes are philopatric like the varied sittella, adult sex ratios are equally or more male-biased than in those cooperative species, such as fairy-wrens, treecreepers and the noisy miner where females always disperse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21378368",
"title": "Bisexuality",
"section": "Section::::Among other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In some cases, animals will choose to engage in sexual activity with different sexes at different times in their lives, and will sometimes engage in sexual activity with different sexes at random. Same-sex sexual activity can also be seasonal in some animals, like male walruses who often engage in same-sex sexual activity with each other outside of the breeding season and will revert to heterosexual sexual activity during breeding season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36bwic
|
why do hit radio stations, who have access to thousands of songs, seem to always play the same exact playlist all day, every day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because in their (very measured) experience, they select the song rotation that maximize the number of listeners they have. What ou say you don't like is what people measurably DO like (or at least what measurably elicits the behavior the station wants).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thats how they stay on top. People like listening to what they know so those stations play what they know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Record companies underhandedly pay radio stations to keep their artists' songs in rotation. Interesting article [here.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is in your question: \"Hit radio stations,\" which are programmed differently from indie stations, oldies stations, classic rock, etc. They tend to stick to the Billboard Top 40, with an emphasis on the Top 10. \n\nIf they do play something that's not on the current Top 40, it will most likely be from a past Top 10.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One point being left out of the discussion is that most people don't listen all day. They listen in the car on their commute or their way to the grocery store or whatever. So it's the radio station's best bet to play a limited playlist people will definitely be interested in rather than a more risky variety to cater to the few people who listen all day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work in radio, and my program director once explained it to me like this: \n\nA radio station is like a can of pop. If you buy a Coke, when you open it, you wanted to taste like Coke. When you put a can of Coke to your lips, you have an expectation of what flavor sensation you will get. The same is true for a radio station. When you tune in, you have an expectation about what sounds you're going to hear. If you hear something that defies that expectation, you might metaphorically \"spit out the drink\" -- flip the dial, in other words, and try to find that thing you were seeking. This terrifies radio programmers to no end, so they go out of their way to program music that perfectly fits that \"flavor\" of their station's sound. Sadly, this usually manifests itself in a highly constructed and very narrow set of songs that a station feels \"safe\" to play.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in a factory where qe have the same shit radio station on every day Gem 106. Same songs every day without fail. That Ed sheeran one is twice a day and uptown funk can be three times a day in an 8 hour shift. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For us it's like this (Wall of text inc.):\n\nWe make surveys on the phone where we play different 10-second soundbites of songs to people and let them rate it from 1 to 6 (German school grade system, 1 being best) and this determines how popular different songs are by making an average from these grades. \n\nThat means that the songs that are \"picked\" by the public are the best songs. So you play them in order to get listened to. \n\nHit Radio stations don't want to differentiate themselves with the music because that's the riskiest strategy. People who listen to these songs, actually like them. You and me may get sick of listening to \"Take me to church\" for the thousandth time but the target audience of the station likes to hear it when it comes on.\n\nRadio stations rather like to differentiate themselves via the program elements like \"We pay your bills\" or \"Answer the phone with our catchphrase and win money!\" because that is the safest route to go. \n\nTo sum up: Going with what is PROVEN to be the most popular is a definite hit while playing all different songs every day can be a hit or miss. Because you don't have data to back up the listeners willingness to stay tuned in. \n\nAnd that is your absolute livelyhood, people staying on your station. Because every quarter there is (here in germany) a big survey where people get asked which station they listen to.\n\nThese surveys determine how many listeners you have, which determines how much money you can charge for ads. \n\nIf someone only listened to you for a few minutes, he's not gonna remember/say your station name but if they listened for a few days, they're likely going to remember your station. \n\n\n\nTLDR: It's safer to go with what people want to hear collectively because that's how they keep the listeners and make money. \n\n\nHope that clears it up.\n\nSource: I work at a \"Hit Radio\" station\n\nEDIT: /u/abedmcnulty made a good point about people not listening all day. The playlists are designed so you only listen for a few hours and in those hours, nothing should repeat itself. \n\nalso great point by /u/wipeoutpop it's exactly like that",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As people have noted, radio stations get paid by labels and most listeners probably listen less than an hour a day.\n\nBut really, they play the songs people *like*. If they didn't they would not be in business because no listeners = no ad revenue.\n\nIf you really like the Eagles, you will own all their albums and play those in your car. If you are a big fan of one or two genres that have no radio station? You will probably use your phone or an MP3 player to listen to your carefully selected playlists. Or maybe you will listen to books on tape.\n\nIf you enjoy the latest, top hits it is so much easier to listen to those stations than to somehow buy the next big album, every big album the week it comes out. Which does point out how circular top 40 is. Top 40 is top because its on the radio.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in London and the hit radio station is awful and plays the same songs literally 6 or 7 times a day, and then when i go the gym i have to hear it all again :(",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A list = 25 plays a week\n\nB list = 15 plays a week\n\nC list = 10 plays a week\n\nThis is the case for BBC Radio 1 in the UK but I'm sure other big radio stations have a list of bands they promote more than others.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People still use the radio? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they generally make money one of two ways:\n\nI) they take money from record companies to play their songs\n\nII) they make money from ad revenue\n\nBoth these conditions require them to maximise their audience so they play the most popular current songs that they know people like. They do this because they know what songs work right now, and then when the song stops working they swap it out with something else until they find a new hit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been working in radio for just over 3 years after completing a radio broadcasting program in college. As much as most people want to believe in the giant record company twisting the pop music market to suit their needs, that honestly isn't even the biggest contributing factor. I work for a rather large radio company in Canada - but you'd never realize that if you came to my station. The other jocks, as well as the administrative side of the station, are all great people who have a lot of fun at what we do. Its hard not to like a job that is 4+ hours of Reddit browsing for potential show prep/news/ entertainment updates... and the people who enjoy discussing these topics and helping me build a better show is always a great environment. But, just like every other job; people find a way to create shortcuts. In short, there is a certain percent of certain songs we need to play every day. In Canada, 30% of music played during a broadcasting day MUST be Canadian. This is a big reason as to why Nickleback is so popular. They play rock, they are Canadian, and they consistently release generic music. They are the safe bet of the Canadian music world. On top of that 30%, there are also other obligations like Current Rock, Gold Rock, Top Rock, literally dozens of sub categories that need to be balanced, every hour, of every day. So put yourself in a corporate radio stations Music Director's shoes. You have to choose the music for 16+ hours a day, every day, while balancing different catorigies of music and a percent of Canadian music, and keep within the lines your broadcast company gives you for whatever reason. I'm not saying those reasons can't be money in their pocket - but it could also be because 1 guy had a busy week, and used the same old programmed day to save 20 minutes. Its radio; we like to have fun, not be evil. \n\nTL;DR - Google \"Payola\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What it comes down to is research. We subscribe to multiple sources that track down what people want to hear. Anything from the charts at Mediabase, to Rate the Music, PPM, call out research, and auditorium tests. \n\nThe mentality of radio is that we are getting new listeners every 20 minutes. The people that listen to the same station for 10 hours are a rare breed (I know this isn't necessarily true, but like I said it is the mentality). So in order to please the listener wanting to hear that hot new Taylor Swift song, we put it on a shorter rotation. \n\nTypically we have these categories\n\nA (Power)\nB (Medium)\nC (Light)\nD (recurrent)\nG (Gold)\n\nThe A category is reserved for the top current songs in the country and will typically only have about 5 songs in it, so if a station plays 2 As an hour, then you are getting a quick rotation on those songs. But that is what we want because then we are more likely to satisfy those listeners that are only in their car for a short period of time. They get their Swift and hopefully we get a nod. \n\nB songs are either on their way to A or on their way back down from A. This category usually has 8-10 songs in it, so the rotation is a but slower. \n\nC is reserved for new stuff. It can have anywhere form 5-10 songs depending on what the program director wants to do. A lot of PDs will use this category to introduce a new song from a well known artist before moving it up to B then A, or will use it to slowly introduce a new artist no one has heard of before. Either this new artist is successful and moves up the ranks, or it disappears. \n\nRecurrent is a category for those songs that have recently been successful, but are no longer \"new\" and have fallen down or off the charts. Keep in mind, songs in recurrent have a \"time limit\" which is dictated by the PD of the station. Usually this category has less than 50 songs. \n\nGold is the final category. Gold songs are old songs that were big hits at one point, but that isn't the only factor. They not only have to have been hits, but still resonate with the stations audience. The majority of songs that top the charts are forgotten, but the ones that fill this category are the nostalgic hits that make you smile and turn up the radio. So how many songs go here? around 200. \n\nThe goal is to play familiar and popular music for the listener who is in their car listening for that 20 minute increment. \n\nAnd FYI, it is illegal for us to get paid to play music. We have very strict payolla/plugolla rules in place that would see us fined and fired very quickly should this take place. \n\nAlso, if your wondering why your station never plays (insert artist or song here) it's because there is no popular demand for it. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What kills me is they'll never fucking admit it. I've called in requests to small \"independent\" stations for an offbeat song by an artist they play regularly. Sure enough, when my song comes up, it's the artist I asked for, but not the specific song. Just one of the same old songs they play by that artist regularly. I've asked via the phone and other means, and never an answer. It's like they either refuse to admit to it, or they're so deep in denial they think it's normal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yesterday I saw a big girl crying \n\nI walked up and asked \"what's wrong?\" \n\nShe told me that the radio's been playing the same song all day long...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember that radio stations are in the business of selling ads, not playing music. If they could get people to listen to ads all day, every day, they would. But they have to put some songs in between to keep people listening. They do extensive callout research to see what people want to hear, and then they play that. They plays the current hits simply because that's what the most people want to hear currently, which gives them the largest possible audience so that their real customers will buy more ads and spend more money for the higher reach.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radio was destroyed by Bill Clinton and Congress when they deregulated it in the 90's, allowing for just a few corporations to buy up all the local stations. What's left is simply the rotten corpse being picked over by corporate vultures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh wow, I can actually answer this one!\n\nOkay, so there are some good responses here as to why the \"Top 40\" idea has stuck, but no one seems to be addressing how this happened in the first place.\n\nIt came from a guy (think he was a DJ? I'll research it later and update) who during the 50's, would go to all the popular hang-outs for them crazy teens, and check the number of plays on the records in the jukeboxes. He realized that no matter where he went, there was always roughly about 40 popular songs that people listened to, and then the numbers dropped off after that. People can only handle so many songs being in, or hot, or whatever you want to call it, and the closest and easiest number was to use 40. He used that to shape radio shows, and it worked! These radio stations became very popular and have now solidified this tradition of Top 40 which we're still using today.\n\nAlso, fun other fact, the reason most pop songs are around 3 minutes, is because the original recording medium for these songs were essentially wax candles (weird, right?), and they could only hold about 3 minutes worth of music on each one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the media is owned by I think 3 make companies. Clear Channel dictates what plays on the radio. It's all corporate created lame music",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1954403",
"title": "Hot 100 Airplay (Radio Songs)",
"section": "Section::::Chart data collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Each week, the Radio Songs chart ranks the 100 songs with the most airplay points (frequently referred to as audience impressions, which is a calculation of the number of times a song is played and the audience size of the station playing the tune). A song can pick up an airplay point every time it is selected to be played on specific radio stations that \"Billboard\" monitors. Radio stations across the board are used, from Top 40 Mainstream (which plays a wide variety of music that is generally the most popular songs of the time) to more genre-specific radio stations such as urban radio and country music. Paid plays of a song or treatment as bumper music do not count as an impression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1127557",
"title": "Album-oriented rock",
"section": "Section::::Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Most radio formats are based on a select, tight rotation of hit singles. The best example is Top 40, though other formats, like country, smooth jazz, and urban all utilize the same basic principles, with the most popular songs repeating every two to six hours, depending on their rank in the rotation. Generally there is a strict order or list to be followed and the DJ does not make decisions about what selections are played.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33169638",
"title": "8tracks.com",
"section": "Section::::Online radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "8tracks and other Internet radio sites, such as Pandora, allow users to explore a variety of songs and artists based on their musical preferences. Listeners are able to discover new artists and songs that they would have never encountered otherwise. Based on the users music interest, these Internet radio stations randomly select songs that are similar to the users' initial choice. Like Pandora, 8tracks's music license limits the number of songs that users can skip every hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331873",
"title": "Hot Hits",
"section": "Section::::Formatics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "\"Hot Hits\" stations played the Top 5 hits every hour and in between other hits on the current chart. The top hits on an average Hot Hits station had a turnover period of 45 minutes to an hour, thus guaranteeing that when listeners tuned in, they were more likely to hear a hit and less likely to hear a \"stiff\" or a \"bomb.\" They often also featured cuts from current chart albums, even if those cuts happened to be songs which had already charted and would have been considered recurrent or gold otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66038",
"title": "Breakbeat",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "DJs from a variety of genres work breaks tracks into their sets. This may occur because the tempo of breaks tracks (ranging from 110 to 150 beats per minute) means they can be readily mixed with these genres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171080",
"title": "Music of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Industry and economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1155,
"text": "Radio stations in the United States often broadcast popular music. Each music station has a format, or a category of songs to be played; these are generally similar to but not the same as ordinary generic classification. Many radio stations in the United States are locally owned and operated, and may offer an eclectic assortment of recordings; many other stations are owned by large companies like Clear Channel, and are generally formatted on smaller, more repetitive playlists. Commercial sales of recordings are tracked by \"Billboard\" magazine, which compiles a number of music charts for various fields of recorded music sales. The \"Billboard\" Hot 100 is the top pop music chart for singles, a recording consisting of a handful of songs; longer pop recordings are albums, and are tracked by the \"Billboard\" 200. Though recorded music is commonplace in American homes, many of the music industry's revenue comes from a small number of devotees; for example, 62% of album sales come from less than 25% of the music-buying audience. Total CD sales in the United States topped 705 million units sold in 2005, and singles sales just under three million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20841",
"title": "Music radio",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Fewer radio stations (except on medium and major market, depending on daypart) maintain a call-in telephone line for promotions and gags, or to take record requests. DJs of commercial stations do not generally answer the phone and edit the call during music plays in non-major markets, as the programming is either delivered via satellite, or voice-tracked using a computer. More and more stations take requests by e-mail and online chat only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24yjaq
|
Were there any notable cases that caused the public to distrust the "insanity defense"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably the most high-profile successful insanity defense was probably too late to inspire the literary trope, but was nevertheless very important: the case of John Hinckley Jr., who shot President Ronald Regan in 1981. Hinckley was obsessed with actress Jodi Foster and apparently believed that as an assassin of a president, he would be a public figure and therefore her equal. The jury in his criminal trial found him not guilty by reason of insanity.\n\nThere was a fairly substantial backlash to the verdict--how could a man who shot the president be not guilty? A number of legal reforms resulted. As an example, in 1984, the United States Congress passed the Insanity Defense Reform Act, which applies to federal crimes (for those not familiar with the US legal system--most criminal offenses are state-level, so this doesn't directly control, for example, your average murder trial. A number of states also changed their laws, though). This act required the accused to prove insanity by clear and convincing evidence rather than requiring the government to prove the accused sane, as under prior law. The act also prohibited experts from testifying that the defendant was sane or insane--they can only talk about the mental diseases. Finally, it limited the defense to people who can't appreciate the nature and character of their acts. Under prior law, and the law of some states, people could also make the insanity defense if they essentially knew what they were doing and couldn't stop themselves (so-called \"irresistible act\"). \n\nSpeaking of iressistible acts, one literary example of the defense being used as an escape is the book and film Anatomy of a Murder. I've never read the book, but the film is fantastic and deals directly with the insanity defense generally and the \"irresistible act\" prong specifically. The book was written by then-Michigan Supreme Court judge Paul Voelker, so the story has a lot more legal grounding than the usual courtroom drama. The reason I mention it is that it was based on a real trial defended by Mr. Voelker as an attorney. So while that real trial wasn't necessarily so high profile that it caused the trope because of a general anti-insanity defense fervor it was a real case that inspired one instance of the trope. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5747405",
"title": "Clark v. Arizona",
"section": "Section::::Application of insanity laws.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "One of the best known applications of the insanity defense was for John W. Hinckley, a man who attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan in 1982. He was ultimately acquitted of his charges under the insanity defense. The outrage after the court decision caused four states to eliminate the insanity defense: Montana, Utah, Idaho, and Kansas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358",
"title": "Insanity defense",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The concept of defense by insanity has existed since ancient Greece and Rome. However, in colonial America a delusional Dorothy Talbye was hanged in 1638 for murdering her daughter, as at the time Massachusetts's common law made no distinction between insanity (or mental illness) and criminal behavior. Edward II, under English Common law, declared that a person was insane if their mental capacity was no more than that of a \"wild beast\" (in the sense of a dumb animal, rather than being frenzied). The first complete transcript of an insanity trial dates to 1724. It is likely that the insane, like those under 14, were spared trial by ordeal. When trial by jury replaced this, the jury members were expected to find the insane guilty but then refer the case to the King for a Royal Pardon. From 1500 onwards, juries could acquit the insane, and detention required a separate civil procedure (Walker, 1985). The Criminal Lunatics Act 1800, passed with retrospective effect following the acquittal of James Hadfield, mandated detention at the regent's pleasure (indefinitely) even for those who, although insane at the time of the offence, were now sane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5747405",
"title": "Clark v. Arizona",
"section": "Section::::Application of insanity laws.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The insanity defense has existed since the 12th century and is one of the most controversial but one of the least used criminal defense strategies. It claims that a criminal defendant should not be found guilty because of the defendant's insanity. A person who is insane is said to lack the understanding of the crime or the difference between right and wrong. Initially, the defense could be used only to pardon a criminal's sentence. The concept that one's insanity could avoid the sentence began in the 19th century in Isaac Ray's \"The Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity\" and the English \"M'Naughton Case\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222294",
"title": "John Hinckley Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Reagan assassination attempt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The verdict resulted in widespread dismay. As a consequence, the United States Congress and a number of states revised laws governing when the insanity defense may be used by the defendant in a criminal prosecution. Idaho, Montana, and Utah abolished the defense altogether. In the United States, prior to the Hinckley case, the insanity defense had been used in less than 2% of all felony cases and was unsuccessful in almost 75% of those trials. Public outcry over the verdict led to the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984, which altered the rules for consideration of mental illness of defendants in federal criminal court proceedings in the United States. In 1985, Hinckley's parents wrote \"Breaking Points\", a book detailing their son's mental condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3539407",
"title": "R v Chaulk",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The only defence raised was insanity within the meaning of section 16 of the \"Criminal Code\". Expert evidence was given at trial that Chaulk and Morrissette suffered from a paranoid psychosis which made them believe they had the power to rule the world and that the killing was a necessary means to that end. They believed they were above the ordinary law and thought they had a right to kill the victim because he was \"a loser\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28146546",
"title": "Insanity Defense Reform Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984 was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on October 12, 1984, amending the United States federal laws governing defendants with mental diseases or defects to make it significantly more difficult to obtain a verdict of not guilty only by reason of insanity. It removed the volitional component, that a defendant lacked capacity to conform their conduct to the law, from the ALI test. Defendants were exculpated only if \"at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, ... as the result of a severe mental disease or defect, [they were] unable to appreciate the nature and quality or wrongfulness of [their] acts.\" The law passed in the wake of public outrage after John Hinckley, Jr.'s acquittal by reason of insanity for his attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358",
"title": "Insanity defense",
"section": "Section::::United States law.:Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Some U.S. states have begun to ban the use of the insanity defense, and in 1994 the Supreme Court denied a petition of certiorari seeking review of a Montana Supreme Court case that upheld Montana's abolition of the defense. Idaho, Kansas, and Utah have also banned the defense. However, a mentally ill defendant/patient can be found unfit to stand trial in these states. In 2001, the Nevada Supreme Court found that their state's abolition of the defense was unconstitutional as a violation of Federal due process. In 2006, the Supreme Court decided \"Clark v. Arizona\" upheld Arizona's limitations on the insanity defense. In that same ruling, the Court noted \"We have never held that the Constitution mandates an insanity defense, nor have we held that the Constitution does not so require.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fwdyn
|
Is there any evidence of Soviet/Communist involvement in the black civil rights movement?
|
[
{
"answer": "Someone else actually asked [a similar question](_URL_2_) a few months back. My answer was: there is some evidence that the Soviets attempted to infiltrate and co-opt the civil rights movement — they weren't providing support to the movement out of solidarity, but rather saw an opportunity to foment dissent and attempt to destabilise American civil/political society.\n\nThe KGB's 'Service A' was tasked with carrying out \"active measures\" around the world — these operations varied in nature from misinformation, to political propaganda, to assassinations. In the case of the civil rights movement, the KGB hoped to use MLK and his colleagues as a political weapon against the US. When that effort failed, they instead tried to discredit him, in the hopes of opening the door to the emergence of a more compliant, sympathetic leadership.\n\nThe below is from a book I quote regularly and at length as one of the definitive sources on the history of Soviet foreign intelligence — *[The Sword and the Shield](_URL_5_)* by Christopher Andrew and KGB defector Vasili Mitrokhin:\n\n > King was probably the only prominent American to be the target of active measures by both the FBI and the KGB. By the mid-1960s the claims by the [Communist Party of the USA] leadership that secret Party members within King’s entourage would be able to “guide” his policies had proved to be hollow. To the Centre’s dismay, King repeatedly linked the aims of the civil rights movement not to the alleged worldwide struggle against American imperialism but to the fulfillment of the American dream and “the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.”\n > \n > [...]\n > \n > Having given up hope of influencing King, the Centre aimed instead at replacing him with a more radical and malleable leader. In August 1967 the Centre approved an operational plan by the deputy head of Service A, Yuri Modin, former controller of the Magnificent Five, to discredit King and his chief lieutenants by placing articles in the African press, which could then be reprinted in American newspapers, portraying King as an “Uncle Tom” who was secretly receiving government subsidies to tame the civil rights movement and prevent it threatening the Johnson administration. While leading freedom marches under the admiring glare of worldwide television, King was allegedly in close touch with the President.\n\nOn the other side, King's opponents sought to cast him as a communist sympathiser and a Soviet stooge in an effort to discredit him as a voice in the US political discourse. This was the height of the Cold War, and the height of J. Edgar Hoover's [COINTELPRO](_URL_0_) operations, by which the FBI attempted to systematically undermine groups they deemed \"subversive\" — particularly the CPUSA, but also the civil rights and black nationalist movements, and others; especially those they deemed likely targets for infiltration by communists. \n\nIn the event, active measures against MLK and the civil rights movement largely failed in co-opting the movement, but it may have contributed to the FBI/Hoover's conviction that King was a communist fellow traveller. But the FBI's efforts to discredit him also proved ultimately unsuccessful; COINTELPRO became a national scandal after Hoover's death, and in the context of the Church Committee investigations.\n\n(As an aside: there's a great deal of scholarship and research on COINTELPRO — you can read [a huge amount of primary source material online](_URL_4_). I'd also look at *[The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.](_URL_3_)* by David Garrow and the more recent *[Enemies: A History of the FBI](_URL_1_)* by Tim Weiner.)\n\nWere there communists involved in the civil rights movement? Probably/almost certainly. Were they a prominent force in that movement? No, not really — certainly not as much as the FBI believed, or conspiracy theorists will *continue* to tell you.\n\n*Edit: new link.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know much about Soviet involvement, but there was certainly domestic communist involvement in the civil rights and black liberation movements as a minority position. Most notably, this took the form of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense. The Black Panthers were Marxist-Leninists whose radical black liberation plan was a multi-racial socialist revolution, rather than the black nationalism of other alternative black power groups. In practical day-to-day activity, the BPP was primarily concerned with community organizing and community self-defense (a concept that led to violent clashes with the police). \n\nThe Panthers were one of the biggest targets of the FBI's Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO), which saw the FBI infiltrate them with agent provocateurs, distribute false flag materials, pursue heavy surveillance, and carry out political assassinations.\n\nMartin Luther King, Jr. was also a major target of COINTELPRO, in which the FBI spied on him and attempted to coerce him into abandoning his movement (or killing himself, depending on the interpretation). King was never a communist, despite FBI suspicions, though shortly before his assassination, he was organizing the \"Poor People's Campaign,\" in which he was attempting to march a multi-racial army of poor people on Washington. King's rhetoric was also taking a more economically leftist turn, though the civil rights movement had long had ties to the labor movement and other leftists. The mainstream civil rights movement's political and economic positions can better be understood through these links, whereas the Panthers were certainly the most radical element.\n\nAs for international communism, the revolutionary government in Cuba had ties to the black community in the United States ever since Fidel Castro stayed in Harlem during his 1960 visit to the United Nations. Che Guevara, in his 1964 speech at the UN, condemned the abuse of blacks in the United States, along with a condemnation of Apartheid. Pre-revolutionary Cuba was institutionally racist in fundamental ways. After the Cuban Revolution took over in 1959, racial discrimination was declared illegal and effort was taken to bring about racial equality, though the effects were mixed and some racial problems persisted in Cuba with little state concern. Several Black Panthers fled to Cuba to escape arrest in the United States, including co-founder Huey Newton, who returned to the U.S. after a time. Assata Shakur, the only woman on the FBI's most wanted terrorists list, remains in Cuba to this day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59620069",
"title": "Civil rights and Mormonism",
"section": "Section::::Civil Rights Movement.:Benson against the civil rights movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In the October 1967 General Conference Apostle Ezra Benson declared that the civil rights movement was a tool of Communist revolutionaries, and that it was led by mostly white male Communists who want to \"destroy America by spilling Negro blood\". He also stated that accusing law enforcement of \"police brutality\" against black people should be recognized as attempts to discredit and discourage law enforcement. His talk was re-published the next year by the church's Deseret Book as a pamphlet titled \"Civil Rights: Tool of Communist Deception\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188414",
"title": "League of Struggle for Negro Rights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The League of Struggle for Negro Rights was organized by the Communist Party in 1930 as the successor to the American Negro Labor Congress. The League was particularly active in organizing support for the \"Scottsboro Boys\", nine black men sentenced to death in 1931 for crimes they had not committed. It also campaigned for a separate black nation in the South, one of the CPUSA's principal tenets in the early 1930s, and against police brutality, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia and Jim Crow laws, while also advocating a more general policy of opposition to fascism and support for the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87382",
"title": "Human rights in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Human rights movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The USSR and other countries of the Soviet bloc had abstained from affirming the 1948 U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, citing its \"overly juridical\" character as well as the infringements on national sovereignty that it might enable. The Soviet Union signed later legally-binding documents issued by the UN General Assembly — the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) in 1973 (and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) — but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities. In the early détente period Western governments also did not emphasize human rights issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2415482",
"title": "Black Consciousness Movement",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "The Black Consciousness Movement started to develop during the late 1960s, and was led by Steve Biko, Mamphela Ramphele, and Barney Pityana. During this period, which overlapped with Apartheid, the ANC had committed to an armed struggle through its military wing Umkhonto we Sizwe, but this small guerrilla army was neither able to seize and hold territory in South Africa nor to win significant concessions through its efforts. The ANC had been banned by Apartheid leaders, and although the famed Freedom Charter remained in circulation in spite of attempts to censor it, for many students, the ANC had disappeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172875",
"title": "Bayard Rustin",
"section": "Section::::Evolving affiliations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "At the direction of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and its members were active in the civil rights movement for African Americans. The CPUSA, at the time following Stalin's \"theory of nationalism\", favored the creation of a separate nation for African-Americans to be located in the American Southeast where the greatest proportion of the black population was concentrated. In 1941, after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin ordered the CPUSA to abandon civil rights work and focus on supporting U.S. entry into World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361758",
"title": "Civil rights movements",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "In the 1960s, the early years of the Brezhnev stagnation, dissidents in the Soviet Union increasingly turned their attention civil and eventually human rights concerns. The fight for civil and human rights focused on issues of freedom of expression, freedom of conscience, freedom to emigrate, punitive psychiatry, and the plight of political prisoners. It was characterized by a new openness of dissent, a concern for legality, the rejection of any 'underground' and violent struggle. It played a significant role in providing a common language and goal for many Soviet dissidents, and became a cause for diverse social groups in the dissident millieu, ranging from activists in the youth subculture to academics such as Andrei Sakhrarov.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49483962",
"title": "Human rights movement in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:Emergence of \"defenders of rights\".:Trial of the Four (1967) – Increased protests and samizdat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In 1967, Alexander Ginzburg and Yuri Galanskov were detained along with two other dissidents and charged with \"anti-Soviet agitation\" for their work on \"The White Book\". Ginzburg was sentenced to five years, Galanskov to seven years in labor camps. Their trial became another landmark in the rights-defense movement and motivated renewed protest (Trial of the Four).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qf4c7
|
Why are some types of firewood more likely to "pop" when burning?
|
[
{
"answer": "Trapped pockets of resin vaporize and violently escape. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3051739",
"title": "Exploding tree",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Exploding trees also occur during forest fires and are a risk to smokejumpers. In Australia, the native eucalyptus trees are also known to explode during bush fires due to the high flammability of vaporised eucalyptus oil produced by the tree naturally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75841",
"title": "Quercus marilandica",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The wood is very dense and produces a hot flame when burned, which functions as an excellent source of heat for barbecues and wood-burning stoves. However, the wood is not desirable for wood fireplaces because the heat causes popping, thereby increasing the risk of house fires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24210259",
"title": "Twist bread",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The bonfire should be gradually burned so far down that there are only glowing pieces of wood left, with almost no flames. The most suitable types of firewood are from hardwood trees similar to beech and oak, but other hardwoods can be used, except for poplar and aspen, which create a sour smoke. Conifers, especially fir, are unsuitable because they do not create many glowing embers, and moreover pop and spark so that cooking over such a fire can become an unpleasant and messy affair. The fire must burn down a little, so that there are not many flames, and the embers can be spread out a little so that there is enough room for the twist breads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18387734",
"title": "Wood-burning stove",
"section": "Section::::Fuel.:Hardwood or softwood.:Softwood mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Softwood is often said to be dangerous to burn because it generates more dangerous creosote than hardwood. This myth is pervasive in the North American northeast, where both types of wood are commonly available. It is not common in the northwest, where most full-time wood burners burn pine and fir exclusively. A basic understanding of what creosote is and how it accumulates in your flue is all you need to rid yourself of this byproduct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18990011",
"title": "Green wood",
"section": "Section::::Combustion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "When green wood is used as fuel in appliances, it releases less heat per unit of measure (usually cords or tons) because of the heat consumed to evaporate the moisture. The lower temperatures that result can lead to more creosote being created which is later deposited in exhaust flues. These deposits can later be ignited when sufficient heat and oxygen are present to cause a chimney fire which can be destructive and dangerous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2018243",
"title": "Mountain pine beetle",
"section": "Section::::Management techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- Controlled, or mosaic, burning – is burning an area where infested trees are concentrated, to reduce high beetle infestations in the area or to help reduce the fire hazard in an area. Controlling wildfires has significantly increased since the 1980s and '90s due to firefighting technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2664780",
"title": "Fire whirl",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Fire whirls can uproot trees that are tall or more. These can also aid the 'spotting' ability of wildfires to propagate and start new fires as they lift burning materials such as tree bark. These burning embers can be blown away from the fireground by the stronger winds aloft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eketzg
|
Are all planet's cores made out of iron?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mostly, but there are a couple scenarios where it might not happen:\n\n* A planet may form by dynamic stability in the outer planetary disk--basically the gas bunches up on its own without need for a solid core to form first, and the resulting planet is thus predominantly gas.\n* A planet with a high water content may oxidize all its iron during formation, and so end up with iron oxide distributed through the rocky interior rather than concentrated in the core.\n* A planet may form small and cool quickly, like Ceres or Callisto, such that it doesn't fully differentiate--so it's left with a rocky core, though with more iron mixed in than outer layers.\n\nWe're also not totally sure if the gas giants like Jupiter have a rock and iron core--all our models suggest they should start with them, but some people think they may be dissolved into the surrounding metallic hydrogen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, not even Earth's. It's primarily iron, but has enough \"not iron\" to qualify as \"not really iron\". Most of the \"not iron\" is nickel, but also the huge majority of Earth's complement every metal heavier than iron is in the core. The core could be as much as 25% nickel, but is probably less, maybe 8-10%. This is expected to be similar to the composition of iron meteorites, as these likely formed in the same way.\n\nMost of early Earth's heavier stuff sank, as the planet was an emulsion of different materials, which then sorted itself out by weight (this stratification is known as \"differentiation\" in astronomy). The least dense material, silicate and light metal oxides (lithium, sodium, magnesium, aluminium), were forced upwards while the denser metals sank. The silicates formed the crust and outer mantle. Olivine and pyroxene are the two main components of the outer mantle and are both silicates.\n\nWe think all the inner planets, have substantial quantities of iron in their cores. Jupiter and outward likely do not have iron based cores, due to how different elements fractionate in a protoplanetary disc. They'll have some iron, of course, because it's hard to be iron-free. Smaller objects, like Pluto, Eris, etc. will have rocky cores. New Horizons was equipped to detect any significant iron or other metallic component to Pluto's core, and found nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14734",
"title": "Iron",
"section": "Section::::Origin and occurrence in nature.:Metallic iron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core, that account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel. Electric currents in the liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field. The other terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, and Mars) as well as the Moon and are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15285305",
"title": "Allotropes of iron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The phases of iron at atmospheric pressure are important because of the differences in solubility of carbon, forming different types of steel. The high-pressure phases of iron are important as models for the solid parts of planetary cores. The inner core of the Earth is generally assumed to consist essentially of a crystalline iron-nickel alloy with ε structure. The outer core surrounding the solid inner core is believed to be composed of liquid iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145352",
"title": "Iron ore",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of deep mantle xenoliths. Iron meteorites themselves are thought to have originated from stellar bodies larger than 1,000 km in diameter. The origin of iron can be ultimately traced to formation through nuclear fusion in stars and most of the iron is thought to have originated in dying stars that are large enough to collapse or explode as supernovae. Although iron is the fourth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals (for more information, see iron cycle). The thermodynamic barriers to separating pure iron from these minerals are formidable and energy intensive, therefore all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864017",
"title": "Planetary core",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Trends in the Solar System.:Inner Rocky Planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "All of the rocky inner planets, as well as the moon, have an iron-dominant core. Venus and Mars have an additional major element in the core. Venus’ core is believed to be iron-nickel, similarly to Earth. Mars, on the other hand, is believed to have an iron-sulfur core and is separated into an outer liquid layer around an inner solid core. As the orbital radius of a rocky planet increases, the size of the core relative to the total radius of the planet decreases. This is believed to be because differentiation of the core is directly related to a body's initial heat, so Mercury's core is relatively large and active. Venus and Mars, as well as the moon, do not have magnetic fields. This could be due to a lack of a convecting liquid layer interacting with a solid inner core, as Venus’ core is not layered. Although Mars does have a liquid and solid layer, they do not appear to be interacting in the same way that Earth's liquid and solid components interact to produce a dynamo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27058",
"title": "Steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. In the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-centered cubic, there is one atom at the center of each of the six faces of the cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254452",
"title": "Planetary differentiation",
"section": "Section::::Heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "On Earth, a large piece of molten iron is sufficiently denser than continental crust material to force its way down through the crust to the mantle. In the outer Solar System a similar process may take place but with lighter materials: they may be hydrocarbons such as methane, water as liquid or ice, or frozen carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17468893",
"title": "J. Marvin Herndon",
"section": "Section::::Theories on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Herndon suggested that the composition of the inner core of Earth is nickel silicide; the conventional view is that it is iron–nickel alloy More recently, he has suggested \"georeactor\" planetocentric nuclear fission reactors as energy sources for the gas giant outer planets. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fkns9
|
How come urine and feces are generally always yellow and brown, and smell generally similar, even though people consume hugely varied diets?
|
[
{
"answer": "See [this thread](_URL_6_), as well as searches for [urine](_URL_1_) and [feces](_URL_7_) color.\n\nThe short answer is that the breakdown of heme produces [urobilin](_URL_3_) and [stercobilin](_URL_0_), which are responsible for the colour of urine and feces, respectively. As this process is a constant part of your body's maintenance, your body's waste will always contain these compounds. There are things that you can eat that alter the colour of bodily waste, such as [rifampin](_URL_2_) that colour your urine red, [Pepto-Bismol](_URL_4_) that colour your feces black, or [beets](_URL_5_) that colour both urine and stool red.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159421",
"title": "Urination",
"section": "Section::::Other species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The urine of animals of differing physiology or sex sometimes has different characteristics. For example, the urine of birds and reptiles is whitish, consisting of a pastelike suspension of uric acid crystals, and discharged with the feces of the animal via the cloaca, whereas mammals' urine is a yellowish colour, with mostly urea instead of uric acid, and is discharged via the urethra, separately from the feces. Some animals' (example: carnivores') urine possesses a strong odour, especially when it is used to mark territory or \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59908228",
"title": "Abnormal urine color",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In case the urine looks in pink, red, or lighter brown is generally caused by beets, blackberries, certain food colorings, hemolytic anemia, renal impairment, urinary tract infection, medication, porphyria, intra-abdominal bleeding, vaginal bleeding, neoplasm located in either bladder or kidneys pathways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3938382",
"title": "Urine",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, as well as other factors. Normal urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow. In the urine of a healthy individual the color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin. Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3938382",
"title": "Urine",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Odor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59908228",
"title": "Abnormal urine color",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Infection, disease, medicines, or food can all affect urine color temporarily. For instance, cloudy or milky urine usually accompanied by bad smell possibly indicates urinary tract infection, excessive discharge of crystals, fat, white blood cells, red blood cells, or mucus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568003",
"title": "Clinical urine tests",
"section": "Section::::Target parameters.:Smell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The odor (scent) of urine can normally vary from odorless (when very light colored and dilute) to a much stronger odor when the subject is dehydrated and the urine is concentrated. Brief changes in odor are usually merely interesting and not medically significant. (Example: the abnormal smell many people can detect after eating asparagus.) The urine of diabetics experiencing ketoacidosis (urine containing high levels of ketone bodies) may have a fruity or sweet smell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49212624",
"title": "Uroerythrin",
"section": "Section::::Urinary pigments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Pigments excreted in urine are partially absorbed by urate sediments (\" sedimentum latrerium \"), which consists of cell debris and sedimented urinary components formed when the acidified urine is stored below room temperature. These urate sediments looks reddish or pink due to the presence of a main pigment first introduced by Simons in 1842 as uroerythrin,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rhm91
|
What is the melting point of roads?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nMixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 °F (roughly 150 °C) for virgin asphalt \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44215035",
"title": "Fused filament fabrication",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Printing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "For successful bonding of the roads in the process control of the thermal environment is necessary. Therefore, the system is kept inside a chamber, maintained at a temperature just below the melting point of the material being deposited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3858868",
"title": "Ice road",
"section": "Section::::Driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Use of ice as the main construction material allows unusual construction techniques: to make a ramp to get the road over a step such as the shore of a lake, for example, lake water is pumped out and mixed with snow to make slush, formed into the shape of the ramp, and allowed to quickly freeze in the intense cold. Worn and damaged roads are repaired by flooding with shallow water that freezes into a new surface layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376956",
"title": "Snow removal",
"section": "Section::::Surface treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The surface is treated primarily by snow removal. Roads are also treated by spreading various materials on the surface. These materials generally fall into two categories: chemical and inert. Chemical (including salt) distribution induces freezing-point depression, causing ice and snow to melt at a lower temperature. Chemical treatment can be applied as a preventive measure and/or after snowfall. Inert materials (i.e. sand, brash, slag) make the surface irregular to improve traction. Both types can be applied together, but the inert materials tend to lower traction once the snow and ice has melted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6074980",
"title": "Winter service vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Gritter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Salt reduces the melting point of ice by freezing-point depression, causing it to melt at lower temperatures and run off to the edge of the road, while sand increases traction by increasing friction between car tires and roadways. The amount of salt dropped varies with the condition of the road; to prevent the formation of light ice, approximately is dropped, while thick snow can require up to of salt, independent of the volume of sand dropped. The grit is sometimes mixed with molasses to help adhesion to the road surface. However, the sweet molasses often attracts livestock, who lick the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8979498",
"title": "History of road transport",
"section": "Section::::Industrial civil engineering.:Macadam roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "McAdam directed that no substance that would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road. Neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a level, solid surface that would withstand weather or traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387880",
"title": "Macadam",
"section": "Section::::Advent of the macadam.:McAdam's methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "McAdam directed that no substance that would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road. Neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a level, solid surface that would withstand weather or traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376956",
"title": "Snow removal",
"section": "Section::::De-icing and anti-icing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The de-icing of roads has historically been accomplished by snowplows or specially-designed dump trucks that spread salt, often mixed with sand and gravel, onto slick roads. Rock salt is normally used because it is inexpensive and readily available in large quantities. However, brine freezes at −18 °C (0 °F), and so it is ineffective at these low temperatures. It also has a strong tendency to cause corrosion, rusting the steel used in most vehicles and the rebar in concrete bridges. More recent snowmelters use other salts, such as calcium chloride and magnesium chloride, which not only decrease the freezing point of water to a much lower temperature but also produce an exothermic reaction, whose dissipated heat further aids in melting. In addition, they are somewhat safer for concrete sidewalks, but excess should still be removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hrudk
|
why do large and already established companies feel the need to advertise their company in general?
|
[
{
"answer": "They actually are trying to raise awareness. They want to make it so that when you think about fast food, you think about McDonald's. That way, when get an urge to eat fast food, your first thought is to go to McDonald's. Most people don't want to spend a huge amount of time deciding where to go, so they will go to the first place that they can think of. If McDonald's didn't show ads, but Burger King did, your first thought would be to go to Burger King, and that's likely where you would go. This is also why many companies show ads that are funny, but don't actually do anything to convince you that their product is good. A funny ad is more likely to stick in your head than an informative one, which means it will influence your decision next time you want to buy something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To help retain existing customers. Everyone knows who McDonald's are, but people may easily forget about them if some new exciting fast food brand starts advertising their products.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes the company paying for advertising is not so much interested in capturing the consumer's attention as it is controlling the media source by way of advertising contracts.\n\nFor example, you might see news channels with loads of ads for coal energy or weird things that a consumer has little interest in. Those ads are not always for you and I, they're more about controlling the news company who now has a huge amount of revenue to lose if they emphasize negative stories about a coal plant poisoning the local water source or whatever.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8201159",
"title": "Remnant advertising",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1259,
"text": "Companies that want to take advantage of last minute ad space must make it easy for the media source to work with them and use their ad. Because these ad spaces come up at the last minute, media companies often would rather simply offer the opportunity to their larger advertisers because they have ready budgets, ad departments that can create an ad quickly, and managers that can make a decision swiftly. If newcomers want these sorts of opportunities to come their way, they must be as easy to work with as the large advertisers. Newcomers should let their ad reps know they are interested, and put some money aside and have an ad ready to go quickly. Because the space is purchased last minute, advertisers must have the capability to make quick decisions as to creative unit(s), and have the ability to swiftly measure how these last minute buys fit into and/or affects their budget. One caveat with respect to remnant ad buys in radio, TV, and internet is that this advertising space and/or time is completely preemptable. Preemptable rates can cause competition between advertisers when bidding for general market advertising space as well as remnant advertising space. Whoever bids the higher amount with the media company wins the surplus inventory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32817141",
"title": "Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory",
"section": "Section::::Size of market and inducement to invest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Private entrepreneurs sometimes resort to heavy advertising as a means of attracting buyers for their products. Although this may lead to a rise in demand for that entrepreneur's good or service, it does not actually raise the aggregate demand in the economy. The demand merely shifts from one provider to another. Clearly, this is not a long-term solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42876620",
"title": "Brand relationship",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Advertisers, for a long time, would spend more money on bringing in new customers rather than on building up relationships they had with current customers, but this has changed completely since then. Now marketers are encouraged to reinforce consumer-brand relationships, and is an ongoing important research topic for many reasons. Having this sort of relationship produces many benefits for the company such as reduced marketing costs, ease of access to customers, acquiring new customers, customer retention, brand equity, and more profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39728524",
"title": "Social advertising (social relationships)",
"section": "Section::::Social targeting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "Social advertisement targets audiences' demographics based on customers browsing histories. This helped companies understand users' interests and target a specific group of users. Whether it is location or personal interest, different categories of companies can make the consumers on social media rely heavily on their advertisements. This is one of the reasons why social advertising has grown over time. Targeting their audience to real life stakeholders generally increase the attention of the advertised deal which brings up more profits for companies. Subsequently, the psychological effects that social media gives off to its users play a huge role in advertisement companies keeping their customers online. One of the main reasons users rely on social media is because its a source of entertainment that provides them with a feeling of inclusiveness. In making the customers feel the inclusiveness, social advertising targeting a specific group of users is presented as if these advertisements are customized for the users in their perspective making them feel the attention that they do not often feel in the real world. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38783344",
"title": "Media for equity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The idea is to help the start-up companies in increasing their metrics in a very short period of time; in this way instead of spending money in the marketing online, they can use their financial resources in improving other aspects of their businesses. The companies receive advertising space instead of cash for their stock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39445730",
"title": "Email remarketing",
"section": "Section::::How email remarketing works.:Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The principle of advertisement is basically to give a persuasive argument for a product then put it in front of the public. With the development of technology, it makes advertising much more easier. The word 'easier' means convenience and lower cost. In the past time, marketers usually printed the promotion messages into brochures then delivered them to thousands of mailboxes. Nowadays, marketers just design and edit the content into emails, then send those emails to countless email addresses in one second automatically. With no shipping fees, time lag, and printing cost, companies definitely have decreased much of their advertising costs in the present decade. Lower cost leads to higher revenue sometimes. Moreover, the data displayed above proves that email remarketing are bringing vendors brand loyalty, financial return, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19219680",
"title": "Marketing buzz",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "As consumers increasingly expect to have access to buzz about products as part of their purchasing decisions and to interact with the brand in social media, successful companies are being driven to adopt social media marketing strategies to stay competitive. To successfully plan and implement these campaigns requires the ability to predict their effectiveness and therefore the return on investment that can be expected for the dollars expended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s8jws
|
Rolling Stone recently published a fascinating article about JFK and how he faced down the military brass during the Cuban Missile Crisis, thereby preventing all-out nuclear war. They make it sound as if he nearly lost control of the generals. Is that sensationalized or factual?
|
[
{
"answer": " > as a Soviet military commander later revealed, would have triggered a nuclear war with the Soviets.\n\nIs *this part* sensationalized or factual?\n\nWhy would a Soviet commander want to destroy his own country for the sake of a distant island?\n\nAbout this other point: \n\n > Do we have any firm evidence that JFK would have pulled out of Vietnam in the early 60s had he lived?\n\nWasn't Eisenhower already reducing the military presence in South Vietnam? What did JFK do about Vietnam during the three years he was in the presidency? \n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There is a counter-argument written by Sheldon Stern in *The Cuban Missile Crisis in American Memory* [available here](_URL_1_). Mr. Stern argues, compellingly, JFK was largely responsible for the crisis and its escalation. \n\nBenjamin Schwarz recently wrote a summary in the Atlantic Monthly [here](_URL_0_). \n\nSchwarz concludes Kennedy mucked up the outset, but did help once the catastrophe was there:\n\n > Although Stern and other scholars have upended the panegyrical version of events advanced by Schlesinger and other Kennedy acolytes, the revised chronicle shows that JFK’s actions in resolving the crisis—again, a crisis he had largely created—were reasonable, responsible, and courageous. Plainly shaken by the apocalyptic potentialities of the situation, Kennedy advocated, in the face of the bellicose and near-unanimous opposition of his pseudo-tough-guy advisers, accepting the missile swap that Khrushchev had proposed. “To any man at the United Nations, or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade,” he levelheadedly told the ExComm. “Most people think that if you’re allowed an even trade you ought to take advantage of it.” He clearly understood that history and world opinion would condemn him and his country for going to war—a war almost certain to escalate to a nuclear exchange—after the U.S.S.R. had publicly offered such a reasonable quid pro quo. Khrushchev’s proposal, the historian Ronald Steel has noted, “filled the White House advisors with consternation—not least of all because it appeared perfectly fair.”\n\nEdit - clarity",
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{
"answer": "It's important to note the source on this, RFK Jr. Kind of odd a major magazine would allow an author to try to do a serious story about their own uncle. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Soviet troops stationed around and in Cuba were effectively cut off from the top brass. They threw in their lot with Castro and legitimately admired and respected him and his ideals. The men on the ground were armed with low tonnage tactical nukes that they would have used in the case of an invasion, because as far as they saw, they were on their own. \n\nWith that, there were also nuclear submarines in the vicinity and they came very close to firing on the American blockades, due to provocative actions(such as dropping depth charges and firing tracers). \n\nMeanwhile the Americans are flying sorties all over Cuba so low that the Soviets wete never sure if they were about to get bombed, and AA batteries even killed a pilot as tensions rose.\n\nAll of this was happening without even the military commanders being in control. There were a million and one ways it could have turned nuclear, and it was obvious the longer it went on the less on control Kennedy and Khrushchev were, as is evidenced by Khrushchev's personal letter to Kennedy. \n\nI would very much make the case that any control either leader had was tentative and unstable at best, because even of General LeMay and co. were kept on a leash, there were thousands of men on the ground who could have set things off.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I don't have any citations handy for this, but I did write a senior thesis on early CIA history and the Bay of Pigs was pretty central to it. I haven't gone any further in academic history, so this isn't much of a credential at all. I can't find my original bibliography at the moment, but I'll keep looking for it.\n\nIn my understanding, the JCS expected the Bay of Pigs to be a starting point. Once committed to the assault, JFK would commit more and more resources until Cuba was fully US-occupied. \n\nOn the other hand, JFK was being told by his own agencies and the JCS that the resources already pledged to the invasion would be sufficient on their own, and repeatedly said he didn't intend to escalate beyond the operation on paper.\n\nFrom my own readings from the outside perspective, related more to the Bay of Pigs than the Missile Crisis, it wasn't exactly that JFK was a peacemonger, nor was it that the JCS were warmongers. It was more a breakdown in communication. The JCS used language they had developed under previous presidencies and thought JFK understood that when they said 5, they really meant 50, so to speak. JFK was stubborn by nature, and so when confronted with that same hypothetically 5:50 ratio would dig in his heels. He viewed it more as throwing good money after bad.\n\nAt the end of the day, that makes JFK seem pretty dovish, but I interpreted that more as JFK not liking anyone trying to control his actions by giving him phony advice.",
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},
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"answer": "While I'm not hugely knowledgeable on the subject, I feel the documentary \"The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara\" touches nicely on your question. Definitely worth a watch if you haven't already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Political psychological accounts of the event rely heavily upon the idea that the generals were much less of a factor in the CMC because of the role they played in the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. I think this is a complicated issue though so I'm going to start with the Bay of Pigs. It is relevant, I promise.\n\nThomas Preston (2001) argues that the type of Presidential personality Kennedy developed was one that allowed for cognitive flexibility and more importantly, learning. When he came into office, the invasion of Cuba had been planned and set into motion by the Eisenhower administration. Kennedy, not wanting to underwhelm the generals who were heavily pushing for it started to show signs of cognitive rigidity and his inner circle started to show signs of what is called groupthink (Janis 1982). Some signs of groupthink in this case were that RFK had started to suppress other aids who might have spoken out against the pseudo-invasion. Eventually, all of his aids started to tow the line, having relied upon the 'expert advice' of the generals who were advocating for the continued invasion. In this case, these groupthink symptoms overwhelmed JFK's cognitive flexibility and the BoP was a massive failure.\n\nWith the background set, flash forward to the CMC. JFK treated this situation far differently than the BoP as he wanted to avoid more failure. He did what he could to emphasize cognitive flexibility and reduce groupthink. For instance, Kennedy did not really trust the generals as 'experts' anymore. They were policy makers like anyone else. Additionally, Kennedy would intentionally sit out of meetings so that his staff could speak candidly without any real or perceived nudging by the President. RFK stopped acting as a 'mindguard' of JFK and instead offered honest counsel. In general, Kennedy treated the information and advice he was recieving much more critically and was unwilling to rely just on prestige or expertise.\n\nSo at least from the political psychological accounts, the generals played a much smaller role in Presidential decisionmaking than they had earlier in the Presidency. That might be why RFK made that statement.\n\n---\nSources:\n\n[Janis, I. \\(1982\\). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.](_URL_1_)\n\n[Preston, T. \\(2001\\). The President and His inner circle: Leadership Style and the Advisory Process in Foreign Affairs. New York: Columbia University Press.](_URL_0_) ",
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{
"answer": "A related question: \n\nOliver Stone's movie \"JFK\" presents a very similar account to the OP about JFK's handling of the crisis. \n\nIs his movie (but those scenes in particular) generally considered an accurate portrayal? \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't remember the exact details regarding your question but it is discussed in length in Michael Dobbs' *One Minute to Midnight* if you, or anyone else in the thread, is interested in more on the Cuban Missile Crisis. Dobbs presents the Cuban Missile Crisis from all three countries' points of view and he discusses a lot of the cabinet and brass meetings with Kennedy. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23794813",
"title": "John M. Newman",
"section": "Section::::Books.:\"JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "\"JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power\" argues that United States President John F. Kennedy would not have placed combat troops in Vietnam and was preparing to withdraw military advisors by the end of 1965. Oliver Stone, director of the 1991 film \"JFK\" called it \"a breakthrough exploration of Kennedy and his generals, [which] defines the 1961-1963 period in a light I never understood before\". Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., a former special assistant to Kennedy, described it as \"the most solid contribution yet\" to speculation regarding the course of American history had the President not be assassinated. While calling it a \"[b]old and authoritative revisionist analysis\", \"Kirkus Reviews\" said \"this electrifying report portrays a wily, stubborn, conflicted leader who grasped realities that eluded virtually everyone else in the US establishment.\" In the \"Los Angeles Times\", historian Leonard Bushkoff wrote: \"Newman's vision of warmongering hawks--a group of conspiratorial Washingtonians whose motives he barely examines--is indeed based more on suppositions and innuendoes than evidence. Nevertheless, at another, deeper level, Newman's points are highly persuasive.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21131695",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Attorney General of the United States (1961–1964).:Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy proved himself to be a gifted politician with an ability to obtain compromises, tempering aggressive positions of key figures in the hawk camp. The trust the President placed in him on matters of negotiation was such that his role in the crisis is today seen as having been of vital importance in securing a blockade, which averted a full military engagement between the United States and Soviet Russia. His clandestine meetings with members of the Soviet Government continued to provide a key link to Nikita Khrushchev during even the darkest moments of the Crisis, in which the threat of nuclear strikes was considered a very present reality. On the last night of the crisis, President Kennedy was so grateful for his brother's work in averting nuclear war that he summed it up by saying, \"Thank God for Bobby.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1368434",
"title": "The Fog of War",
"section": "Section::::The Fog of War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "McNamara repeats this sentence several times throughout the documentary. He discusses the moment during the Cuban Missile Crisis when he and Kennedy were trying to keep the United States out of war but General Curtis LeMay wanted to invade Cuba. Kennedy discovered LeMay's obsession with nuclear weapons when focusing on the Laotian problem in 1961. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "21131695",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Senate (1965–1968).:Tenure.:Vietnam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 1475,
"text": "The JFK administration had backed U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia and other parts of the world in the frame of the Cold War, but Kennedy was not known to be involved in discussions on the Vietnam War when he was his brother's attorney general. According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, before choosing to run for the Senate, Kennedy had sought an ambassadorship to South Vietnam. Entering the Senate, Kennedy initially kept private his disagreements with President Johnson on the war. While Kennedy vigorously supported his brother's earlier efforts, he never publicly advocated commitment of ground troops. Though bothered by the beginning of the bombing of North Vietnam in February 1965, Kennedy did not wish to appear antipathetic to the president's agenda. But by April, Kennedy was advocating a halt to the bombing to Johnson, who acknowledged that Kennedy played a part in influencing his choice to temporarily cease bombing the following month. Kennedy cautioned Johnson against sending combat troops as early as 1965, but Johnson chose instead to follow the recommendation of the rest of his predecessor's still intact staff of advisers. In July, after Johnson made a large commitment of American ground forces to Vietnam, Kennedy made multiple calls for a settlement through negotiation. The next month, John Paul Vann, a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army, wrote that Kennedy \"indicat[ed] comprehension of the problems we face\", in a letter to the senator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16028068",
"title": "CIA in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Films and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "BULLET::::- In \"JFK\", the CIA's connections to Anti-Castro Cuban freedom fighters, far right extremists, and the Mafia are portrayed, as well as the CIA's alleged participation in President John F. Kennedy's assassination, the assassination's cover-up, and the CIA's attempted sabotage of the prosecution by Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) of former CIA domestic contact agent Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39311",
"title": "JFK (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "JFK is a 1991 American political thriller film directed by Oliver Stone. It examines the events leading to the assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy and alleged cover-up through the eyes of former New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner). Garrison filed charges against New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones) for his alleged participation in a conspiracy to assassinate the President, for which Lee Harvey Oswald (Gary Oldman) was found responsible by the Warren Commission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30942393",
"title": "Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration",
"section": "Section::::Communist states.:Cuban Missile Crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "During the crisis Kennedy showed his leadership talents, decision-making abilities and crisis management skills. By early November 1962 Kennedy's handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis was considered by most Americans as a diplomatic success in foreign policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
85y0n6
|
why should i worry about companies (such as fb and google) data-mining my internet profiles?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the popular FB-deleting current trend, data was obtained from 50 million people. Psychological profiles were executed on these individuals. Based on their psychological type, targeted ads, even with fake news, were targeted towards these individuals to influence their decision on who to vote for. This can be dangerous, corrupt, and potentially immoral. \n\nThis is one example. I know people do research to see what color you prefer to buy from, so they can change their ad to cater to you. This seems somewhat manipulative, but not totally exploitive. Although the lines between these two examples are fine. \n\nPersonally, I just don't want someone to know much about me. I had a flip phone for the past couple of years but recently went back to the iPhone. I might switch back soon...",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "While a lot of people are a bit weirded out by unknown parties looking over their shoulders, the main point is that the data being used likely is being used in ways you don't recognize. It can also be used in ways we haven't seen yet, so far as we know.\n\nFor example you don't think you see targeted ads because you use an ad blocker. But are you **sure** you aren't seeing ads? For example when you open YouTube the videos you see suggested are based on your collected data and can subtly impact your behavior by adjusting the media you are exposed to. They might as well be ads.\n\nWhen you search for something on Google do you think the results are the same for everyone? Of course not! They are customized for your particular profile and they can steer you towards certain things; it might be that they predict you are looking to buy a table saw and prefer to steer you toward pages that include a brand that is paying Google for advertising. Or maybe they skew your search results toward pages that include positive language regarding a political candidate that would benefit the company.\n\nGetting money from you by predicting your desires is perhaps the most benevolent use of the data collected. They could make you angry about certain issues, or complacent, or ignorant, or change your mind without you even knowing. When political races hinge on a percentage point or two even a subtle tweak to the national consciousness can make all the difference, so even if you are convinced it could never happen to you because you are special and immune to manipulation, it can work on some people. Enough to make a difference.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041117",
"title": "Social networking service",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Data mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Through data mining, companies are able to improve their sales and profitability. With this data, companies create customer profiles that contain customer demographics and online behavior. A recent strategy has been the purchase and production of \"network analysis software\". This software is able to sort out through the influx of social networking data for any specific company. Facebook has been especially important to marketing strategists. Facebook's controversial \"Social Ads\" program gives companies access to the millions of profiles in order to tailor their ads to a Facebook user's own interests and hobbies. However, rather than sell actual user information, Facebook sells tracked \"social actions\". That is, they track the websites a user uses outside of Facebook through a program called Facebook Beacon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15883470",
"title": "Online identity management",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "The reason why someone would be interested in doing online identity management is closely related to the increasing number of constituencies that use the internet as a tool to find information about people. A survey by CareerBuilder.com found that one in four hiring managers used search engines to screen candidates. One in 10 also checked candidates' profiles on social networking sites such as MySpace or Facebook. According to a December 2007 survey by the Ponemon Institute, a privacy research organization, roughly half of U.S. hiring officials use the Internet in vetting job applications. Online identity management may also be used to increase an individual's professional online presence. When practicing online identity management, employers receive a satisfied notion regarding their candidate's professional attitudes and personality. This may result in a candidate receiving the job based on their professional online presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5897742",
"title": "Social media",
"section": "Section::::Use by organizations.:Social media mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Social media \"mining\" is a type of data mining, a technique of analyzing data to detect patterns. Social media mining is a process of representing, analyzing, and extracting actionable patterns from data collected from people's activities on social media. Google mines data in many ways including using an algorithm in Gmail to analyze information in emails. This use of the information will then affect the type of advertisements shown to the user when they use Gmail. Facebook has partnered with many data mining companies such as Datalogix and BlueKai to use customer information for targeted advertising. Ethical questions of the extent to which a company should be able to utilize a user's information have been called \"big data\". Users tend to click through Terms of Use agreements when signing up on social media platforms, and they do not know how their information will be used by companies. This leads to questions of privacy and surveillance when user data is recorded. Some social media outlets have added capture time and Geotagging that helps provide information about the context of the data as well as making their data more accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797887",
"title": "Web mining",
"section": "Section::::Web usage mining.:Cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Web usage mining by itself does not create issues, but this technology when used on data of personal nature might cause concerns. The most criticized ethical issue involving web usage mining is the invasion of privacy. Privacy is considered lost when information concerning an individual is obtained, used, or disseminated, especially if this occurs without their knowledge or consent. The obtained data will be analyzed, and clustered to form profiles; the data will be made anonymous before clustering so that there are no personal profiles. Thus these applications de-individualize the users by judging them by their mouse clicks. De-individualization, can be defined as a tendency of judging and treating people on the basis of group characteristics instead of on their own individual characteristics and merits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5477326",
"title": "Egosurfing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Many social networking sites, such as Facebook, allow users to make their profiles \"searchable,\" meaning that their profile will appear in the appropriate search results. As a result, those seeking to maintain their privacy often egosurf in order to ensure that their profile does not appear in search engine results. As more people create online personas, many feel the need to more cautiously monitor their digital footprint, including information that they have not chosen to share online, such as telephone numbers and public records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48736239",
"title": "Privacy concerns regarding Google",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Privacy International has raised concerns regarding the dangers and privacy implications of having a centrally located, widely popular data warehouse of millions of Internet users' searches, and how under controversial existing U.S. law, Google can be forced to hand over all such information to the U.S. government. In its 2007 Consultation Report, Privacy International ranked Google as \"Hostile to Privacy\", its lowest rating on their report, making Google the only company in the list to receive that ranking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9874319",
"title": "Criticism of Google",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Privacy International has raised concerns regarding the dangers and privacy implications of having a centrally located, widely popular data warehouse of millions of Internet users' searches, and how under controversial existing U.S. law, Google can be forced to hand over all such information to the U.S. government. In its 2007 Consultation Report, Privacy International ranked Google as \"Hostile to Privacy\", its lowest rating on their report, making Google the only company in the list to receive that ranking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qr059
|
why is "whistleblowing" such a heavily punishable offense?
|
[
{
"answer": "Whistleblowing is usually the act of exposing the wrongdoings of the people in power.\n\nThe people in power - in this case, branches of the US government - do not want their wrongdoings to be exposed, so they use their power to discourage people from doing it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Whistleblowing is not a punishable offence in and of itself, but the desemination of classified information is, especially if you agreed in your employment not to do so. Someone reporting the find, like Wikileaks, has done nothing wrong. But snowden violated a number of conditions in his contract that are designed to prevent him from leaking classified information since he was a member of an intelligence gathering agency. Right or wrong he committed a crime, the crime was not the whistleblowing itself however.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Well, to respond specifically for the case of Edward Snowden, because he broke the law in a pretty big way for exposing classified documents. Whistle blowing comes with a sense of sacrifice. \n\nAnd the reason for that is because it's incredibly difficult to craft whistle blower protection statutes. They almost always include provisions for exposing \"agency misconduct,\" and it's hard to define what that is. ",
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{
"answer": "He's not in trouble for whistleblowing. He's in trouble for disclosing classified information, which is a crime pretty much everywhere.\n\nThe way he went about whistleblowing involved the felony he knowingly and willingly committed. He wanted to ensure that the information got out there -- and the only way to do that was to commit a crime. He knew this, which is why he was already out of the country by the time his crime was known.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33821",
"title": "Whistleblower",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Common reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 812,
"text": "Whistleblowers are often protected under law from employer retaliation, but in many cases punishment has occurred, such as termination, suspension, demotion, wage garnishment, and/or harsh mistreatment by other employees. A 2009 study found that up to 38% of whistleblowers experienced professional retaliation in some form, including wrongful termination. For example, in the United States, most whistleblower protection laws provide for limited \"make whole\" remedies or damages for employment losses if whistleblower retaliation is proven. However, many whistleblowers report there exists a widespread \"shoot the messenger\" mentality by corporations or government agencies accused of misconduct and in some cases whistleblowers have been subjected to criminal prosecution in reprisal for reporting wrongdoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33821",
"title": "Whistleblower",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Common reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
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"end_character": 612,
"text": "Whistleblowers are sometimes seen as selfless martyrs for public interest and organizational accountability; others view them as \"traitors\" or \"defectors.\" Some even accuse them of solely pursuing personal glory and fame, or view their behavior as motivated by greed in qui tam cases. Some academics (such as Thomas Alured Faunce) feel that whistleblowers should at least be entitled to a rebuttable presumption that they are attempting to apply ethical principles in the face of obstacles and that whistleblowing would be more respected in governance systems if it had a firmer academic basis in virtue ethics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5316476",
"title": "Information sensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure.:Classified information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Whistleblowing is the intentional disclosure of sensitive information to a third-party with the intention of revealing alleged illegal, immoral, or otherwise harmful actions. There are many examples of present and former government employees disclosing classified information regarding national government misconduct to the public and media, in spite of the criminal consequences that await them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "33821",
"title": "Whistleblower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1048,
"text": "A whistleblower (also written as whistle-blower or whistle blower) is a person who exposes any kind of information or activity that is deemed illegal, unethical, or not correct within an organization that is either private or public. The information of alleged wrongdoing can be classified in many ways: violation of company policy/rules, law, regulation, or threat to public interest/national security, as well as fraud, and corruption. Those who become whistleblowers can choose to bring information or allegations to surface either internally or externally. Internally, a whistleblower can bring his/her accusations to the attention of other people within the accused organization such as an immediate supervisor. Externally, a whistleblower can bring allegations to light by contacting a third party outside of an accused organization such as the media, government, law enforcement, or those who are concerned. Whistleblowers, however, take the risk of facing stiff reprisal and retaliation from those who are accused or alleged of wrongdoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66220",
"title": "Political corruption",
"section": "Section::::Whistleblowers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "A whistleblower (also written as whistle-blower or whistle blower) is a person who exposes any kind of information or activity that is deemed illegal, unethical, or not correct within an organization that is either private or public. The information of alleged wrongdoing can be classified in many ways: violation of company policy/rules, law, regulation, or threat to public interest/national security, as well as fraud, and corruption. Those who become whistleblowers can choose to bring information or allegations to the surface either internally or externally. Internally, a whistleblower can bring his/her accusations to the attention of other people within the accused organization such as an immediate supervisor. Externally, a whistleblower can bring allegations to light by contacting a third party outside of an accused organization such as the media, government, law enforcement, or those who are concerned. Whistleblowers, however, take the risk of facing stiff reprisal and retaliation from those who are accused or alleged of wrongdoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "33821",
"title": "Whistleblower",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Motivations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 804,
"text": "Many whistleblowers have stated that they were motivated to take action to put an end to unethical practices, after witnessing injustices in their businesses or organizations. A 2009 study found that whistleblowers are often motivated to take action when they notice a sharp decline in ethical practices, as opposed to a gradual worsening. There are generally two metrics by which whistleblowers determine if a practice is unethical. The first metric involves a violation of the organization's bylaws or written ethical policies. These violations allow individuals to concretize and rationalize blowing the whistle. On the other hand, \"value-driven\" whistleblowers are influenced by their personal codes of ethics. In these cases, whistleblowers have been criticized for being driven by personal biases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33821",
"title": "Whistleblower",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Internal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Most whistleblowers are internal whistleblowers, who report misconduct on a fellow employee or superior within their company through anonymous reporting mechanisms often called hotlines. One of the most interesting questions with respect to internal whistleblowers is why and under what circumstances do people either act on the spot to stop illegal and otherwise unacceptable behavior or report it. There are some reasons to believe that people are more likely to take action with respect to unacceptable behavior, within an organization, if there are complaint systems that offer not just options dictated by the planning and control organization, but a \"choice\" of options for absolute confidentiality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
cylfba
|
What would a dark age church service look like?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a great number of possible variations on the following, but I'll do my best to give you an idea.\n\n**Tithing**\n\nFirstly, my family are rye farmers. Much depends on what that means. If we're at the bottom of the social pile producing rye for another citizen farmer then we probably get enough food to live but no income of marked coins (either that issued by the state, the manor or the church). Our tithes are taken care of by the farmer whose land/seed/tools we use. If we're running our own farm or, more likely, strips of land then our tithe is one tenth of the rye we produce because that's the literal meaning of tithe. We may have to give more for church ales (think fundraising event, medieval-style). That's not to say that we don't give more to the church for other reasons, but I'll come back to that later.\n\nIf we're a landowner higher up the scale then there's a good chance we're actually collecting the tithes or performing some other important task in the burg or liberty (effectively the town/district), and we're probably not breaking our backs collecting our own rye. That depends on exactly how the church and the district are set up and who they were set up by - it might be our family that built the church and own the chantries, I'll come back to that later too.\n\nOne more possibility of many is that we're actually wards of the church, we might live on church-owned land in which case everything we produce is the property of the church. Again, we'll get what we need to survive (which may be surprisingly little) but we *may* have the added advantage of better medical care. That's not a great improvement to life but it will help some people.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**The Church**\n\nThe following is all dependent on the size of the church - small village churches would have a high altar and a few additional altars, wealthy town churches would have a high altar, numerous specific chapels and many altars dedicated to particular saints, while cathedrals would have a high altar, any number of chapels and many *many* additional altars. Sizeable stone buildings would be astonishing to most people of the time, even a small-ish church would have been quite something, and cathedrals must have been mind-blowing. \n\nYou'll know that churches can be divided into two main sections: the chancel (where the high altar stands) and the nave. Cruciform churches (in a cross plan) also have a crossing (the centre of the cross) and transepts (the north and south wings of the church). The chancel and the high altar are only accessible to those who have been ordained. Everything that happens in there is hidden by a chancel screen (or \"rood screen\"). The general public can hear the mass being performed, they can smell the mass, but they can not see it. The chancel would have been brightly candle-lit so the effect would be quite theatrical - some churches would have a golden rood (cross) hanging above the rood screen where it would be lit by candles. The ghostly, ethereal singing and the golden cross hovering in the drifting candle/incense smoke would have been deeply dramatic.\n\nAll this heavenly celebration wouldn't just be happening on Sundays, there would be masses all week round and, depending on the size of the church, for most of the day. Nor would the High Altar be the only place where stuff would be happening - the church would have numerous altars (depending on size) and possibly a chantry chapel dedicated to a wealthy benefactor. Chantry chapels would be near the high altar, often to the south with secondary chantries built to the north, and would commemorate a specific deceased person or family. Priests would be employed to perform regular masses in the chantries, sometimes these would alternate with high mass or take place as part of it. During main festivals like Nativity, Annunciation, Assumption and Easter there would be processions of the clergy through the local area and into the church where people could see the service that was being done for them. \n\nThe sides of the church would be lined with additional altars raised by guilds or local families, each of these would be dedicated to a particular saint and tended to by the altar's benefactors. Masses would take place at these on particular days of the week with the regularity depending on the donations. If a church had nave aisles and arcades (the arches that run down the main body of the church) then each arch would be separated into a bay by a parclose (a dividing screen), there may be seating in each to allow more comfortable prayer for the visitor or any priests who were specifically appointed to that altar. With that said, most of us would spend our visit in the nave, probably facing east. The first-millennium tradition was for baptisms in the West end and funerals in the East because in life we travel towards the light. Easter/Oster/Oester (we get the name East from the same root as oestre, or egg, or life) is the most important direction in Christian building and liturgy, a practice that goes back long before Christianity and which was specifically adopted by Sees around the 6th Century. Norman churches continued this tradition - if we were receiving a blessing or communion we would be expected to be facing the East window and altar, even if we couldn't see it through the rood screen. Interestingly, a priest saying prayers or preaching a sermon would also be facing east, not west towards the congregation as is the custom in many churches today.\n\nAlthough we know that some churches had seating in the main body of the nave it was considered unusual and was very rarely fixed in place. The public would stand in the nave and receive blessings or simply replenish their holy goodness through their presence in the house of God - and it's easy to imagine that it really felt that way to somebody in the 1300s. Of course, the public wouldn't just be there to recharge their spirit - we know that all kinds of public matters took place in church naves and porches, meetings, trade, markets, ales (a local festival that also acted as a bit of a fundraiser for churches), and pretty much any public event. In larger churches there would still have been a mass going on in the chancel or chantries.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBasically, how much we pay for that depends on who we are and our importance in the community. Our visit to the church would be a smoky, sweet-smelling experience with the light of the cross visible from the murky dimness of the nave, and the sound of heavenly (ish) singing echoing around the body of the church.but all in all it must have been a quite magical experience.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**Sources:** not exhaustive but they cover the above and give a good grounding in Norman medieval Catholic churches in Europe, that particularly covers France and large parts of England\n\n*Prof. English:The Lords of Holderness*\n\n*Prof. Warwick: The Archaeology of Churches*\n\n*Dr. Taylor: How to Read a Church - A Guide to Symbols and Meanings in Churches*\n\n*Hitchcock: History of the Catholic Church: From the Apostolic Age to the Third Millenium*\n\n*Weidenkopf: A History of the Catholic Church*",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "49945228",
"title": "The Church in the Darkness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Church in the Darkness is an upcoming action-adventure video game. It was originally announced in 2016 to ship in early 2017, but is now expected to be released in 2019 for Microsoft Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. It was designed by Richard Rouse III under the name Paranoid Productions.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1343942",
"title": "Warton, Fylde",
"section": "Section::::St Paul's Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "During the hours of darkness the church is floodlit. Since June 2018 the vicar has been Rev. Jane Greenhalgh. The curate is Rev. Fiona Haines. Greenhalgh was criticised, in 2018, for wearing a white poppy for the annual Remembrance Day service and for by including references to white supremacy, the Ku Klux Klan and the English Defence League in her sermon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "49112963",
"title": "The night of churches",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The night of churches or The long night of churches is an annual religious and cultural festival, organized by various churches. The main idea is that visitors can see sights (churches or chapels) without obligation and for free, and meet believers among many denominations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25611259",
"title": "Darkest Midnight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Darkest Midnight (often called \"\"Darkest Midnight: Good People All\"\", or \"\"The Darkest Midnight\"\") is a music album by Irish singer Nóirín Ní Riain featuring the monks of Glenstal Abbey, mostly made up of Christmas songs from the ancient Wexford singing traditions. It was released in 1982 and has had subsequent rereleases. The album was remastered in 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23419313",
"title": "In Search of the Dark Ages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In Search of the Dark Ages is a BBC television documentary series, written and presented by historian Michael Wood, first shown between 1979 and 1981. It comprises eight short films across two series, each focusing on a particular character from the history of England prior to the Norman Conquest, a period popularly known as the Dark Ages. It is also the title of a book written by Wood to support the series, that was first published in 1981.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "16922438",
"title": "Easter parade",
"section": "Section::::Early Easter parades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "During the Dark Ages, Christians in Eastern Europe would gather in a designated spot before Easter church services, then walk solemnly to the church. Sometimes the congregation would form another parade after the services, retracing their steps and singing songs of praise. These processions had two purposes—to demonstrate to churchgoers the unity of spirit found in their faith, and to reach out to nonbelievers in a highly visible manner. Even in those times, participants wore their finest attire to show respect for the occasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23419313",
"title": "In Search of the Dark Ages",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "The series was made by BBC Manchester and narrated by Wood, who was at that time a lecturer (and, eventually, Professor of History) at Manchester University. It consists of eight separate programmes, and the collective title is often written as \"In Search of... The Dark Ages\" (originally it was known simply as \"In Search of...\"). Each programme, except the finale, ran between 35 and 45 minutes. It began with a one-off pilot programme called \"In Search of Offa\", filmed in 1978, and first broadcast in January 1979. When its reception was regarded as favourable, three further programmes were filmed in 1979. The series first aired on BBC Two in March 1980, beginning with \"Boadicea\" and including a repeat showing of the original \"Offa\" programme. The series was so well received that a second series was soon commissioned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
12dyrb
|
Who was the first person to have their own army?
|
[
{
"answer": "As far as I am aware, the first recorded individual was a ruler named Sargon of Akkad. He apparantly created a standing army of 5400 men:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nKeep in mind we have pictorial evidence of people fighting in organized bodies prior to that, but Sargon was the first individual with whom a military force was *personally* associated with.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10377130",
"title": "Spartan army",
"section": "Section::::Army organization.:Tactical structure.:The kings and the \"hippeis\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "The full army was normally led in battle by the two kings; initially, both went on campaign, but after the 6th century BC only one, with the other remaining at home. Unlike other states, their authority was severely circumscribed; actual power rested with the five elected \"ephoroi\". The kings were accompanied by a select group of 300 men as a royal guard, who were termed \"hippeis\" (\"cavalrymen\"). Despite their title, they were infantry hoplites like all \"Spartiatai\". Indeed, the Spartans did not utilize a cavalry of their own until late into the Peloponnesian War, when small units of 60 cavalrymen were attached to each \"mora\". The \"hippeis\" belonged to the first \"mora\" and were the elite of the Spartan army, being deployed on the honorary right side of the battle line. They were selected every year by specially commissioned officials, the \"hippagretai\", from among experienced men who had sons, so that their line would continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1750278",
"title": "Standing army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The first known standing armies in Europe were in ancient Greece. The male citizen body of ancient Sparta functioned as a standing army, unlike all other city-states (Poleis), whose armies were citizen militias. The existence of an enslaved population of helots liberated the Spartiates from the need to work for a living, enabling them to focus their time and energy on martial training. Philip II of Macedon instituted the first professional army, with soldiers and cavalrymen paid for their service year-round, rather than a militia of men who mostly farmed the land for subsistence and occasionally mustered for campaigns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15068",
"title": "Infantry",
"section": "Section::::Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The organization of military forces into regular military units is first noted in Egyptian records of the Battle of Kadesh (). Soldiers were grouped into units of 50, which were in turn grouped into larger units of 250, then 1,000, and finally into units of up to 5,000 – the largest independent command. Several of these Egyptian \"divisions\" made up an army, but operated independently, both on the march and tactically, demonstrating sufficient military command and control organisation for basic battlefield manoeuvres. Similar hierarchical organizations have been noted in other ancient armies, typically with approximately 10 to 100 to 1,000 ratios (even where base 10 was not common), similar to modern sections (squads), companies, and regiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1628074",
"title": "First Army (Greece)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The First Army was created in March 1947, during the Greek Civil War. It controlled the II and III Corps, with Volos as its headquarters. It was abolished on 10 February 1948, and re-established in 1951 with its HQ at Larissa, where it remains to this day. Its CO is always a lieutenant general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3581844",
"title": "Military establishment of the Roman Republic",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Marian military.:The Standard Legion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The basic unit of the army was the company-sized century of 60 men commanded by a centurion. He had under him two junior officers, the options, each of whom had a standard-bearer, or vexillarius. Presumably, he used the two officers to form two squads. In addition, a squad of 20 elites was attached to the century, probably instructed ad hoc by the centurion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "173273",
"title": "Goguryeo",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "There were five armies in the capital, mostly cavalry that were personally led by the king, numbering approximately 12,500. Military units varied in number from 21,000 to 36,000 soldiers, were located in the provinces, and were led by the governors. Military colonies near the boundaries consisted mostly of soldiers and peasants. There were also private armies held by aristocrats. This system allowed Goguryeo to maintain and utilize an army of 50,000 without added expense, and 300,000 through large mobilization in special cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531824",
"title": "Late Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Army structure.:Regiments.:Unit types.:\"Foederati\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "In the 4th century, as during the Principate, these forces were organised into ill-defined units based on a single ethnic group called \"numeri\" (\"troops\", although \"numerus\" was also the name of a regular infantry unit). They served alongside the regular army for the duration of particular campaigns or for a specified period. Normally their service would be limited to the region where the tribe lived, but sometimes could be deployed elsewhere. They were commanded by their own leaders. It is unclear whether they used their own weapons and armour or the standard equipment of the Roman army. In the late army, the more useful and long-serving \"numeri\" appear to have been absorbed into the regular late army, rapidly becoming indistinguishable from other units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
h00ru
|
Are there cultures where smiling is not used to show happiness? If not, how did it develop to mean this across the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Like birds know to fly south in the winter, humans are born with certain facial expressions as a representation of emotion. Facial expressions associated with disgust, happiness, surprise, fear, anger, and sadness have been found to be the same across the world, including cultures isolated from the rest of the world. It's been measured using multirater consensus as well as facial muscle group used to create the facial expression. They are innate motor reflexes.\n\nWe just covered this a couple of weeks ago in the Psych 101 class I taught this semester, so your question came just at the right time for me to answer well. I hope this is helpful and answers your question.",
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"answer": "Oooh I was watching about this on BBC's The Human Animal the other day. Basically if you watch chimps fighting on youtube you will see that when they are fighting if they have had enough and just want to be left alone they will pull the corners of their lips right back as a sign of fear or to say \"I am not a threat\".\n\nAs human we do the same thing by smiling, in order to say that we are not a threat. It is also hard to fake a smile because some of the muscles are hard to consciously control.",
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"answer": "How about in the US, where it's used for politeness? We are well-known for excessive and elsewhere inappropriate smiling. The counterexample I read about was Russia, where people smile very rarely but genuinely. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "smiling is also probably less associated with the physical expression (the grimacing and showing of teeth is associated with fear and aggression responses in other animals) and more about voice tone. smiling tenses the vocal chords, giving one's voice a higher, more infantile quality. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In [Korea smiling can mean embarrassment](_URL_0_), much to the consternation of many a foreign traveler.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "187557",
"title": "Smile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 417,
"text": "Among humans, smiling is an expression denoting pleasure, sociability, happiness, joy or amusement. It is distinct from a similar but usually involuntary expression of anxiety known as a grimace. Although cross-cultural studies have shown that smiling is a means of communication throughout the world, there are large differences among different cultures, with some using smiles to convey confusion or embarrassment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1849217",
"title": "Archaic smile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "During those two centuries before the mid-5th century BCE, the archaic smile was widely sculpted, as evidenced by statues found in excavations all across the Greek mainland, Asia Minor, and on islands in the Aegean Sea. It has been theorized that in this period, artists felt it either represents that they were blessed by the gods in their actions, thus the smile, or that it is similar to pre-planned smiles in modern photos..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "187557",
"title": "Smile",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Primatologist Signe Preuschoft traces the smile back over 30 million years of evolution to a \"fear grin\" stemming from monkeys and apes who often used barely clenched teeth to portray to predators that they were harmless, or to signal submission to more dominant group members. The smile may have evolved differently among species and especially among humans. Apart from Biology as an academic discipline that interprets the smile, those who study kinesics and psychology such as Freitas-Magalhaes view the smile as an affect display that can communicate feelings such as love, happiness, glee, pride, contempt, and embarrassment. Also, other types of primates can express this gesture as a symbol of happiness and fun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "38652348",
"title": "Smile mask syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Japanese author Tomomi Fujiwara notes that the demand for a common smile in the workplace emerged in Japan around the 1980s, and blames the cultural changes wrought by the Tokyo Disneyland, opened in 1983, for popularizing the demand for an obligatory smile in the workplace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5054560",
"title": "World Laughter Day",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "worldwide Laughter Yoga movement. Dr. Kataria, a family doctor in India, was inspired to start the Laughter Yoga movement in part by the facial feedback hypothesis, which postulates that a person's facial expressions can have an effect on their emotions. The celebration of World Laughter Day is a positive manifestation for world peace and is intended to build up a global consciousness of brotherhood and friendship through laughter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38652348",
"title": "Smile mask syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Smiling is an important skill for Japanese women working in the service industry. Almost all service industry companies in Japan require their female staff to smile for long periods of time. Natsume says that his female patients often talk about the importance of smiling when the topic of the conversation is on their workplace. He relates examples of patients saying that they felt their smile had a large effect on whether they were hired or not, and that their superiors had stressed the effect that good smiles had on customers. According to Natsume, this atmosphere sometimes causes women to smile unnaturally for so long that they start to suppress their real emotions and become depressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187557",
"title": "Smile",
"section": "Section::::Cultural differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "While smiling is perceived as a positive emotion most of the time, there are many cultures that perceive smiling as a negative expression and consider it unwelcoming. Too much smiling can be viewed as a sign of shallowness or dishonesty. In some parts of Asia, people may smile when they are embarrassed or in emotional pain. Some people may smile at others to indicate a friendly greeting. A smile may be reserved for close friends and family members. Many people in the former Soviet Union area consider smiling at strangers in public to be unusual and even suspicious behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qzgda
|
Was bronze ever used for (chain) mail?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Roman period is before my period of expertise, so I can't say much about the Lorica Hamata.\n\nHowever, in the Middle Ages there are occasional uses of latten (a copper alloy, generally containing Zinc - basically brass) to make mail. The most common use of this is a decorative border on the edge of a mail garment - the hem of a mail skirt, cuffs, etc. There are a number of examples of this surviving, such as [this example at the Wallace Collection](_URL_2_). This shirt also has a latten 'signature' link identifying the mail-maker - you can see it [here](_URL_1_). In Thom Richardson's description of the Tower of London inventories of the 14th century, he mentions a mail collar ('pizzane') decorated with latten borders and pendants of butted (IE not rivetted) latten links attached to the collar proper. The borders of latten links create a contrasting, decorative border that seems to be made of gold. Similarly 14th and some 15th century plate armour sometimes has decorative applied borders of gilt latten. You can see this in the famous ['Breastplate number 10'](_URL_0_) from Castle Churburg in South Tyrol.\n\nIn the accounts of the Tower of London from the 14th century there is a mail shirt 'of latten' mentioned repeatedly in inventories through the decades (from 1344 to 1362) - probably the same shirt. In one of these accounts it is identified with mail shirts 'for the tournament'. If this was a mail shirt entirely made of latten, it may have been made for early forms of club tournament where whalebone swords were used, and not for battle. In this case protection against piercing by lances/arrows/swords was less important, and a more visually striking but less tough metal could be used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Personal.:History.:Early.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Mail, sometimes called \"chainmail\", made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC. Its invention is credited to the Celts; the Romans are thought to have adopted their design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21423531",
"title": "Economy of the Han dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Domestic trade.:Traded goods and commodities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Common bronze items included domestic wares like oil lamps, incense burners, tables, irons, stoves, and dripping jars. Iron goods were often used for construction and farmwork, such as plowshares, pickaxes, spades, shovels, hoes, sickles, axes, adze, hammers, chisels, knives, saws, scratch awls, and nails. Iron was also used to make swords, halberds, arrowheads and scale armor for the military.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6696",
"title": "Chain mail",
"section": "Section::::In Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "During the late 19th and early 20th century, mail was used as a material for bulletproof vests, most notably by the Wilkinson Sword Company. Results were unsatisfactory; Wilkinson mail worn by the Khedive of Egypt's regiment of \"Iron Men\" was manufactured from split rings which proved to be too brittle, and the rings would fragment when struck by bullets and aggravate the injury. The riveted mail armour worn by the opposing Sudanese Madhists did not have the same problem but also proved to be relatively useless against the firearms of British forces at the battle of Omdurman. During World War I, Wilkinson Sword transitioned from mail to a lamellar design which was the precursor to the flak jacket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175187",
"title": "Chinese armour",
"section": "Section::::Medieval armour.:Tang dynasty (618–907).:Mail armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Mail was already known to the Chinese since they first encountered it in 384 AD when their allies in the nation of Kuchi arrived wearing \"armor similar to chains\". However mail armour was not mentioned again until 718 AD when a tributary mission from Samarkand presented to the Tang emperor a coat of \"link armour\". Mail was later improved on during the Song dynasty to withstand arrows better, by which H. Russell Robinson believes meant using interlocked rings. However mail was never used in any significant numbers (as it was rarely used, it became valuable and became a status symbol, so it typically belonged to high ranks and the rich who could afford it) and the dominant form of armour continued to be lamellar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2474629",
"title": "Ring armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Ring armour (ring mail) is an assumed type of personal armour constructed as series of metallic rings sewn to a fabric or leather foundation. No actual examples of this type of armour are known from collections or archaeological excavations in Europe. It is sometimes called ringmail or ring mail. In the Victorian era the term \"mail\" was used fancifully for any form of metallic body armour. Modern historians reserve the term \"mail\" for armour formed of an interlinked mesh of metal rings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Mail, also referred to as chainmail, is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by Celtic people in Europe about 500 BC. Most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word \"byrnne\" or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. The Romans widely adopted mail as the lorica hamata, although they also made use of lorica segmentata and lorica squamata. While no non-metallic armor is known to have survived, it was likely to have been commonplace due to its lower cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4959495",
"title": "Roman military personal equipment",
"section": "Section::::Torso armour.:\"Lorica hamata\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "\"Lorica hamata\" was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (\"auxilia\"). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the \"lorica hamata\" had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek \"linothorax\"; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one \"lorica hamata\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mrqro
|
what is the point of ticketmaster if it just brings you to another site to but the tickets?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ticketmaster gets a commission from every ticket sale made from another website. The cost for that commission is ultimately paid by you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39184221",
"title": "TicketHurry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "TicketHurry is an online ticketing company, serving as an alternative to similar marketplaces such as StubHub and TicketsNow. TicketHurry's listings include all spectator events, including concerts, sporting events, theater, and Broadway. The company is primarily an aggregator, as they do not purchase tickets or act as a ticket broker. Tickets offered through TicketHurry mostly come from record labels and independent ticket brokers, however a small percentage are provided by general ticket holders and season ticket holders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23107064",
"title": "Ticket exchange",
"section": "Section::::Secondary market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Ticket exchanges allow people to buy and sell tickets online. For example, an individual who purchased tickets to a football game may find that they can no longer go and hence sell their tickets on a ticket exchange. Those most likely to use the services of a ticket exchange are ticket brokers (commonly known as \"scalpers\"). Brokers may purchase tickets in bulk from a promoter or directly from the venue (box office) hoping that the tickets will sell above face value due to high demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676368",
"title": "Ticket resale",
"section": "Section::::Purchase and re-sale methods.:Ticket brokering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Online ticket brokering is the resale of tickets through a web-based ticket brokering service. Prices on ticket brokering websites are determined by demand, availability, and the ticket reseller. Tickets sold through an online ticket brokering service may or may not be authorized by the official seller. Generally, the majority of trading on ticket brokering websites concerns itself with tickets to live entertainment events whereby the primary officially licensed seller's supply has been exhausted and the event has been declared \"sold-out\". Critics of the industry compare the resale of tickets online to ‘ticket touting’, ‘scalping’ or a variety of other terms for the unofficial sale of tickets directly outside the venue of an event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676368",
"title": "Ticket resale",
"section": "Section::::Selling tickets at auction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Ticketmaster sells tickets in online auctions, which may bring the sale price of tickets closer to market prices. \"The New York Times\" reported that this could help the agency determine demand for a given event and more effectively compete with ticket re-sellers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16878106",
"title": "Online ticket brokering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Online ticket brokering is the resale of tickets through a web-based ticket brokering service. Prices on ticket brokering websites are determined by demand, availability, and the ticket reseller. Tickets sold through an online ticket brokering service may or may not be authorized by the official seller. Generally, the majority of trading on ticket brokering websites concerns itself with tickets to live entertainment events whereby the primary officially licensed seller's supply has been exhausted and the event has been declared \"sold-out\". This \"sold-out\" status increases the ticket's potential market value. Critics of the industry compare the resale of tickets online to ‘ticket touting’, ‘scalping’ or a variety of other terms for the unofficial sale of tickets directly outside the venue of an event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34497081",
"title": "TicketNetwork",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "TicketNetwork operates under a model similar to eBay, where tickets are listed on the company's marketplace, but transactions are handled by the individual seller. Buyers are charged a service fee for tickets purchased, plus a delivery fee, depending on the method of delivery, location, and time until the event. Once the tickets are available, the seller ships them directly to the buyer. Sellers are able to list and manage tickets on the marketplace via the TicketNetwork Point of Sale software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "545768",
"title": "Ticketmaster",
"section": "Section::::Products and services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Ticketmaster sells tickets that its clients make available to them. In 2009, Ticketmaster released a digital ticketing system that required customers to prove their identity prior to purchase. The company believed this would help circumvent brokers and scalpers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fkqpl
|
why is it so difficult for people to admit they are wrong about something?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know about any studies, but I think it's probably something to do with either pride, or they don't want people to think badly of them for not being right",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very well understood psychology at this point:\n\n1) People hate loss more than they like gains.\n\n2) The harder you challenge someone's beliefs, the stronger they will cling to them and resist change.\n\n3) Dunning-Kruger effect: You can be so ignorant you don't know you're ignorant. This validates the old adage \"The wise are full of doubt while the foolish are cocksure.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pride. The position you take on something becomes wrapped up in your sense of self. If you admit that you were wrong, it means that you yourself have failed, and others will think less of you. Of course that's not always true, but it's the psychology that most people fall prey to. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the States I believe it's societal, there's such a screwed up culture here of \"You're not getting over on me\" that it permeates and trickles down through just about all the lesser educated population which is to say a large majority. \n\nIt's a symptom of intellectual insecurity, and of course this is seriously exaggerated online where anonymity gives the idiots a free forum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36087839",
"title": "Varieties of criticism",
"section": "Section::::Self-criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "BULLET::::- People can be very resistant to admitting they are wrong about something, or that they did (or said) the wrong thing. They like to believe they got it right, even when others disagree. Acknowledging that they got it wrong, could be very embarrassing, confusing or distressing – especially if they personally invested a lot in the wrong idea. Their whole world might crumble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "710166",
"title": "Cognitive distortion",
"section": "Section::::Main types.:Always being right.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Being wrong is unthinkable. This cognitive distortion is characterized by actively trying to prove one's actions or thoughts to be correct, and sometimes prioritizing self-interest over the feelings of another person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4723495",
"title": "Outcome bias",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The reason why an individual makes this mistake is that he or she will incorporate presently available information when evaluating a past decision. To avoid the influence of outcome bias, one should evaluate a decision by ignoring information collected after the fact and focusing on what the right answer is, or was at the time the decision was made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20723",
"title": "M'Naghten rules",
"section": "Section::::The M'Naghten Rules.:Knowledge that the act was wrong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "... with respect to the term \"wrong\", a person lacks substantial capacity to know or appreciate that conduct is wrong if that person, as a result of mental disease or defect, lacked substantial capacity to know or appreciate either that the conduct was against the law or that it was against commonly held moral principles, or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490105",
"title": "How to Win Friends and Influence People",
"section": "Section::::Major sections and points.:Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "BULLET::::3. If you're wrong, admit it quickly and emphatically. Whenever we are wrong we should admit it immediately. When we fight we never get enough, but by yielding we often get more than we expected. When we admit that we are wrong people trust us and begin to sympathize with our way of thinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169305",
"title": "Cognitive dissonance",
"section": "Section::::Alternative paradigms.:Averse consequences vs. inconsistency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "During the 1980s, Cooper and Fazio argued that dissonance was caused by aversive consequences, rather than inconsistency. According to this interpretation, the belief that lying is wrong and hurtful, not the inconsistency between cognitions, is what makes people feel bad. Subsequent research, however, found that people experience dissonance even when they feel they have not done anything wrong. For example, Harmon-Jones and colleagues showed that people experience dissonance even when the consequences of their statements are beneficial—as when they convince sexually active students to use condoms, when they, themselves are not using condoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23469564",
"title": "Introspection illusion",
"section": "Section::::Unreliability of introspection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The faulty guesses that people make to explain their thought processes have been called \"causal theories\". The causal theories provided after an action will often serve only to justify the person's behaviour in order to relieve cognitive dissonance. That is, a person may not have noticed the real reasons for their behaviour, even when trying to provide explanations. The result is an explanation that mostly just makes themselves feel better. An example might be a man who discriminates against homosexuals because he is embarrassed that he himself is attracted to other men. He may not admit this to himself, instead claiming his prejudice is because he believes that homosexuality is unnatural.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
284i5r
|
why do i sleep like a beautiful princess after i wash my sheets and make my bed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Check your box of detergent, if it says that it makes your clothes softer or includes a softner then you might have found a company that actually tells the truth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After a shower and a shave - I'mma sleep till NOON. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This should have a \"serious\" tag. Not many people are going to take this question very seriously. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the [nesting instinct](_URL_0_) isn't actually limited to pregnant people, or women, for that matter. You've cleared the cave of debris, checked every rock for snakes and scorpions, and now you can sleep safely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your sheets are free of particles and crumbs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "331155",
"title": "Nocturnal enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Families.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Parents and family members are frequently stressed by a child's bedwetting. Soiled linens and clothing cause additional laundry. Wetting episodes can cause lost sleep if the child wakes and/or cries, waking the parents. A European study estimated that a family with a child who wets nightly will pay about $1,000 a year for additional laundry, extra sheets, disposable absorbent garments such as diapers, and mattress replacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9984560",
"title": "1300–1400 in European fashion",
"section": "Section::::Women's clothing.:Underwear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "All classes and both sexes are usually shown sleeping naked—special nightwear only became common in the 16th century—yet some married women wore their chemises to bed as a form of modesty and piety. Many in the lower classes wore their undergarments to bed because of the cold weather at night time and since their beds usually consisted of a straw mattress and a few sheets, the undergarment would act as another layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2816565",
"title": "Jūnihitoe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Due to its weight, movement in such a robe can be difficult. Ladies may sometimes sleep in their \"jūnihitoe\", using it as a form of pajamas. Layers could be shed or kept, depending on the season and the night temperatures. By the Muromachi-Era, however, the number of layers of the dress was reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1857283",
"title": "Infant bed",
"section": "Section::::Accessories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Because of the pronounced risk of suffocation in very young children, and the danger of a fall from the bed for other children, the addition of anything other than sheets (including quilts, pillows and stuffed toys) into an infant bed is not recommended by health authorities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646059",
"title": "Bedroom",
"section": "Section::::Furnishings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "An individual’s bedroom is a reflection of their personality, as well as social class and socioeconomic status, and is unique to each person. However, there are certain items that are common in most bedrooms. Mattresses usually have a bed set to raise the mattress off the floor and the bed often provides some decoration. There are many different types of mattresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50736597",
"title": "Sleep Like a Tiger",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Starting with the old adage \"Once there was a little girl...\" you come across a little girl and her parents, all wearing crowns. The little girl is wide awake claiming she is not tired. Her parents take this almost as a regular occurrence and require that she at least put on her pajamas, wash her face, brush her teeth. The little girl keeps repeating that she is not tired but climbs into bed and under the sheets since that is where she is the most comfortable. She then proceeds to ask her parents if everything thing goes to sleep. The parents then proceed to go through a list of animals and their habits of sleeping. They discuss the family dog, the cat, bats, snails, bears, and whales. The little girl proclaims that she knows an animal that sleeps a lot. We then finally come across the tiger in the jungle, where the little girl tells her parents that he sleeps to stay strong. The parents agree that sleep is good to stay strong then say goodnight even though the little girl claims she is still not sleepy. Her parents know what will happen and agree that she can stay awake all night long. After the long discussion, the little girl goes through all the processes that the animals go through and ends up fast asleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892720",
"title": "Bedding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Bedding, also known as bedclothes or bed linen, is the materials laid above the mattress of a bed for hygiene, warmth, protection of the mattress, and decorative effect. Bedding is the removable and washable portion of a human sleeping environment. Multiple sets of bedding for each bed will often be washed in rotation and/or changed seasonally to improve sleep comfort at varying room temperatures. In American English, the word \"bedding\" generally does not include the mattress, bed frame, or bed base (such as box-spring), while in British English it does. In Australian, South African and New Zealand English, bedding is often called manchester.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6j42tf
|
why it is metres per second per second instead of metres per second?
|
[
{
"answer": "They refer to different things.\n\nm/s refers to a speed. How much distance you cross per second.\n\nm/s^2 refers to *acceleration*, or a change in velocity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you say m/s2 you're not talking about linear movement. You're talking about accelleration. This object is accellerating 10 meters every second.\n\nIf it's linear you'd just talk about m/s.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "10 m/s^2 is an acceleration, not a movement, it means that for every second, it moves 10 meters per second faster.\n\n10 m = length\n\n10 m/s = speed\n\n10 m/s^2 = acceleration",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're confusing acceleration with velocity.\n\n10 m/s^2 means your velocity is increasing by 10m/s every second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're confusing speed (change in distance over time, i.e., meters per second, or miles per hour, or kilometers per hour) with acceleration (change in speed over time, i.e., meters per second per second).\n\nAn object can't be moving at 10 m/s^2, but it can be accelerating at 10 m/s^2. If it had no speed initially, it would be going 10 m/s after one second, 20 m/s after two seconds, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Meters per second is a measure of velocity.\n\nMeters per second per second is a measure of acceleration. \n\nIf you are moving at 10m per second, you are moving 100m in 10 seconds.\n\nIf you are moving at 10m per second per second, you are travelling around 550m. 10m the first second, 20m the second, 30m the third, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "m/s^2 is a measure of acceleration, not velocity. It means the object's velocity is *increasing* by a measure of 10 m/s, *per second*.\n\nSay the object was starting at rest and accelerating at that rate. 1 second later, if you measure velocity, it is 10 m/s. Another second later, and it is 20 m/s. After a total of 10 seconds, the object is traveling 100 m/s.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Metres per second per second is acceleration. Metres per second is speed. Speed is how quickly your position is changing. Acceleration is how quickly your speed is changing. Metres per second means you are just moving. Metres per second per second means you are speeding up or slowing down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3543585",
"title": "Joule-second",
"section": "Section::::Source of Confusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The joule-second \"should not be confused\" with the physical process of joules per second (J/s). In physical processes, when the unit of time appears in the denominator of a ratio, the described process occurs at a rate. For example, in discussions about speed, an object like a car travels a known distance of kilometers spread over a known number of seconds, and the car’s rate of speed becomes kilometers per second (km/s). In physics, work per time describes a system’s power; defined by the units of Watts (J/s), or joules per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2402968",
"title": "Inch per second",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The inch per second is a unit of speed or velocity. It expresses the distance in inches (\"in\") traveled or displaced, divided by time in seconds (\"s\", or \"sec\"). The equivalent SI unit is the metre per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67231",
"title": "Metre per second",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The metre per second (American English: meter per second) is an SI derived unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (vector quantity which specifies both magnitude and a specific direction), defined by distance in metres divided by time in seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4256110",
"title": "Metre per hour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Metre per hour (American spelling: meter per hour) is a metric unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (Vector (geometry)). Its symbol is m/h or m·h (not to be confused with the imperial unit symbol mph. By definition, an object travelling at a speed of 1 m/h for an hour would move 1 metre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15077",
"title": "Indoor rower",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the \"split\", or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel at the current pace — a split of 2:00 represents a speed of two minutes per 500 metres, or about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2956372",
"title": "Foot per second",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The foot per second (plural feet per second) is a unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (vector quantity, which includes direction). It expresses the distance in feet (ft) traveled or displaced, divided by the time in seconds (s). The corresponding unit in the International System of Units (SI) is the metre per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37498558",
"title": "Foot per second squared",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The foot per second squared (plural \"feet per second squared\") is a unit of acceleration. It expresses change in velocity expressed in units of feet per second (ft/s) divided by time in seconds (s) (or the distance in feet (ft) traveled or displaced, divided by the time in seconds (s) squared). The corresponding unit in the International System of Units (SI) is the metre per second squared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u8xg5
|
shifts in what is considered attractive
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's pretend you go to school 500 years ago. Not everyone had enough food to eat because a lot of people were too poor to afford a good meal every day. Then Clarice comes to school. She's a little chubby, so you can tell her parents have enough money to feed her every day. Which means your babies will have enough food every day. \n\nLet's say you go to school now. Clarice is chubby. That means her parents are poor, because they can only afford to feed her cheap, processed foods. Which means your babies will be fat and unhealthy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another point is that now tan women are generally preferred because it means you have time to work/play outside as opposed to sitting in an office all day. However, it used to be considered attractive to be pale because it meant you didn't have to work outside in the fields.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39386821",
"title": "Closing time effect",
"section": "Section::::Other possible explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "One other possible explanation about the cause of this perception of higher attractiveness is \"mere familiarity or exposure\" (Zajonc, 1968). This means that previously seen stimuli may be perceived more positively than new stimuli. In addition, another explanation comes from the commodity theory (Brock, 1968). According to commodity theory, as people find mates in the bar and leave with them, there is a scarcity of individuals left in the bar. This scarcity increases the desirability and perceived attractiveness of those left in the bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1969440",
"title": "Fluctuating asymmetry",
"section": "Section::::In sexual selection.:Mate attraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Symmetry has been shown to affect physical attractiveness. Those with lower levels of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) are often rated as more attractive. Various studies have supported this. The relationship between FA and mate attraction has been studied in both males and females. As FA reflects developmental stability and quality, it has been suggested that we prefer those as more attractive/with low FA because it signals traits such as health and intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37210110",
"title": "Context effect",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The attractiveness effect, the second contextual effect on consumer behavior, maintains that one item will increase the attractiveness of another item that is similar, but superior to it. By showing that an item is superior to a similar one the likability and possible purchasing power of the superior item increases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229719",
"title": "Popularity",
"section": "Section::::The popularity of objects as a consequence of social influence.:Zipf's Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "In many instances, physical appearance has been used as one indicator of popularity. Attractiveness plays a large role in the workplace and physical appearance influences hiring, whether or not the job might benefit from it. For example, some jobs, such as salesperson, benefit from attractiveness when it comes down to the bottom line, but there have been many studies which have shown that, in general, attractiveness is not at all a valid predictor of on-the-job performance. Many individuals have previously thought this was only a phenomenon in the more individualistic cultures of the Western world, but research has shown that attractiveness also plays a role in hiring in collectivist cultures as well. Because of the prevalence of this problem during the hiring process in all cultures, researchers have recommended training a group to ignore such influencers, just like legislation has worked to control for differences in sex, race, and disabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053447",
"title": "Physical attractiveness",
"section": "Section::::Social effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 1887,
"text": "Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable. This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics. In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness. In another study testing first impressions in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder. Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the effects of attractiveness in this study were the same size as the ones for other demographic variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30577937",
"title": "Attractiveness principle",
"section": "Section::::Introduction to the problem.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The term attractiveness principle was first used by inventor of system dynamics Jay W. Forrester. According to Forrester, the only way to control growth is to control attractiveness. Other references on this topic can be found in The Systems Thinker and in The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook in articles and parts by Michael Goodman and Art Kleiner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30577937",
"title": "Attractiveness principle",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Attractiveness of geographical areas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Jay W. Forrester studied the attractiveness principle of geographical areas. He states that all the places in the world tend to the equilibrium where they are all equally attractive, no matter the population class. Let attractivity be the overall rating of a city in terms of its desirability for potential inhabitants. If a city has high attractivity people move to this city, which increases the prices of housing which is getting scarce, cause overloading of job opportunities (leading to unemployment), the environmental stress is rising, city getting overcrowded etc. These changes demonstrate the impact of the movement as of an equalizing process which makes the mentioned city less and less attractive – to the (idealized) point when no one wants to move to it anymore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v4r2e
|
how come some countries' money is cheap and others' expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "What's stopping a country from secretly printing a lot of money and exchanging and buying things it needs from another country without the other countries realizing that they have been duped with their now deflated trade off?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Milton friedman won the Nobel prize for the quantity theory of money. Which says that the value of currency in a country is directly proportional to the production it can buy and inversely proportional to the amount of currency in that economy. The peso is worth less than the dollar because there is less goods for it to buy in relation to how many pesos are out there. This is why printing money doesn't create wealth it merely increases prices. Ever since we left the gold standard money has been created through government deficits and fractional reserve banking. With all this currency being created the dollar has lost 99% of its value since then.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tehhunter's answer to this question, while not inaccurate in and of itself, I think is incorrect. What OP wants to know why it is that the average worker in India gets paid less than the average worker in Switzerland, and why the price of goods is generally lower in India (when expressed in dollars) than it is in Switzerland. \n\nThe answer to this question has nothing, or very little, to do with government or debt. The answer is about labour productivity, and the affect labour productivity has on wages. In ELI5 terms:\n\nWorkers in Switzerland and India have different levels of labour productivity. Swiss workers have higher labour productivity than workers in India, which means that a worker in Switzerland can produce more goods, and/or produce more higher value goods, than a worker in India. The dollar amount of the stuff a Swiss worker produces will be higher than the dollar amount of the stuff an Indian worker produces. \n\nThis is the case for a number of reasons, and is complicated by the fact that, more than likely, Swiss workers will be working with better and more advanced machines. But even if they had the same kind of machines, Swiss workers would still produce more. They're more educated than Indian workers, and have a greater ability to put to use knowledge which might improve output, even if they're working with the same kind of machines those in India are working with. Of course, there are lots of things aside from education which enable them to do this, and if you like you can look at average educational quality as a way of describing all the small yet significant things which make a worker in a specific country productive.\n\nWage rates, in general, are determined by labour productivity. It's really that simple. It's not a relationship which always holds, and it's strength varies over time, but in general it's true. As such, workers in India are paid less, because they're less productive. And so it's not geographical determination of human effort as such, rather it's the simple fact that Indian workers are less productive.\n\nAt this point you might be trying to apply this to a scenario in your head, and wondering how this applies to workers who don't even use machines. Why is it that even the local 7/11 shop attendant in India gets paid less than s/he would in Switzerland. I'm sorta worried that a full answer to this might complicate things a bit to much. In short, it's because wages in the sector in which the price of the good produced is determined internationally, determine to a large extent the wages elsewhere in the economy. I can expand on this more if you like.\n\nApologies if this isn't an ELI5 answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A citizen of Switzerland is more *productive* in terms of the global economy than a citizen of India. Not that he works harder, but he produces more wealth.\n\nMost of India's 1.6 billion citizens are farmers, and many of those subsistence farmers. For all of there efforts, all they create is what is leftover after they feed themselves.\n\nA Swiss citizen is more likely to work in manufacturing or finance. Making watches, testing pharmaceuticals, or matching borrowers to lenders, that produces more economical value than growing a small amount of food.\n\nSo when they go to buy a TV from Taiwan, they are essentially trading what they produce for it. It takes more onions to buy a TV than it does watches.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1743758",
"title": "Penn effect",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the Penn effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Most things are cheaper in poor (low income) countries than in rich ones. Someone from a \"first world\" country on vacation in a \"third world\" country will usually find their money going a lot further abroad than at home. For instance, a Big Mac cost $7.84 in Norway and $2.39 in Egypt in January 2013, at the prevailing USD exchange rate for those two local currencies, despite the fact the two products are essentially the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160702",
"title": "Superprofit",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of Leninist interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "BULLET::::- Probably the main economic benefit that workers in rich countries obtain directly from poor countries is cheap consumer goods, but in fact the monetary value of these goods is statistically only a small part of their \"total\" budget. The big ticket foreign-made items in working class budgets are foreign computer hardware, foreign-made appliances and foreign cars (i.e. durable consumer goods), but out of that total expenditure only a small fraction represents goods from poor countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15382",
"title": "Invisible balance",
"section": "Section::::Balance of payments problems and the invisible balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "If a country's exchange rate is too high, its exports will become uncompetitive as buyers in foreign countries require more of their own currency to pay for them. In the meantime, it also becomes cheaper for the citizens of the country to buy goods from overseas,as opposed to buying locally produced goods), because an overvalued currency makes foreign products less expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180311",
"title": "Exchange rate",
"section": "Section::::Manipulation of exchange rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102959",
"title": "Substance abuse",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Cost.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Being highly income elastic, Health and POS expenditures can be considered luxury goods; as a nation becomes wealthier it openly spends proportionately more on drug-related health and public order and safety interventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364837",
"title": "Salary cap",
"section": "Section::::In Europe.:In European football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "BULLET::::- Europeans use multiple currencies and football wages are usually paid in the local currency. Although the countries hosting all but one of the most prominent European leagues now use the Euro, the one exception, England, has the richest league. Even if a hypothetical UEFA-wide cap were denominated in Euros, fluctuating exchange rates would make it difficult for the cap to be fairly administered in the United Kingdom since its salaries are paid in pounds sterling. By comparison, most player salaries paid to players on Canadian major sports teams are paid in U.S. dollars; in fact this is now mandated in the NHL to ensure that payrolls do not fluctuate with exchange rates. On the other hand, trying to force British clubs to pay wages in Euros so that their payrolls could not exceed a cap would meet with opposition from clubs since their revenues are collected in pounds, and might even provoke political opposition from Britons determined to prevent the Euro from replacing the pound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62018",
"title": "Comparative advantage",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Unrealistic assumption 2: there are no externalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "For example, goods from a country with lax pollution standards will be too cheap. As a result, its trading partners will import too much. And the exporting country will export too much, concentrating its economy too much in industries that are not as profitable as they seem, ignoring the damage caused by pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w1gto
|
Why do whirlpools cast shadows?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stagnant water can still cast a shadow.\n\nA whirlpool casts a different shadow due to the turbulence in the water which causes different directions in which the light scatters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3410343",
"title": "List of Sonic the Hedgehog characters",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Shadow the Hedgehog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "However, Shadow shares a lot of similarities with Sonic. He can perform spin attacks common to Sonic, which are a variation on the tendency for hedgehogs to roll into tight balls for protection. Additionally, with the power of a Chaos Emerald, Shadow can warp time and space with Chaos Control. Shadow is also able to use a variety of other Chaos powers, such as \"Chaos Spear\" and \"Chaos Blast\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1442169",
"title": "Shadow play",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Shadow play, also known as shadow puppetry, is an ancient form of storytelling and entertainment which uses flat articulated cut-out figures (shadow puppets) which are held between a source of light and a translucent screen or scrim. The cut-out shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. Various effects can be achieved by moving both the puppets and the light source. A talented puppeteer can make the figures appear to walk, dance, fight, nod and laugh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6064291",
"title": "List of Revelation Space races",
"section": "Section::::Shadows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The Shadows are a race of sapient beings who exist on a parallel brane. In their original universe, they were pursued by a relentless terraforming agent which ripped apart their worlds and remade them into millions of asteroid-sized habitats. In order to escape from the agent which had overrun their brane, the Shadows abandoned their original physical forms and jumped into a different brane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156593",
"title": "Puppetry",
"section": "Section::::History.:West Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In other areas, the style of shadow puppetry known as \"khayal al-zill\", a metaphor translated as \"shadows of the imagination\" or \"shadow of fancy\", still survives. This is a shadow play with live music, \"the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also...\"special effects\" – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1946196",
"title": "Islamic culture",
"section": "Section::::Theatre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In other areas the style of shadow puppetry known as \"khayal al-zill\" – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as ‘shadows of the imagination’ or ‘shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow play with live music ..”the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also...“special effects” – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827312",
"title": "Shadow (Babylon 5)",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Shadows very rarely engage in hand-to-hand combat to accomplish their goals, relying instead on invisibility, behind-the-scenes maneuvering and their technology. They are, however, vulnerable to high-powered energy weapons, as demonstrated when the two Shadow guards flanking Mr. Morden are run off by particle gun fire from Centauri guards, and likely killed in the nuclear explosion on the shadows' base island on Centauri Prime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41975425",
"title": "List of Ressha Sentai ToQger characters",
"section": "Section::::Shadow Line.:Shadow Creeps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "BULLET::::- , designated , is the first of the Shadow Creeps to appear in the series, possessing the ability to hold things within his body as well as his that can launch fireballs. At the Dark Station, he kidnaps children with high Imagination in order to make them cry, with their tears lengthening his Cryner's railway. He does not account for kidnapping Right, alerting the ToQgers to his position. Right, transformed into ToQ 1gou, destroys Bag Shadow with a crying statues variation of the Rainbow Rush before the Shadow Creep enlarges and is destroyed by ToQ-Oh. Voiced by .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rfwhu
|
Were there any Christian or Muslim rulers who converted to a non-Abrahamic faith in History?
|
[
{
"answer": "The one person who comes to mind is the Roman emperor Julian (360-63), who, though raised Christian, turned back to the Greek religion of the Homeric gods and tried to reestablish that faith as the principal religion in the Roman empire. For that reason the Christian historiography referred to him as \"apostata\". Since he fell in battle three years after his ascension to the throne nothing came of his efforts (and, as Christianity was already quite wide spread at the time, it would arguably be doubtful if that would have been reversible at all). A good overview about Julian and his political and religious aims is given in: Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4181828",
"title": "Muladi",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "The conversion of the native Christians to Islam did not mean the total erasure of previous beliefs and social practises. There is some evidence of a limited cultural borrowing from the Christians by the Muwalladun and other Muslims in Al-Andalus. For instance, the Muslims' adoption of the Christian solar calendar and holidays was an exclusively Andalusi phenomenon. In Al-Andalus, the Islamic lunar calendar was supplemented by the local solar calendar, which was more useful for agricultural and navigational purposes. Like the local Mozarabs (Iberian Christians under Muslim rule in the Al-Andalus who remained unconverted to Islam), the Muslims of Al-Andalus were notoriously heavy drinkers. The Muslims also celebrated traditional Christian holidays, sometimes with the sponsorship of their leaders, despite the fact that such fraternisation was generally opposed by the Ulema. The Muslims also hedged their religious devotions through the use of Roman Catholic sacraments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7347540",
"title": "Caste system in India",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval era, Islamic Sultanates and Mughal empire period (1000 to 1750).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence does not support this theory, whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim institutions in north-west India legitimised and continued any inequalities that existed, and that neither Buddhists nor \"lower caste\" Hindus converted to Islam because they viewed Islam to lack a caste system. Conversions to Islam were rare, states MacLein, and conversions attested by historical evidence confirms that the few who did convert were Brahmin Hindus (theoretically, the upper caste). MacLein states the caste and conversion theories about Indian society during the Islamic era are not based on historical evidence or verifiable sources, but personal assumptions of Muslim historians about the nature of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism in northwest Indian subcontinent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3337601",
"title": "Christians in the Persian Gulf",
"section": "Section::::History.:Eastern Arabia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "According to Islamic tradition, in 628, Muhammad sent a Muslim envoy named Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami to Munzir ibn Sawa, a ruler in Eastern Arabia, requesting that he and his people accept Islam. Most of the Pagan practitioners converted to Islam shortly thereafter. However, the monotheistic population, who consisted of Jews and Zoroastrians in addition to Christians, did not instantaneously convert. Instead, they chose to pay the jizya, a tax for non-Muslims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60725021",
"title": "Abgar Ali Akbar Armani",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Though the Persian chronicles, European travelogues and correspondences between Christian missionaries reveal that many converted from Christianity to Islam during the Safavid period, they only depict instances where the converts were either forced to convert or did so out of convenience. Such accounts generally do not provide insights into the personal views of the converts. According to Tiburcio, the \"Eterāfnāme\" \"fills an important gap as a rare example of a testimony narrated from the perspective of a convert and portraying a voluntary conversion\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40737848",
"title": "Lamuri Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Historical accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Marco Polo noted that the people were \"idolators\" when he passed through in the late 13th century. However, it has been argued that the inscriptions on tombstone of Sultan Sulaiman bin Abdullah al-Basr at Lam Reh may be the first documented royal conversion to Islam in the region. The inscriptions has been dated to 1211 although a later date had also been proposed. Some thought that Islam may have arrived in the area as early as the 8th century. By the early 15th century when Zheng He's voyages passed through Lamuri, the ruler of Lamuri was said to profess the Islamic faith, and that its estimated population of over 1,000 families were all Muslims, according to \"Yingya Shenglan\" written by Ma Huan who was in Zheng He's fleet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7474535",
"title": "Álvaro of Córdoba (Mozarab)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Alvarus, Eulogius, and earlier their mutual teacher Speraindeo were the first Iberian Christians who systematically and theologically attacked Islam in their writings. They also viewed the Christian community around them as divided by a distinct line. On one side were those who cooperated significantly with the Muslim officials and embraced Arabic culture and language, or at the least chose to conceal their Christian beliefs in public; on the other side lay Alvarus, Eulogius, and other devoted Christians including the martyrs who believed that no ground whatsoever could be given to the Muslims. If Christians and Muslims were to exist side-by-side, they believed, there should be no intermixing of their religion or culture, nor suppression of Christian expression. This was not only an ideological divide but also a physical divide, manifested in the temporary splitting of the Church into two halves: One in support of the martyrs, and one against them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34533",
"title": "Zoroastrianism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline in the Middle Ages.:Conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Two decrees in particular encouraged the transition to a preponderantly Islamic society. The first edict, adapted from an Arsacid and Sassanid one (but in those to the advantage of Zoroastrians), was that only a Muslim could own Muslim slaves or indentured servants. Thus, a bonded individual owned by a Zoroastrian could automatically become a freeman by converting to Islam. The other edict was that if one male member of a Zoroastrian family converted to Islam, he instantly inherited all its property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7490b9
|
What factors lead to Opera's decline in popularity in the United States?
|
[
{
"answer": "Kindly release opera from its grave! Just because you don't personally consume something, doesn't mean it's dead. For America in particular, I can comfortably state that you live in the best time of all for consumption of opera. As of today opera is the most accessible and affordable to Americans that it has ever been, every major US city has an opera company, DVDs and Youtubes and albums abound, available at prices almost always lower than a lower or lower-middle class working person's single day of wages, which is virtually unthinkable for most of history. [I expand a bit here,](_URL_1_) unfortunately my link to statistics about American opera consumption died, so [here it is rebirthed.](_URL_0_) Unfortunately they haven't been able to redo that survey to update, but as of 2012, a steady percentage of 2% ish of Americans consume live opera every year. 2% seems small, but it's roughly, by some people's estimates, currently the number of Americans who are vegan, and yet I can get both my opera fix and my LightLife Smart Bacon fix with ease in my city. Of course we can't compare this to 18th century Italy, but to put it in perspective, for the oldest opera house in America, the Met, in 1900 if they sold every seat and standing place in the house (which, no way), it would have accommodated 0.112% of the city's total population on any given night. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "383448",
"title": "Music of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Classical music.:Opera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1311,
"text": "After World War I, however, opera declined in comparison to the popular heights of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Causes included the general cultural shift away from Romanticism and the rise of the cinema, which became a major source of entertainment. A third cause is the fact that \"internationalism\" had brought contemporary Italian opera to a state where it was no longer \"Italian\". This was the opinion of at least one prominent Italian musicologist and critic, Fausto Terrefranca, who, in a 1912 pamphlet entitled \"Giaccomo Puccini and International Opera\", accused Puccini of \"commercialism\" and of having deserted Italian traditions. Traditional Romantic opera remained popular; indeed, the dominant opera publisher in the early 20th century was Casa Ricordi, which focused almost exclusively on popular operas until the 1930s, when the company allowed more unusual composers with less mainstream appeal. The rise of relatively new publishers such as Carisch and Suvini Zerboni also helped to fuel the diversification of Italian opera. Opera remains a major part of Italian culture; renewed interest in opera across the sectors of Italian society began in the 1980s. Respected composers from this era include the well-known Aldo Clementi, and younger peers such as Marco Tutino and Lorenzo Ferrero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1424086",
"title": "Theater in the United States",
"section": "Section::::The 20th century.:Post World War II theater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "In the late 1990s and 2000s, American theater began to borrow from cinema and operas. For instance, Julie Taymor, director of \"The Lion King\" directed \"Die Zauberflöte\" at the Metropolitan Opera. Also, Broadway musicals were developed around Disney's \"Mary Poppins\", \"Tarzan\", \"The Little Mermaid\", and the one that started it all, \"Beauty and the Beast\", which may have contributed to Times Square's revitalization in the 1990s. Also, Mel Brooks's \"The Producers\" and \"Young Frankenstein\" are based on his hit films.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11409860",
"title": "Metropolitan Opera House (Grand Forks, North Dakota)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "By the 1940s, opera had fallen in popularity due to new forms of entertainment such as film. The Met was no exception and the curtain fell for the last time. Over the next 50 years, the building was home to a variety of businesses. During this period, the 1890s interior was gutted and replaced by bars and bowling alleys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1424086",
"title": "Theater in the United States",
"section": "Section::::The 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "By the beginning of the 20th century, legitimate 1752 (non-vaudeville) theater had become decidedly more sophisticated in the United States, as it had in Europe. The stars of this era, such as Ethel Barrymore and John Barrymore, were often seen as even more important than the show itself. The advance of motion pictures also led to many changes in theater. The popularity of musicals may have been due in part to the fact the early films had no sound, and could thus not compete, until \"The Jazz Singer\" of 1927, which combined both talking and music in a moving picture. More complex and sophisticated dramas bloomed in this time period, and acting styles became more subdued. Even by 1915, actors were being lured away from theater and to the silver screen, and vaudeville was beginning to face stiff competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33357730",
"title": "The Metropolitan Opera Guild",
"section": "Section::::Guild Activities.:Guild History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "With European artists isolated in Europe by the political upheaval during World War II and the appreciable growth of American music conservatories during the latter half of the 19th century, American singers came into their own in the early 20th century, jump-starting the American operatic growth that continued after the war. The Met Opera Guild supported the cultivation of American opera singers (thus encouraging other opera guilds to do the same). In the 1950s, Eleanor Belmont was responsible for the National Council Auditions, which take place across the 50 states discovering new talent and funneling them to the Met Opera's stage or its Young Artist Program for further training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22348",
"title": "Opera",
"section": "Section::::Operatic voices.:Famous singers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Though opera patronage has decreased in the last century in favor of other arts and media (such as musicals, cinema, radio, television and recordings), mass media and the advent of recording have supported the popularity of many famous singers including Maria Callas, Enrico Caruso, Amelita Galli-Curci, Kirsten Flagstad, Juan Arvizu, Nestor Mesta Chayres,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44163342",
"title": "Lexington Opera House",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The Opera House continued to successfully provide entertainment throughout the region for a quarter of a century. But, with cultural changes on the rise, the Opera House was unable to sustain management due to a decline in profits. The development of automobiles, radio entertainment and motion pictures mounted a myriad of obstacles that led to the downfall of live productions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eabnrn
|
What is the difference between a hypernova and a super luminous supernova?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm definitely not an expert in this topic by any means so take this with a grain of salt. \n\nFrom the cursory research I've done, it seem that the difference is in mass vs light. A hypernova is exceptional in the kinetic energy of it's mass ejections, whereas a super luminous supernova is exceptional in the amount of electromagnetic radiation it gives off.\n\nPerhaps someone more knowledgeable could elaborate on what exactly causes them to be different in particular (aside from just being larger or differently classed stars).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2443027",
"title": "Supernova nucleosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "A supernova is a violent explosion of a star that occurs under two principal scenarios. The first is that a white dwarf star, which is the remnant of a low-mass star that has exhausted its nuclear fuel, undergoes a thermonuclear explosion after its mass is increased beyond its Chandrasekhar limit by accreting nuclear-fuel mass from a more diffuse companion star (usually a red giant) with which it is in binary orbit. The resulting runaway nucleosynthesis completely destroys the star and ejects its mass into space. The second, and about threefold more common, scenario occurs when a massive star (12–35 times more massive than the sun), usually a supergiant at the critical time, reaches nickel-56 in its core nuclear fusion (or burning) processes. Without exothermic energy from fusion, the core of the pre-supernova massive star loses heat needed for pressure support, and collapses owing to the strong gravitational pull. The energy transfer from the core collapse causes the supernova display.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11009033",
"title": "Type II supernova",
"section": "Section::::Hypernovae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Hypernovae are a rare type of supernova substantially more luminous and energetic than standard supernovae. Examples are SN 1997ef (type Ic) and SN 1997cy (type IIn). Hypernovae are produced by more than one type of event: relativistic jets during formation of a black hole from fallback of material onto the neutron star core, the collapsar model; interaction with a dense envelope of circumstellar material, the CSM model; the highest mass pair instability supernovae; possibly others such as binary and quark star model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63025",
"title": "Variable star",
"section": "Section::::Intrinsic variable stars.:Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars.:Supernovae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "Supernovae are the most dramatic type of cataclysmic variable, being some of the most energetic events in the universe. A supernova can briefly emit as much energy as an entire galaxy, brightening by more than 20 magnitudes (over one hundred million times brighter). The supernova explosion is caused by a white dwarf or a star core reaching a certain mass/density limit, the Chandrasekhar limit, causing the object to collapse in a fraction of a second. This collapse \"bounces\" and causes the star to explode and emit this enormous energy quantity. The outer layers of these stars are blown away at speeds of many thousands of kilometers an hour. The expelled matter may form nebulae called \"supernova remnants\". A well-known example of such a nebula is the Crab Nebula, left over from a supernova that was observed in China and North America in 1054. The core of the star or the white dwarf may either become a neutron star (generally a pulsar) or disintegrate completely in the explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27680",
"title": "Supernova",
"section": "Section::::Current models.:Energy output.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "When a supernova occurs inside a small dense cloud of circumstellar material, it will produce a shock wave that can efficiently convert a high fraction of the kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation. Even though the initial energy was entirely normal the resulting supernova will have high luminosity and extended duration since it does not rely on exponential radioactive decay. This type of event may cause Type IIn hypernovae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27680",
"title": "Supernova",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "A supernova ( plural: supernovae or supernovas, abbreviations: SN and SNe) is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion. At its peak brightness, the optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy, before fading over several weeks or months. A supernova is a transient astronomical event, occurring during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original star, called the \"progenitor\", either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or it is completely destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Supernovae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "A supernova is a transient astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion. This explosion can happen in one of many ways, but in all of them a significant proportion of the matter in the star is blown away into the surrounding space at extremely high velocities (up to 10% of the speed of light). Unless there is perfect spherical symmetry in these explosions (i.e., unless matter is spewed out evenly in all directions), there will be gravitational radiation from the explosion. This is because gravitational waves are generated by a changing quadrupole moment, which can happen only when there is asymmetrical movement of masses. Since the exact mechanism by which supernovae take place is not fully understood, it is not easy to model the gravitational radiation emitted by them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212764",
"title": "Superluminous supernova",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "A super-luminous supernova (SLSN, plural super luminous supernovae or SLSNe), also known as a hypernova, is a type of stellar explosion with a luminosity 10 or more times higher than that of standard supernovae. Like supernovae, SLSNe seem to be produced by several mechanisms, which is readily revealed by their light-curves and spectra. There are multiple models for what conditions may produce an SLSN, including core collapse in particularly massive stars, millisecond magnetars, interaction with circumstellar material (CSM model), or pair-instability supernovae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13mlq6
|
chicago note style (in academic papers)
|
[
{
"answer": "If you want an actual guide to formatting, the [Purdue OWL](_URL_1_) academic writing lab is incredibly helpful as a guide. If you have Firefox, the [Zotero](_URL_0_) extension automatically creates perfect citations according to the official formats (for Chicago and other research citation formats) where you just input the information, so it is a very helpful tool (I personally used both Zotero and OWL in a major English research paper last year). I'll try to provide some background on why Chicago style exists. I am assuming that you know what MLA and APA are, what a bibliography is, and what footnotes/parenthetical citations are, since you are asking an academic research question.\n\nThe brief ELI5 answer on why people use Chicago over other formats: footnotes instead of parenthesis, and smoother-looking styles that appeal to humanities students instead of rock-solid formats that the sciences prefer.\n\nDetails:\n\nDifferent disciplines prefer different citation styles based on the demands of their own research papers. MLA and APA are popular with social sciences and the hard sciences, but Chicago is usually used with the humanities (English, history, etc). Chicago style gets its name from the University of Chicago where it was developed. It has the benefit of defining a format for footnotes *and* bibliography citations, which the humanities LOVE. Open any literature research paper, you will probably see footnotes. This is probably because the humanities like to have their reading uninterrupted by parenthetical citations (which, if I'm not mistaken, MLA and APA both have). \n\nSo instead of throwing all the citations right in the body of the paper, the humanities like to put all the sources on the bottom of the page and the bibliography at the end. This is why Chicago style is so helpful. The sciences prefer formats that use parenthetical citations because the more important aspect of science research is having evidence for every scientific claim you make. But for English, history, and similar studies, they prefer to read your academic work and understand your interpretations and conclusions, and *then* verify your sources.\n\nOh, and one nice thing about Chicago is that it just looks pretty. You get to write an author's name as \"Charles Dickens\" instead of \"Dickens, Charles\" and you can use italics on some parts, which makes things easier to read when surrounded by quotation marks, periods, and other funky things you commonly see in a bibliography.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75877",
"title": "The Chicago Manual of Style",
"section": "Section::::Availability and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "\"Chicago\" style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent. For instance, the fifteenth edition of \"The Chicago Manual of Style\" permits the use of both in-text citation systems and/or footnotes or endnotes, including use of \"content notes\"; it gives information about in-text citation by page number (such as MLA style) or by year of publication (like APA style); it even provides for variations in styles of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether the paper includes a full bibliography at the end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75877",
"title": "The Chicago Manual of Style",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated in writing as CMOS or CMS, or sometimes as Chicago) is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its seventeen editions have prescribed writing and citation styles widely used in publishing. It is \"one of the most widely used and respected style guides in the United States\". The guide specifically focuses on American English and deals with aspects of editorial practice, including grammar and usage, as well as document preparation and formatting. It is available in print as a hardcover book, and by subscription as a searchable website as \"The Chicago Manual of Style Online.\" The online version provides some free resources, primarily aimed at teachers, students, and libraries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97585",
"title": "Citation",
"section": "Section::::Styles.:Humanities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Chicago Style (CMOS) was developed and its guide is \"The Chicago Manual of Style\". It is most widely used in history and economics as well as some social sciences. The closely related Turabian style—which derives from it—is for student references, and is distinguished from the CMOS by omission of quotation marks in reference lists, and mandatory access date citation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75877",
"title": "The Chicago Manual of Style",
"section": "Section::::Availability and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "\"The Chicago Manual of Style\" includes chapters relevant to publishers of books and journals. It is used widely by academic and some trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are required by those publishers to follow it. Kate L. Turabian's \"A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations\" also reflects Chicago style.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75877",
"title": "The Chicago Manual of Style",
"section": "Section::::Availability and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Many publishers throughout the world adopt \"Chicago\" as their style. It is used in some social science publications, most North-American historical journals, and remains the basis for the \"Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association\", the \"Style Sheet\" for the Organization of American Historians, and corporate style guides, including the \"Apple Style Guide\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4124114",
"title": "San Diego Reader",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The \"Reader\" was founded in 1972 by Jim Holman, a Carleton College graduate who was a member of the group which established the \"Chicago Reader\". Although Holman briefly owned shares in the Chicago paper, none of the Chicago owners had an interest in the San Diego paper. Holman used the Reader format and nameplate with the blessings of his friends in Chicago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30774143",
"title": "Bensusan Restaurant Corp. v. King",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Bensusan Restaurant Corporation (\"Bensusan\") was a New York corporation that owned \"The Blue Note,\" a jazz club in Greenwich Village, New York. Bensusan owned all trademark rights, title and interest in the federally registered \"The Blue Note\" mark. Richard B. King (\"King\") was a Missouri resident who owned \"The Blue Note\" club in Columbia, Missouri. In April 1996, King posted a website hosted on a computer server in Missouri that contained \"general information about the club in Missouri as well as a calendar of events and ticketing information\". In addition, King's website contained a disclaimer that stated \"The Blue Note, Columbia, Missouri should not be confused in any way, shape, or form with Blue Note Records or the jazz club, Blue Note, located in New York. The CyberSpot is created to provide information for Columbia, Missouri area individuals only, any other assumptions are purely coincidental\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8b3db3
|
How does coordination work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your muscles have a bunch of nerves in them that communicate with the brain not only to contract/relax, but how the muscle is being stretched and how it’s moving. It’s called proprioception. This, combined with the vestibular system in the ear and visual input from the eyes provide information to the brain that combined, let you know where you are in space. Conscious and unconscious proprioception are communicated to the brain through different nervous pathways, which is why you don’t have to think every time you do basic physical activity activity, and why some motions become “muscle memory”. The brain can learn patterns of movement based on how the muscles respond and stretch in response to stimuli. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "624665",
"title": "Collaboration tool",
"section": "Section::::Main types.:Coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Coordination is defined as \"\"the deliberate and orderly alignment or adjustment of partners’ actions to achieve jointly determined goals\"\". Collaboration tools supporting this are the ones who allow you to set up group activities, schedules and deliverables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17073876",
"title": "Coordinated management of meaning",
"section": "Section::::Basics.:Coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "Coordination refers to \"the degree to which persons perceive that their actions have fitted together into some mutually intelligible sequence or pattern of actions\". It exists \"when two people attempt to make sense out of the sequencing of messages in their conversation\". That is, if people in the interaction can recognize what their partners are talking about, then we say the conversation comes to a coordination. Scientists believes that people's desire for coordination in interaction arises from the subjectivity of meaning, which means the same message may have different meanings to different people. In order to avoid this pitfall in communication, people work together to share meanings. Research shows that sense making is the foundation of coordination. By tokens within the information connected by means of channel can the logic relationship emerge, then it contributes to the sense making. Sense making helps people to establish common understanding then further develops coordination between people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7484323",
"title": "Coordination (linguistics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "In linguistics, coordination is a complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements; these elements are called \"conjuncts\" or \"conjoins\". The presence of coordination is often signaled by the appearance of a coordinator (coordinating conjunction), e.g. \"and\", \"or\", \"but\" (in English). The totality of coordinator(s) and conjuncts forming an instance of coordination is called a coordinate structure. The unique properties of coordinate structures have motivated theoretical syntax to draw a broad distinction between coordination and subordination. It is also one of the many constituency tests in Linguistics. Coordination is one of the most studied fields in theoretical syntax, but despite decades of intensive examination, theoretical accounts differ significantly and there is no consensus on the best analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9886454",
"title": "Transactive memory",
"section": "Section::::Indicators.:Coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Coordination refers to the extent of necessity in explicit revealed planning and coordinating efforts during teamwork. When a group possesses a strong transactive memory system, the need for explicit coordination efforts reduces since teammates are aware of other teammates strengths and weaknesses, can anticipate their behavior and responds, and make quick adjustments of their own behavior in return. In groups that have developed a transactive memory, members are able to easily coordinate with one another and can go directly to those with expertise if they need their information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31550328",
"title": "Communicative Constitution of Organizations",
"section": "Section::::McPhee & Zaug's Four Flows.:Activity coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Activity coordination operates on the assumption that members are working in an interdependent social unit beyond the work tasks themselves. It incorporates any processes and attitudes and therefore includes coordination for members to not complete work or to seek power over one another. The work of Dr. Henry Mintzberg exemplifies activity coordination in the mechanism of mutual adjustment in his theory of organizational forms. In this example, co-workers informally coordinate work arounds for issues on the job.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2938828",
"title": "J. A. Scott Kelso",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Coordination dynamics is grounded in the concepts of synergetics and the mathematical tools of dynamical systems (see nonlinear dynamic systems theory and synergetics). But coordination dynamics seeks to model specific properties of human cognition, neurophysiology, and social function – such as anticipation, intention, attention, decision-making and learning. The principal claim of coordination dynamics is that the coordination of neurons in the brain and the coordinated actions of people and animals are linked by virtue of sharing a common mathematical or dynamical structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31550328",
"title": "Communicative Constitution of Organizations",
"section": "Section::::McPhee & Zaug's Four Flows.:Activity coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Activity coordination is a result of the fact that organizations inherently have at least one purpose to which the members' activity is contributing. Often an organization's self-structuring defines the division of labor, work flow sequences, policies, etc. that set the course for activity coordination. The structure is reflexively changing and may not be complete, relevant, fully understood, or free of problems. Therefore, a necessity of communication arises among members to amend and adjust the work process. Activity coordination can include adjusting the work process and resolving immediate or unforeseen practical problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24hk6m
|
At the Battle of Ulundi, during the British-Zulu war, how did the British win while only destroying such a small part of the opposing Zulu force?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's important to know that battles are not determined by how many casualties each side takes. Without getting into a lengthy discussion about strategy, in general, the goal is to make the other side withdraw. Whether this be a rout (enemy cohesion breaks, disorderly retreat, time when most casualties occur) or an organized withdrawal doesn't matter in terms of who \"won\" the battle, though it may have very large strategic implications. \n\nThe British commander, Lord Chelmsford was being replaced. The British suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Islandlwana under his command. However, he had some time before his replacement would arrive. Chelmsford used this opportunity to provoke the Zulu forces into attacking in order to claim victory and repair his tarnished reputation.\n\nTo his credit, Chelmsford learned from the lessons of Islandlwana. There, the British were taken by surprise and used standard battle tactics. As seen [here](_URL_0_), the British forces had formed a standard battle line with their flank protected, but the maneuvering of the Zulu forces, and their superior numbers, allowed them to outflank and encircle the British forces. \n\nChelmsford would not let that happen again. For the Battle of Ulundi, he formed a [square](_URL_1_) because he knew the Zulu were aggressive and would try to encircle the British forces. As the Zulu had some firearms, and were able to pick off British soldiers, but not enough to abandon their traditional hand-to-hand fighting. But the British were prepared. The cavalry provoked the Zulu into charging, and the square was 4 ranks deep. The Zulu tried many times to rush the square, but were beaten back by massed rifle, Gatling gun, and artillery fire. \n\nThis goes to my earlier point - they may have only lost a \"small part\" of their force, but the withering fire broke their morale. The British cavalry charged and rode down the fleeing Zulu warriors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2805325",
"title": "Battle of Ulundi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The Battle of Ulundi took place at the Zulu capital of Ulundi on 4 July 1879 and was the last major battle of the Anglo-Zulu War. The British army broke the military power of the Zulu nation by defeating the main Zulu army and immediately afterwards capturing and razing the capital of Zululand, the royal kraal of Ulundi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524980",
"title": "Battle of Isandlwana",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The battle was a decisive victory for the Zulus and caused the defeat of the first British invasion of Zululand. The British Army had suffered its worst defeat against an indigenous foe with vastly inferior military technology. Isandlwana resulted in the British taking a much more aggressive approach in the Anglo–Zulu War, leading to a heavily reinforced second invasion and the destruction of King Cetshwayo's hopes of a negotiated peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524980",
"title": "Battle of Isandlwana",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Near the end of the battle, about 4,000 Zulu warriors of the unengaged reserve Undi impi, after cutting off the retreat of the survivors to the Buffalo River southwest of Isandlwana, crossed the river and attacked the fortified mission station at Rorke's Drift. The station was defended by only 140 British soldiers, who nonetheless inflicted considerable casualties and repelled the attack. Elsewhere, the left and right flanks of the invading forces were now isolated and without support. The No. 1 column under the command of Charles Pearson would be besieged for two months by a Zulu force at Eshowe, while the No. 4 column under Evelyn Wood halted its advance and spent most of the next two months skirmishing in the northwest around Tinta's Kraal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524980",
"title": "Battle of Isandlwana",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The measure of respect that the British gained for their opponents as a result of Isandlwana can be seen in that in none of the other engagements of the Zulu War did the British attempt to fight again in their typical linear formation, known famously as the Thin Red Line, in an open-field battle with the main Zulu impi. In the battles that followed, the British, when facing the Zulu, entrenched themselves or formed very close-order formations, such as the square.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524980",
"title": "Battle of Isandlwana",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for the outcome.:Zulu perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1024,
"text": "The primary reason for the Zulu victory is that the Zulus, unlike the British, kept their main fighting force concentrated. Further, they made a very successful effort to conceal the advance and location of this force until they were within a few hours' striking distance of their enemy. The British made no such efforts. Finally, when the location of the main Zulu Impi was discovered by British scouts, the Zulus, without hesitation, immediately advanced and attacked, achieving tactical surprise. This tactical surprise prevented the British, although they now had some warning of a Zulu advance, from concentrating their central column. It also left little time and gave scant information for Pulleine to organise a sufficient defence for his command. The Zulus had outmanoeuvred Chelmsford, and their victory at Isandlwana was a decisive defeat of the British invasion that forced the main British force to retreat out of Zululand until a far larger British army could be shipped to South Africa for a second invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7739036",
"title": "Military history of South Africa",
"section": "Section::::The Anglo-Zulu War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "At the Battle of Isandlwana (22 January 1879), the Zulu overwhelmed and wiped out 1,400 British soldiers. This battle is considered to be one of the greatest disasters in British colonial history. Isandlwana forced the policy makers in London to rally to the support of the pro-war contingent in the Natal government and commit whatever resources were needed to defeat the Zulu. The first invasion of Zululand ended with the catastrophe of Isandlwana where, along with heavy casualties, the main centre column lost all supplies, transport and ammunition and the British would be forced to halt their advances elsewhere while a new invasion was prepared. At Rorke's Drift (22–23 January 1879) 139 British soldiers successfully defended the station against an intense assault by four to five thousand Zulu warriors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1658234",
"title": "Battle of Hlobane",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The Battle of Hlobane was a Zulu victory; the Border Horse unit, trapped and unable to retreat to Kambula was annihilated and the battalions of Zulu warriors helping the British had decamped. Wood was confident that the Zulu impi would now attack the defensive works at Kambula as he hoped and he expected victory. The following day, at the Battle of Kambula, the Zulu army was routed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kiozn
|
Historian's with a specialty in religion, how have your studies impacted your faith?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_)'s a similar question I asked a while ago, and received an amazing reply from /u/sowser.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For me, being a historian of religion has made me very skeptical of claims that modern people make like \"Judaism teaches x\" or \"According to Christianity, no one may do y.\" Because for most claims like that, the important people associated with the religion said pretty much the opposite at some point in their history. History has taught me that \"Christianity says,\" functionally, means \"Christians say.\" And people have beautiful crazy complicated different lives, so they say beautiful crazy complicated different things. \n\nIt's also helped me really understand that, for most people, religious statements aren't truth-apt propositions. Understanding the all-encompassing nature of medieval religion helped me understand that, for me and the people around me, religion is a way of life, not a system of proofs. I sort of knew that before, but it's easier to understand when you study people who have religious practices that seem kind of absurd to us but that make total sense to them. They're not stupid, they're just having a different conversation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "354220",
"title": "Religious studies",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Partridge writes that \"by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry.\" He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354220",
"title": "Religious studies",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Many of the key scholars who helped to establish the study of religion did not regard themselves as scholars of religious studies, but rather as theologians, philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27150031",
"title": "Handbook of Religion and Health",
"section": "Section::::Reviews and response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "\"JAMA\" also stated that \"Studies are cited to illustrate the complexity and limitations of available knowledge,\" that \"The authors offer theoretical models for how religion might directly or indirectly influence both mental and physical health,\" and that \"The authors provide an outline for a religious history that can serve as part of a clinical assessment. Ways to aid patients to use their religious beliefs within the health care system are suggested\" (all p. 465).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354220",
"title": "Religious studies",
"section": "Section::::Intellectual foundation and background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Before religious studies became a field in its own right, flourishing in the United States in the late 1960s, several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures was the famous pragmatist William James. His 1902 Gifford lectures and book \"The Varieties of Religious Experience\" examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. His essay \"The Will to Believe\" defends the rationality of faith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354220",
"title": "Religious studies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Scholars of religion have argued that a study of the subject is useful for individuals because it will provide them with knowledge that is pertinent in inter-personal and professional contexts within an increasingly globalised world. It has also been argued that studying religion is useful in appreciating and understanding sectarian tensions and religious violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354220",
"title": "Religious studies",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A group of scholars have criticized religious studies beginning in the 1990s as a theological project which actually imposes views onto the people it aims to survey. Prominent voices in this critical view include Jonathan Z. Smith, Timothy Fitzgerald, Talal Asad, Tomoko Masuzawa, Geoffrey A. Oddie, Richard E. King, Russell T. McCutcheon, and Daniel Dubuisson. Their areas of research overlap heavily with postcolonial studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3050767",
"title": "Omega Graduate School",
"section": "Section::::Academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The study of religion is concerned with analyzing the nature and role of religious faith and experience in specific societal contexts. The social setting of Christianity is used as the primary context for research in religion. Studies are conducted to determine how distinct Christian concepts and values assist in shaping the attitudes, goals, and behavior of individuals and various cultural groups. Other religious traditions may be studied to contrast their similarities and differences with Christianity and to provide a perspective for comprehending the nature of religious experience in a particular society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10s1dc
|
I've heard that "the equations of particle physics and of general relativity cannot be reconciled in the mathematically expected manner", can someone elaborate?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's complicated. When you do a calculation in quantum field theory (what particle physics is based on), you eventually get an infinite result, and you essentially get around it by subtracting another infinity from that until things work out. It's called renormalization and mathematicians hate it, but it works well for the problems it attempts to solve.\n\nYou can attempt to take a classical field theory (like general relativity) and quantize it. General relativity can be described by a spin-2, mass-0 field, described by something called the Einstein-Hilbert action. If you try to renormalize this, you will not be able to. The infinities will not go away.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is the most basic explanation I know of, that probably still requires graduate level physics.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12024",
"title": "General relativity",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with quantum theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "If general relativity were considered to be one of the two pillars of modern physics, then quantum theory, the basis of understanding matter from elementary particles to solid state physics, would be the other. However, how to reconcile quantum theory with general relativity is still an open question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2680671",
"title": "Hole argument",
"section": "Section::::Meaning of coordinate invariance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "For the philosophically inclined, there is still some subtlety. If the metric components are considered the dynamical variables of General Relativity, the condition that the equations are coordinate invariant doesn't have any content by itself. All physical theories are invariant under coordinate transformations if formulated properly. It is possible to write down Maxwell's equations in any coordinate system, and predict the future in the same way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4413396",
"title": "Erich Kretschmann",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Einstein wrote concerning Kretschmann's objection: \"Although it is true that every empirical law can be put in a generally covariant form, yet the principle of relativity possesses a great heuristic power...Of two theoretical systems, both of which agree with experience, the one is to be preferred which, from the point of view of the absolute differential calculus is the simpler and more transparent. Let one express Newtonian mechanics four-dimensionally in the form of generally covariant equations and one will surely be convinced that the principle of relativity excludes this theory from the practical, though not the theoretical, viewpoint.\" (Einstein, Albert, 1918. \"Principielles zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie,\" \"Annalen der Physik\", vol. 55, esp. p. 242)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39304805",
"title": "History of Maxwell's equations",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The general theory of relativity has also had a close relationship with Maxwell's equations. For example, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein in the 1920s showed that Maxwell's equations could be derived by extending general relativity into five physical dimensions. This strategy of using additional dimensions to unify different forces remains an active area of research in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9148277",
"title": "Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.:Manifestly covariant (tensor) approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Maxwell's equations are exactly consistent with special relativity—i.e., if they are valid in one inertial reference frame, then they are automatically valid in every other inertial reference frame. In fact, Maxwell's equations were crucial in the historical development of special relativity. However, in the usual formulation of Maxwell's equations, their consistency with special relativity is not obvious; it can only be proven by a laborious calculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38093020",
"title": "Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation",
"section": "Section::::Equation.:General equation (free curved space).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "This equation still does not \"unify\" quantum mechanics and general relativity, because the semiclassical Eikonal approximation in the context of quantum theory and general relativity has been applied, to provide a transition between these theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest such theory that is consistent with the experimental data. Nevertheless, a number of open questions remain, the most fundamental of which is how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z8i85
|
Is Albert Speers book on the Third Reich a good source?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hello - I read this book two summers ago and may I say I found it to be a riveting read. It provides details into the intimate workings of the Reich, and Albert Speer's relationship with Hitler that would be difficult to find elsewhere. In particular I was struck by the inefficiencies and haphazard administration of the Third Reich, and how its politics were administered. \n\nI don't think that Speer's book could be considered biased from the standpoint of being 'Pro-Reich' or anything of the sort. The one thing you could probably criticize him for is shifting blame for the holocaust away from himself.\n\nOverall definitely worth reading but, like all primary sources, should be read with a grain of skepticism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tough question. Speers book is definitely a good source of what Speer wants the world to think about him. On the other hand, it is absolutely a unique insight into the inner workings of the Third Reich.\n\nUltimately, most of the interesting episodes described in his book are personal stories where he is the only source, so it is impossible to fact check a lot of the information.\n\nRead it for what it is: an interesting auto-biography of somebody whose life was defined by the Nazis. For proper historical analysis, go elsewhere.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41072507",
"title": "Dominic Selwood",
"section": "Section::::Journalism and media.:Newspapers and magazines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "He has written extensively on the Third Reich, including on Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring, Rudolf Hess, Reinhard Heydrich, Adolf Eichmann, the formation of the Nazi Party, the Munich Beer Hall putsch, the Berlin Reichstag fire, the Night of the Long Knives, the Nuremberg racial laws, Vichy France, Stalingrad, the Dambusters, the Nuremberg trials and hangings, and area bombing at Guernica, Cologne, and Dresden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28083700",
"title": "Young Hitler",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The second part of the book is purely non-fiction. It contains detailed appendices with many little-known facts about Hitler. Most importantly, the appendices substantiate Hant's thesis which casts a surprising new light on the reasons behind Hitler's rise to power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4824682",
"title": "Rainer Zitelmann",
"section": "Section::::Examination of National-Socialism.:Hitler's Sense of Self as a Revolutionary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "The \"American Historical Review\" wrote (May 1989): “Zitelmann’s book is an admirable example of exhaustive scholarship on an important aspect of the mind of Hitler. But it is less likely to stand as a decisive synthesis than as a provocative turn in the pursuit of the eternal enigmas of the Third Reich and its creator.” In the 2/1988 issue of the \"Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen\", the American historian Prof. Gerhard L. Weinberg wrote: “This work will require all who concern themselves with the Third Reich to rethink their own ideas and to reexamine the evidence on which those ideas are based. For any book to do that today is itself a major accomplishment. It would certainly be most unwise for any scholar to ignore the picture of Hitler presented here simply because it does not fit in with his or her own preconceptions.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312623",
"title": "Schindler's Ark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The book tells the story of Oskar Schindler, a Nazi Party member who turns into an unlikely hero by saving 1,100 Jews from concentration camps all over Poland and Germany. It is a work of historical fiction which describes actual people and places with fictional events, dialogue and scenes added by the author and reconstructed dialogue where exact details are unknown. Keneally wrote a number of well received novels before and after \"Schindler's Ark\"; however, it has since gone on to become his most well-known and celebrated work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52623831",
"title": "Jürgen Förster",
"section": "Section::::Historian of Nazi Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Wegner is a widely published author and editor on the subjects of military history of Nazi Germany and the history of National Socialism. He is a member of the Advisory Editorial Board of the journal \"War in History\". Förster is also one of the authors of the seminal work \"Germany and the Second World War\" from the Military History Research Office (MGFA) contributing to several volumes of the series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2392577",
"title": "The Wave (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The setting of the book is Gordon High School in Spring 1969. The plot revolves around a history teacher Mr. Ben Ross, his high school students, and an experiment he conducts in an attempt to teach them about how it may have been like living in Third Reich Germany. Unsatisfied with his own inability to answer his students' earnest questions of how and why, Mr. Ross initiates the experiment (The Wave) in hopes that it answers the question of why the Germans allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power, acting in a manner inconsistent with their own pre-existing moral values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23035338",
"title": "The Tunnel (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:1. Life in a Chair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Kohler introduces the reader to his scholarly work on the Germans, and contemplates the implications of spending the majority of his working life in a chair. The chair he occupies in the novel belonged to his mentor, the German history professor and Nazi collaborator Magus Tabor. Gass uses quite a bit of typographical variety in this section (a window and a Star of David, both constructed out of text, are notable examples) and includes pictures, drawings and watermarks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1t5wtc
|
How was it to attend or work in a university in Nazi Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "One thing you have to keep in mind about the Nazis is that from fairly early on they began a program of \"coordination\" which made sure that practically all organizations that had any sort of state connection were rearranged along very linearly hierarchical lines of authority, ultimately leading towards people at the top who were very loyal to the Nazi party line. The university system, then as now (I believe) was a form of civil service employment, operated by the state. So it underwent this kind of \"coordination\" as well. This included, among other \"reforms,\" the immediate firing of all \"non-Aryan\" faculty with the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service in 1933, and meant further than Party officials had direct connections to the operation of universities and departments.\n\nThere was very little room for academic discussion of much of anything that had political implications, and what had political implications could be a moving target (some, like anthropology, were obviously related to the Nazi political platform; some, like physics, were not but could be tied into it). There was an enforced conformity with the ideals of the Nazi state, and this enforcement could take many forms, from the very direct (losing jobs, choice of new hires, etc.) to the very indirect (many of the German university student groups were very pro-Nazi and would hold rallies, protests, and the like regarding what was taught). \n\nThe case of German physics is one of the most famous examples of this but also one of the most popularly misunderstood. The basics of the story is this: a number of German physicists had, especially since WWI, campaigned to return to a \"true\" German physics of hard empiricism and experimentalism, rejecting the more abstract physics that was popular in the UK and had many connections with German Jewish physicists. (A connection created out of the circumstances of prejudice — the best physics positions were experimentalist positions and as such routinely denied to Jews. Theoretical physics was originally less prestigious and thus was a place where a Jewish scholar could thrive. By the 1930s the prestige had shifted.) Some of these advocates for \"German/Aryan\" physics were early supporters of the Nazis, and attempted to get the Nazi Party interested in their argument that physics had a \"racial\" component. In the very early years of Nazi rule these physicists had some success in getting various parts of the Nazi government interested in attacking \"Jewish\" physics of relativity and quantum mechanics, but the Nazis never really embraced it as a fundamental part of their operations. They succeeded in harassing a few physicists for awhile (like Heisenberg, though he was able to use personal connections to avoid serious consequences), and they succeeded in making sure a few new academic appointments were filled with like-minded physicists. But by the time of the war their influence had been largely neutralized, the \"Aryan\" physicists thought the Nazis had abandoned them, and the theoretical physicists had gotten insulated by their work on atomic energy. \n\nI like this story both because it points out the way in which the ideology _could be used as a resource_ by people _within the system itself_ — that is, not just a \"top-down\" approach — as a means of trying to enact policies (some academic, some professional, some personal) that they wanted. The Nazi party could sign on to it but also reverse course if they found it useful. In some ways this is comparable to the way that party ideology operated in the USSR as well — sometimes as a doctrine that is handed down from the top, but more often as a resource that some academics could use to attack other academics. (An instinct that any academic will find instantly recognizable.)\n\nI know less about the humanities than the sciences; I would expect that the more explicit the conclusions were with regards to the various parts of the Nazi political/ideological platform, the more obvious the constraints would exist, with the caveat that sometimes the connections between the content and the ideology could be unexpected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31800",
"title": "University of Oslo",
"section": "Section::::History.:1900–1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "During the German occupation, which lasted from 1940–1945, the university rector, Didrik Arup Seip, was imprisoned. The university was then placed under the management of Adolf Hoel, a NS (Norwegian Nazi Party) appointee. A number of students participated in the Norwegian resistance movement; after fire was set in the university auditorium, Reich Commissar Terboven ordered the university closed and the students arrested. A number of students and teachers were detained by the Germans nearly until the end of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "100649",
"title": "Heidelberg University",
"section": "Section::::History.:During the Third Reich.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "With the advent of the Third Reich in 1933, the university supported the Nazis like all other German universities at the time. It dismissed a large number of staff and students for political and racial reasons. Many dissident fellows had to emigrate and most Jewish and Communist professors that did not leave Germany were deported. At least two professors directly fell victim to Nazi terror. On 17 May 1933, members of the university faculty and students took part in book burnings at \"Universitätsplatz\" (\"University Square\") and Heidelberg eventually became infamous as a NSDAP university. The inscription above the main entrance of the New University was changed from \"The Living Spirit\" to \"The German Spirit\", and many professors paid homage to the new motto. The university was involved in Nazi eugenics: forced sterilizations were carried out at the women's clinic and the psychiatric clinic, then directed by Carl Schneider, was involved in Action T4 Euthanasia program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34014882",
"title": "Adult education in Nazi Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "Adult education () in Nazi Germany was institutional continuing education for persons who had completed their schooling. After the synchronization of university extension programs (Volkshochschulen) and their municipal or private sponsors, the German Labor Front (DAF) made its influence felt in two ways. Within its National Socialist Strength Through Joy organization, it founded the German Public Instruction Agency (Deutsche Volksbildungswerk; DVW) in 1935. Moreover, after 1933 it used the Office for Vocational Education and Business Management to influence commercial education. The German Institute for National Socialist Technical Vocational Training (Dinta) gave rise to the German Vocational Education Agency (Deutsches Berufserziehungswerk), which organized \"practice groups\" (\"Übungsgemeinschaften\") that by 1938 had 2 million participants; its workplace programs involved another 1.3 million. These operations should be distinguished from the \"community schooling\" (\"Gemeinschaftsschulung\") of employers, foremen, and workers through courses in the German Labor Front's Reich schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298971",
"title": "University of Freiburg",
"section": "Section::::History.:Third Reich.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "During the Third Reich, the university went through the process of \"political alignment\" (\"Gleichschaltung\") like the rest of the German universities. Under the rector Martin Heidegger, all Jewish faculty members were forced to leave the university in accordance with the \"Law for the Reintroduction of Professional Civil Service\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29278708",
"title": "History of Heidelberg University",
"section": "Section::::Nazi era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "With the advent of the Third Reich in 1933, the university supported the Nazis like all other German universities at the time. It dismissed a large number of staff and students for political and racist reasons. Many dissident fellows had to emigrate and most Jewish and Communist professors that did not leave Germany were deported. At least two professors directly fell victim to Nazi terror.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19620712",
"title": "Gymnasium Carolinum (Osnabrück)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Twentieth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "In 1933 the boys' school of the Gymnasium Carolinum had twenty-two teachers, all of whom were Catholics and thirteen of whom had served in the First World War. Only one had up to that point joined the Nazi party. Yet Nazi educational policy changed both the curriculum and the views of students. The number of schools hours devoted to physical exercise, history, and geography increased, while those involving foreign languages and religion decreased. In 1939 essays written by students at the school reflected the new policies and referred frequently to works by Hitler and other Nazi leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "356844",
"title": "University of Jena",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nazi period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading positions at the university. The racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process; he later became rector of the University in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. Student fraternities - in particular the Burschenschaften - were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. The Nazi student federation enjoyed before the transfer of power and won great support among the student body elections in January 1933, achieving 49.3% of the vote, which represents the second best result. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a1yuso
|
How does the heart work differently in space compared to earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blood does not fall into the ventricles, the atria contract and force it in. If the circulatory system relied on gravity we wouldn't be able to lie down or hang upside down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria and lower left and right ventricles. Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the \"right heart\" and their left counterparts as the \"left heart\". Fish, in contrast, have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57330",
"title": "Circulatory system",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Closed circulatory system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51116486",
"title": "Francisco Torrent-Guasp",
"section": "Section::::The ventricular myocardial band.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Several anatomists had previously focused on the structure of the heart: Andreas Vesalius, Enrico Rueda, Jean-Baptiste de Sénac, Thomas Bartholin, Jules Germain Cloquet and Robert Koch. It was well known that the mammalian and avian heart has four chambers (two atria and two ventricles) and that its muscle fibers are intertwined on several levels. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assisting in the removal of metabolic wastes. In humans, the heart is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Other vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The size of the heart varies among the different animal groups, with hearts in vertebrates ranging from those of the smallest mice (12 mg) to the blue whale (600 kg). In vertebrates, the heart lies in the middle of the ventral part of the body, surrounded by a pericardium. which in some fish may be connected to the peritoneum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25700707",
"title": "E/A ratio",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The heart is a biological pump designed to move blood through the brain and body. It has four chambers: two \"upper\" chambers called the atria, and two \"lower\" chambers called the ventricles. Anatomically, the atria are more posterior to the ventricles, but for ease of understanding, are often drawn \"above\" them. The atria are separated from the ventricles beneath by the atrioventricular valves, which open to allow blood into the ventricles and close when ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "Humans have known about the heart since ancient times, although its precise function and anatomy were not clearly understood. From the primarily religious views of earlier societies towards the heart, ancient Greeks are considered to have been the primary seat of scientific understanding of the heart in the ancient world. Aristotle considered the heart to be organ responsible for creating blood; Plato considered the heart as the source of circulating blood and Hippocrates noted blood circulating cyclically from the body through the heart to the lungs. Erasistratos (304–250 BCE) noted the heart as a pump, causing dilation of blood vessels, and noted that arteries and veins both radiate from the heart, becoming progressively smaller with distance, although he believed they were filled with air and not blood. He also discovered the heart valves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d6gntv
|
how do the cells stay alive when you fall asleep on a body part for an extended period of time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your arteries are high pressure hoses that stay open even if you compress them. They are deeper in your body too so they wont get compressed easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The numbness that comes from putting pressure on a body part is from compressing the nerves and disrupting their communication, not preventing blood flow, if that's why you ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38879444",
"title": "TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator",
"section": "Section::::Function.:DNA damage response and cell cycle arrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In non-resting cells, the cell cycle consists of G0 - G1 - S - G2 - M phases, and is tightly regulated at checkpoints between the phases. If the cell has undergone stress, certain proteins are expressed that will prevent the specific sequence of macromolecular interactions at the checkpoint required for progression to the next phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35714179",
"title": "Cancer dormancy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Dormancy is a stage in cancer progression where the cells cease dividing but survive in a quiescent state while waiting for appropriate environmental conditions to begin proliferation again. Quiescence is the state where cells are not dividing but at arrest in the cell cycle in G0-G1. Dormant cancer cells are thought to be present in early tumor progression, in micrometastases, or left behind in minimal residual disease (MRD) after what was thought to be a successful treatment of the primary tumor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Sleep function.:Waste clearance from the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between the blood vessels and astrocytes act like a spillway allowing drainage of cerebrospinal fluid carrying wastes out of the brain into systemic blood. Such mechanisms, which remain under preliminary research as of 2017, indicate potential ways in which sleep is a regulated maintenance period for brain immune functions and clearance of beta-amyloid, a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35714179",
"title": "Cancer dormancy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Types of cancer dormancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Cellular dormancy refers to the cell entering a state of quiescence where growth is arrested in G0-G1 of the cell cycle, and cells are truly inactive and asymptomatic. This is referred to as the dormancy that tumor cells enter when they survive dissemination but cannot adapt immediately to stresses or the new microenvironment. Recently, model pathogenic eukaryotic cell encystation has been linked to cancer cell dormancy, \"Acanthamoeba\" spp. were studied for conditions leading to their encystation. These conditions were imposed on prostate cancer cells to induce a state of dormancy from which they could be revived by elimination of the provoking stimuli. Dormant cells might also have different mechanisms that can be used to evade an immune response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The human organism physically restores itself during sleep, healing itself and removing metabolic wastes which build up during periods of activity. This restoration takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44531850",
"title": "Permanent cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Permanent cells are cells that are incapable of regeneration. These cells are considered to be terminally differentiated and non proliferative in postnatal life. This includes brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, and red blood cells. Although these cells are considered permanent in that they neither reproduce nor transform into other cells, this does not mean that the body can not create new versions of these cells. For instance, structures in the bone marrow produce new red blood cells constantly, while skeletal muscle damage can be repaired by underlying satellite cells which fuse to become a new skeletal muscle cell. Disease and virology studies can use permanent cells to maintain cell count and accurately quantify the effects of vaccines. Some embryology studies also use permanent cells to avoid harvesting embryonic cells from pregnant animals; since the cells are permanent, they may be harvested at a later age when an animal is fully developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15484616",
"title": "Labile cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that multiply constantly throughout life. The cells are alive for only a short period of time. Due to this,they can end up reproducing new stem cells and replace functional cells. Especially if the cells become injured through a process called necrosis, or even if the cells go through apoptosis. The way these cells regenerate and replace themselves is quite unique. While going through cell division, one of the two daughter cells actually becomes a new stem cell. This occurs so then that daughter cell can end up restoring the population of the stem cells that were lost. The other daughter cell separates itself into a functional cell in order to replace the lost, or injured cells during this process. Labile cells are one type of the cells that are involved in the division of cells. The other two types that are involved include stable cells and permanent cells. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
484hf0
|
how did early television shows record episodes for later broadcast?
|
[
{
"answer": "There really was little thought of \"later broadcast\" (as in reruns) for very early TV, meaning late 1940s/early 1950s. Some \"live\" shows were filmed directly from a TV monitor screen (these filmed copies were called \"kinescopes\") for archiving and for rushing to the west coast for broadcast 3 hours later. Filmed shows (shot on 35mm or 16mm originally) were broadcast by running the film through a film chain, where the frame rate of the film was synchronized to the video camera to the frame rate of the film (24 frames per second) to eliminate the \"flutter\" of broadcasting black frames (the projector's shutter between frames).\n\nBing Crosby was an early backer of the development of video tape, which allowed more flexible time shifting. Video tape began to be employed during the late 1950s. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39324021",
"title": "Melody Time (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "It is not known how many episodes still exist, given station practices of the era. A 16mm kinescope recording of the episode aired 26 August 1957 is held by National Archives of Australia. (note: Kinescope recording, also known as telerecording, was an early method to record live television, used in the days before video-tape became widely available)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89314",
"title": "Wiping",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:BBC.:Technological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The earliest recording method for television was telerecording, which involved recording the image from a special television monitor onto film with a modified film camera. Early examples made by this method include the first two episodes of \"The Quatermass Experiment\" (1953), transmitted live while simultaneously telerecorded. The visual quality of the second episode's recording was considered so poor—a fly entered the gap between the camera and monitor at one point—that the remainder of the series was not recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665707",
"title": "Truth or Consequences",
"section": "Section::::Broadcast history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Edwards pioneered several technologies for recording live television programs. When \"Truth or Consequences\" established a permanent presence on TV in 1950, Edwards arranged to have it be recorded on 35mm film, using multiple cameras simultaneously—the first TV program recorded before a live audience to do so. A similar process was then adapted by Desilu for \"I Love Lucy\" the following year. On January 22, 1957, the show, which was produced in Hollywood, became the first program to be broadcast in all time zones from a prerecorded videotape; this technology, which had only been introduced the previous year, had previously been used only for time-delayed broadcasts to the West Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89314",
"title": "Wiping",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Wiped programs.:Early live shows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Many programs in the early days of television were live broadcasts that are lost because they were not recorded. Most prime-time programs that were preserved used the kinescope recording process, which involved filming the live broadcast from a television screen using a motion-picture camera (videotape, for recording programs, was not perfected until the late 1950s and was not widely used until the late 1960s). This was also a common practice for broadcasting live TV shows to the west coast, as performers often performed a show back-to-back, but never back-to-back-to-back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44534037",
"title": "Hair Fashions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Nothing remains of the series today, as it aired live, and practical methods of recording live television did not exist until late 1947. The bottom of Page 19 of the July 2 1932 edition of \"The New York Sun\" features a behinds-the-scenes picture of an episode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25745",
"title": "Rerun",
"section": "Section::::Reruns in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In the United States, most television shows from the late 1940s and early 1950s were performed live, and in many cases they were never recorded. However, television networks in the United States began making kinescope recordings of shows broadcast live from the East Coast. This allowed the show to be broadcast later for the West Coast. These kinescopes, along with pre-filmed shows, and later, videotape, paved the way for extensive reruns of syndicated television series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44486821",
"title": "Harriet Lee (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "None of the episodes still exist, as methods to record live television were not practical until late 1947. However, Lee, who was best-known at the time as a radio singer, appeared in several short films during the 1930s, one of which, \"Rambling 'Round Radio Row #5\" (1933), appears on a DVD compilation of Vitaphone short films. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24ipj4
|
A domed building a good place to be in a tornado?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably more of an engineering question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it is true, a sphere has the least surface area:volume ratio possible, and a dome is half a sphere sticking out of the ground, this means the amount of surface for the tornado to blow on is much less than say a rectangular building like a casino.\n\nthat being said, form factor and center of mass also matter, a dome has identical surfaces regardless of the direction of the wind(tornado) and if mass is distributed equally, the center of mass would be near the base of the dome, meaning it is not top heavy, so that it cannot topple over (a skyscraper would topple because it is top heavy/has a high center of mass).\n\nanother noteworthy thing is that domes and pyramids have a \"negative aerodynamic lift\" when being blown, this means the wind is literally pushing the dome/pyramid down as they are blowing across",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36624955",
"title": "First United Methodist Church (Jasper, Alabama)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "A tornado struck the building on April 3, 1974, causing extensive damage to the cupola and roof. It also ripped the main sanctuary doors apart, damaged or destroyed 34 of the 38 stained glass windows, and caused water damage in the interior. The damage was repaired from 1975–76. Destroyed stained glass windows were restored with sympathetically-designed modern replacements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2073624",
"title": "Monolithic dome",
"section": "Section::::Durability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The dome, when finished, is earthquake, tornado and hurricane resistant (the US Federal Emergency Management Agency rates them as \"near-absolute protection\" from F5 tornadoes and Category 5 Hurricanes). Recently, a number of monolithic domes constructed using MDI techniques have survived major disasters:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3681967",
"title": "Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The building is encircled by a large chain, placed there in 1937, to help anchor it to the ground in case of a hurricane. The walls are made of bald cypress and red cedar which are held together by wooden pins and iron spikes, however, recent maintenance has replaced the roofing, among other fixes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15526387",
"title": "Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the Louisiana Superdome",
"section": "Section::::Hurricane Katrina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The Superdome was built to withstand most catastrophes. The roof was estimated to be able to withstand winds with speeds of up to but flood waters could still possibly reach the second level from the ground, making the structure an unreliable shelter in severe rain and wind. When looking into the origins of the claims about wind security in the Superdome, CNN reported that no engineering study had ever been completed on the amount of wind the structure could withstand. The building's engineering study was underway as Hurricane Katrina approached and was put on hold. It was used as an emergency shelter although it was neither designed nor tested for the task. However, the damage to the roof was not catastrophic, with just two relatively small holes and the ripping off of most of the easily replaceable white rubber membrane on the outer layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860855",
"title": "Hurricane-proof building",
"section": "Section::::Wind loading considerations.:Earth-sheltering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Earth-sheltered construction is generally more resistant to strong winds and tornadoes than standard construction. Cellars and other earth sheltered components of other buildings, can provide safe refuge during tornadoes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18732974",
"title": "Mills-Hale-Owen Blocks",
"section": "Section::::Description and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The buildings sustained extreme damage during the 2011 Springfield tornado, with the top floor of at least one of the buildings partially collapsing. The buildings were demolished eight days later due to the irreparable damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42992130",
"title": "Nipro Hachiko Dome",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The roof was made from 25,000 Akita Cypress trees which were aged over the course of 60 years. This wooden framework is covered with a special double Teflon-coated membrane made from translucent fluorethylene resin-coated fibreglass. This membrane is very strong and light. The stadium is located in a region of Japan that it subjected to heavy snowfall of . Because of this, the dome itself also has an aerodynamic design to resist strong winds and heavy snowfall. Buildup of snow on the roof is prevented by circulating warm air between the 2 Teflon-coated membranes, this shakes off the snow and allows the stadium to be used in all weathers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jlt2g
|
how does a proposition become a law?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Schoolhouse Rock: I'm Just a Bill](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1835207",
"title": "Proposition (politics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A proposition is also a measure or proposed legislation \"proposed\" to the members of a legislature or to voters, in a direct popular plebiscite, for their approval. In the US American phenomenon of popular plebiscites, propositions can take the form of an initiative or a referendum; for example, see the list of California ballot propositions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5580468",
"title": "Elections in California",
"section": "Section::::Ballot propositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "A ballot proposition is a proposed law that is submitted to the electorate for approval in a direct vote (or plebiscite). It may take the form of a constitutional amendment or an ordinary statute. A ballot proposition may be proposed by the State Legislature or by a petition signed by members of the public under the initiative system. In California a vote on a measure referred to voters by the legislature is a mandatory referendum; a vote to veto a law that has already been adopted by the legislature is an optional referendum or \"people's veto\"; the process of proposing laws by petition is the initiative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "546039",
"title": "Syntax (logic)",
"section": "Section::::Syntactic entities.:Propositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A proposition is a sentence expressing something true or false. A proposition is identified ontologically as an idea, concept or abstraction whose token instances are patterns of symbols, marks, sounds, or strings of words. Propositions are considered to be syntactic entities and also truthbearers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885854",
"title": "California ballot proposition",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Initiative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "A ballot proposition enacted by the initiative process can alter the Constitution of California, the California Codes, or another law in the California Statutes. An initiative is brought about by writing a proposed law as a petition, and submitting the petition to the California Attorney General along with a submission fee, and obtaining signatures on petitions from registered voters amounting to 8 percent (for an amendment to the state constitution) or 5 percent (for a statute) of the number of people who voted in the most recent election for governor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1835207",
"title": "Proposition (politics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "In politics, a proposition is a rarely used term to designate political parties, factions, and individuals in a legislature who are favorable and supportive of the incumbent government, as against the opposition. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885854",
"title": "California ballot proposition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In California, a ballot proposition can be a referendum or an initiative measure that is submitted to the electorate for a direct decision or direct vote (or plebiscite). If passed, it can alter one or more of the articles of the Constitution of California, one or more of the 29 California Codes, or another law in the California Statutes by clarifying current or adding statute(s) or removing current statute(s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95816",
"title": "Direct democracy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "A citizen-initiated referendum (also called an initiative) empowers members of the general public to propose, by petition, specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with other referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: with the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by California's system). With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Consitiutional amendments in Switzerland go through such a form of indirect initiative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7yrvn5
|
If wind is primarily generated by the rotation of the Earth, then how are some days windier than others?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer to \"If X, then why Y?\" is often \"Because X isn't true.\"\n\nWind is not *principally* caused by the Earth's rotation: the main cause is differences in air temperature. Air heated by the sun rises, and cooler air moves in to take its place. This movement of cooler air is the phenomenon we call \"wind\".\n\nThe Earth's rotation does contribute to wind, however, because as the Earth rotates, parts warmed by the sun during the day cool down during the night. The other effect that Earth's rotation has on wind is the Coriolis effect, which causes wind to spin in cyclones and anticyclones rather than moving directly from one place to another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It turns out that the winter Olympics is a good time to ask this question!\n\nThe Earth is heated near the equator and cooled at the poles, so cold air sinks at the poles, and warm air rises at the equator and tries to move to the poles to create a closed-loop overturning circulation.\n\nHowever, because the Earth is rotating (and the air on it is too), the warm air runs into a problem. Like an ice skater pulling her arms in during a spin, as the air tries to move toward the pole it starts to spin around the Earth's axis faster and faster. This creates a strong west-to-east wind -- the jet stream. And just as it takes more strength for the ice skater to pull her arms in as she spins faster, it gets harder and harder for the warm air to move uniformly toward the pole -- in fact it eventually becomes impossible.\n\nSo the warm equatorial air can't move uniformly toward the pole, but its *heat* can still be transported. Individual blobs of warm tropical air can move toward the pole, trading places with blobs of cold polar air moving to the equator in a series of vortex patterns. (It's as if the ice skater moved one arm toward herself and one arm away, causing no change in spin rate. Also, she's got lots of arms like an octopus... hmm, this metaphor is getting away from me.)\n\nThese vortexes are the storm systems that weather forecasters try to predict. They are vital for carrying heat toward the poles and allowing cold air to return. They're typically about 1000 km across, and they change position, shape, and size constantly, so the wind patterns associated with them are always changing too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "236717",
"title": "Anticyclone",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "In the absence of rotation, the wind tends to blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The stronger the pressure difference (pressure gradient) between a high-pressure system and a low-pressure system, the stronger the wind. The coriolis force caused by Earth's rotation gives winds within high-pressure systems their clockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure) and anticlockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure). Friction with land slows down the wind flowing out of high-pressure systems and causes wind to flow more outward (more ageostrophically) from the center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131151",
"title": "Heliosphere",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Solar wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The solar wind consists of particles (ionized atoms from the solar corona) and fields like the magnetic field that are produced from the Sun and stream out into space. Because the Sun rotates once approximately every 25 days, the magnetic field transported by the solar wind gets wrapped into a spiral. The Solar wind affects many other systems in the Solar System; for example, variations in the Sun's own magnetic field are carried outward by the solar wind, producing geomagnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10717709",
"title": "Wind power in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Wind energy meteorology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Winds in the Central plains region of the U.S. are variable on both short (minutes) and long (days) time scales. Variations in wind speed result in variations in power output from wind farms, which poses difficulties incorporating wind power into an integrated power system. Wind turbines are driven by boundary layer winds, those that occur near the surface of the earth, at around 300 feet. Boundary layer winds are controlled by wind in the higher free atmosphere and have turbulence due to interaction with surface features such as trees, hills, and buildings. Short term or high frequency variations are due to this turbulence in the boundary layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15440316",
"title": "Wind",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low-pressure areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91100",
"title": "Michelson–Morley experiment",
"section": "Section::::1881 and 1887 experiments.:Michelson–Morley experiment (1887).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of a sidereal day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1593644",
"title": "Thermal wind",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Advection turning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 499,
"text": " If a component of the geostrophic wind is parallel to the temperature gradient, the thermal wind will cause the geostrophic wind to rotate with height. If geostrophic wind blows from cold air to warm air (cold advection) the geostrophic wind will turn counterclockwise with height (for the northern hemisphere), a phenomenon known as wind backing. Otherwise, if geostrophic wind blows from warm air to cold air (warm advection) the wind will turn clockwise with height, also known as wind veering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068786",
"title": "Tubao",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Direction of the wind blowing in the area is mostly from south-west to north-east due to south-west monsoons. The area has a natural shield of winds blowing from the east because of the Cordillera mountain ranges. During summer, in the absence of any weather disturbance, wind blows from west to east as natural sea breeze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45i564
|
the most modern understanding of human evolution/origin?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not quite. Neanderthals are more of a 'cousin' as it were, as the current evidence suggests that homo sapiens and homo neanderthalensis diverged from a common ancestor some 350k + years ago (that species, we believe to be Homo heidelbergensis).\n\nHere's a nice [graphic](_URL_0_) giving a generalized idea about the current interbreeding hypothesis between modern humans and neanderthals - basically we separated then came back together, co-existed for a while, and then we displaced the neanderthals and they went extinct some 40k years ago.\n\nEdit: A competing theory suggests that the neanderthals were 'absorbed' by modern humans through interbreeding, rather than displaced/gone extinct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope! Neanderthals were actually a branch of hominids which died out.\n\nI think you are a little mistaken on how evolution works. For one, it doesn't have goals or aims, it just does things that work in the moment. If a species needs to change color suddenly for some reason, it will either do so or it will die out, and most of the time they die out. The same happened to Neanderthals. They weren't able to survive as the world changed, possibly due to competition from us. It seems that the branch of hominids which eventually became us were able to breed with Neanderthals, but were also significantly smarter than them.\n\nIn addition, evolution really cares about most common ancestors rather than lines of lineage. We aren't descended from Neanderthals (mostly), but we are both descended from a single common ancestor which lived somewhere in Africa several million years ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neanderthals were either another species of the *Homo* genus or a sub-species of Homo sapiens. They went extinct around 40,000 years ago.\n\nGenetic evidence seems to suggest that Neanderthals did interbreed with humans; something like 1 to 4 percent of genes of modern non-African humans come from Neanderthals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, it goes like this:\n\n1. Homo erectus. A few H. erectus leave Africa (able to survive only in the tropics of Eurasia, lacked fire); some of these Eurasian H. erectus groups evolve into new hominid species.\n\n2. Meanwhile, back in Africa! Homo erectus has evolved into several new hominid species, most notably Homo heidelbergensis. A few H. heidelbergensis leave Africa; Eurasian H. heidelbergensis began to evolve into a new species, but that proto-species got divided across opposite ends of Eurasia so it ended up becoming two species: Homo neanderthalensis (Europe and Middle East) and Homo denisova (SE Asia, although the only surviving remains are in Siberia). At around this time the Homo erectus in Eurasia begin to disappear, possibly due to the Heidelberg/Neanderthal/Denisova clan.\n\n3. Meanwhile, back in Africa! Homo heidelbergensis has evolved into several new hominid species, most notably Homo sapiens. Some H. sapiens branches head down to SE Africa, and next to Central Africa. At this point a few Homo sapiens leave Africa for Eurasia. One branch begins heading out along the tropical coastline immediately; when this branch gets to SE Asia, there is some denisova/sapiens banging. Another branch later north through the Caucasus, where there is some neanderthalensis/sapiens banging, and then breaks up, heading west into Europe and east into East Asia.\n\n4. Meanwhile, back in Africa: no new species! We do have some hominid/hominid banging, possibly with two different species, but we don't really know the details because fossils don't survive in tropical climates, so we don't have any DNA from those species.\n\nMake sense? Both the main trunk of the human family tree and the Neanderthals (plus Denisovans) evolved from *Homo heidelbergensis.* Subsequently happenstance brought these cousins back together, and they were sufficiently closely related to have children. So a very large fraction of the world population is descended from two or three branches of this family tree; they're not *evolved from* Neanderthals, they *are* (part) Neanderthal, even though the majority of their genes come from the Homo sapiens branch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2322509",
"title": "Timeline of human evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The timeline of human evolution outlines the major events in the development of the human species, \"Homo sapiens\", and the evolution of the human's ancestors. It includes brief explanations of some of the species, genera, and the higher ranks of taxa that are seen today as possible ancestors of modern humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates—in particular genus \"Homo\"—and leading to the emergence of \"Homo sapiens\" as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language, as well as interbreeding with other hominins, which indicate that human evolution was not linear but a web.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "The evidence on which scientific accounts of human evolution are based comes from many fields of natural science. The main source of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s, DNA analysis has come to occupy a place of comparable importance. The studies of ontogeny, phylogeny and especially evolutionary developmental biology of both vertebrates and invertebrates offer considerable insight into the evolution of all life, including how humans evolved. The specific study of the origin and life of humans is anthropology, particularly paleoanthropology which focuses on the study of human prehistory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43535798",
"title": "Evolution of primates",
"section": "Section::::Human evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates – in particular genus \"Homo\" – and leading to the emergence of \"Homo sapiens\" as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569605",
"title": "Multiregional origin of modern humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Multiregional evolution holds that the human species first arose around two million years ago and subsequent human evolution has been within a single, continuous human species. This species encompasses all archaic human forms such as \"H. erectus\" and Neanderthals as well as modern forms, and evolved worldwide to the diverse populations of anatomically modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution and range.:Anatomical adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are 1. bipedalism, 2. increased brain size, 3. lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), 4. decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in \"H. erectus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1115768",
"title": "Creation–evolution controversy",
"section": "Section::::Disputes relating to science.:Biology.:Common descent.:Human evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Human evolution is the study of the biological evolution of humans as a distinct species from its common ancestors with other animals. Analysis of fossil evidence and genetic distance are two of the means by which scientists understand this evolutionary history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
1xwati
|
Why did the Marshall Mission, the American attempt to create a unified government between Chinese Communist Party and Nationalists following WWII, ultimately fail?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hello, and thank you for this thoughtful and well-worded question! I'm unfortunately not an expert on the Chinese Civil War, but I'll try my best to provide some background.\n\nThe very short answer to everything is that Mao Zedong and the Communists never had any intention to cooperate with the Nationalists or the Americans in the long term. Before George Marshall even set foot in China, the CCP created plans to \"neutralize the United States\" or, as Zhou Enlai later expressed, \"[make] use of the United States... [and] make every effort to delay the onset of civil war.\" Their position is quite understandable, of course: the United States wanted China under a non-communist government, and its policies consistently favored the Nationalists. Chiang Kai-shek, on his part, was initially amenable to negotiations, if only to pacify both the United States and the Soviet Union, even though his advisers warned that Mao would simply exploit the opportunity to consolidate his forces and that the United States would likely blame the Nationalists for any failure to maintain peace. \n\nThe Soviet Union played a major role in these developments, as you suggested. When the Red Army occupied Manchuria in August 1945 near the end of the Second World War, they handed over an enormous quantity of captured weapons and other materiel to the CCP: according to one source, \"700,000 rifles, 1100 light machine guns, 3000 heavy machine guns, 1800 cannons, 2500 mortars, 700 tanks, 800 ammunition depots, and ordnance factories kept by the former Japanese Kwantung Army.\" The Politburo then recommended to the CCP a month later that they adopt the strategy of \"expanding toward the north and defending toward the south\"--that is, secure their position in Manchuria--to which Mao wholeheartedly agreed. In the meantime, while the Red Army allowed the CCP to maneuver freely throughout the region, they prevented Nationalist officials and troops from expanding their foothold. The Soviets finally agreed to withdraw after Chiang protested, but they delayed it until March 1946. This, along with the temporary ceasefire with the Nationalists later brokered by Marshall, bought extra time for Mao.\n\nSo the Marshall Mission never really stood a chance. Marshall himself failed to resolve the fundamental differences dividing the Communists and Nationalists (and I don't see how he could have); on the other hand, while he later reported that \"almost complete, overwhelming suspicion\" between the two parties limited any meaningful chance for mediation, Marshall also complained about the CCP's \"unwillingness to make a fair compromise.\" You might consider this the \"final straw,\" though Truman recalled him in January 1947 so he could serve as Secretary of State (allegedly without Marshall's prior knowledge). As for the military dimension, I'll defer to someone better-versed on the topic. I hope you find this helpful nonetheless! :D",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6934277",
"title": "History of Beijing",
"section": "Section::::Republic of China.:Chinese Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The Nationalists and Chinese Communists were allies during the Sino-Japanese War, but their domestic rivalry resumed after the defeat of Japan. To prevent the resumption of civil war, the U.S. government sent George C. Marshall to China to mediate. The Marshall Mission was headquartered in Beiping where a truce was brokered on January 10, 1946, and a three-person committee, consisting of a Nationalist, a Communist and an American representative, was created to investigate breaches in the ceasefire in North China and Manchuria. The truce began to unravel in June 1946 and the Marshall Mission ultimately failed to create a coalition government. The rape of Peking University student Shen Chong by two U.S. Marines in Dongdan on Christmas Eve 1946 sparked student demonstrations against the U.S. military presence in China. After Marshall's departure in February 1947, full-scale civil war erupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5738445",
"title": "Marshall Mission",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The failure of the Marshall Mission signaled the renewal of the Chinese Civil War. George Marshall returned to the United States and committed himself to the revitalization of Europe with the Marshall Plan in the role of United States Secretary of State, which became a great success. By 1949, the Kuomintang was driven from the Chinese mainland into Taiwan by the Communists, which established the People's Republic of China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277880",
"title": "China–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Republic of China and the United States.:Civil War in Mainland China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "After World War II ended in 1945, the hostility between the Nationalists and the Communists exploded into the open Chinese Civil War. President Truman dispatched General George Marshall to China to mediate, but the Marshall Mission was not successful. In February 1948, Marshall, now Secretary of State, testified to Congress in secret session that he had realized from the start that the Nationalists could never defeat the Communists in the field, so some sort of negotiated settlement was necessary or else the United States would have to fight the war. He warned:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458973",
"title": "Presidency of Harry S. Truman",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.:Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1243,
"text": "Following the defeat of the Japanese Empire, China descended into a civil war. The civil war baffled Washington, as both the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists under Mao Zedong had American advocates. Truman sent George Marshall to China in early 1946 to broker a compromise featuring a coalition government, but Marshall returned to Washington in December 1946, blaming extremist elements on both sides. Though the Nationalists held a numerical advantage in the aftermath of the war, the Communists gained the upper hand in the civil war after 1947. Corruption, poor economic conditions, and poor military leadership eroded popular support for the Nationalist government, and the Communists won many peasants to their side. As the Nationalists collapsed in 1948, the Truman administration faced the question of whether to intervene on the side of the Nationalists or seek good relations with Mao. Chiang's strong support among sections of the American public, along with desire to assure other allies that the U.S. was committed to containment, convinced Truman to increase economic and military aid to the Nationalists. However, Truman held out little hope for a Nationalist victory, and he refused to send U.S. soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61227631",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Following the defeat of the Japanese Empire, China descended into a civil war. The civil war baffled Washington, as both the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists under Mao Zedong had American advocates. Truman sent George Marshall to China in early 1946 to broker a compromise featuring a coalition government. The mission failed, as both sides felt the issue would be decided on the battlefield, not at a conference table. Marshall returned to Washington in December 1946, blaming extremist elements on both sides. In mid-1947, Truman sent General Albert Coady Wedemeyer to China to try again, but no progress was made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36623",
"title": "George Marshall",
"section": "Section::::Post war: China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1181,
"text": "In December 1945, President Harry Truman sent Marshall to China, to broker a coalition government between the Nationalist allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and Communists under Mao Zedong. Mao promised Marshall the Communists would give up armed revolution, embrace the old enemies, and build a democracy in China. Marshall hoped for a coalition government, and toasted their common future. The Americans assumed that if the Communist won the Civil War, they would remain on friendly terms with the United States. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but he threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated, with the Communists winning in 1949. His mission a failure, he returned to the United States in January 1947. Chiang Kai-shek and some historians later claimed that cease-fire, under pressure of Marshall, saved the Communists from defeat. As Secretary of State in 1947–48, Marshall seems to have disagreed with strong opinions in The Pentagon and State Department that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7062377",
"title": "Aftermath of World War II",
"section": "Section::::Post-war tensions.:Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "After the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek) and the Communist Chinese forces resumed their civil war, which had been temporarily suspended when they fought together against Japan. The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strengthened popular support among the Chinese for the Communist guerrilla forces while it weakened the KMT, who depleted their strength fighting a conventional war. Full-scale war between the opposing forces broke out in June 1946. Despite U.S. support to the Kuomintang, Communist forces were ultimately victorious and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. Hostilities had largely ceased in 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s4fiv
|
Can anyone explain this mythbusters result? Because it seems to break my understanding of Newtonian physics.
|
[
{
"answer": "The movement is from the small amount of air that rebounds in the opposite direction off the sail.",
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},
{
"answer": "The gist of it is that the air from the fan bounces off the sail and winds up flowing backwards. So the combination of forward-pointing-fan+sail is equivalent to a weaker fan pointing backwards. (Weaker because some of the air that bounces off the sail gets sucked in by the fan to make another cycle.)\n\nBecause the net motion of air is backwards, the boat moves forwards to compensate, just like a rocket.\n\nI wrote a [blog post about this](_URL_0_) at the time which you could read if you want more detail. (I'm sure this has been discussed on other blogs but I don't happen to know of any good ones offhand.)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14627",
"title": "Isaac Newton",
"section": "Section::::Apple incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree. Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment, acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his \"Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life\" a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11849509",
"title": "General Scholium",
"section": "Section::::Scientific method argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Newton did not offer any reasons or causes for his law of gravity, and was therefore publicly criticised for introducing \"occult agencies\" into science. Newton objected to Descartes' and Leibniz's Scientific method of deriving conclusions by applying reason to a priori definitions rather than to empirical evidence, and famously stated \"hypotheses non fingo\", Latin for \"I do not frame hypotheses\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16038926",
"title": "Newtonianism",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Newton's \"Principia Mathematica\", published by the Royal Society in 1687 but not available widely and in English until after his death, is the text generally cited as revolutionary or otherwise radical in the development of science. The three books of \"Principia\", considered a seminal text in mathematics and physics, are notable for their rejection of hypotheses in favor of inductive and deductive reasoning based on a set of definitions and axioms. This method may be contrasted to the Cartesian method of deduction based on sequential logical reasoning, and showed the efficacy of applying mathematical analysis as a means of making discoveries about the natural world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44732699",
"title": "All models are wrong",
"section": "Section::::Discussions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Truran's essay further notes that Newton's theory of gravitation has been supplanted by Einstein's theory of relativity and yet Newton's theory remains generally \"empirically adequate\". Indeed, Newton's theory generally has excellent predictive power. Yet Newton's theory is not an approximation of Einstein's theory. For illustration, consider an apple falling down from a tree. Under Newton's theory, the apple falls because Earth exerts a force on the apple—what is called \"the force of gravity\". Under Einstein's theory, Earth does not exert \"any\" force on the apple. Hence, Newton's theory might be regarded as being, in some sense, \"completely\" wrong but extremely useful. (The usefulness of Newton's theory comes partly from being vastly simpler, both mathematically and computationally, than Einstein's theory.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53212411",
"title": "Newton for Beginners",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "\"The book is well-grounded in recent historiography,\" and, \"Rankin is clearly sympathetic towards his subject,\" states Fullick, \"but inevitably Newton still comes over as one whose intellectual vanity was at times apt to overcome his self-control.\" Roy Herbert, writing in \"New Scientist\", confirms that despite being a colossus, \"Many of his contemporaries saw him as something else and these bit players provide a background of 17th-century backbiting and squabbling (Newton took part) that is always fascinating.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48781",
"title": "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:General Scholium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "Here Newton used what became his famous expression Hypotheses non fingo, \"I formulate no hypotheses\", in response to criticisms of the first edition of the \"Principia\". (\"'Fingo'\" is sometimes nowadays translated 'feign' rather than the traditional 'frame'.) Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisible force able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced \"occult agencies\" into science. Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses \"have no place in experimental philosophy\", in contrast to the proper way in which \"particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200115",
"title": "Trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Physics of trajectories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Newton's theory later developed into the branch of theoretical physics known as classical mechanics. It employs the mathematics of differential calculus (which was also initiated by Newton in his youth). Over the centuries, countless scientists have contributed to the development of these two disciplines. Classical mechanics became a most prominent demonstration of the power of rational thought, i.e. reason, in science as well as technology. It helps to understand and predict an enormous range of phenomena; trajectories are but one example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q3l4x
|
why whenever i eat fruits i still feel hungry, but eat fatty foods and feel full.
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, for one, they just don't have a lot of calories. There's only about 60 calories in an entire orange. Fat is calorie-dense so you're just plain eating more.",
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},
{
"answer": "Fats and proteins are recognized by your digestive system and a signal is sent to your brain (after a half hour or so) that you have eaten or are \"full\" (ELI5).\nFoods have different \"satiety values\" (not ELI5, but maybe ELI15), which determine when you are \"sated\", or full; fats and proteins determine this value by how much of them is present in the food you eat.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "According to [this article](_URL_0_):\n\n\"When the fat remains stable in the acid environment of the stomach, it empties into the small intestine more slowly and increases satiety.\"\n\nHowever, for a more ELI5 version:\n\nThink of your stomach as a bonfire. When you put in a piece of paper (e.g. the apple) it burns it very quickly and it provides relatively little heat. However, when you put in a large log (e.g. the fatty meat), it burns slower and releases its heat slowly over a longer period of time. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about an apple. That apple is made of something called carbohydrates. Your body uses carbohydrates to fuel itself, kind of like a car uses gas to go down the road.\n\nNow, think about a hamburger. That hamburger has a lot of fat in it. Your body uses fats to give itself energy, kind of like that car using gas.\n\n\nNow, let's think about a couple of other things. You see a basketball and you can pick it up because it's light, like air. The carbohydrates are light in energy, kind of like that basketball.\n\nHave you ever tried picking up a bowling ball? They're super heavy and dense. The fats in the hamburger are dense with energy, just like the bowling ball.\n\nAny questions?",
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},
{
"answer": "visit /r/keto :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fruits are almost entirely water. Leave an tomato slice on your table for a few days and it'll shrivel up into almost nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[/r/Paleo](/r/Paleo) is a good place to ask this question as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fruits contain sugars. Sugars create an insulin response. Insulin levels raise, and when they fall you feel hungry. Insulin also makes it possible for your body to store fat, by the way. This means that you get fat by eating sugar; not fat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Incoming keto bombardment in 3...2...1...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thats the [entire premise](_URL_0_) of a Keto diet as well",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not liking any of the responses I'm reading so here's an ELI20 answer.\n\nFatty acids and protein stimulate I cells in the duodenum which secrete Cholecystikinen in the duodenum. Also, G cells are stimulated to release Gastrin, and S cells (due to protons) are stimulated to secrete secretin, but that doesn't really differentiate fat from fruit. Satiety is complex notion to think about, but partly arises from the length of time food is in the stomach, how much GLP-1 is secreted due to food, etc. \n\nCCK, Gastrin, and Secretin all slow down gastric transit which keeps food in your stomach longer. Carbs do not stimulate I cells or G cells so gastric transit is faster. Additionally, fruits easily break down into their simple sugars and since they are already being worked on from amylase in saliva they can be rapidly absorbed in the proximal jejunum without much pancreatic juices. Fats however, although worked on by limited lipases in the mouth, need much more pancreatic juices to break down the food and thus gastric transit must be slowed down greater than it would need to be from fruits. As a slight addition, unless you are eating butter or drinking oil you normally have protein with the fat, and protein has the same effect on G cells and I cells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11286",
"title": "Fruitarianism",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Nutritional effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "Although fruits provide a source of carbohydrates, they have very little protein, and because protein cannot be stored in the body as fat and carbohydrates can, fruitarians need to be careful that they consume enough protein each day. When the body does not take in enough protein, it misses out on amino acids, which are essential to making body proteins which support the growth and maintenance of body tissues. Consuming high levels of fruit also poses a risk to those who are diabetic or pre-diabetic, due to the negative effect that the large amounts of sugar in fruits has on blood sugar levels. These high levels of sugar means that fruitarians are at high risk for tooth decay. Another concern that fruitarianism presents is that because fruit is easily digested, the body burns through meals quickly, and is hungry again soon after eating. A side effect of the digestibility is that the body will defecate more frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54301172",
"title": "Well-being contributing factors",
"section": "Section::::Personal factors.:Health.:Fruit and vegetable consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "There is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood as well. This evidence cannot be entirely explained by demographic or health variables including socio-economic status, exercise, smoking, and body mass index, suggesting a causal link. Further studies have found that fruit and vegetable consumption predicted improvements in positive mood the next day, not vice versa. On days when people ate more fruits and vegetables, they reported feeling calmer, happier, and more energetic than normal, and they also felt more positive the next day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170803",
"title": "Mood (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "There is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood. This evidence is independent of demographic or health variables including socio-economic status, exercise, smoking, and body mass index (BMI). Further studies have demonstrated a causal link between greater fruit and vegetable intake with feeling calmer, happier, more energetic, and more positive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67656",
"title": "Prunus",
"section": "Section::::Benefits to human health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals which are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits of \"Prunus\" often contain many phytochemicals and antioxidants. These compounds have properties that have been linked to preventing different diseases and disorders. Research suggests that the consumption of these fruits reduces the risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and other age-related declines. There are many factors that can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genus \"Prunus\", including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations as well as postharvest management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3022156",
"title": "Manchineel",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "When ingested, the fruit is reportedly \"pleasantly sweet\" at first, with a subsequent \"strange peppery feeling ... gradually progress[ing] to a burning, tearing sensation and tightness of the throat\". Symptoms continue to worsen until the patient can \"barely swallow solid food because of the excruciating pain and the feeling of a huge obstructing pharyngeal lump\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18510985",
"title": "Acnistus arborescens",
"section": "Section::::Edibility/inedibility of fruit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Some sources claim that the attractive fruits are edible ( though causing diarrhea if consumed to excess ) : others that they are inedible, due to bitterness or insipidity. The variability in chemistry of different populations ( see below ) may account for these conflicting accounts. In addition to being consumed raw, the fruits have also been used to prepare fruit preserves and / or jellies .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208092",
"title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
"section": "Section::::USDA food pyramid.:History.:Fruits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "These include apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruit when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that a massive number of different plant species produce seed pods which are considered fruits in botany, and there are a number of botanical fruits which are conventionally not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatoes or avocados.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hnxu2
|
how does a stylus work on a phone screen, but other objects won't?
|
[
{
"answer": "The screens are capacitive. Basically, things like your skin change surface voltages, and that's how it detects where you're tapping. It will work with sausages (though you'd get your screen greasy). \n\nIf something can't change the voltage (like a cotton swab), it won't register on your phone screen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24938780",
"title": "Stylus (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "In computing, a stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to input commands to a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet. With touchscreen devices, a user places a stylus on the surface of the screen to draw or make selections by tapping the stylus on the screen. In this manner, the stylus can be used instead of a mouse or trackpad as a pointing device, a technique commonly called pen computing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236388",
"title": "Stylus",
"section": "Section::::Smartphones and computing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Today, the term \"stylus\" often refers to an input tool usually used with touchscreen-enabled devices, such as Tablet PCs, to accurately navigate interface elements, send messages, etc. This also prevents smearing the screen with oils from one's fingers. Styluses may also be used for handwriting; or for drawing using graphics tablets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236388",
"title": "Stylus",
"section": "Section::::Smartphones and computing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "A passive or capacitive stylus is a stylus that acts just like a finger when touching a device screen. There is no electronic communication between a passive stylus and a device. The device cannot tell the difference between a finger and a passive stylus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24938780",
"title": "Stylus (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The stylus is the primary input device for personal digital assistants. It is used on the Nintendo DS and 3DS handheld game consoles, and the Wii U's Wii U GamePad. Some smartphones, such as Windows Mobile phones, require a stylus for accurate input. However, devices featuring multi-touch finger-input are becoming more popular than stylus-driven devices in the smartphone market; capacitive stylus, different from standard stylus, can be used for these finger-touch devices (iPhone, etc.). The stylus (S-Pen) is also used in the famous Galaxy Note series manufactured by Samsung Electronics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236388",
"title": "Stylus",
"section": "Section::::Smartphones and computing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "An active stylus includes electronic components that communicate with the touchscreen controller on a device. Active pens are typically used for note taking, on-screen drawing/painting, and electronic document annotation. They help prevent the problem of one's fingers or hands accidentally contacting the screen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23362451",
"title": "Sharp SH906i",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The lid can be folded down while the screen is flipped outwards, enabling the touch screen feature of this phone. The screen itself users capacitive screen, hence it is not possible to use a stylus. Users in Japan can use the phone in this mode to browse the web, watch 1SEG terrestrial TV, and control the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78109",
"title": "Graphics tablet",
"section": "Section::::Similar devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Touch screens like those found on some tablet computers, iPads, and the Nintendo DS are operated in similar ways, but they usually use either optical grids or a pressure-sensitive film instead, and therefore they do not need a special pointing device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s1aim
|
why does touching metal to a metal cavity filling hurt like crazy?
|
[
{
"answer": "so what happens is the saliva, metal and tooth form an electrochemical cell i think. and electricity flows from the tooth to the metal and back using the saliva as a little bridge. i would explain a little more but i have class right now lol here's a link for more reading: [Electrochemical Cell](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: i am a chem major... but a pretty bad one soooo, yea, i don't remember much from this topic",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever touched a 9-volt battery to your tounge? Similar thing. Along with other stuff in your mouth, certain metals brought together make a very small and weak battery. While weak, you have sensitive nerves in your tooth, and the metal filling makes it very easy for the electricity to reach them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best short answer for the 5 year old is: it's magic! ;)\n\nThe best long answer for the 5 year old is: Metal A pulls Teeny Tiny Metal Bits (called electrons) off Metal B and the rushing of the Teeny Tiny Metal Bits makes a magic called Electricity which you can feel thru your teeth.\n\nThe grown-up answer is:\n\nGalvanic Corrosion (also called 'dissimilar metal corrosion' or wrongly 'electrolysis').\n\nThis refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte.\n\nWhen a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. For galvanic corrosion to occur, three conditions must be present:\n\nElectrochemically dissimilar metals must be present\nThese metals must be in electrical contact, and\nThe metals must be exposed to an electrolyte\n\nI hope this helps. : )\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11062",
"title": "Friction",
"section": "Section::::Other types of friction.:Triboelectric effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155443",
"title": "Corrosion",
"section": "Section::::Corrosion in passivated materials.:Pitting corrosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion-produced compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21586164",
"title": "Shell molding",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "BULLET::::- There are few problems due to gases, because of the absence of moisture in the shell, and the little gas that is still present easily escapes through the thin shell. When the metal is poured some of the resin binder burns out on the surface of the shell, which makes shaking out easy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4334961",
"title": "Recovery (metallurgy)",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Deformed structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "A heavily deformed metal contains a huge number of dislocations predominantly caught up in 'tangles' or 'forests'. Dislocation motion is relatively difficult in a metal with a low stacking fault energy and so the dislocation distribution after deformation is largely random. In contrast, metals with moderate to high stacking fault energy, e.g. aluminum, tend to form a cellular structure where the cell walls consist of rough tangles of dislocations. The interiors of the cells have a correspondingly reduced dislocation density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "710115",
"title": "Ultrasonic welding",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to absorption of vibrational energy along the joint to be welded. In metals, welding occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24431820",
"title": "Anti-corrosion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "When metallic materials are put into corrosive environments, they tend to have chemical reactions with the air and/or water. The effects of corrosion become evident on the surfaces of these materials. For example, after putting a piece of iron into a corrosive atmosphere for an extended period, it starts rusting due to oxygen interaction with water on the surface of the piece of iron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423740",
"title": "Grommet",
"section": "Section::::Use in electrical equipment.:For cable protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Holes in metal or another hard material will often have sharp edges. Electrical wires, cord, rope, lacings, or other soft vulnerable material passing through the hole can become abraded or cut, or electrical insulation may break due to repeated flexing at the exit point of the casing of a junction box for example. Rubber, plastic or plastic coated metal grommets are used to avoid this. Tight fitting rubber grommets can also prevent the entry of dirt, air, water, etc. The smooth and sometimes soft inner surface of the grommet shields the wire from damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sqbrh
|
Did the Mughals cultivate special breeds of elephants, as Westerners do with horses?
|
[
{
"answer": "Due to the long lifespans and long gestation periods of elephants, breeding them as one does with horses was impractical at best. There are no known acknowledged \"breeds\" of elephants (aside from the Asian and African varieties that we know of today).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since /u/BuddHasLittleWarlock has already pointed out the problems with breaking certain traits in elephants. I just want to add that there really wasn't a need for the Mughals to breed selective types of Elephants. The current type of elephant in India already did exactly what the Mughals needed them to do.\n\nThe Mughals used elephants as:\n\nA) pack animals\n\nB) platforms for their generals to observe the battlefield and give commands\n\nThe size and power of the Indian elephant was already perfectly suited to these tasks so they really had no reason to breed smaller ones or even bigger ones. \n\nAs a fun little fact, armies would often use marksmen to pick off the generals on the elephants, or they would target the elephants with artillery sending them panicking through their own lines. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is very difficult to breed Elephants in captivity, even using modern methods such as artificial insemination, as captivity significantly reduces fertility in both males and females. \n\nEven today with modern science it's considered a BIG deal if a zoo can produce a healthy calf from captive elephants. \n\nPre-modern societies that used Elephants would not have been able to selectively breed them, there may have been cases where captive births happened, but they would not have been able to systematically control this as they would have been able to with dogs or horses. Instead they would have relied on replenishing their stock from the wild. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While this doesn't answer the question, I would like to add that the Mughals did not use Elephants like Westerners used horses. In fact one of the reasons that the Mughals were successful against the ruling elite of Northern India was that the Mughal's battle tactics were able to frighten the elephants used by them. \n\nAlso, the mughal armies had *Sowar (सवार)* or horse mounted knights just like western ones.\n\n**Source:** *Medieval India: A Textbook of History for Middle Schools*\nBook by Romila Thapar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5427676",
"title": "Cavalry tactics",
"section": "Section::::War elephants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Elephant cavalry first appeared three thousand years ago, simultaneously in India's Vedic Civilization and in China. Female Asian elephants were used, sometimes in small groups, sometimes in vast regiments of thousands of animals in the 13th century, primarily to produce a tactical \"shock and awe\" effect in the field. In addition, the large animals provided elevated platforms from which archers could rain down arrows on the enemy, and from which generals could survey the battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37256524",
"title": "Captive elephants",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Tame elephants have been recorded since the Indus Valley civilization around 2,000 BCE. With \"mahouts\", they have been used as working animals in forestry, as war elephants (by commanders such as Hannibal), for cultural and ceremonial use (such as temple elephants), as a method of execution, for public displays such as circus elephants, in elephant polo and in zoological gardens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37562556",
"title": "Army of the Mughal Empire",
"section": "Section::::Organisation and troop types.:Branches.:Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Mughal cavalry also included elephants, normally used by generals. They bore well ornamented and good armour. Mainly they were used for transportation to carry heavy goods and heavy guns. Some of rajput mansabdar provided camel cavalry also. They were men from desert areas like Rajastan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239253",
"title": "Execution by elephant",
"section": "Section::::Cultural aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Historically, the elephants were under the constant control of a driver or \"mahout\", thus enabling a ruler to grant a last-minute reprieve and display merciful qualities. Several such exercises of mercy are recorded in various Asian kingdoms. The kings of Siam trained their elephants to roll the convicted person \"about the ground rather slowly so that he is not badly hurt\". The Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great is said to have \"used this technique to chastise 'rebels' and then in the end the prisoners, presumably much chastened, were given their lives\". On one occasion, Akbar was recorded to have had a man thrown to the elephants to suffer five days of such treatment before pardoning him. Elephants were occasionally used in trial by ordeal in which the condemned prisoner was released if he managed to fend off the elephant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18630268",
"title": "Persian war elephants",
"section": "Section::::Origin, training, and weaponry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The elephants were hired as mercenary troops with their riders. They came from Indian territories under Persian rule. Some historians say that some were from Iran. They were called the Syrian elephant but this may be incorrect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5682319",
"title": "Gaja",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Over a period of time encompassing several centuries, elephants became an important part of Indian life and society, particularly of religious tradition, the royalty, and the aristocratic segment of the society. Capturing, taming and training of elephants developed into a specialized skill. In Ancient India, a number of treatises were written about caring and management of elephants, which included the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18451259",
"title": "Cultural depictions of elephants",
"section": "Section::::Religion, mythology and philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Elephants remain an integral part of religion in South Asia and some are even featured in various religious practices. Temple elephants are specially trained captive elephants that are lavishly caparisoned and used in various temple activities. Among the most famous of the temple elephants is Guruvayur Keshavan of Kerala, India. They are also used in festivals in Sri Lanka such as the Esala Perahera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3isdsd
|
What did the North Vietnamese Army do to all of the South Vietnamese Army once they captured Saigon and ended the war? Were a lot of people killed on the South Vietnamese Army side once the Americans left?
|
[
{
"answer": "[I have written about this before here](_URL_0_), which might answer some of your questions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey I got a related question. I asked about this but never got a response!\n\nAre there records of ARVN units continuing the fight after the cease-fire? What happened to the mostly intact ARVN units in the IV Corps area, did they fight on?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "170512",
"title": "Army of the Republic of Vietnam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "After the fall of Saigon to the North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the ARVN was dissolved. While some high-ranking officers had fled the country to the United States or elsewhere, thousands of former ARVN officers were sent to reeducation camps by the communist government of the new, unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Five ARVN generals commited suicide to avoid capture by the PAVN/VC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17752",
"title": "Laos",
"section": "Section::::History.:Independence and Communist rule (1953–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In 1968 the North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao to fight the Royal Lao Army. The attack resulted in the army largely demobilising, leaving the conflict to irregular ethnic Hmong forces of the \"U.S. Secret Army\" backed by the United States and Thailand, and led by General Vang Pao.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648940",
"title": "Easter Offensive",
"section": "Section::::Offensive.:I Corps – Quảng Trị.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The exodus of ARVN forces was joined by tens of thousands of South Vietnamese civilians fleeing from the fighting. As the mass of humanity jostled and shoved its way south on Highway 1, it presented an inviting target for North Vietnamese artillerists. They were soon joined by PAVN infantry, who moved by the flank to attack the column. ARVN units, with no leadership and all unit cohesion gone, could muster no defense. Meanwhile, to the west, Fire Support Bases Bastogne and Checkmate had fallen after staunch ARVN defense and massive B-52 bomber strikes, which inflicted heavy casualties. On 21 April, Abrams notified the U.S. Secretary of Defense that\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648940",
"title": "Easter Offensive",
"section": "Section::::Offensive.:III Corps – An Lộc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Although North Vietnamese forces remained in the area and continued to shell An Lộc heavily, the impetus of their offensive was over. By 12 June, the last PAVN forces were driven from the city and its environs and over 1,000 ARVN wounded were evacuated. Slowly, the decimated North Vietnamese units faded away to the north and west as others covered their withdrawal. On 18 June, the headquarters of III Corps declared the siege to be over. The Saigon government claimed that 12,500 South Vietnamese soldiers had been killed or wounded at An Lộc. American sources claimed that 25,000 PAVN or NLF troops had been killed or wounded during the action, although those numbers could never be confirmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5475353",
"title": "1975 Spring Offensive",
"section": "Section::::First steps.:Phước Long.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Any counterattack or relief effort contemplated by the South Vietnamese was doomed by the thousands of refugees that took to the roads in order to escape the fighting. Desertion among ARVN units became common, as soldiers began disappearing from the ranks in search of family members. This pattern was to become too common as the offensive continued, not just among the territorial forces, but among the regular troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26745290",
"title": "1973 in the Vietnam War",
"section": "Section::::June.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The U.S. Embassy in Saigon reported that, in accordance with secret agreements between the U.S. and North Vietnam, the North Vietnamese had withdrawn 30,000 soldiers from South Vietnam. However, the Embassy warned that the military units had been refitted and could be redeployed back to South Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166295",
"title": "Indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands in Vietnam",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In 1967, the Viet Cong slaughtered 252 Degar in the village of Dak Son, home to 2,000 Highlanders, known as the Đắk Sơn massacre, in revenge for the Degar's support and allegiance with South Vietnam. In 1975, thousands of Degar fled to Cambodia after the fall of Saigon to the North Vietnamese Army, fearing that the new government would launch reprisals against them because they had aided the U.S. Army. The U.S. military resettled some Degar in the United States, primarily in North Carolina, but these evacuees numbered less than 2,000. In addition, the Vietnamese government has steadily displaced thousands of villagers from Vietnam's central highlands, to use the fertile land for coffee plantations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yxnsa
|
how do large indoor spaces like warehouses have their own weather?
|
[
{
"answer": "In short, they don't.\n\nThe Vehicle Assembly Building at Cape Canaveral, the largest buildings ever constructed in terms of open interior volume, is the typical source of this urban legend. The rumor goes that its air conditioning system, which replaces the entire building-volume's air every hour, is less effective at dehumidifying the air than it is at cooling it. As such, the humid Florida air cools to under its dewpoint, causing internal clouds and even rain.\n\nThat's not what happens. Every air conditioning system dehumidifies as it cools. The water comes out at the air's coldest point: in the air conditioner itself. Air conditioners have varying strategies for what to do with the resultant moisture, but none of them simply pump it all back into the output air. \n\nIt's an urban legend, and an attractive one, but unfortunately it just doesn't happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2682173",
"title": "Self storage",
"section": "Section::::Self storage today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "In rural and suburban areas most facilities contain multiple single-story buildings with mostly drive-up units which have natural ventilation but are not climate-controlled. These buildings are referred to as \"traditional\" storage facilities. Climate-controlled interior units are becoming more popular in suburban areas. In urban areas many facilities have multi-story buildings using elevators or freight lifts to move the goods to the upper floors. These facilities are often climate-controlled since they are comprised mostly, if not totally, of interior units. Warehouses or grocery stores are sometimes converted into self-storage facilities. Loading docks are sometimes provided on the ground floor. Also, complimentary rolling carts or moving dollies are sometimes provided to help the customers carry items to their units. Urban self-storage facilities might contain only a few floors in a much larger building; there are successful self-storage businesses co-located with manufacturing plants, office tenants and even public schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55924801",
"title": "W.R. Roach Cannery Warehouse and Office Building",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The warehouses is a two-story brick structure measuring 312 feet by 84 feet on a poured concrete foundation with extends upward approximately 24 inches above ground level. Window openings measure 44 inches by 73 inches. The interior has been refurbished into 41 apartments, with four one-bedroom and thirteen two-bedroom apartments on the first floor and two three-bedroom and twenty-two two bedroom apartments on the second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61235640",
"title": "Warehouses Medan, Bindjeij and Laboean",
"section": "Section::::Building characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The different characteristics of the warehouses have been preserved on the outside as well as on the inside. The warehouses are designed in a neo-Renaissance style with elements such as stepped gables (with triangular and semicircular frontons), consoles and decorative bands with yellow brickwork. In terms of type, this storage building fits in with the warehouses from the Dutch Golden Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "549146",
"title": "Warehouse",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Automation and optimization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Some warehouses are completely automated, and require only operators to work and handle all the task. Pallets and product move on a system of automated conveyors, cranes and automated storage and retrieval systems coordinated by programmable logic controllers and computers running logistics automation software. These systems are often installed in refrigerated warehouses where temperatures are kept very cold to keep the product from spoiling. This is especially true in electronics warehouses that require specific temperatures to avoid damaging parts. Automation is also common where land is expensive, as automated storage systems can use vertical space efficiently. These high-bay storage areas are often more than 10 meters (33 feet) high, with some over 20 meters (65 feet) high. Automated storage systems can be built up to 40m high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24558590",
"title": "Speicherstadt",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The warehouses were built with different support structures, but Andreas Meyer created a Neo-Gothic red-brick outer layer with little towers, alcoves, and glazed terra cotta ornaments. The warehouses are multi-storey buildings with entrances from water and land. One of the oldest warehouses is the \"Kaispeicher B\" of the International Maritime Museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31303005",
"title": "Asia House, Manchester",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Many warehouses were built to a common design, often with steps to a raised ground floor with showroom and offices and the first floor contained more offices and waiting rooms for clients and sample and pattern rooms all decorated to impress customers. The working areas above were plain with large windows to allow in natural light. Orders were packed there and sent to the basement on hoists powered by Manchester's hydraulic power system and packed into bales using hydraulic presses before dispatch. The warehouse was lighted by gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49495570",
"title": "Mendel Polar Station",
"section": "Section::::Base.:Individual buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "There are nine containers around the main building measuring , which have been converted to storage places for engine generators and spare parts, garages, a waste incinerator and a power generator. Attached to the containers are wind turbines that can be folded if the wind is too strong. The fact that the individual structures are scattered around in the area decreases the risk of a fire or an environmental disaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cytk5
|
what does 'bridge' mean in musical terms?
|
[
{
"answer": "A bridge is a contrasting section of music that prepares for the return to the 'original' section.\n\nIt is often used to contrast with and prepare for the return of the verse and the chorus of a piece of music.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A bridge is a short bit of music with somewhat different themes connecting two larger segments of music. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43262651",
"title": "Bridge chord",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The Bridge chord is a bitonal chord named after its use in the music of composer Frank Bridge (1879–1941). It consists of a minor chord with the major chord a whole tone above (CEG & DFA), as well as a major chord with the minor chord a semitone above (CEG & DFA), which share the same mediant (E/F). () Both form eleventh chords under inversion (DFACEG = D and DFACEG = Dm).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1663632",
"title": "Bridge (music)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In music, especially western popular music, a bridge is a contrasting section that prepares for the return of the original material section. In a piece in which the original material or melody is referred to as the \"A\" section, the bridge may be the third eight-bar phrase in a thirty-two-bar form (the B in AABA), or may be used more loosely in verse-chorus form, or, in a compound AABA form, used as a contrast to a full AABA section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19374175",
"title": "Bridge (instrument)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "A bridge is a device that supports the strings on a stringed musical instrument and transmits the vibration of those strings to another structural component of the instrument—typically a soundboard, such as the top of a guitar or violin—which transfers the sound to the surrounding air. Depending on the instrument, the bridge may be made of carved wood (violin family instruments, acoustic guitars and some jazz guitars), metal (electric guitars such as the Fender Telecaster) or other materials. The bridge supports the strings and holds them over the body of the instrument under tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2351451",
"title": "Rhythm changes",
"section": "Section::::Chords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The \"bridge\" consists of a series of dominant seventh chords (III–VI–II–V) that follow the circle of fourths (ragtime progression), sustained for two bars each, greatly slowing the harmonic rhythm as a contrast with the A sections. This is known as the Sears Roebuck bridge, named after Sears, Roebuck and Co.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1189660",
"title": "Song structure",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Bridge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "A bridge may be a \"transition\", but in popular music, it more often is \"...a section that contrasts with the verse...[,] usually ends on the dominant...[,] [and] often culminates in a strong re-transitional.\" \"The bridge is a device that is used to break up the repetitive pattern of the song and keep the listener's attention...In a bridge, the pattern of the words and music change.\" For example, John Denver's \"Country Roads\" is a song with a bridge while Stevie Wonder's \"You Are the Sunshine of My Life\" is a song without one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3397",
"title": "Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" traces the origin of the word \"bridge\" to an Old English word \"brycg\", of the same meaning. The word can be traced directly back to Proto-Indo-European \"*bʰrēw-.\" The word for the card game of the same name has a different origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18839",
"title": "Music",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Description of elements.:Harmony and chords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1163,
"text": "Harmony refers to the \"vertical\" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord. Usually this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality (\"keys\"), which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the scale used, which centres around the \"home note\" or tonic of the key. Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is in a single key. More complex Classical, pop and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or \"home note\" of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y023n
|
How are medical grade sterile cloths made?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gamma Irradiation normally. But occasionally Ethylene Oxide. They make it, put it in a bag, and then zap the hell out of it with a gamma ray source, usually Cobalt 60.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19099472",
"title": "Scrubs (clothing)",
"section": "Section::::Modern scrubs.:Colors and patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Non-surgical scrubs come in a wider variety of colors and patterns, ranging from official issue garments to custom made, whether by commercial uniform companies or by home-sewing using commercially available printed patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414144",
"title": "Sterilization (microbiology)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Medicine and surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body (such as the bloodstream, or penetrating the skin) must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles, and artificial pacemakers. This is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45561218",
"title": "Textile conservator",
"section": "Section::::Responsibilities and duties.:Tools of the trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "For treatment, can include: sewing supplies, such as needles, pins, thimble, scissors, dress makers tape; various adhesives; tweezers; brushes, “Large, medium, and small, in all kinds of shapes and in all kinds of bristle”; irons; steam table; ironing boards; vacuums with a variable, controllable suction like the Nilfish vacuum cleaner; embroidery frames; wet cleaning supplies; dry cleaning supplies; insect repellents; or materials for restoration, like an aplix, cotton fabric, non-woven interfacing, nylon net or silk crepeline (both of which can be dyed to match the color of the object and used as support), tetex, and velcro.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4505820",
"title": "Cloth diaper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "A cloth diaper (American English) or a cloth nappy (Australian English and British English) is a reusable diaper made from natural fibers, man-made materials, or a combination of both. They are often made from industrial cotton which may be bleached white or left the fiber’s natural color. Other natural fiber cloth materials include wool, bamboo, and unbleached hemp. Man-made materials such as an internal absorbent layer of microfiber toweling or an external waterproof layer of polyurethane laminate (PUL) may be used. Polyester fabrics microfleece or suedecloth are often used inside cloth diapers as a \"stay-dry\" wicking liner because of the non-absorbent properties of those synthetic fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56212",
"title": "Linen",
"section": "Section::::Flax fiber.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics (tablecloths, bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread). It was once the preferred yarn for handsewing the uppers of moccasin-style shoes (loafers), but has been replaced by synthetics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530255",
"title": "Microfiber",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Textiles for cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "In cleaning products, microfiber can be 100% polyester, or a blend of polyester and polyamide (nylon). It can be either a woven product or a non woven product, the latter most often used in limited use or disposable cloths. In the highest-quality fabrics for cleaning applications, the fiber is split during the manufacturing process to produce multi-stranded fibers. A cross section of the split microfiber fabric under high magnification would look like an asterisk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54205",
"title": "Diaper",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Cloth diaper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Cloth diapers are reusable and can be made from natural fibers, synthetic materials, or a combination of both. They are often made from industrial cotton which may be bleached white or left the fiber's natural color. Other natural fiber cloth materials include wool, bamboo, and unbleached hemp. Man-made materials such as an internal absorbent layer of microfiber toweling or an external waterproof layer of polyurethane laminate (PUL) may be used. Polyester fleece and faux suedecloth are often used inside cloth diapers as a \"stay-dry\" wicking liner because of the non-absorbent properties of those synthetic fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
oh6hn
|
What is the deepest someone could breathe underwater through a tube to the surface?
|
[
{
"answer": "There will be a depth were your breathing muscle (the diaphragm) is too weak to push out against the water. But there will also be the problem that the snorkel might be so long so that not enough air is expelled from it when you exhale, causing you to breath the same air until you suffocate. I have no idea which of those things will happen first though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You'd run into issues pretty quickly. You'll be breathing against substantial resistance with a long tube.\n\n resistance = 8nl/(pi*r^4)\n r is radius, l is length, n is fluid viscosity.\n\nYou could increase the radius of the tube to decrease resistance, but you'd be increasing your functional dead space. The total tube volume couldn't be much higher than 3000ml or so, depending on how healthy you are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A normal adult has a [vital capacity](_URL_0_) of about 3-5 liters, which is the maximal volume of air that can be exhaled or inhaled. Let's use the max and say 0.005 cubic meters.\n \nThe average diameter of a snorkel is 3/4 inch or 0.01905 meters.\n\nVolume of a cylinder is v = (pi) times radius^2 times height. Solve for height of cylinder by substitution.\n\nTherefore, a snorkel must be shorter than 4.38 meters to have *any* new air brought into your lungs.\n\nThis presumes maximum inspiration and respiration (difficult) in someone with very large lungs. \n\nIf you were to narrow the cylinder of the snorkel, you could increase the length, but then achieving maximal expiration and inspiration would be incredibly difficult (think breathing through a straw).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Followup question: What if you had a pair of snorkels, one for inhaling and one for exhaling. How long then would it take to run into problems?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is such a thing as compressor diving. Human Planet ('Oceans' episode) does a great job capturing it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBehind the scenes: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Certified SCUBA diver here.\n\nThe power needed to breathe is exerced through the diaphragm muscle, between you lungs and stomach, separating your chest from your belly.\n\nBy assuming you are in a vertical position, with the top of your head at the surface, that’s a height of about 50 centimeters. So your diaphragm has to work against a pressure of 50 cm of water, or .05 bar.\n\nYou would not be able to go much lower than that, at the maximum, it would be about 1 meter deep.\n\nBut you’d run into other issues before then, such as the dead volume in the tube you breathe from; you would re-breather exhaled gases, and before long, you would breathe nothing but exhaled CO², not quite exactly a winning combination…\n\nSCUBA regulators have the second (final) stage right by the mouth, so it delivers breathing air at the pressure felt at the mouth’s level (they are sensitive enough to see the difference of pressure of mere centimeters of water - this is why they free-flow when placed upside down, the pressure gradient between the diaphragm and the opening is enough to open the valve).\n\n(This is why divers always separate their mouth from their noses in masks, so to have the smallest possible volume that is exposed both to fresh breathing air and exhaled air; movies such as The Abyss where divers wear helmets are totally off the mark, as such a helmet would be prone to be filled by stale, exhaled air; and besides, divers need to be able to pinch their noses to equilibrate pressure in their inner ear as they go down. Spacesuits, on the other hand, use a ventilator to force recirculation of air within the helmet, because they use a scrubber to remove the CO² from the exhaled air to recycle it, only replacing the metabolized oxygen, which is why they can provide a dozen hours or so of oxygen to the astronaut - the rest of the body is sealed from the helmet with a neck seal, and in older spacesuits used to be filled with nitrogen, to avoid fire hazards present when pure oxygen is used).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17942014",
"title": "Jim Bowden (diver)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Jim Bowden is an American technical diver, known as a cave diver and as a deep diver. In 1994 he set a world record, since broken, by diving to . He is one of only eleven people who have dived below a depth of on self-contained breathing apparatus. He has also made six sub-five hundred foot dives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910096",
"title": "Pit cave",
"section": "Section::::Notable pit caves and underground pitches.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hranice Abyss, Moravia, Czech Republic, is the deepest underwater cave in the world, the lowest confirmed depth (as of 27 September 2016) is 473 m (404 m under the water level), the expected depth is 700–800 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17941532",
"title": "John Bennett (diver)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "John Bennett (1959–2004) was a British scuba diver who is best known for setting a world record by becoming the first person to deep dive below a depth of on self-contained breathing apparatus on 6 November 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15174422",
"title": "Robert Croft (diver)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Robert Croft is a free-diver who, in 1967, became the first person to free-dive beyond the depth of 200 feet. Croft was a US Navy diving instructor in 1962 at the US Naval Submarine Base New London submarine school in Groton, Connecticut. At the submarine escape training tank, instructors train prospective submariners how to escape from a disabled submarine, which could be resting on the sea bottom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15174422",
"title": "Robert Croft (diver)",
"section": "Section::::Freediving career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Working 5 hours per day, 5 days a week at the 118-feet deep 250,000-gallon submarine escape training tank provided him an opportunity to salve his curiosity about holding his breath underwater. From an initial breath-hold time of 1½ to 2 minutes, after a year he was able to hold his breath for over 6 minutes, dropping to the bottom of the tank and sitting there for over three minutes and then returning to the surface at a relaxed pace. With that high level of comfort, he wanted to see how far he could go beyond the 118-feet depth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300172",
"title": "Sheck Exley",
"section": "Section::::Records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Exley had an unusual resistance to nitrogen narcosis, and was one of the few divers to survive a open-water dive on simple compressed air. In acting as a safety diver for two divers trying to set an air-only depth record in 1970, Exley reached in salt water, but could go no deeper due to narcosis and the start of blackout (the two record-depth attempting unconscious divers died just out of reach beneath him, and such air-depth records are no longer sought or recorded). During his diving career, he set numerous depth and cave penetration records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291242",
"title": "Technical diving",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Gas mixes.:Deep air/extended range diving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Deep air proponents base the depth limit of air diving upon the risk of oxygen toxicity. Accordingly, they view the limit as being the depth at which partial pressure of oxygen reaches 1.4 ATA, which occurs at about . Both sides of the community tend to present self-supporting data. Divers trained and experienced in deep air diving report fewer problems with narcosis than those trained and experienced in mixed gas diving trimix/heliox, although scientific evidence does not show that a diver can train to overcome any measure of narcosis at a given depth, or become tolerant of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6eyvor
|
why do some medications have to be specifically taken or applied at night?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually it is because they have a sedative effect (make you drowsy) so it's safer to take them at night when you are going to sleep anyway. \n\nFor some others it's because it times with bodily functions (cholesterol medication for e.g. because the liver is more active at producing cholesterol when you are asleep)\n\nSome are just more effective when you are less active.\n\n\nThis question would be much easier to answer if you had a specific medication in mind. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pharmacy student here, most of the facial scrubs that are applied at night are either to protect the medicine from the sun so it doesn't breakdown or to protect his skin from the sun. Many facial cleaners have chemicals that increase your skin photosensitivity causing you to burn easier. Can't sun burn at night. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24044309",
"title": "Sleep induction",
"section": "Section::::Sleeping pills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Hypnotics, sometimes referred to as sleeping pills, may be prescribed by a physician, but their long-term efficacy is poor and they have numerous adverse effects including daytime drowsiness, accidents, memory disorders and withdrawal symptoms. If they are to be taken, the preferred choices are benzodiazepines with short-lasting effects such as temazepam or the newer Z-medicines such as zopiclone. Alternatively, in isolated cases sedatives such as barbiturates may be prescribed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33384768",
"title": "Second wind (sleep)",
"section": "Section::::Effects on drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Care should be taken as to avoid administering hypnotic medications too early as the medication may reach peak action during the wake maintenance zone. Not only could this negate the effectiveness of the sleep-aid, it may also cause users of the drug to experience disinhibition, hallucinations, or other dissociative phenomenon if they remain awake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231014",
"title": "Delayed sleep phase disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "By the time those who have DSPD seek medical help, they usually have tried many times to change their sleeping schedule. Failed tactics to sleep at earlier times may include maintaining proper sleep hygiene, relaxation techniques, early bedtimes, hypnosis, alcohol, sleeping pills, dull reading, and home remedies. DSPD patients who have tried using sedatives at night often report that the medication makes them feel tired or relaxed, but that it fails to induce sleep. They often have asked family members to help wake them in the morning, or they have used multiple alarm clocks. As the disorder occurs in childhood and is most common in adolescence, it is often the patient's parents who initiate seeking help, after great difficulty waking their child in time for school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17295821",
"title": "Middle-of-the-night insomnia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Middle-of-the-night insomnia is often treated with medication, although currently Intermezzo (zolpidem tartrate sublingual tablets) is the only Food and Drug Administration-approved medication specifically for treating MOTN awakening. Because most medications usually require 6–8 hours of sleep to avoid lingering effects the next day, these are often used every night at bedtime to prevent awakenings. Medication may not be prescribed in some cases, especially if the cause turns out to be the patient ingesting too much fluid during the day or just before they go to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14269",
"title": "Hypnotic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Other sleep remedies that may be considered \"sedative-hypnotics\" exist; psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicines off-label if they have sedating effects. Examples of these include mirtazapine (an antidepressant), clonidine (generally prescribed to regulate blood pressure), quetiapine (an antipsychotic), and the over-the-counter sleep aid diphenhydramine (Benadryl – an antihistamine). Off-label sleep remedies are particularly useful when first-line treatment is unsuccessful or deemed unsafe (for example, in patients with a history of substance abuse).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29088737",
"title": "Cancer-related fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Addressing specific causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "BULLET::::- Side effects from medications: Fatigue and sleepiness are known side effects with some kinds of medications. Sometimes a change of medication, the dose, or the timing of the medication may result in less fatigue. For example, an antihistamine might be taken shortly before sleep, rather than in the middle of the day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14269",
"title": "Hypnotic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Hypnotic drugs are regularly prescribed for insomnia and other sleep disorders, with over 95% of insomnia patients being prescribed hypnotics in some countries. Many hypnotic drugs are habit-forming and, due to a large number of factors known to disturb the human sleep pattern, a physician may instead recommend changes in the environment before and during sleep, better sleep hygiene, the avoidance of caffeine or other stimulating substances, or behavioral interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) before prescribing medication for sleep. When prescribed, hypnotic medication should be used for the shortest period of time necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28ekyj
|
why do republicans and similar think that president obama is directly trying to destroy america?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "952322",
"title": "Eric Margolis (journalist)",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Political views on United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Margolis wrote this about Barack Obama's election:Americans did not \"liberate\" Iraq, but they certainly liberated their own nation last week by sweeping the Republican Party from power. One prays America's long nightmare of foreign aggressions, fear, religious extremism, and flirting with neo-fascism is finally at an end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20082093",
"title": "Presidency of Barack Obama",
"section": "Section::::Elections during the Obama presidency.:2010 mid-term elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 276,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 276,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Attacking Obama relentlessly, emphasizing the stalled economy, and fueled by the anger of the Tea Party Movement, Republicans scored a landslide in the 2010 midterm elections, winning control of the House and gaining seats in the Senate. After the election, John Boehner replaced Nancy Pelosi as Speaker of the House, and Pelosi became the new House Minority Leader. Boehner pledged to repeal Obamacare and cut federal spending.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40675309",
"title": "2013 United States federal government shutdown",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Media pundits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 528,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 528,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Economist Paul Krugman wrote that the Republican House leadership were the party's \"delusional wing,\" and that \"reasonable people know that Mr. Obama can't and won't let himself be blackmailed in this way. After all, once he starts making concessions to people who threaten to blow up the world economy unless they get what they want, he might as well tear up the Constitution.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18724886",
"title": "The Obama Nation",
"section": "Section::::Responses.:Obama campaign response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The Obama campaign also said it would \"push back against this year's vicious Republican attack book.\" In addition, the Democratic National Committee joined the \"counteroffensive\" telling its supporters by email: \"The media have shown that they aren't going to stop him. It's up to you to spread the truth, so here it is. Below you will find the facts about Corsi and his desperate fabrications.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44615774",
"title": "History of conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Since 1990.:2008–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "After the election of Obama for president, Republicans in Congress were unified in almost total opposition to the programs and policies of Obama and the Democratic majority. They unsuccessfully attempted to stop an $814 billion stimulus spending program, new regulations on investment firms, and a program to require health insurance for all Americans. They did keep emissions trading from coming to a vote, and vow to continue to work to convince Americans that burning fossil fuel does not cause global warming. The slow growth of the economy in the first two years of the Obama administration led Republicans to call for a return to tax cuts and deregulation of businesses, which they perceived as the best way to solve the financial crisis. Obama's approval rating steadily declined in his first year in office before leveling off at about 50-50. This decline in popularity led to a GOP landslide in the mid-term elections of 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43604107",
"title": "United States House of Representatives v. Azar",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Observers noted that Republicans had previously pressed for legislation to delay both the employer and individual mandates the previous year, and that the day after voting to sue the President for what he saw as ignoring a law passed by Congress, Boehner called on the President to act on his own (despite inaction by Congress) to deal with the 2014 American immigration crisis. Obama responded to the plan to authorize a lawsuit against him, \"Everyone sees this as a political stunt, but it’s worse than that because every vote they’re taking ... means a vote they’re not taking to help people.\" Some prominent conservatives have ridiculed the lawsuit as being wasteful \"political theater\" and a \"foolish move\", while others criticized it for not going far enough, preferring to press for impeachment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51154873",
"title": "Tim Clemente",
"section": "Section::::Professional activities.:Reaction to terror threat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "In an October 2015 article, Clemente rejected President Obama's statement that the major threat to America is climate change, saying that such comments \"are more of a threat to national security than the climate ever could be.\" Noting Obama's description of ISIS as a \"JV team,\" Clemente said that Obama \"does not comprehend an actual 'threat' where he should see one.\" Clemente added: \"At a time when terror attacks are more coordinated, more sophisticated and more frequent, the president seems to surmise that everything is just peachy. If that’s not a threat to national security, I don’t know what is.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e9fz3
|
Why are "elite" forces of the Napoleonic era beefed up standard regiments with special honors while "elite" forces of the modern era are special operations units?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is just one an example of the centuries long trend in modern military history of increasing dispersion in the face of increasing firepower.\n\nElite troops (i.e. Guard Regiments) in Napoleonic times were elite because they were better organized, braver, more disciplined and sometimes physically larger and more intimidating than other units. They could retain their unit cohesion under fire or when entering melee, where it would be decisive. Under Napoleonic conditions, the side with higher morale that sticks together no matter what usually can win an infantry slugfest.\n\nIn modern times, or even the 20th century, the conventional ideas of bravery and a \"stand-up fight\" have disappeared in the face of increased firepower. Under artillery, machine gun fire and aerial bombardment, troops can't outclass their opposition by being bigger, braver, and more tightly organized. Troops have to spread out, conceal their position and use dispersion to avoid being overwhelmed with firepower. Concentrated groups of elite troops would quickly become targets for firepower they can't even necessarily see. Similarly firepower of a large group of troops tends to depend more on the number of artillery tubes and machine guns a unit possesses, and the expertise of it's officers and specialists, rather than the abilities of individual soldiers.\n\nHowever, with dispersion comes a whole different problem. How can units keep fighting and accomplishing objectives if they can't actually see each other or their chain of command? 20th and 21st century militaries have found various ways of training units to deal with this problem in standard military units.\n\nElite units in modern times go into situations where the utmost dispersion is required: At the tip of a fast moving armored column, suddenly appearing by aerial insertion, or infiltrating behind enemy lines or into a country where they can't operate out in the open due to politics. These situations are ones which are more chaotic than normal and where the additional dispersion might be expected to break down communication and inhibit military effectiveness.\n\nIn these situations, extra training is needed to make sure that the individual soldiers can fight under more chaotic than normal conditions. Soldiers need to use more individual initiative and be comfortable fighting in smaller groups and in more unexpected situations. Extreme physical training in modern elite troops is needed not to intimidate the enemy or overpower him but to provide the flexibility to hike over a mountain or into a jungle and still be combat effective when away from motorized logistics.\n\nNapoleon's Imperial Guard was in thus \"braver and brawnier\" than regular troops. Whereas modern elite forces are \"smarter, sneakier and more flexible\" than their regular army counterparts, and the change is due to an increase in firepower and dispersion in the modern era.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "308084",
"title": "Grande Armée",
"section": "Section::::Forces of the Grande Armée.:Imperial Guard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "France's Imperial Guard (\"Garde Impériale\") was the elite military force of its time and grew out of the \"Garde du Directoire\" and \"Garde Consulaire\". It was, quite literally, a \"Corps d'Armée\" itself with infantry, cavalry and artillery. Napoleon wanted it also to be an example for the entire army to follow, and a force that, since it had fought with him over several campaigns, was completely loyal. Although the infantry was rarely committed en masse, the Guard's cavalry was often thrown into battle as the killing blow and its artillery used to pound enemies prior to assaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410259",
"title": "Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry regiments.:Guards of Honour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The Guards of Honour (\"Régiment de Garde d'Honneur\") were four regiments of light cavalry which Napoleon created in 1813 for his campaigns in Germany to reinforce his Guard cavalry decimated in Russia. The regiments were dressed in the fashion of the hussars. They served alongside the other Guard cavalry, but were not technically part of the Old, Middle or Young Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308084",
"title": "Grande Armée",
"section": "Section::::Forces of the Grande Armée.:Infantry.:Line Infantry.:Grenadiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Grenadiers were the elite of the line infantry and the veteran shock troops of the Napoleonic infantry. Newly formed battalions did not have a Grenadier company; rather, Napoleon ordered that after two campaigns, several of the strongest, bravest and tallest fusiliers were to be promoted to the Grenadier company, so each line battalion which had seen more than two campaigns had one company of Grenadiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17967344",
"title": "Types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars",
"section": "Section::::Combat Arms.:Infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The infantry Arm during the Napoleonic Wars had stopped using the grenades of the previous century, and was largely divided into the \"infantry of the line\" which fought in close order formation, and \"light infantry\" which fought as skirmishers in open order. Although many units were named guards, they functionally conformed to the division of the close and open order formation, with light troops often assuming the close order also. More notable were the grenadier units which traditionally had the pick of the largest and strongest conscripts and recruits although this changed over the course of the wars to include the more experienced soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20622",
"title": "Militia",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:Modern survivals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Three units still maintain their militia designation in the British Army. These are the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (formed in 1539), the Jersey Field Squadron (The Royal Militia Island of Jersey) (formed in 1337), and the Royal Alderney Militia (created in the 13th century and reformed in 1984). Additionally, the Atholl Highlanders are a ceremonial infantry militia maintained by the Duke of Atholl—they are the only legal private army in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410259",
"title": "Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The Imperial Guard (French: \"Garde Impériale\") was originally a small group of elite soldiers of the French Army under the direct command of Napoleon I, but grew considerably over time. It acted as his bodyguard and tactical reserve, and he was careful of its use in battle. The Guard was divided into the staff, infantry, cavalry, and artillery regiments, as well as battalions of sappers and marines. The guard itself as a whole distinguished between the experienced veterans and less experienced members by being separated into three sections: the Old Guard, Middle Guard and Young Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14227281",
"title": "Imperial Guard (Napoleon III)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The Imperial Guard of Napoleon III was a military corps in the French Army formed by Napoleon III as a re-establishment of his uncle Napoleon I's Imperial Guard, with an updated version of the original uniforms and almost the same privileges. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
835onc
|
how can concert tickets and big clothing drops seemingly be already sold out at the exact same second they go live?
|
[
{
"answer": "Either someone had access to buy before that, or a lot of buyers were just faster than you.\n\nThere's many examples of employees buying the entire stock before the sale goes live. And there's also many examples of people making software to buy tickets as fast as possible (seconds) as soon as sales opens, leaving little chance to people who buy manually.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People have systems in place to buy them all up for profit. Maybe they have a dozen browser windows open, maybe they straight up have bots, it doesn't matter - if there's a financial incentive to buy up a thing and resell it, people will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Places like stubhub and vivid seats have bots that buy up the tickets within an split second. Im sure here are more companies that do this but those two come to mind. The answer is bots. CAPTCHA? joke. Its easy af to pay some Indian to enter the codes at lightning speed when they popup at his desk. It will screen shot it, send it to him and he puts his answer in the box it moves it to the seller. Sadly this is all perfectly legal and wont change.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40075404",
"title": "Concert for Freedom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Concert tickets went on sale on Monday, June 3, and almost all (60,000) were sold the same day, with online wait times to purchase tickets that exceeded six hours. This caused the organization to initially freeze ticket sales and then release 30,000 tickets for sale on the 17th, though these were for seats at the south goal post of the stadium, behind the stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9544075",
"title": "The Police Reunion Tour",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Since concert tickets went up for sale worldwide, some concert dates were sold out in minutes. Tickets for the entire British tour, the band's first in 24 years, sold out within 30 minutes. Worldwide, they have sold about 1.5m tickets with revenues reaching $168m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48597479",
"title": "Exo Planet 2 – The Exo'luxion",
"section": "Section::::Concerts.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- On December 5, netizens clamored that the ticket-selling was announced late, and caused an uproar. It was later announced that the ticket-selling was postponed to December 13, 2015 due to finalizing ticket prices and seat plans, though the concert will push through on the announced date. Upon the final release of tickets, all tickets were sold out within 3 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46864607",
"title": "Dato' Siti Nurhaliza Unplugged 2015",
"section": "Section::::Commercial performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Tickets for the concert were made available for online purchase though the concert's official online vendor, AirAsiaRedTix.com. The tickets were also sold on selected outlets for manual pick-ups. Although the concert was planned and executed in two weeks, tickets that were priced from RM 78 to RM 518 and sold in late March. They were sold out at least three days before the day of the concert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13771900",
"title": "Glastonbury Festival 2008",
"section": "Section::::Ticket sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Sale of tickets did not occur as fast as has been the case in recent years. After tickets went public on 6 April, only around 100,000 were purchased, prompting Eavis to re-open registration two days later. By contrast, 2007 saw the then entire allocation of 137,500 tickets sell out in around two hours. There are a number of theories as to why the 2008 lapse in ticket sales has occurred, with one popular theory being that would-be patrons have been put off due to the inclusion of hip hop artist Jay-Z. Michael Eavis disputes this, claiming that the lapse is due to a long run of poor weather conditions during previous years of the festival. The global economic downturn may be another explanation for would-be festival goers deciding instead to hold on to their money. The event did eventually sell out, although the final tickets were sold on the opening Friday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41585287",
"title": "Siti Nurhaliza in Symphony",
"section": "Section::::Commercial performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Tickets for the concert were made available since late April 2013 through its official ticket vendors, dfp.com.my and mpo.com.my. Listed from RM 150 to RM 400, it was reported that by May, more than 90 percents of the tickets have already been sold. With Petronas Philharmonic Hall at its full capacity able to seat 900 people per night, all 2700 tickets that were available sold out weeks after the concert was announced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5516403",
"title": "Arctic Monkeys tour history",
"section": "Section::::\"Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not\".:April 2006 UK tour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Tickets were put on general release at 6pm on 2 February, available online, by phone or box office. All 12 gigs were sold out within 10 minutes, with queuing at some venues beginning in the early hours of the morning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
824i4s
|
What happens to the electrons in the positive plate of capacitor?
|
[
{
"answer": "The battery \"pumps\" electrons from its positive terminal over to its negative terminal. That is the function of a battery. That is what makes a battery different from a capacitor.\n\nThe air between the battery's terminals forms a (very weak) capacitor, so the battery always charging a capacitor, even when it is not connected to anything.\n\nWhile the battery is providing current, then its voltage will drop a little bit (this is modeled as [internal resistance](_URL_0_)). But there's no current flowing once the capacitor is charged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two things going on here.\n\nFirst, a charge distribution is what actually produces a voltage. Everything wants to be neutral, so if you connect a conductor between the positively and negatively charged components in a charge distribution, it will cause the charges to equalize. \n\nThe second thing is that a battery creates a charge distribution by chemically reacting with the anode and cathode. The type of reaction dictates the equilibrium. It reaches equilibrium because as the charge distribution builds up, it inhibits the reaction. That is why batteries don't just consume all reactants and grow to massive voltages.\n\nNow, if you connect a capacitor, that capacitor will take some of the charges at the terminals. As it does that, the battery is no longer at its \"equilibrium\" voltage, which allows the reaction to continue to produce charge at the terminals. This is where the extra charge comes from. The voltage *does* drop, and this is proportional to the current times the internal resistance of the battery. As the capacitor charges, the voltage difference between the two gets smaller, the current gets LOWER proportional to Ohm's Law and as a result, the battery reaches its equilibrium again. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "555119",
"title": "Displacement current",
"section": "Section::::Necessity.:Generalizing Ampère's circuital law.:Current in capacitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "where the sign is negative because charge leaves this plate (the charge is decreasing), and where \"S\" is the area of the surface \"R\". The electric field at surface \"L\" is nearly zero because the field due to charge on the left-hand plate is nearly cancelled by the equal but opposite charge on the right-hand plate. Under the assumption of a uniform electric field distribution inside the capacitor, the displacement current density \"J\" is found by dividing by the area of the surface:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21802402",
"title": "Quantum capacitance",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "However, if one or both of the capacitor plates is a semiconductor, then galvani potential is \"not\" necessarily the only important contribution to capacitance. As the capacitor charge increases, the negative plate fills up with electrons, which occupy higher-energy states in the band structure, while the positive plate loses electrons, leaving behind electrons with lower-energy states in the band structure. Therefore, as the capacitor charges or discharges, the voltage changes at a \"different\" rate than the galvani potential difference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530636",
"title": "Dynatron oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Dynatron oscillator.:Secondary emission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In an electron tube, when electrons emitted by the cathode strike the plate, they can knock other electrons out of the surface of the metal, an effect called \"secondary emission\". In a normal tetrode amplifier this is an unwanted effect, and the screen grid next to the plate is biased at a lower potential than the plate, so these \"secondary electrons\" are repelled and return to the plate due to its positive charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571755",
"title": "P–n junction",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Reverse bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343492",
"title": "Electrolytic capacitor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "Electrolytic capacitors are polarized components due to their asymmetrical construction and must be operated with a higher voltage (ie, more positive) on the anode than on the cathode at all times. For this reason the anode terminal is marked with a plus sign and the cathode with a minus sign. Applying a reverse polarity voltage, or a voltage exceeding the maximum rated working voltage of as little as 1 or 1.5 volts, can destroy the dielectric and thus the capacitor. The failure of electrolytic capacitors can be hazardous, resulting in an explosion or fire. Bipolar electrolytic capacitors which may be operated with either polarity are also made, using special constructions with two anodes connected in series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254510",
"title": "Galvanic cell",
"section": "Section::::Basic description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "If an external electrical conductor connects the copper and zinc electrodes, zinc from the zinc electrode dissolves into the solution as Zn ions (oxidation), releasing electrons that enter the external conductor. To compensate for the increased zinc ion concentration, via the salt bridge zinc ions leave and anions enter the zinc half-cell. In the copper half-cell, the copper ions plate onto the copper electrode (reduction), taking up electrons that leave the external conductor. Since the Cu ions (cations) plate onto the copper electrode, the latter is called the cathode. Correspondingly the zinc electrode is the anode. The electrochemical reaction is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343492",
"title": "Electrolytic capacitor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "An electrolytic capacitor (occasionally abbreviated e-cap) is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through anodization. This oxide layer acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte covers the surface of this oxide layer, serving as the cathode or negative plate of the capacitor. Due to their very thin dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface, electrolytic capacitors have a much higher capacitance-voltage (CV) product per unit volume than ceramic capacitors or film capacitors, and so can have large capacitance values. There are three families of electrolytic capacitor: aluminum electrolytic capacitors, tantalum electrolytic capacitors, and niobium electrolytic capacitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ehbae0
|
why is the bathroom always the first room you see when you enter a hotel room?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, the other option would be putting the bathroom closer to the window than the bed, and that would just give less wall space on which to put a window.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly because that layout is cheaper to build. Having the plumbing all as close as possible, towards the hallways means a more compact and efficient layout than spreading it to the outsides of the rooms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "484125",
"title": "Gay bathhouse",
"section": "Section::::Etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Customers who have rooms may leave their room doors open to signal that they are available for sex. An open door can also be an invitation for others to watch or join in sexual activity that is already occurring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4219445",
"title": "Hotel Sterling",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "The Hotel Sterling opened with approximately 175 rooms and 125 bathrooms. This suggests a large number of suites with adjoining parlor rooms. Thus each suite would equal two or more rooms along with one bathroom. It is possible that some hotel rooms had to share a bathroom, but also possible that all accommodations had a private bathroom. While still not common, it was becoming fashionable at the turn of the century that the best hotels would have a bathroom for each form of accommodation. Prior to opening, the hotel was leased for 10 years to W. A. Reist, of York, Pa., and Sylvanus Stokes, of Baltimore. These gentlemen would run the hotel, and oversaw the final fitting out of the structure as to furnishings, etc. The elegant hotel opened to great fanfare, and was instantly the largest and best hotel in the area, and among the best in the northeast United States. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334935",
"title": "Bed and breakfast",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Generally, guests are accommodated in private bedrooms with private bathrooms, or in a suite of rooms including an en suite bathroom. Some homes have private bedrooms with a bathroom which is shared with other guests. Breakfast is served in the bedroom, a dining room, or the host's kitchen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33802230",
"title": "Classic Seven",
"section": "Section::::Layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "A maid's room is typical, and is located away from other bedrooms, almost always off the kitchen to allow maids of the past easy access. A typical maid's room also has a small bathroom attached to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1086816",
"title": "Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes",
"section": "Section::::Accueils and hospitals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The rooms, each with bathroom and shower, accommodate from one to six people. Each room has a window, with some fortunate ones having a view of the Grotto, and storage cupboards and a table and chairs. Each room opens onto a communal area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210047",
"title": "Prairie Chapel Ranch",
"section": "Section::::House and grounds.:House.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "\"Every room has a relationship with something in the landscape that's different from the room next door,\" Heymann says. \"Each of the rooms feels like a slightly different place.\" In the guest bathroom, for example, when you look up from the sink, you look out on an oak tree rather than into a mirror, which is on a side wall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7478869",
"title": "Rose Seidler House",
"section": "Section::::Description.:House.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Each room except the main bathroom has a full view, bringing the outside, inside. There are full glass walls in the living, dining, playroom and 3 bedrooms; above waist height windows in the kitchen, laundry and main bedroom and above shoulder height in the en-suite bathroom. Direct or close contact to related outdoor areas is available for each room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
212jqs
|
why is there a ball inside of guinness beer cans?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's to create a head on the beer when drinking or pouring, as guinness is ment to be drank that way, and it's actually a bottle shaped piece of plastic\n\n\nEdit*I couldn't remember the name of the ball/bottle thing, it's called a widget, \n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a [\"widget\"](_URL_0_) and it helps to form a better foam. \n\nBasically some gas gets pushed into the litte plastic dohickey when they pressurise the can and when you open it the gas in jets out from it forming a better head on your beer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically it's definition of draught beer. In \"normal\" beer you have foam and bubbles because it's:\n\n1. Refermenting in bottle/can (Refermentation, by yeast, creates CO2 soluble in beer) \n\n2. Adding external CO2 (like in beer from kegs in pubs) \n\nIn draught beer you have ball with gas (i'm sure is nitrogen in Guinness, probably it's nitrogen in every draught beer, but I'm not 100% sure). When can is closed gas is inside the ball (high pressure keeps it there, basic physics), when you open it you are changing pressure inside (to atmospheric pressure) and N2 is diluting in beer creating bubbles and magnificent foam. \n\nEdit: You asked why. They are thinking that creating it this way is closer to pub experience. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So you could play beer pong",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alright, thanks for your answers, everyone! I'm gonna have a cold Guinness now while listening to The Pogues, cheers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2590519",
"title": "Stillage",
"section": "Section::::Beverage and alcohol industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Unlike kegs, which can be simply stood upright on the floor, casks are used lying on their sides. This allows the beer to run from the tap under gravity, with room in the \"belly\" of the cask below the outlet for the finings to collect. The shive with the spile will then be the highest point on the cask. As the beer clears (see finings), the inside of the cask becomes coated with sediment. It is important that the stillage holds the cask absolutely still with no rocking or shaking, otherwise the sediment will be shaken into suspension and the beer will be cloudy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3363",
"title": "Beer",
"section": "Section::::Serving.:Packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup. Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing \"skunked\" beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles. Plastic (PET) bottles are used by some breweries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2986220",
"title": "Jug",
"section": "Section::::Beer jug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "In certain countries, especially New Zealand and Australia, a \"jug\" refers to a plastic container filled with two pints (just over a litre) of beer. It is usually served along with one or more small glasses from which the beer is normally consumed, although in some student bars it is more common for the beer to be drunk directly from the jug, which is usually served without the accompanying glass. (In the U.S., this may be called a pitcher—although few US pitchers are as small as a litre, generally holding between 64 and 128 U.S. fluid ounces, approximately 2-4 litres. In New Zealand and Australia a pitcher sometimes can refer to a much larger measure of beer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061533",
"title": "Operation Outward",
"section": "Section::::Design.:\"Beer\", \"jelly\" and \"socks\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "\"Beer\" consisted of a cylindrical metal container in diameter and long containing seven or eight half-pint bottles. Each bottle was a SIP grenade - it contained white phosphorus, benzene, water and a strip of raw rubber, long, which dissolved and formed a layer. After a delay caused by a slow burning fuse, the metal container was tipped open and its contents allowed to fall out. Around the neck of each bottle was a small metal sleeve that held a heavy ball about in diameter. The ball was attached to a strip of canvas; this ensured that when the bottles dropped they fell the right way round. The SIP grenades would spontaneously ignite on shattering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1435641",
"title": "Cask ale",
"section": "Section::::Preparation for drinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "When the landlord feels the beer has settled, and they are ready to serve it, they will knock a soft spile into the shive on the side of the cask. The major difference in appearance between a keg and a cask is the shive. A keg does not have a shive on the side. The majority of casks these days are metal, and look similar to a keg, but with the rounded traditional barrel shape (kegs are often straight-sided). Even though there are still some wooden casks around, these are rare; in fact there are more plastic casks around than wooden ones. Plastic casks are increasing in popularity because they are cheaper to buy and lighter to carry. Though they don't last as long, they are also less likely to be stolen as they have no melt-down value. Beer casks come in a number of sizes, but by far the most common in the pub trade are those of 9 gallons (72 pints or roughly 41 litres) which is known as a Firkin and 18 gallons (144 pints or roughly 83 litres) known as a Kilderkin. (N.B. These are imperial gallons, equal to 1.201 US gallons each.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12294046",
"title": "Brickskeller",
"section": "Section::::The Brickskeller.:Menu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "During the 1970s, beer-can collecting gained in popularity, and The Brickskeller took advantage of that craze. They served beer in cans, which were opened from the bottom, so the collectors could take home cleaned cans that looked \"unopened\" when set upright. Some collectors were underaged, so they would come into the bar with their apparently well-to-do fathers, and have hundreds of dollars worth of beer, opened from the bottom of the can, and then dumped, as the underaged beer can collector only wanted the cans!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2879077",
"title": "Bud Bowl",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- An early 90s episode of \"Late Night with David Letterman\" featured a parody of the Bud Bowl animation by instead portraying it merely with rows of actual beer bottles lined up in front of each other, then being smashed across the playing field floor with a large shop broom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eiipp
|
why does your body feel things to be bigger than they are?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say you walk on a floor with tiles, these tiles hold a sensor that says YES/NO depending on if it's got a part of your footprint on it or not. \nIf you were to walk on a floor with plenty of small tiles, every tile will register a part of your footprint and the collected result will decide the size of your foot. But if you walk on big tiles that are larger than any of your feet, the tile will still say YES to if there is a foot on it or not, and the *whole* tile will register as being pressed. \nThis is **very basically** how our pressure-sensors in feet/arms/legs etc work. \nWhen it comes to blisters they don't just affect the immediate area of the blister - causing your body to tell you it's bigger than your eyes do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I understand your question correctly, you're curious why your tactile sense is not as accurate as your eyesight, right? Well it's tricky, but for a good reason, so brace yourself.\n\nYou have incredibly sensitive skin. Practically everywhere, really, but there are some localized differences. Here's an example: find a loose hair or pluck one and lay it over the bare skin of your knee. Try and do this without looking at it and just focus on how it feels. Not exactly that evident, right? Maybe a tingle over your leg hairs (if you don't shave your legs) but even if you shave, it's still probably not that noticeable.\n\nNow do the same with your forearm, again, without looking. This probably will be a little more sensitive, maybe enough to urge yourself to remove the hair, though not exactly irritating. You can \"feel\" that it's a hair or something like a hair, but it could feel the same as if you place a string or a strand of cobweb over it.\n\nHere's the last test: lean your head back, as if you were to add eye drops, close your eyes, and lay the hair across just under your eye to your nose (if you have bags or know the area that bags develop, lay it there). *This* should be a clearly different feeling. You know it's a hair, it feels like a hair, but it also feels like *something-the-mighty-devil-planted-on-your-face-and-has-to-go-away*. Instinctive alarms sound off that make you want to get it off your face, regardless of how patient a person you are.\n\nThe reason for these different sensations is survival, just like most everything else basic about the human body. You are far more likely to bang your knee than bang your eye into something. And you're also likely to bump your arm into something while walking around; since your hands, however, are vital tools to you, you're more concerned with them than your knee. This variation of desensitization is basically the difference between you kneeing a desk, reacting with \"Ow...\" and you kneeing the same desk and reacting with \"For the love of Zeus, this oaken beast is killing me!\".\n\nSo, essentially, this is designed by different kinds of hair and presence of nerves. You have hair everywhere. Literally, it's all over your skin (with the exception of the bottom of your feet, but that's a different kind of situation) and it's there to feel things. Things touch hairs, hairs talk to nerves, nerves scream to brain. The difference in the hairs is kind of complicated, but for simplicity, leg hair < arm hair < cheek hair in terms of sensitivity. On top of that, the same goes for presence of nerve endings. Your hairs on your legs are more spread out than your arm hairs and ever more so than your cheek hairs.\n\n*That* is why you have a hard time judging things by sensation. Your eyes are always the same distance from each other, so they always have the same conclusion when they see something. Your body hairs aren't always the same distance and type and can't make the same conclusion easily.\n\nAs far as your other example, about feeling a blister, that's a little simpler to explain: your brain's dumb. Not *yours* specifically, just the brain of anyone who is \"gifted\" with sight. Let's say I have a collection of wooden pegs, all of different diameters. I write on each one the size and show you this then have you close your eyes. If I held out peg after peg for you to feel with just one finger, you'd spend hours before finally giving up trying to determine their size. It's just not what we're designed to do; feeling is just the sidekick to sight when it comes to survival.\n\n**TL;DR You have a hard time judging size by touch because evolution wants to spare you some black eyes**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43537463",
"title": "Size",
"section": "Section::::Conceptualization and generalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In poetry, fiction, and other literature, size is occasionally assigned to characteristics that do not have measurable dimensions, such as the metaphorical reference to the size of a person's heart as a shorthand for describing their typical degree of kindness or generosity. With respect to physical size, the concept of resizing is occasionally presented in fairy tales, fantasy, and science fiction, placing humans in a different context within their natural environment by depicting them as having physically been made exceptionally large or exceptionally small through some fantastic means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489002",
"title": "Melissus of Samos",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Incorporeal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "This argument, on the surface, does not coincide with Melissus’ claim that The One is extended and full. After all, why can something that is extended not have any parts, and how can something that is full have no thickness? McKirahan offers an interesting interpretation for what Melissus may have been arguing. A body not only has extension, but also limits, and something infinitely large, such as The One, is unlimited; an object, then, with no limits, is not a body. Furthermore, thickness is simply the measure of the distance between a body’s limits. Since The One is unlimited, it cannot have thickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43537463",
"title": "Size",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The sizes with which humans tend to be most familiar are body dimensions (measures of anthropometry), which include measures such as human height, and human body weight. These measures can, in the aggregate, allow the generation of commercially useful distributions of products that accommodate expected body sizes, as with the creation of clothing sizes and shoe sizes, and with the standardization of door frame dimensions, ceiling heights, and bed sizes. The human experience of size can lead to a psychological tendency towards size bias, wherein the relative importance or perceived complexity of organisms and other objects is judged based on their size relative to humans, and particularly whether this size makes them easy to observe without aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1730659",
"title": "Square–cube law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "This principle states that, as a shape grows in size, its volume grows faster than its surface area. When applied to the real world this principle has many implications which are important in fields ranging from mechanical engineering to biomechanics. It helps explain phenomena including why large mammals like elephants have a harder time cooling themselves than small ones like mice, and why building taller and taller skyscrapers is increasingly difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583286",
"title": "Perivascular space",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Perivascular spaces may be enlarged to a diameter of five millimeters in healthy humans and do not imply disease. When enlarged, they can disrupt the function of the brain regions into which they project. Dilation can occur on one or both sides of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31565681",
"title": "Pain in invertebrates",
"section": "Section::::Suitable nervous system.:Central nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Brain size does not necessarily equate to complexity of function. Moreover, weight for body-weight, the cephalopod brain is in the same size bracket as the vertebrate brain, smaller than that of birds and mammals, but as big or bigger than most fish brains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "926922",
"title": "Man-Thing",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Due to the construction of his body, the Man-Thing is able to ooze his body through openings or around barriers that would seem too small for him to pass through. The smaller the opening, the longer it will take for him to reorganize his mass upon reaching the other side. This ability can be defeated mystically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aiyeh2
|
How come that whole state of New York was named after a city?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's less that the state is named after the city or vice versa, and more that both geographical regions were given Anglicized names at the same time. While the legacy of Native tribes and people can be seen in place names such as Manhattan (based on a Wampanoag or Lenape word used to describe the land mass between the Hudson and East Rivers), name places in New York State reflect the region's appeal to a variety of European colonizers. \n\nPrior to the arrival of Europeans, a collection of Indigenous settlements and communities were spread across what would become New York State, parts of Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. The region, described by many Europeans as \"Iroquoia\", would become the home of the Iroquois League of the Five Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca) sometime between 1450 and 1550. Eventually, a sixth tribe, the Tuscaroras, joined what would become the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Members of the Confederacy traded with Europeans on an individual, village, and nation basis and multiple name places reflect their presence. Counties in Central New York carry the names of the tribes of the Confederacy. Counties in Western New York (e.g. Erie, Chautauqua, Cattaraugus) take their names from tribes from the western part of the state or place-names used by members of the tribes. \n\nDutch colonizers from the Dutch West India Company lay claim to the land inside the Confederacy, on Esopus land along the Hudson, and on Wampanoag, Munsees, or Montauk lands on the state's southern islands and identified it as New Netherlands. In doing so, they basically ignored the early mapping activities of Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano ([more](_URL_0_) on colonial naming practices from /u/sunagainstgold). They identified the region at the bottom of the colony as New Amsterdam and a region about 150 miles north along the Hudson, as Beverwijck. \n\nEngland took over the land 1664 and immediately renamed several key locations.^1 The colony itself and what had become the two largest settlements in the colony were named after the Duke of York and of Albany, who, in 1685, would become James II of England. The settlement on the Hudson would be chartered as The City of Albany in 1686, making it the longest continuously chartered city in America. New Netherlands became \"New York\" and the area that was New Amsterdam also became \"New York.\" The City of Greater New York was established in 1898, bringing together the various boroughs into the city we recognize today as The Big Apple. New York County, which originally included parts of the Bronx and Staten Island, now includes only the NYC borough of Manhattan. \n\nBut to be sure, the problem was noted from the very beginning. One author in mid-1690's noted that England had \"planted seeds of confusion across the path of one who would seek the meaning of a New Yorker. No other state has to deal with such confusion.”^2\n\n____\n1. For more on the transition from Dutch to British rule,[ this article](_URL_1_) from 1901 gives a pretty detailed timeline of events.\n\n2. Reitano, J. (2015).*New York State: Peoples, Places, and Priorities: a Concise History with Sources.* Routledge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "429081",
"title": "Administrative divisions of New York (state)",
"section": "Section::::City.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "The city of New York is a special case. The state legislature reorganized government in the area in the 1890s in an effort to consolidate. Other cities, villages, and towns were annexed to become the \"City of Greater New York\", (an unofficial term, the new city retained the name of New York), a process basically completed in 1898. At the time of consolidation, Queens County was split. Its western towns joined the city, leaving three towns that were never part of the consolidation plan as part of Queens County but not part of the new Borough of Queens. (A small portion of the Town of Hempstead was itself annexed, also.) The next year (1899), the three eastern towns of Queens County separated to become Nassau County. The city today consists of the entire area of five counties (named New York, Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond). While these counties have no county government, boroughs — with boundaries coterminous with the county boundaries — each have a Borough Board made up of the Borough President, the borough's district council members, and the chairpersons of the borough's community boards. A mayor serves as the city's chief executive officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32175986",
"title": "USS New York (1776)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "New York (1776) was a gunboat (also known as a Gundalow) built in 1776 at Skenesboro, New York. It was originally called prior to launch for service in General Benedict Arnold's fleet on Lake Champlain. \"New York\" may be named after the City of New York, because other ships in the fleet were named after cities, however, it could be named after the State of New York, because at least one or two other ships, and , sometimes referred to as \"New Jersey\", were named after states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19353715",
"title": "List of former municipalities in New York City",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The City of Greater New York was formed in 1898 through the consolidation of a number of municipalities, some of which were themselves previously consolidated from smaller municipalities. This article lists the villages, towns and cities that formerly existed within the current boundaries of New York city, from the time the British assumed control of New Amsterdam in 1664 until the 1898 consolidation. The term \"town\" as used in New York state refers to county divisions often known as townships in other states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "607241",
"title": "New-York Historical Society",
"section": "Section::::Branding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Historical Society uses an archaic spelling of the geographic name of \"New York\". Hyphenating the city's old name was common in the 19th century when the institution was founded, and is still used in this context to provide a unique identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637959",
"title": "City of Greater New York",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The term \"City of Greater New York\" was never a legal or official designation as both the original charter of 1898 and the newer one of 1938 use the name of \"City of New York\". It is still used in modern-day books relating or including the time period when the consolidation took place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28948943",
"title": "Timeline of town creation in Central New York",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The towns and cities of Central New York were created by the U.S. state of New York as municipalities in order to give residents more direct say over local government. Central New York (consisting of the Syracuse Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Utica-Rome Metropolitan Statistical Area) is a six county area–Cayuga, Herkimer, Madison, Oneida, Onondaga, and Oswego.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33540235",
"title": "Property Law in Colonial New York",
"section": "Section::::Colonial New York.:Provincial New York.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The Province of New York (1664–1775) was an English and later British crown territory that originally included all of the present U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware and Vermont, along with inland portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine, as well as eastern Pennsylvania. The majority of this land was soon reassigned by the Crown, leaving the territory now known as New York State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1os6xm
|
why are tank tracks so efficient at traction?
|
[
{
"answer": "The purpose of tank tracks is not traction. The purpose is to spread the significant weight of the tank over a large area so they don't sink into sand or mud or whatever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3113840",
"title": "Traction (engineering)",
"section": "Section::::Coefficient of traction.:Traction coefficient in engineering design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Other designs dramatically increase surface area to provide more traction than wheels can, for example in continuous track and half-track vehicles. A tank or similar tracked vehicle uses tracks to reduce the pressure on the areas of contact. A 70-ton M1A2 would sink to the point of high centering if it used round tires. The tracks spread the 70 tons over a much larger area of contact than tires would and allow the tank to travel over much softer land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17157475",
"title": "Tank transporter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Used on the road, tank transporters limit the wear on tracks and drive trains of tracked vehicles. They also conserve fuel, are less damaging of road surfaces, and are overall more efficient moving tanks at high speeds than tanks operating at them even if they are capable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29970",
"title": "Tank",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Mobility.:Tactical mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Tank agility is a function of the weight of the tank due to its inertia while manoeuvring and its ground pressure, the power output of the installed power plant and the tank transmission and track design. In addition, rough terrain effectively limits the tank's speed through the stress it puts on the suspension and the crew. A breakthrough in this area was achieved during World War II when improved suspension systems were developed that allowed better cross-country performance and limited firing on the move. Systems like the earlier Christie or later torsion-bar suspension developed by Ferdinand Porsche dramatically improved the tank's cross-country performance and overall mobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51530415",
"title": "Tank steering systems",
"section": "Section::::Dual drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "A less obvious problem is that it is very difficult to keep such a vehicle moving in a straight line. Although a governor can be used to ensure the two engine speeds are similar, loads on the tracks will not be the same as it moves over different terrain, causing the more heavily loaded track to slow and the tank to turn in that direction. This will cause the tank to wander when moving over uneven ground. This is not an issue at very low speeds, and the system is sometimes used on bulldozers and other tracked construction vehicles. For tanks, considerable driver skill and constant adjustment are needed, even at the relatively low speeds seen on early designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1333814",
"title": "Tread",
"section": "Section::::Continuous tracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Continuous tracks such as those used on military tanks or construction machines (i.e. caterpillar tracks) have metal track segments which may be rubber-coated. They usually do not feature tread patterns, because these would offer little additional grip given the weight of the tracked vehicle. Traction is usually provided by grousers instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29970",
"title": "Tank",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Mobility.:Tactical mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Tanks are highly mobile and able to travel over most types of terrain due to their continuous tracks and advanced suspension. The tracks disperse the weight of the vehicle over a large area, resulting in less ground pressure. A tank can travel at approximately across flat terrain and up to on roads, but due to the mechanical strain this places on the vehicle and the logistical strain on fuel delivery and tank maintenance, these must be considered \"burst\" speeds that invite mechanical failure of engine and transmission systems. Consequently, wheeled tank transporters and rail infrastructure is used wherever possible for long-distance tank transport. The limitations of long-range tank mobility can be viewed in sharp contrast to that of wheeled armoured fighting vehicles. The majority of blitzkrieg operations were conducted at the pedestrian pace of , and that was only achieved on the roads of France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346504",
"title": "Tank locomotive",
"section": "Section::::Types of tank locomotive.:Wheel arrangement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Because tank locomotives are capable of running equally fast in both directions (see below) they usually have symmetrical wheel arrangements to ensure the same ride and stability characteristics regardless of the direction travelled, producing arrangements with only driving wheels (0-4-0T and 0-6-0T) or equal numbers of leading and trailing wheels (2-4-2T, 4-6-4T etc.). However other requirements, such as the need to support a large bunker, would require a non-symmetrical layout such as 2-6-4T.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22j4v4
|
baudrillard's "simulacra and simulation"
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically, the treatise states that our world is \"fake\", and that our culture is made up of false symbols. In other words, reality is hidden behind a fake mask that we've created.\n\nIt's saying that most of our current society is a construct that we've created ourselves. It argues that the way we see of the world isn't the way it looks, but rather an exaggerated picture seen through the lens of mass media.\n\nIt describes how he felt society got this way, as well. At first, the symbols (e.g. news, descriptions, any sort of media) people experienced were accurate reflections of reality. People knew they were fake, but they could differentiate between them and reality.\n\nLater, people assigned more weight to the symbols. They became corrupted, but people still saw the symbols as accurate, and reality as wrong. For example, people would romanticize reality, and they (or others) would believe their romantic image over how reality actually is.\n\nLater still, the symbols became so different from reality, that they held no meaning at all relative to the real world, yet people still believed the symbols over reality. This is when media and culture start dictating people's beliefs without any relation to the real world, e.g. \"Brand X toothpaste is the toothpaste of winners! Buy our product and be a winner!\". At this stage, media determines people's \"reality\" more than actual reality does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "231187",
"title": "Jean Baudrillard",
"section": "Section::::Core ideas.:\"Simulacra and Simulation\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Simulation, Baudrillard claims, is the current stage of the simulacrum: all is composed of references with no referents, a hyperreality. Progressing historically from the Renaissance, in which the dominant simulacrum was in the form of the counterfeit—mostly people or objects appearing to stand for a real referent (for instance, royalty, nobility, holiness, etc.) that does not exist, in other words, in the spirit of pretense, in dissimulating others that a person or a thing does not really \"have it\"—to the Industrial Revolution, in which the dominant simulacrum is the product, the series, which can be propagated on an endless production line; and finally to current times, in which the dominant simulacrum is the model, which by its nature already stands for endless reproducibility, and is itself already reproduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586182",
"title": "Simulacra and Simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Simulacra and Simulation () is a 1981 philosophical treatise by Jean Baudrillard, in which the author seeks to examine the relationships between reality, symbols, and society, in particular the significations and symbolism of culture and media involved in constructing an understanding of shared existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9912495",
"title": "Simulation hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Simulation hypothesis.:Ancestor simulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In 2003, philosopher Nick Bostrom proposed a trilemma that he called \"the simulation argument\". Despite the name, Bostrom's \"simulation argument\" does not directly argue that we live in a simulation; instead, Bostrom's trilemma argues that one of three unlikely-seeming propositions is almost certainly true:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53496424",
"title": "Virtual reality in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "BULLET::::- The holodeck featured in \"\" is one of the best known examples of virtual reality in popular culture, including the ability for users to interactively modify scenarios in real time with a natural language interface. The depiction differs from others in the use of a physical room rather than a neural interface or headset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322859",
"title": "GNS theory",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Gleichman also argues that just as the Threefold Model (developed by self-identified Simulationists who \"didn't really understand any other style of player besides their own\") \"uplifted\" Simulation, Edwards' GNS theory \"trumpets\" its definition of Narrativism. According to him, Edwards' view of Simulationism as \"'a form of retreat, denial, and defense against the responsibilities of either Gamism or Narrativism'\" and characterization of Gamism as \"being more akin to board games\" than to RPGs, reveals an elitist attitude surrounding the narrow GNS definition of narrative role-playing, which attributes enjoyment of any incompatible play-style to \"'[literal] brain damage'\". Lastly, Gleichman claims that most games rooted in the GNS theory, e.g. \"My Life with Master\" and \"Dogs in the Vineyard\", \"actually failed to support Narrativism as a whole, instead focusing on a single Narrativist theme\", and have had no commercial success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2774999",
"title": "Quantel Mirage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The Quantel Mirage, or DVM8000/1 \"Digital Video Manipulator\", was a digital real-time video effects processor introduced by Quantel in 1982. It was capable of warping a live video stream by texture mapping it onto an arbitrary three-dimensional shape, around which the viewer could freely rotate or zoom in real-time. It could also interpolate, or morph, between two different shapes. It was considered the first real-time 3D video effects processor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3203442",
"title": "Dynamation (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Dynamation could create behavioral particle systems that responded to gravity, air resistance, and other real world physics. It gave users an interactive environment to create and modify dynamic events such as water, clouds, rain, fire and dust. The interactive aspect of this software was revolutionary at the time. Users were able to change parameters and the particle system updated in real time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6fom6c
|
95% of the moving truck vehicles for families i see are uhauls. how did one company create such a monopoly over the moving business?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the innovative things U-Haul did was franchise via gas stations. Existing infrastructure for fuel, office and garage space made the barriers to entry of a new franchisee really low. And there needs to be gas stations located strategically, so you get the coverage. \n\nAlso, the one-way rental is pretty huge, not sure if the other truck rentals have come up with anything similar that doesn't cost a fortune. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are/have been other competitors of scale... such as Ryder (they were negatively impacted after Timothy McVie used one of their trucks to blow up Oklahoma City federal building but do still exist), Penske, Budget, Enterprise all have truck rentals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Uhaul is fairly well known for pushing a small vehicles frame near it's absolute limits. It seems they are getting better at this but some of their older small box trucks are literally bolted to the frames of small pickup trucks. Other rental companies use truck frames designed for the heavy loads. Uhaul is also known for running their trucks into the ground, which saves money in maintenance. Uhaul also advertises cheap rates but has many fees that most people don't realize until they read the contract. They even charge you for removing the dolly. Basically all of this has allowed them to offer the cheapest and shittiest experience but still give people something that will probably work in the end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5071866",
"title": "Vehicular automation",
"section": "Section::::Ground vehicles.:Trucks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "As reported in June 1995 in Popular Science Magazine, self-driving trucks were being developed for combat convoys, whereby only the lead truck would be driven by a human and the following trucks would rely on satellite, an inertial guidance system and ground-speed sensors. Caterpillar Inc. made early developments in 2013 with the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University to improve efficiency and reduce cost at various mining and construction sites. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24594747",
"title": "Trust-based marketing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Urban originally tested his hypothesis with a prototype site for General Motors called TruckTown which provided unbiased comparisons of competing truck products. He found that more than 75% of TruckTown visitors said they trusted TruckTown more than the dealer who had sold them their last vehicle. Urban continued to test his theory with projects such as AutoChoiceAdvisor, a website to help car shoppers find the vehicle that best suits their needs) and a Medicare Insurance advisor called PlanPrescriber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29432015",
"title": "Productivity improving technologies",
"section": "Section::::Major sources of productivity growth in economic history.:Infrastructures.:Motorways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Highways with internal combustion powered vehicles completed the mechanization of overland transportation. When trucks appeared c. 1920 the price transporting farm goods to market or to rail stations was greatly reduced. Motorized highway transport also reduced inventories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23911117",
"title": "History of the trucking industry in the United States",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Before 1900, most freight transported over land was carried by trains using railroads. Trains were highly efficient at moving large amounts of freight, but could only deliver that freight to centralized urban centers for distribution by horse-drawn transport. The few trucks that existed at the time were mostly novelties, appreciated more for their advertising space than for their utility.Winton Motor Carriage Company built one of the first trailer trucks, converting a car into a tractor and made a small trailer to move cars from its factory in 1899. Ten years later Fruehauf experimented with tractor trailers. The use of range-limited electric engines, lack of paved rural roads, and small load capacities limited trucks to mostly short-haul urban routes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38655491",
"title": "Rail freight in Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Trainload freight.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Road vehicles, particularly passenger cars, can be moved by rail using autoracks. Ford and Honda are two companies who use rail to transport road vehicles. Ford launched its Dagenham Dock to Halewood train using Cartic 4 wagons (up to 34 cars on each double deck wagon) on 13 July 1966. It was expected 200,000 Ford vehicles would be carried each year at a rate of 50 to 60 trains a week, plus 10 a week to the docks. 538 sets of Cartic 4 wagons were built between 1966 and 1972 and not finally scrapped until 2013. Jaguar Land Rover and BMW also use rail to transport vehicles. 90% of all finished vehicle rail movements within the UK are run by DB Cargo UK\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "583117",
"title": "Trade route",
"section": "Section::::Modern routes.:Railway routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Although railroads have lost much of the general-freight-carrying business to semi-trailer trucks, they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal, grain, chemicals, and ore over long distances. The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds. In addition, the introduction of piggyback flatcars, in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially-designed cars, has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981875",
"title": "Ashok Leyland",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Trucks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Ashok Leyland announced the sale of vehicles on the new U-Truck platform in November 2010 with the rolling out of the first set of 10 models of tippers and tractor trailers in the 16 to 49-tonne segment. Another 15 models were set to enter the market in the following 12 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dqmep
|
A question about forces
|
[
{
"answer": "In our present understanding, quantum fields are the fundamental concept. The existence of quantum fields leads to the existence of particles such as gauge bosons, as well as to other kinds of physical entities (e.g. bound states and extended field configurations like solitons).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Descriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces. As with other physical concepts (e.g. temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a standard measurement scale. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Descriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1242,
"text": "Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as \"vector quantities\". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple one-dimensional example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Descriptions.:Feynman diagrams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1894,
"text": "In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be \"fundamental interactions\". When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the accurate result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time, which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55212",
"title": "Newton's laws of motion",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to the conservation laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental theories (e.g., quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc.). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles. Other forces, such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure, also arise from the momentum conservation. Indeed, the conservation of 4-momentum in inertial motion via curved space-time results in what we call gravitational force in general relativity theory. The application of the space derivative (which is a momentum operator in quantum mechanics) to the overlapping wave functions of a pair of fermions (particles with half-integer spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as the \"repulsion\" of the fermions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28767",
"title": "Statics",
"section": "Section::::Force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Force is the action of one body on another. A force is either a push or a pull. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action. The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, by the direction of its action, and by its point of application. Thus, force is a vector quantity, because its effect depends on the direction as well as on the magnitude of the action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226020",
"title": "Dynamics (mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "From Newton, force can be defined as an exertion or pressure which can cause an object to accelerate. The concept of force is used to describe an influence which causes a free body (object) to accelerate. It can be a push or a pull, which causes an object to change direction, have new velocity, or to deform temporarily or permanently. Generally speaking, force causes an object's state of motion to change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31tw28
|
How does the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere directly affect coral reef building?
|
[
{
"answer": "The build up of excess CO2 in the atmosphere has slowly began to change the pH of the earth's oceans, making the oceans more acidic, a process also known as [Ocean Acidification.] (_URL_0_) As the ocean acidifies, corals cannot absorb the calcium carbonate they need to maintain their skeletons, which cause the stony skeletons that support corals and reefs to dissolve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687935",
"title": "Environmental issues with coral reefs",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Marine pollution.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of coral reefs; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal-burning coal and volcanic eruptions. The researchers state that the study signifies the first time that the relationship between air pollution and coral reefs has been elucidated, while former chair of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Ian McPhail referred to the report as \"fascinating\" upon the public release of its findings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21506762",
"title": "Surf break",
"section": "Section::::Surf Climate Change.:Coral Reef Degradation.:Ocean Acidification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "With an increase of carbon emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels, the ocean acts as a sink for all of the extra CO2 in the atmosphere. CO2 naturally increases the acidity of the ocean, throwing the pH of the ocean to a more acidic state. Currently the acidity of the ocean has increased by 30%. The increase has led to coral reefs degrading, therefore impacting all of the reef breaks. Carbon dioxide absorbed into the ocean from the atmosphere reduces calcification rates in reef-building and reef-associated organisms by altering seawater chemistry through decreases in pH.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13984801",
"title": "Wildlife observation",
"section": "Section::::Issues leading to the extinction of animals.:Climate change.:Rising sea levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Coral reefs are the primary ecosystem that would be affected through a continuing increase in the sea level:\"The coral reef ecosystem is adapted to thrive within certain temperature and sea level range. Corals live in a symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae need the sunlight in order to produce the nutrients necessary for the coral. Sea level rise may cause a decrease in solar radiation at the sea surface level, affecting the ability of photosynthetic zooxanthellae to produce nutrients for the coral, whereas, a sudden exposure of the coral reef to the atmosphere due to a low tide event may induce coral bleaching.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10244353",
"title": "Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Nevertheless, most coral reef researchers anticipate severely negative effects from climate change already occurring, and potentially disastrous effects as climate change worsens. The future of the Reef may well depend on how much the planet's climate changes, and thus, on how high atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration levels are allowed to rise. On 2 September 2009, a report by the Australian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority revealed that if carbon dioxide levels reached 450 parts per million corals and reef habitats will be highly vulnerable. If carbon dioxide levels are managed at or below 380 parts per million they will be only moderately vulnerable and the reefs will remain coral-dominated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Effect of elevated carbon dioxide on crops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide affects plants in a variety of ways. Elevated CO increases crop yields and growth through an increase in photosynthetic rate, and it also decreases water loss as a result of stomatal closing The growth response is greatest in C plants, C plants ,are also enhanced but to a lesser extent, and CAM Plants are the least enhanced species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2801560",
"title": "Ocean acidification",
"section": "Section::::Possible impacts.:Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In some places carbon dioxide bubbles out from the sea floor, locally changing the pH and other aspects of the chemistry of the seawater. Studies of these carbon dioxide seeps have documented a variety of responses by different organisms. Coral reef communities located near carbon dioxide seeps are of particular interest because of the sensitivity of some corals species to acidification. In Papua New Guinea, declining pH caused by carbon dioxide seeps is associated with declines in coral species diversity. However, in Palau carbon dioxide seeps are not associated with reduced species diversity of corals, although bioerosion of coral skeletons is much higher at low pH sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758636",
"title": "National Park of American Samoa",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The coral reefs are under significant threat due to rising ocean temperatures and carbon dioxide concentration, as well as sea level rise. As a result of these and other stresses, the corals that form the reefs are projected to be lost by mid-century if carbon dioxide concentrations continue to rise at their current rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b6n19
|
why do toiletry bags have handles on the side?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's for hanging. When you unzip the toiletries bag and hang it on a hook, you have easy access and may avoid having to place it on a damp counter, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the handle on the side is to give you something to grab onto when you work the zipper. I have made a few leather dopp kits: _URL_0_ and I put a small flap under the zipper on one side and a horizontal handle on the opposite side, so whether you are opening or closing the zipper you have something to grab onto to help you move the zipper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748062",
"title": "Bucket toilet",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Unimproved toilets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In those settings, bucket toilets are more likely to be used without a liner, or the liner is not removed each time the bucket is emptied. This is because the users cannot afford to regularly discard suitably sized, sturdy liners. Instead, the users may place some dry material in the base of the bucket (newspaper, sawdust, leaves, straw, or similar) in order to facilitate easier emptying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134910",
"title": "Toilet roll holder",
"section": "Section::::Wire on hinge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "In the first case, the idea is that the toilet roll maintains contact with the door or wall as the roll's radius decreases. This provides enough friction to allow the user to tear off a piece of tissue. More sophisticated designs include a curved horizontal plate that covers the roll, thus removing the necessity of touching the roll. These roll holders can be used in both orientations, but may be difficult to use in the \"under\" orientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411727",
"title": "Toilet seat",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Toilet seats often have a lid. This lid is frequently left open. It can be closed to prevent small items from falling in, to reduce odors, for aesthetic purposes or to provide a chair in the toilet room. Some people also close the lid to prevent the spread of aerosols on flushing (\"toilet plume\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134910",
"title": "Toilet roll holder",
"section": "Section::::Public toilets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The holders in many public toilets are designed to make it difficult for patrons to steal the toilet rolls. Various contraptions have been devised to lock the spare rolls away, and release them only when the active roll is used up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14895992",
"title": "Luggage carrier",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Panniers may be mounted to front and rear luggage carriers. Removable panniers hook onto the top edge of the carrier and then are held in place by a spring or elastic cord that hooks near the wheel axle at the bottom. Some luggage carriers have an extra, lower, rail to hang panniers on, this provides better stability and more space on the platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1154739",
"title": "Pit latrine",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Lids on the drop hole or toilet seat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A lid on the drop hole keeps light out of the pit and helps to stop flies and odors entering the toilet's superstructure. The lid can be made from plastic or wood and is used to cover the hole in the floor when the pit latrine is not in use. In practice, such a lid is not commonly used for squatting type pit latrines but only for sitting type pit latrines with a toilet seat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239932",
"title": "Flush toilet",
"section": "Section::::Flushing systems.:Flush tanks.:Flapper-flush valve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "In tanks using a flapper-flush valve, the outlet at the bottom of the tank is covered by a buoyant (plastic or rubber) cover, or flapper, which is held in place against a fitting (the \"flush valve seat\") by water pressure. To flush the toilet, the user pushes a lever, which lifts the flush valve from the valve seat. The valve then floats clear of the seat, allowing the tank to empty quickly into the bowl. As the water level drops, the floating flush valve descends back to the bottom of the tank and covers the outlet pipe again. This system is common in homes in the US and in continental Europe. Recently this flush system has also become available in the UK due to a change in regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
97vb7p
|
if i weigh 100 pounds and eat 50 pounds of food, do i now weigh 150 pounds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. If you somehow ate 50 pounds of food, you would in fact gain 50 pounds to your weight. Now this wouldn't last because you body wouldn't be able to metabolize this vast amount of food. You would probably be sick, gain a decent amount of fat, but in the long run you certainly wouldn't suddenly gain 50 pounds in fat mass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ignoring the impossibility to eat that much food, the answer is yes, assuming that the food was eaten instantly without any time for digestive functions to occur. Otherwise, you would weigh close to 150 pounds",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23633499",
"title": "The Biggest Loser (season 8)",
"section": "Section::::Episode summaries.:Week 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- First, after a nutrition demonstration from chef Curtis Stone, the group is required to answer a series of eight questions (one per team). If the group collectively answers five questions correctly, 15 pounds will be deducted from the 150 requirement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8710101",
"title": "Richard K. Bernstein",
"section": "Section::::Low-carbohydrate diabetes diet and treatment plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "BULLET::::- The allowed carbohydrate amounts are a maximum of 6 grams for breakfast, 12 grams for lunch, 12 grams for dinner for a combined maximum of 30 grams of carbohydrate per day for a 140 pounds patient. So if a child weighs 35 pounds, he should get 7.5 grams instead of 30 grams per day. (See March 2017 teleseminar on YouTube). However these 30 grams are not to be adjusted for instance if one weighs 130 pounds. Also if one weighs 200 pounds and these 30 grams do not give him enough healthy vegetables, he can increase the amount of VEGETABLES(see September 2015 teleseminar).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49258251",
"title": "Pete Vallee",
"section": "Section::::Health.:Weight loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In 2005, he weighed 960 pounds (68st 8 lb, 435 kg). Five years later, he had dropped down to 450 pounds (32st 2 lb, 204 kg). At one stage he had to weigh himself on the scales in a post office which he had to access from the back entrance so he wouldn't be seen. He achieved his weight loss with diet and exercise, and with help from his manager Lucille Star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1459649",
"title": "Nate Newton",
"section": "Section::::Life after football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In April 2010, Newton, who once weighed as much as 411 pounds, underwent \"vertical gastrectomy,\" a surgical operation, by Dr. David Kim, that removes up to 75 percent of a patient's stomach and staples the remainder. He has lost 175 pounds and as of November 2010 weighed 220—his lightest weight since high school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5646268",
"title": "Dimensional weight",
"section": "Section::::Shipping companies.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "For example, a box of clothing shipped internationally which weighs 10 pounds and measures 18 × 18 × 18 inches would be charged as if it weighed 36 pounds: (18 x 18 x 18)/166 = 35.1 pounds which is then rounded up to 36 pounds for shipping cost purposes. The 35.1 pounds is the 'theoretical\" weight of the package if it had a density of 166 in/lb or 10.4 lb/ft: (18 × 18 × 18) = 3.375 ft × 10.4 lb/ft = 35.1 lb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149933",
"title": "Weight gain",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "A commonly asserted \"rule\" for weight gain or loss is based on the assumption that one pound of human fat tissue contains about 3,500 kilocalories (often simply called \"calories\" in the field of nutrition). Thus, eating 500 fewer calories than one needs per day should result in a loss of about a pound per week. Similarly, for every 3500 calories consumed above the amount one needs, a pound will be gained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50316871",
"title": "Alexey Vladimirovich Kovalkov",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "In February 2015, he published \"One size less. New harmless express diet\" (\"Minus razmer. Novaya bezopasnaya ekspress dieta\"). This book is intended for those who want to lose a little bit of weight, but cannot handle these annoying \"last\" two (five, ten...) kilograms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lqp3w
|
who are the "kurdish"? and why are their female fighters such a big deal in usa media?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are a group of people that inhabit connected regions of Syria, Iraq and Iran. They are very pro-western and have long been persecuted in their countries. The reason they don't have their own country is because the British drew the lines in the middle east and they did so quite arbitrarily (which is a major reason why the middle east is a mess). \n\nI think the women fighters are a big deal because it is an Islamic society that treats women as equals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Kurds are an ethnic group living mainly in western Iran, northern Iraq, and eastern Turkey. The Kurds want to have their own country called Kurdistan. Iran, Iraq, and Turkey are against this because they don't want to lose any of their territory. The Kurds are very against ISIS and have contributed some of the most vigorously fighting against ISIS.\n\nThe fact that they use female fighters is an indication that they embrace Western values and the Kurds, although Muslim, do indeed tend to be pro-Western. After all, the Middle Eastern countries they live under have never done anything for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Kurds are an ethnicity of people who do not have a country to call their own. They are closer related to Persians than they are Arabs or Turks, and they have a language and history distinct from all three.\n\nThe nearly 40 million of them live in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. \n\nThe reason why the female fighters are so important is because not only is it a big deal that nearly 50% of their army is women, but of all regions of the world this sort of social equality is huge.\n\nIt is also a big story because it shows the Kurds as a people and not an army, all active bodies to protect their brothers and sister.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17068",
"title": "Kurds",
"section": "Section::::Kurdish communities.:Turkey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Kurdistan Workers' Party or PKK (Kurdish: \"Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê\") is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds. Turkey's military allies the US, the EU, and NATO label the PKK as a terrorist organization while the UN, Switzerland, Russia, China and India have refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list. Some of them have even supported the PKK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3968288",
"title": "Kurdish women",
"section": "Section::::Kurdish women in Iraq.:Contemporary developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "While in the Kurdish areas of Turkey and Syria, women play a dominant role in Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK) affiliated \"Apoist\" parties and administrations as co-governors, co-mayors, or even commanded their own female combat units, this never happened in Iraqi Kurdistan, \"because the political leadership itself is conservative and patriarchal\". However, the Kurdish parties in Iraq there felt embarrassed by the national and international public comparing; in late 2015 an actual female Peshmerga unit for frontline combat was created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205781",
"title": "History of the Kurds",
"section": "Section::::Current situation.:Turkey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK), also known as \"KADEK\" and \"Kongra-Gel\" is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds. Turkey's military allies the US, the EU, and NATO see the PKK as a terrorist organization while the UN, Switzerland, Russia, China and India have refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list. Some of them have even supported the PKK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69680",
"title": "Kurdistan Workers' Party",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.:Recruiting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Since its foundation, the PKK has recruited new fighters mainly from Turkey, but also from Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Western countries using various recruitment methods, such as using nationalist propaganda and its gender equality ideology. At its establishment, it included a small number of female fighters but over time, however, the number increased significantly and by the early 1990s, 30 percent of its 17,000 armed fighting forces were women. In much of rural Turkey, where male-dominated tribal structures, and conservative Muslim norms were commonplace, the organization increased its number of members through the recruitment of women from different social structures and environments, also from families that migrated to several European countries after 1960 as guest workers. It was reported by a Turkish university that 88% of the subjects initially believed that equality was a key objective, and that they joined the organization based on this claim. In 2007, approximately 1,100 of 4,500–5,000 total members were women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17068",
"title": "Kurds",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team in FIFA or the AFC; however a team representing Iraqi Kurdistan has been active in the Viva World Cup since 2008. They became runners-up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39969011",
"title": "Belligerents of the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Rojava.:Syrian Democratic Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1535,
"text": "The group formed in December 2015, led primarily by the predominantly Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG). Estimates of its size range from 55,000 to 80,000 fighters. While largely Kurdish, it is estimated that about 40% of the fighters are non-Kurdish. Kurds – mostly Sunni Muslims, with a small minority of Yezidis – represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights. When protests began, Assad's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralize potential Kurdish opposition. Despite this concession, most Kurds remain opposed to the government, hoping instead for a more decentralized Syria based on federalism. The Syriac Military Council, like many Christian militias (such as Khabour Guards, Nattoreh, and Sutoro), originally formed to defend Christian villages, but joined the Kurdish forces to retake Hasakah from ISIS in late 2015 \"The Female Protection Forces of the Land Between the Two Rivers\" is an all-female force of Assyrian fighters in north east Syria fighting ISIS alongside other Assyrian and Kurdish units. Before the formation of the SDF, the YPG was the primary fighting force in the DFNS, and first entered this Syrian civil war as belligerent in July 2012 by capturing a town, Kobanî, that until then was under control of the Syrian Assad-government (see Syrian Kurdistan campaign).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1343763",
"title": "SWAT 3: Close Quarters Battle",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Factions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "There are a number of militant or terrorist factions encountered by SWAT over the course of the game, of various nationalities and agendas. The Kurdish People's Party is a small, disorganized U.S.-based splinter of a group seeking the independence of Kurdistan from Turkey. The cell is led by Lokman Damar. Malta is a U.S.-based terrorists-for-hire group led by a man named Ric \"Dog\" Peters. The People's Liberation Party, also referred to as the PLP, is a Russian Communist group which seeks the reunification of the Soviet Union. The group is quite large with a number of different leaders, and prefers hostage-taking to achieve their goals, holding many people around the world. Sovereign America is one of the main antagonist factions in the game; a militia recognized as a domestic terrorist group by the U.S. government after the bombings of courthouses and other municipal buildings. Sovereign America asserts that the U.S. government is part of a 'new world order' that will take away their freedom. Accordingly, they reject all government authority, including police. Sovereign America is led by Tobias Stromm, self-proclaimed minister and preacher of \"end of the world rhetoric\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8a8rg1
|
Were there revolutions outside of Europe/North America (pre-20th century) that implemented enlightenment (or something similar to them) ideas?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [\"example seeking\" questions](_URL_1_). It's not that your question was bad; it's that these kinds of questions tend to produce threads that are collections of disjointed, partial, inadequate responses. If you have a question about a specific historical event, period, or person, feel free to rewrite your question and submit it again. If you don't want to rewrite it, you might try submitting it to /r/history, /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact. \n\nFor further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the Age of Revolution emerged from the United States and France as part of the transformation of the West into its industrialised, democratised modern form. The lands of North and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand became first part of European Empires and then home to new Western nations, while Africa and Asia were largely carved up between Western powers. Laboratories of Western democracy were founded in Britain's colonies in Australasia from the mid-19th centuries, while South America largely created new autocracies. In the 20th century, absolute monarchy disappeared from Europe, and despite episodes of Fascism and Communism, by the close of the century, virtually all of Europe was electing its leaders democratically. Most Western nations were heavily involved in the First and Second World Wars and protracted Cold War. World War II saw Fascism defeated in Europe, and the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as rival global powers and a new \"East-West\" political contrast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10156432",
"title": "Revolutions of 1848",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4274404",
"title": "Intellectual movements in Iran",
"section": "Section::::History of Iranian modernity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Long before the European Renaissance generated the radical ideas that eventually reshaped Europe and the United States, Persian statesmen, artists, and intellectuals had formulated ideas that strikingly anticipate those of modernity. Since more than thousand years ago there has been a conflict in Persia between the search for modernity and the forces of religious obscurantism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32574055",
"title": "Rise of the Argentine Republic",
"section": "Section::::Antecedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The American and French Revolutions gave room to the Age of Enlightenment, a new era of ideas that rejected the absolute monarchies and favored liberalism instead. Spain sought to prevent the expansion of the new ideas across its territories, but many criollos came into contact with them during their university studies, either at the University of Chuquisaca or at Spain itself. Both in Spain and the Americas, people longed for a new type of government, such as a Constitutional monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23421828",
"title": "Technological revolution",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Attempts to find comparable periods of well defined technological revolutions in the pre-modern era are highly speculative. Probably one of the most systematic attempts to suggest a timeline of technological revolutions in pre-modern Europe was done by Daniel Šmihula:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Continental Europe: 1815–1870.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 1535,
"text": "Several revolutions occurred in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. The goal of most of these revolutions was to establish some form of democracy in a particular nation. Many were successful for a time, but their effects were often eventually reversed. Examples of this occurred in Spain, Italy, and Austria. Several European nations stood steadfastly against revolution and democracy, including Austria and Russia. Two successful revolts of the era were the Greek and Serbian wars of independence, which freed those nations from Ottoman rule. Another successful revolution occurred in the Low Countries. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands was given control of modern-day Belgium, which had been part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Dutch found it hard to rule the Belgians, due to their Catholic religion and French language. In the 1830s, the Belgians successfully overthrew Dutch rule, establishing the Kingdom of Belgium. In 1848 a series of revolutions occurred in Prussia, Austria, and France. In France, the king, Louis-Philippe, was overthrown and a republic was declared. Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I was elected the republic's first president. Extremely popular, Napoleon was made Napoleon III (since Napoleon I's son had been crowned Napoleon II during his reign), Emperor of the French, by a vote of the French people, ending France's Second Republic. Revolutionaries in Prussia and Italy focused more on nationalism, and most advocated the establishment of unified German and Italian states, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25964",
"title": "Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Notable revolutions during later centuries include the creation of the United States through the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the French Revolution (1789–1799), the 1848 European Revolutions, the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Chinese Revolution of the 1940s, and the Cuban Revolution in 1959.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54q7tb
|
When did Countries became Countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you clarify your question? Do you mean when did they consolidate as political entities?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you mean the rise of the modern nation-state? Or are you asking about the transition from hunter-gatherer tribes to organized polities?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21431793",
"title": "Political history of the world",
"section": "Section::::Middle ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Western Europe, briefly mostly united into a single state under Charlemagne around 800CE, a few countries, including England, Scotland, Iceland and Norway, had already effectively become nation states by 1,000CE, with a kingdom (Commonwealth in Iceland's case) largely co-terminus with a people mostly sharing a language and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43731817",
"title": "List of member states of the World Organisation for Animal Health",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Created in 1924 under the name of Office International des Epizooties, it had only 28 member countries at the beginning. Those countries were: Argentine Republic, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Denmark, Egypt, Spain, Finland, France, Great Britain, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Italy, Luxemburg, Morocco, Mexico, the Principality of Monaco, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Siam (Thailand), Sweden, Switzerland, the Czechoslovak Republic, and Tunisia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32658",
"title": "Visegrád Group",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "From the 1500s, large parts of the present-day countries became part of or were influenced by the Vienna-based Habsburg Monarchy, until after the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary. After World War II, the countries became satellite states of the Soviet Union as the Polish People's Republic, the Hungarian People's Republic and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In 1989 came the Fall of the Berlin Wall and after the Fall of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe, and by 1990, the three Communist People's Republics ended. In December, 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. In between, the Visegrád Group was established on 15 February 1991.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42913163",
"title": "Mohammed Tamim",
"section": "Section::::Theses on Economic Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "BULLET::::- The origin and definition of developing countries: like Walt Whitman Rostow, Mohammed Tamim believes that, beginning with the Industrial Revolution in England during the 18th and 19th centuries, developing countries can be defined as countries in transition from various traditional ways of life toward the modern way of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25613",
"title": "Racism",
"section": "Section::::Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts.:Ethnic and racial nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808–1813, known in Spain as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the \"nationalities question\" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84692",
"title": "University of Paris",
"section": "Section::::13th–14th century: Expansion.:Four \"nations\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The \"nations\" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10378",
"title": "European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- the eighteen founding states of 1975: Austria, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2z0ami
|
Is the UK/ island of Britain a fatherland or a motherland?
|
[
{
"answer": "Neither, or both.\n\nThis is more a linguistics question in the field of contemporary and historical usage, but in the interests of fulfilling your question, let me talk about these terms for awhile.\n\nFirstly, “Fatherland” and it’s cognates has a well established usage across European languages, especially Indo-European and Romance languages. You can see it, if you know Greek and Latin, in the forms *πατρία and πατήρ/patria and pater*. Anyway, ‘Fatherland’ is not really a common English term, and for many English speakers its associations are caught up in the emergence of the term *Vaterland* in propaganda associated with Nazi Germany. Thus, for English speakers, ‘Fatherland’ sounds like an echo of that ideology, even though *Vaterland* is not itself so definitively tied up in Nazism in the German Language, anymore than its cognates in other European languages are *necessarily* tied to nationalist ideas of that kind.\n\nSeveral other countries and languages prefer to use feminine language/language forms, for their nation, most notably Russia, and the term Россия-Матушка, or ‘Mother Russia’. This personification of the nation as a woman is found even in languages that use patri-based terms. For example, even though Latin has *patria, Roma* is still a feminine form and the personification of Rome as a female entity also played a role in civic and national identity-discourse. I would suggest that personification of the nation as a mother figure has to do with the combination of traditional depictions of the ‘earth’ as feminine and the land/nation as the place that gives birth to a people.\n\nTo come back to English, neither of these is ‘more’ correct or appropriate, there does not seem to exist a longstanding tradition of embedding one of these concepts into the language more firmly than the other. “Mother Country” is used sometimes to refer to the UK by emigrants/descendants in colonial situations.\n\nAll of which is to say, neither or both could be viewed as appropriate. I hope this has been at least mildly informative and answered your question. Feel free to ask follow up questions if you’d like more historical/linguistic information.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13920",
"title": "Homeland",
"section": "Section::::Motherland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Motherland refers to a \"mother country\", i.e. the place of one's birth, the place of one's ancestors, the place of origin of an ethnic group or immigrant, or a Metropole in contrast to its colonies. People often refer to Mother Russia as a personification of the Russian nation. Within the British Empire, many natives in the colonies came to think of Britain as the mother country of one, large nation. India is often personified as Bharat Mata (Mother India). The French commonly refer to France as \"la mère patrie\"; Hispanic Americans and 19th century-upper-class Filipinos, commonly referred to Spain as \"\"la Madre Patria\"\". Romans and the subjects of Rome saw Italy as the motherland (\"patria\" or \"terrarum parens\") of the Roman Empire, in contrast to Roman provinces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42946944",
"title": "Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution (1989) is a work of nonfiction by Marilynne Robinson that tells the story of Sellafield, a government nuclear reprocessing plant located on the coast of the Irish Sea. The book shows how the closest village to Sellafield suffers from death and disease due to decades of waste and radiation from the plant. \"Mother Country\" was a National Book Award finalist for Nonfiction in 1989. While on sabbatical in England, Robinson's interest in the environmental ramifications of the plant began when she discovered a newspaper article detailing its hazards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "760776",
"title": "History of the British Isles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Today, the British Isles contain two sovereign states: the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. There are also three Crown dependencies: Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man. The United Kingdom comprises England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, each country having its own history, with all but Northern Ireland having been independent states at one point. The history of the formation of the United Kingdom is very complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "760776",
"title": "History of the British Isles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The British monarch was head of state of all of the countries of the British Isles from the Union of the Crowns in 1603 until the enactment of the Republic of Ireland Act in 1949, although the term \"British Isles\" was not used in 1603. Additionally, since the independence of most of Ireland, historians of the region often avoid the term \"British Isles\" due to the complexity of relations between the peoples of the archipelago (see: \"Terminology of the British Isles\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8608340",
"title": "Mother Country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Mother Country is a 2002 novel by Libby Purves about a young American computer expert who goes in search of the relatives of his biological father, a teenage heroin addict in 1970s London when she had him who was pronounced an unfit mother and who died soon after giving birth to him. Raised by his paternal grandparents, the young man has never been to England again after being carried off to America by his father, who also died young.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27189",
"title": "History of Saint Helena",
"section": "Section::::1981 to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified St Helena and the other crown colonies as British Dependent Territories. The islanders lost their status as 'Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies' (as defined in the British Nationality Act 1948) and were stripped of their right of abode in Britain. For the next 20 years, many could find only low-paid work with the island government and the only available employment overseas for the islanders was restricted to the Falkland Islands and Ascension Island, a period during which the island was often referred to as the \"South Atlantic Alcatraz\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23071",
"title": "Prince Edward Island",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In 1798, the British named the island colony for Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (1767–1820), the fourth son of King George III and the father of Queen Victoria. Prince Edward has been called \"Father of the Canadian Crown\". The following island landmarks are also named after the Duke of Kent:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p3xdv
|
how does the liver function when we consume alcohol?
|
[
{
"answer": "After alcohol is absorbed, it is distributed fairly evenly amongst the body's water reservoirs, so there is no concentrating effect in the liver. The liver's job is to metabolize the alcohol into acetic acid.\n\nNothing special happens when you drink a lot such that your liver can't keep up with the elimination - the alcohol concentration builds up. You'd be surprised to know that this occurs _easily_ - a standard drink (one glass of wine, one shot of liquor, one glass of beer) is enough to overwhelm the liver's enzymes. This is why for most blood alcohol concentrations, alcohol is metabolized in what's called _pseudo-zeroth order_ - a constant rate. In other words, your liver enzymes are already working at peak capacity. Otherwise, you won't be able to get drunk easily in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43173137",
"title": "Alcohol (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Long-term effects.:Liver disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "During the metabolism of alcohol via the respective dehydrogenases, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is converted into reduced NAD. Normally, NAD is used to metabolize fats in the liver, and as such alcohol competes with these fats for the use of NAD. Prolonged exposure to alcohol means that fats accumulate in the liver, leading to the term 'fatty liver'. Continued consumption (such as in alcoholism) then leads to cell death in the hepatocytes as the fat stores reduce the function of the cell to the point of death. These cells are then replaced with scar tissue, leading to the condition called cirrhosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8011",
"title": "Alcohol intoxication",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Alcohol is metabolized by a normal liver at the rate of about 8 grams of pure ethanol per hour. 8 grams or is one British standard unit. An \"abnormal\" liver with conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, gall bladder disease, and cancer is likely to result in a slower rate of metabolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307039",
"title": "Alcoholic liver disease",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The mechanism behind this is not completely understood. 80% of alcohol passes through the liver to be detoxified. Chronic consumption of alcohol results in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, Interleukin 6 [IL6] and Interleukin 8 [IL8]), oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and acetaldehyde toxicity. These factors cause inflammation, apoptosis and eventually fibrosis of liver cells. Why this occurs in only a few individuals is still unclear. Additionally, the liver has tremendous capacity to regenerate and even when 75% of hepatocytes are dead, it continues to function as normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43173137",
"title": "Alcohol (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Short-term effects.:Gastrointestinal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Ingestion of alcohol can initiate systemic pro-inflammatory changes through two intestinal routes: (1) altering intestinal microbiota composition (dysbiosis), which increases lipopolysaccharide (LPS) release, and (2) degrading intestinal mucosal barrier integrity – thus allowing this (LPS) to enter the circulatory system. The major portion of the blood supply to the liver is provided by the portal vein. Therefore, while the liver is continuously fed nutrients from the intestine, it is also exposed to any bacteria and/or bacterial derivatives that breach the intestinal mucosal barrier. Consequently, LPS levels increase in the portal vein, liver and systemic circulation after alcohol intake. Immune cells in the liver respond to LPS with the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leukotrienes, chemokines and cytokines. These factors promote tissue inflammation and contribute to organ pathology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8844881",
"title": "Alcohol enema",
"section": "Section::::Effects and dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "An alcohol enema is a faster method of alcohol intoxication since the alcohol is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. The lower gastrointestinal tract lacks the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme present in the stomach and liver that breaks down ethanol into acetylaldehyde, which is actually more toxic than ethanol (drinking alcohol) and is responsible for most chronic effects of ethanol. When rectally absorbed, ethanol will still eventually arrive at the liver, but the high alcohol content could overwhelm the organ. Additionally, consuming the alcohol rectally neutralizes the body's ability to reject the toxin by vomiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21365918",
"title": "Cirrhosis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Alcoholic cirrhosis develops for 10–20% of individuals who drink heavily for a decade or more. Alcohol seems to injure the liver by blocking the normal metabolism of protein, fats, and carbohydrates. This injury happens through the formation of acetaldehyde from alcohol which itself is reactive, but which also leads to the accumulation of other reactive products in the liver. Patients may also have concurrent alcoholic hepatitis with fever, hepatomegaly, jaundice, and anorexia. AST and ALT blood levels are both elevated, but at less than 300 IU/liter, with an AST:ALT ratio 2.0, a value rarely seen in other liver diseases. In the United States, 40% of cirrhosis-related deaths are due to alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307039",
"title": "Alcoholic liver disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Alcoholic liver disease is a term that encompasses the liver manifestations of alcohol overconsumption, including fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, and chronic hepatitis with liver fibrosis or cirrhosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
li9nv
|
why do pc's need to be upgraded for newer games while consoles can handle newer games just fine?
|
[
{
"answer": "When a game is made for a console, it has to be specifically designed such that it will run smoothly on the console. The development of the game is restricted by the system it is made for, and it will only need to be tested for this specific console. \n\nWhen a game is made for a PC, the developer does not have to restrict themselves in order to make the game run smoothly on outdated hardware (which is what consoles effectively are). Of course, they still do to some extent, because they want as many people to be able to run the game as possible. But because there are millions of possible configurations that might be running the game, the developers set minimum system requirements to test the game against to make sure it will run smoothly, and also commonly add settings to tone down the graphical performance of the game to make it run smoother.\n\nFurther, consoles are developed specifically to optimally run a game, only to run games, and to (usually) only run one game at once. Computers are not developed like this, and oftentimes, dozens of other processes are running at the same time as your game, negatively effecting performance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two reasons.\n\nThe first is that consoles sport 1 hardware configuration each. Every 360 has the same processor, same ram, same graphics card, and understands the same code. As a programmer, this is useful, because you can design your game right around the hardware. Optimization is much easier(and so is debugging, for that matter), and so you can squeeze much more performance out of a given console than its hardware equivalent on PCs. This is also why console games get better looking over the course of the generation even though the hardware does stay the same.\n\nThe second reason is that because PCs can vary in processing power, PC games typically have settings that enable them to far, far surpass anything that the current console generation can do. Case in point: I'm sure you've seen some of the trailers for Battlefield 3 by now. Most of those cinematic trailers, unless stated otherwise, are running the game on Ultra quality on the PC. The console version doesn't look nearly that good and never will. Based on what we know it will probably look somewhere between Low and Medium settings on PC. There are videos showing off the console versions of the game, so you can look and compare. In addition to straight up graphical quality, the resolution on a PC is also higher, meaning more detail is possible on the screen at once. If you look at [this chart](_URL_0_), you can see what resolution most console games run at by looking at the HD 720p box. PC games, provided you have the hardware and monitor to run it, can be as big as the biggest box in the picture. Big difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why do PC's need to be upgraded for newer games\n\nThey usually don't. If you want to run a brand spanking new game on hardware from 3 years ago, it will probably run, but it won't run on the highest settings.\n\nConsole games simply don't have highest settings because the hardware is always the same. Console hardware limits the progress of games, but widens the audience.\n\nIn short: With PC gaming you often get the choice of running games at acceptable settings or cutting edge settings; with consoles you are stuck with just acceptable after the first year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember the expansion pack for the N64?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're all missing a key point here:\n\nConsoles do not have the levels of AA (smoothing of jagged edges) and high resolutions that PCs have. These two settings at higher levels will HEAVILY drain on your video card/FPS.\n\nMy point: It looks better on PC because you have higher quality/settings and this requries more processing power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consoles *can't* handle newer games just fine.\n\nTo compensate, the games are heavily optimised for the ageing hardware, and features and abilities of the game engines are turned off or down.\n\nMoreover, PC's as of late have in fact *not* had to be upgraded as much for newer games. Not nearly as big of a problem as it was in the past. Why? Because the games, which have to be capable of running on comparatively shitty console hardware, are often designed for the console environment and then a few bits of tinsel are bolted on for PC. Not always, but often enough for it to be a problem (or saving grace, if you can't afford upgrades and don't mind the lack of progress).\n\nIt means that games can't truly tap the abilities of modern PC hardware because any game-centric features which tapped the power of tech like PhysX, DirectComputer, OpenCL and the latest gen of programmable shaders would make it impossible to replicate on the console, which lacks all the above. \n\nBesides, throw PC game piracy into the mix, and as a games developer, why *would* you care to do twice the work to make a game which gave each platform a solid workout? Ergo, a swathe games with mediocre visuals and generic game mechanics.\n\nAs the current generation of tired, outdated consoles drags on, it will become more and more evident to customers that the consoles are holding the gaming industry back.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been said multiple times but it can't be stressed enough: The current consoles are based on 4-5 year old hardware. There is no way to upgrade them, so there is only so much power you can get out of them. Once games advance enough past this point, console makers will make a new console generation with still static, but better hardware.\n\nThis all means that newer games have to be made so the aging consoles can handle the game and it's graphics. A lot of console games COULD have been made to look better, but then then the console wouldn't have been able to run it smoothly.\n\nAlso, a lot of PCs are at the level of the consoles already, so they don't 'need' to be upgraded per se. They can run the game just fine using settings equivalent to those on the consoles. But if at all possible, PC gamers want to see the game at its best settings. This requires a lot more power than what the current consoles can hope to do. This is why games run at max settings on PCs look better than their console counterparts.\n\nThis really depends on whether the PC version is just a 'port' of the console version, or if the PC version has been optimized to work on a PC. Among other issues, ported games tend to have limited abilities to increase graphics quality. The best you can do is play at a little above the console level. Games that get specifically designed to run on PCs often give more room to customize this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only reason consoles handle newer games is because the newer games are stripped out, have details removed, and have lower quality graphics to make them work well.\n\nTake the PS3 for example, the majority of modern games run at just 720p (1280x720) in order to run acceptably, which is poultry compared to the resolution of most PC displays (1680x1050 and 1920x1080 both being pretty common these days)\n\nThe PS3 uses an nVidia 7800GT graphics processor with 256MB video memory. A chip we used in PCs in *2005* - It's 6 years old at this point. Many newer integrated GPUs can outperform it. Now a GTX 460 with 768MB video RAM is pretty pedestrian for an entry-level gaming rig.\n\nSo while PC games are getting better graphics every 6 months, console gaming has stagnated and not gone anywhere - so there's been no need to upgrade (or rather, the lack of upgrades has caused the stagnation)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When a game is made for a console, it has to be specifically designed such that it will run smoothly on the console. The development of the game is restricted by the system it is made for, and it will only need to be tested for this specific console. \n\nWhen a game is made for a PC, the developer does not have to restrict themselves in order to make the game run smoothly on outdated hardware (which is what consoles effectively are). Of course, they still do to some extent, because they want as many people to be able to run the game as possible. But because there are millions of possible configurations that might be running the game, the developers set minimum system requirements to test the game against to make sure it will run smoothly, and also commonly add settings to tone down the graphical performance of the game to make it run smoother.\n\nFurther, consoles are developed specifically to optimally run a game, only to run games, and to (usually) only run one game at once. Computers are not developed like this, and oftentimes, dozens of other processes are running at the same time as your game, negatively effecting performance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two reasons.\n\nThe first is that consoles sport 1 hardware configuration each. Every 360 has the same processor, same ram, same graphics card, and understands the same code. As a programmer, this is useful, because you can design your game right around the hardware. Optimization is much easier(and so is debugging, for that matter), and so you can squeeze much more performance out of a given console than its hardware equivalent on PCs. This is also why console games get better looking over the course of the generation even though the hardware does stay the same.\n\nThe second reason is that because PCs can vary in processing power, PC games typically have settings that enable them to far, far surpass anything that the current console generation can do. Case in point: I'm sure you've seen some of the trailers for Battlefield 3 by now. Most of those cinematic trailers, unless stated otherwise, are running the game on Ultra quality on the PC. The console version doesn't look nearly that good and never will. Based on what we know it will probably look somewhere between Low and Medium settings on PC. There are videos showing off the console versions of the game, so you can look and compare. In addition to straight up graphical quality, the resolution on a PC is also higher, meaning more detail is possible on the screen at once. If you look at [this chart](_URL_0_), you can see what resolution most console games run at by looking at the HD 720p box. PC games, provided you have the hardware and monitor to run it, can be as big as the biggest box in the picture. Big difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why do PC's need to be upgraded for newer games\n\nThey usually don't. If you want to run a brand spanking new game on hardware from 3 years ago, it will probably run, but it won't run on the highest settings.\n\nConsole games simply don't have highest settings because the hardware is always the same. Console hardware limits the progress of games, but widens the audience.\n\nIn short: With PC gaming you often get the choice of running games at acceptable settings or cutting edge settings; with consoles you are stuck with just acceptable after the first year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember the expansion pack for the N64?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're all missing a key point here:\n\nConsoles do not have the levels of AA (smoothing of jagged edges) and high resolutions that PCs have. These two settings at higher levels will HEAVILY drain on your video card/FPS.\n\nMy point: It looks better on PC because you have higher quality/settings and this requries more processing power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consoles *can't* handle newer games just fine.\n\nTo compensate, the games are heavily optimised for the ageing hardware, and features and abilities of the game engines are turned off or down.\n\nMoreover, PC's as of late have in fact *not* had to be upgraded as much for newer games. Not nearly as big of a problem as it was in the past. Why? Because the games, which have to be capable of running on comparatively shitty console hardware, are often designed for the console environment and then a few bits of tinsel are bolted on for PC. Not always, but often enough for it to be a problem (or saving grace, if you can't afford upgrades and don't mind the lack of progress).\n\nIt means that games can't truly tap the abilities of modern PC hardware because any game-centric features which tapped the power of tech like PhysX, DirectComputer, OpenCL and the latest gen of programmable shaders would make it impossible to replicate on the console, which lacks all the above. \n\nBesides, throw PC game piracy into the mix, and as a games developer, why *would* you care to do twice the work to make a game which gave each platform a solid workout? Ergo, a swathe games with mediocre visuals and generic game mechanics.\n\nAs the current generation of tired, outdated consoles drags on, it will become more and more evident to customers that the consoles are holding the gaming industry back.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been said multiple times but it can't be stressed enough: The current consoles are based on 4-5 year old hardware. There is no way to upgrade them, so there is only so much power you can get out of them. Once games advance enough past this point, console makers will make a new console generation with still static, but better hardware.\n\nThis all means that newer games have to be made so the aging consoles can handle the game and it's graphics. A lot of console games COULD have been made to look better, but then then the console wouldn't have been able to run it smoothly.\n\nAlso, a lot of PCs are at the level of the consoles already, so they don't 'need' to be upgraded per se. They can run the game just fine using settings equivalent to those on the consoles. But if at all possible, PC gamers want to see the game at its best settings. This requires a lot more power than what the current consoles can hope to do. This is why games run at max settings on PCs look better than their console counterparts.\n\nThis really depends on whether the PC version is just a 'port' of the console version, or if the PC version has been optimized to work on a PC. Among other issues, ported games tend to have limited abilities to increase graphics quality. The best you can do is play at a little above the console level. Games that get specifically designed to run on PCs often give more room to customize this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only reason consoles handle newer games is because the newer games are stripped out, have details removed, and have lower quality graphics to make them work well.\n\nTake the PS3 for example, the majority of modern games run at just 720p (1280x720) in order to run acceptably, which is poultry compared to the resolution of most PC displays (1680x1050 and 1920x1080 both being pretty common these days)\n\nThe PS3 uses an nVidia 7800GT graphics processor with 256MB video memory. A chip we used in PCs in *2005* - It's 6 years old at this point. Many newer integrated GPUs can outperform it. Now a GTX 460 with 768MB video RAM is pretty pedestrian for an entry-level gaming rig.\n\nSo while PC games are getting better graphics every 6 months, console gaming has stagnated and not gone anywhere - so there's been no need to upgrade (or rather, the lack of upgrades has caused the stagnation)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Remakes and re-releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Some consoles lack the ability to play games from previous generations which allow a developer to release older games again but on the new consoles. The re-released game may be unchanged and simply be the same game but run on the new technology or it can be changed by the developer to have improved graphics, sound or gameplay. Some re-releases can have added features such as Final Fantasy VII which added functions to speed the game up and turn off random enemy encounters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Comparison between arcade, PC and handheld games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "In comparison to PC and mobile games, console game developers must consider the limitations of the hardware their game is being developed as it is unlikely to have any major changes. PC and mobile technology progresses quickly and there are many different configurations of their hardware and software. This is beneficial at the start of a console's life cycle as the technology will be relatively current but as the console ages, developers are forced to work with ageing hardware until the next generation of consoles comes out. Earlier consoles games could be developed to take advantage of the fixed limitations they were be on (E.g., the Megadrive's capability of fast scrolling influenced design decisions in Sonic the Hedgehog) Due to these hardware limitations the requirement of development kits and licenses required for development on a console is commonplace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61347433",
"title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
"section": "Section::::Market Saturation.:The Crash of 1977.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Being able to purchase new, better and different games for the same console at a reduced price, instead of several identical consoles that occupied more space and a connection on the TV, lead to the fall of dedicated consoles, in favor of better technologies. The transition was abrupt, so manufacturers scrambled to replace or sell aging tech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Games' effect on console sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Where a PC is multi-functional and will be purchased to perform tasks other than gaming, a dedicated gaming console must have games available for it to be successful. A good library of games will give a consumer reason to purchase the console and in turn create opportunities for more games to be created for it. Console developers will lower their profit margins on devices to encourage sales of the games as more profit can be obtained from software royalties than the sale of the consoles themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13503628",
"title": "Wii system software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Several game discs, both first-party and third-party games, have included system software updates so that players who are not connected to the Internet can still update their system. Additionally this can force an upgrade by requiring the player to perform the update, without which the new game cannot be played. Some online games (such as Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Mario Kart Wii) have come with specific extra updates, such as being able to receive posts from game-specific addresses, so, regardless of the version of the installed software, it will install an update.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1336512",
"title": "PC game",
"section": "Section::::Platform characteristics.:Fidelity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In high-end PC gaming, a PC will generally have far more processing resources at its disposal than other gaming systems. Game developers can use this to improve the visual fidelity of their game relative to other platforms, but even if they do not, games running on PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26449832",
"title": "2010s in video gaming",
"section": "Section::::Consoles of the 2010s.:Eighth generation consoles (since 2012).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The eighth generation consoles are expected to face stiff competition from tablet and smartphone gaming markets, online services and dedicated consoles based on cheap technology and free-to-play games or low cost downloadable content away from big budget blockbusters, as well as an increased interest in independent games promoted by popular social networking sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
397wlb
|
Exactly how fast can a light sail travel?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to [this](_URL_0_) paper, it will depend on the mass area loading on the sail, which is equal to (total mass) / (area of sail) \nbut the article says: \n \n > The slowest\napproach in Table 1 passes the 0.01 AU perihelion point and continues out into space at a\nconstant velocity of 0.0014 С (420 km/Sec). \n \nYou should check out Table 1. It has other values up to 0.009 C.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26957755",
"title": "Space travel using constant acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Interstellar travel.:Interstellar traveling speeds.:Planetary reference frame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "From the planetary frame of reference, the ship's speed will appear to be limited by the speed of light—it can approach the speed of light, but never reach it. If a ship is using 1 \"g\" constant acceleration, it will appear to get near the speed of light in about a year, and have traveled about half a light year in distance. For the middle of the journey the ship's speed will be roughly the speed of light, and it will slow down again to zero over a year at the end of the journey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468939",
"title": "1676 in science",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- December 7 – Danish astronomer Ole Rømer measures the speed of light by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, obtaining a speed of 140,000 miles per second (approximately 25% too slow).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24586",
"title": "Impulse drive",
"section": "Section::::Practical challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "BULLET::::- Since a ship traveling at impulse velocities (slower than, but approaching, the speed of light) is still traveling in the normal space-time continuum, concerns of time dilation apply, and it is written in the \"ST:TNG Technical Manual\" that high relativistic speeds are avoided unless absolutely necessary; impulse power is therefore customarily limited to a maximum of lightspeed (approximately 269,813,212 km/h, or 167,654,157 mph). (Warp travel, on the other hand, is stated in the \"Manual\" to cause no kinds of time dilation effects.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740817",
"title": "Mathematical coincidence",
"section": "Section::::Some examples.:Numerical coincidences in numbers from the physical world.:Speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The speed of light is (by definition) exactly 299,792,458 m/s, very close to 300,000,000 m/s. This is a pure coincidence, as the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance between the Earth's pole and equator along the surface at sea level, and the Earth's circumference just happens to be about 2/15 of a light-second. It is also roughly equal to one foot per nanosecond (the actual number is 0.9836 ft/ns).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323625",
"title": "2300 AD",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "A faster-than-light device called the \"Stutterwarp Drive\" allows mankind to achieve practical travel between planetary systems. Ships can usually reach a speed of 3.5 light years per day; the real limitation of the Stutterwarp drive is that it can only propel a ship up to a maximum of 7.7 light years before it needs to enter a gravity well into which it can discharge accumulated lethal radiation that would otherwise kill the crew. Because ships need to reach a world within this distance, the effect of this limitation is the creation of lanes along which travel and commerce are conducted and along which wars are fought, the Arms mentioned above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::History.:First measurement attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The first quantitative estimate of the speed of light was made in 1676 by Rømer (see Rømer's determination of the speed of light). From the observation that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon Io appeared to be shorter when the Earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it, he concluded that light travels at a finite speed, and estimated that it takes light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth's orbit. Christiaan Huygens combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of , 26% lower than the actual value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42361206",
"title": "Hypothetical technology",
"section": "Section::::Space flight.:Light sail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "A light sail is a proposed propulsion system that uses the momentum transferred to a sail by light impinging on it. A light sail could use sunlight to achieve interplanetary travel without carrying large quantities of onboard fuel. Just as a sailboat on Earth can tack into the wind, the light sail can be tacked against the direction of light for a return journey from the outer planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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