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pprid
|
This may sound daft but, when Comets go though space they appear to have a tail, but space is a vacuum so what would be causing the tail is there is no resistance?
|
[
{
"answer": "The sun. The tail of a comet doesn't indicate where it is going but rather where it is relative to the sun\n\nEdit: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Indeed, for part of a comet's orbit (when it's moving away from the sun), its tail is actually ahead of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23775176",
"title": "Comet tail",
"section": "Section::::Tail formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from the Hubble Space Telescope observations, but these detections have been questioned, and have not yet been independently confirmed. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\", and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form, which points away from the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5962",
"title": "Comet",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Tails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail. At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. On occasions—such as when the Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7625115",
"title": "118401 LINEAR",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The main-belt comets are unique in that they have flat (within the plane of the planets' orbits), approximately circular (small eccentricity), asteroid-like orbits, and not the elongated, often tilted orbits characteristic of all other comets. Because (118401) LINEAR can generate a coma (produced by vapour boiled off the comet), it must be an icy asteroid. When a typical comet approaches the Sun, its ice heats up and sublimates (changes directly from ice to gas), venting gas and dust into space, creating a tail and giving the object a fuzzy appearance. Far from the Sun, sublimation stops, and the remaining ice stays frozen until the comet's next pass close to the Sun. In contrast, objects in the asteroid belt have essentially circular orbits and are expected to be mostly baked dry of ice by their confinement to the inner Solar System (see extinct comet).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23775176",
"title": "Comet tail",
"section": "Section::::Tail formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the antitail, only when it seems that it is directed towards the Sun. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always points along the streamlines of the solar wind as it is strongly affected by the magnetic field of the plasma of the solar wind. The ion tail follows the magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. Parallax viewing from the Earth may sometimes mean the tails appear to point in opposite directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5962",
"title": "Comet",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Tails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28339718",
"title": "Great Comet of 1264",
"section": "Section::::Alleged connection to the Great comet of 1556.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Comets sometimes may disappear because of orbital derangement from an ellipse to a parabola or a hyperbola. Sir Isaac Newton showed that a body controlled by the Sun moves in a conic section—that is, an ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola. Because the latter two are open curves, a comet which pursued such a path would go off into space never to reappear. A derangement of orbit from closed to open curve has doubtless happened often.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5962",
"title": "Comet",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Coma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\". The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form pointing away from the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6soq46
|
[Mores, Customs & Folkways] Do historians use literature to study areas that are well documented or is literature only used if there are no other sources?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, history is more interdisciplinary than the question seems to imply - but it's also a big question. \n\nCultural history may involve study of fictional literature; for example, a student could examine how Shakespeare's portrayal of the Plantagenets in his history plays related to propaganda reinforcing Tudor / Elizabethan legitimacy. There, literature is a central part of historical study. \n\nIn other instances, it may be a way of locating supplementary details not recorded or with minor coverage elsewhere, particularly in the area of social history, customs and everyday life. It is certainly more useful for older history, particularly medieval and early modern, where there is not such a glut of evidence as there is in, for example, the second half of the twentieth century, but in most cases it isn't a binary either/or. And it must always be borne in mind that literature is fictional or mythical, and that there may not be ways to check whether a social habit, for example, was widespread, or fictional. A historian might cite an example from a well-known novel to liven up a book, if it is a good and relevant example. \n\nBut it would not be good practice at all to cite, say, a historical novel about the Second World War when writing a factually-based assessment of military planning: there are countless better secondary sources, never mind primary ones, and there may be artistic licence used. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "177891",
"title": "Primary source",
"section": "Section::::Significance of source classification.:Other fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "A study of cultural history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include artifacts like photographs, newsreels, coins, paintings or buildings created at the time. Historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44751384",
"title": "The Rare Book & Manuscript Library (University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign)",
"section": "Section::::Collections.:Modern books (1800–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Literature, history, and science are well represented, with strong holdings in first editions of nineteenth- and twentieth-century English authors, books related to travel and exploration, and social history. Also noteworthy are collections in radical literature and Anarchist newspapers, natural history, fine press and typography, and the history of publishing. The library also holds 162 cubic feet of unpublished film and television scripts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14513712",
"title": "National Library of Moldova",
"section": "Section::::Collections.:Collection of world literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "World literature Collection contains approximately 60 thousand documents. Destination collection: providing information and documentary of researchers the field of literature. The collection includes books about literature in general, documents about the evolution of literatures and languages of the world countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42956654",
"title": "Carol Reardon",
"section": "Section::::Interviews.:An interview with Carol Reardon: On Civil War history, literature, and popular memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 2790,
"text": "Reardon state that she still believes that historians are interested in literary and nontraditional sources because these sources allow the reader to understand many different aspect of society. For instance, women and children's studies are able to be researched through nontraditional sources, such as schoolbooks, song, poetry, etc. Nontraditional sources are able to fill in the blanks between the home-front and the battlefield. She thinks they are both wartime literature and post-wartime literature are important. Wartime literature allows historians to determine what the understanding of the war was. Post-wartime literature is important because it allows historians to see how the understanding has changed. What was remembered, what was lost, and what was changed that may have no foundation in reality. The question that comes from comparing those sources is why they changed. Additionally, literature allows historians to know the underlining emotions that the author felt and sales enable historians to see if the public felt the same way. Literature demonstrates the political and social strains during that time period. Reardon believes that sources that combined nonfiction and fiction are good tools to develop a strong historical methodologies. Historians need to do the research in order to determine if author could have known the information at the time or it became knowledge after the fact. Reardon explains the difference between Civil War novel and the Civil War memoirs. With the novel, the author enters the project with no desire to keep within nonfiction; however, with memoirs authors begin with the intention to stay true, yet once history becomes either dark or boring they add fictional elements. Reardon uses the Battle of Gettysburg to demonstrate how popular memory of the Civil War changes. Now, the Battle of Gettysburg is seen as a unifying symbol and the end of the Civil War; however, that was not always how it was seen. After the Civil War, Gettysburg was primarily targeted to inspire pride in the Union Army and the North. Many Southerners did not make the journey to Gettysburg because there was not much incentive to attend. It was not until the late 1880s that the Battle of Gettysburg began to be expressed in dramatic unifying moment in United States' history. Finally, Reardon examines the novel \"The Killer Angels\" by Michael Shaara. Reardon argues that the novel is useful creates a different perspective of actors in the Civil War which allows people to being to study historiography. Additionally, a fictional novel can promote the public to begin to read non-fiction work on the Battle of Gettysburg. However, Reardon cautions that readers believe that the characters are real and if they are not, it can turn them off from reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26092",
"title": "Historical negationism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Book burning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Repositories of literature have been targeted throughout history (e.g., the Library of Alexandria), burning of the liturgical and historical books of the St. Thomas Christians by the archbishop of Goa Aleixo de Menezes, including recently, such as the Burning of Jaffna library and the destruction of Iraqi libraries by ISIS during the fall of Mosul.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963870",
"title": "Literature",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1256,
"text": "Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about human history. Literature provides insights about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. For instance, postmodern authors argue that history and fiction both constitute systems of signification by which we make sense of the past. It is asserted that both of these are \"discourses, human constructs, signifying systems, and both derive their major claim to truth from that identity.\" Literature provides views of life, which is crucial in obtaining truth and in understanding human life throughout history and its periods. Specifically, it explores the possibilities of living in terms of certain values under given social and historical circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16834615",
"title": "Paremiography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Collecting proverbs in languages with a literate heritage is usually done by looking for examples in the available literature. There are published collections in many languages with long written traditions, Greek, Latin, Russian, French, German, Greek, Chinese, etc. In addition, there are published collections from languages that do not have a long written tradition, such as Temne, Oromo, Bambara, Bassa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kdebe
|
if bathroom hygiene is so important why don't we get sick after performing oral sex?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's more a matter of frequency. If you consider all the times in a day you touch a person (shake hands, etc.) or touch something they touch (doorknobs, etc.), it ads up to a lot of exposure. \n\nIf you sucked that many dicks, every day, from that many random people, you would probably get sick a lot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know about you, but me and my ex made a habit of you know.. refreshing our selves before we did anything. Not because we were gross individuals but because it just made sense to us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've never died in a plane crash. That doesn't mean planes don't crash or that people don't die as a result of plane crashes. STD's can and are sometimes transmitted via oral sex. For some types of STD's, the likelihood is somewhat diminished in proportion to becoming infected by way of vaginal and/or anal sex but the possibility does exist and people do \"get sick\" because of unprotected oral sex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you mean by \"get sick\"?...a cold? Flu? If that's what you mean then the answer is: because you catch a cold or flu virus from hand contact or from someone coughing/sneezing on you. Now, if you're the one giving oral and the receiver has a cold, they could cough on you or cough in their hand then touch your face and you'd get sick. But you won't catch the cold from their genitals. (Sorry for my tame choice of words. I'm a nurse...trying to keep it professional;)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think it's the weiners that are the major culprits... it's the hundreds/thousands of instances of hand-to-object-to-hand contact in a place like a bathroom that are.\n\nJust wash your hands often. And shower once a day. You'll be fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hygiene is a habit. Oral sex only happens 3 times a day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know plenty of men that wash their hands before heading to the urinals with the mentality of \"my penis is the cleanest part of me (not in contact with the outside world after showers etc.) but my hands are disgusting because they've been everywhere.\" So it's really a hygiene factor if we're talking about basic viral/bacterial infections. \n\nNot a medical professional. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22669899",
"title": "Cunnilingus",
"section": "Section::::Practice.:General practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Women may consider personal hygiene before practicing oral sex important, as poor hygiene can lead to bad odors, accumulation of sweat and micro-residue (such as lint, urine or menstrual blood), which the giving partner may find unpleasant. Some women remove or trim pubic hair, which may enhance their oral sex experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31400429",
"title": "How to Have Sex in an Epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Risk categories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "BULLET::::- Getting sucked (receiving oral sex): According to \"How to Have Sex,\" oral sex probably has no risk for the receiver, but there are still hygiene protocols such as washing, not coming in the person's mouth, etc. that someone in this position should follow to protect the health of his partner. Additionally, it is only risk free from the perspective of CMV/AIDS, as there are plenty of other pathogens that can be transmitted through oral sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283589",
"title": "Urinal (health care)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Personal hygiene.:Regular activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Anal hygiene is the practice that a person performs on the anal area of themselves after defecation. The anus and buttocks may be either washed with liquids or wiped with toilet paper or adding gel wipe to toilet tissue as an alternative to wet wipes or other solid materials in order to remove remnants of feces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2480306",
"title": "Oral sex",
"section": "Section::::Practice.:Contraception and safe sex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Oral sex is not necessarily an effective method of preventing sexually transmitted infections (STIs), although some forms of STIs are believed to be less commonly spread in this way, and oral sex has been recommended as a form of safe sex. In the United States, no barrier methods for use during oral sex have been evaluated as effective by the Food and Drug Administration. However, a barrier protection like a condom for fellatio or dental dam for cunnilingus can offer some protection from contact when practicing oral sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71617",
"title": "Infant mortality",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and outcomes.:Public health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Simple behavioral changes, such as hand washing with soap, can significantly reduce the rate of infant mortality from respiratory and diarrheal diseases. According to UNICEF, hand washing with soap before eating and after using the toilet can save more lives of children than any single vaccine or medical intervention, by cutting deaths from diarrhea and acute respiratory infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10903919",
"title": "Anal hygiene",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Having hygienic means for anal cleansing available at the toilet or site of defecation is important for overall public health. The absence of proper materials in households can, in some circumstances, be correlated to the number of diarrhea episodes per household. The history of anal hygiene, from ancient Rome and Greece to Japan and China, involves sponges and sticks as well as water and toilet paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8t6r2y
|
how did people get enough heat to smelt metals before the industrial age?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coal fire forges are able to reach temperatures of about 1900 degrees C which is more than enough to melt most ‘primitive’ metals such as iron, bronze, copper and steel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They melt at much lower temperatures than you might think.\n\nYou can take raw iron ore and pack it into a \"bloomery\" which is basically a mud-and-brick covered pile of ore and coal/charcoal. Light it on fire and the outer materials insulate the inner layers, and the heat eventually gets to the point where the iron melts out of the ore and pools in the bottom.\n\n[Blast furnaces](_URL_0_) have also existed for about 2000 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28716",
"title": "Smelting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In the Old World, humans learned to smelt metals in prehistoric times, more than 8000 years ago. The discovery and use of the \"useful\" metals — copper and bronze at first, then iron a few millennia later — had an enormous impact on human society. The impact was so pervasive that scholars traditionally divide ancient history into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39197996",
"title": "Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory of non-ferrous extractive metallurgy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In general, prehistoric extraction of metals, particularly copper, involved two fundamental stages: first, the smelting of copper ore at temperatures exceeding 700 °C is needed to separate the gangue from the copper; second, melting the copper, which requires temperatures exceeding its melting point of 1080 °C. Given the available technology at the time, accomplishing these extreme temperatures posed a significant challenge. Early smelters developed ways to effectively increase smelting temperatures by feeding the fire with forced flows of oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29219",
"title": "Stone Age",
"section": "Section::::Stone Age in archaeology.:End of the Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age and began the Bronze Age. The first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age, or more technically the Chalcolithic, \"copper-stone\" age. The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266443",
"title": "Metalworking",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "At some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, and rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized. Remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE. The end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7126810",
"title": "Redruth and Chasewater Railway",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antecedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "As the industrial revolution gathered pace, steam engine power became available to overcome these limitations, and new seams were developed at greater depths, and in some cases abandoned mines were re-opened. Moreover copper began to supersede tin as the dominant mineral for exploitation. Because the process of smelting copper required large quantities of coal — in the proportion of 18 to 1 — the copper ore was transported by sea to South Wales, where Swansea was dominant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17741660",
"title": "Bal maiden",
"section": "Section::::Industrialisation and the 19th century copper boom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1645,
"text": "While 18th century metal mines had worked on the principle of adult men digging the ore and women and children picking and cobbing the ore ready for smelting, in the new large-scale mines of the early 19th century working practices changed. The strenuous underground work was still carried out by male workers, as was breaking large rocks with heavy hammers ('ragging'). In copper mines, very young girls, and sick and injured older women, carried out the simple work of picking. Girls in their late teens forced the broken ore through a broad mesh to sort the ore ('riddling'), and used hammers to break the large chunks of ore left by the riddling process into smaller chunks. Girls in their mid-teens cobbed the resulting chunks, separating the valuable ore from waste rock. Grown women would carry out the heavy manual labour of breaking rocks with hammers ('spalling'), of crushing sorted ore to small grains ready for smelting ('bucking') and of transporting ore between various pieces of apparatus. An experienced bal maiden working as a spaller would produce approximately one ton (2240 lb; 1016 kg) of broken ore per day, depending on the type of stone. In the tin mines, in which ore could be crushed far more finely than copper before smelting, cobbing and bucking did not take place. Instead, the chunks of spalled ore were mechanically stamped to fine grains, and washed into a series of collecting pits to separate the coarse 'rough' from the fine 'slimes'. The resulting rough and slimes were separated out on large wooden frames ('buddling' and 'framing' respectively), to extract the tin ore from the surrounding dust and grit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14914",
"title": "Industrial Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Important technological developments.:Iron industry.:Iron process innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ees71
|
How did scientists measure the radius of atoms and other stuffs?
|
[
{
"answer": "The most accurate measurements are spectroscopic measurements, in which the energy between states of e.g. atoms is measured. These measurement happen typically with lasers, the frequencies of which can be very well controlled. This is the domain of atomic physics, which is mainly quantum mechanics dealing with discrete energy levels and interaction of matter with photons.\n\nFirst, remember that the energy states of electrons orbiting a nucleus are quantised.\n\nIn a spectroscopic measurement, the frequency of a laser is scanned along a certain range while it passes through a sample, e.g. a gas of atoms. Most of the time, the light will not interact with the sample. Only when the frequency (and thus the energy of the photons that make up the light) is equal to the energy difference of two internal states of the atoms, some of the light can be scattered. In this way, the energy levels of atoms are measured very precisely.\n\nFinally, one can calculate from theory what the electron orbits and the corresponding energies should be. These calculations depend however on some constants, such as the Bohr radius, which describes the distance between the nucleus and the electron in a hydrogen atom. By comparing these calculations to the results of the measurements, these constants are retrieved. (The Bohr radius is now known with a relative uncertainty of 0.2 parts per billion.) These constants can then be used in the theory to calculate the sizes of different atoms.\n\nTL;DR: Experiments measure the spacing between energy levels, theory relate these energy differences to (among other things) the sizes of electron orbits. Both lasers and quantum mechanics are very accurate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A method called diffraction can be used to measure small gaps. Pretty much waves do a certain pattern when you get the wave length to be the same length as the gap between things with this by controlling wavelength and knowing what to expect you can measure gap between things. As particles have waves you can use neutrons with their very short waves to measure small gaps between things but em waves can also be used for larger gaps. However I don't think this can get down to the level you are referring too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59732566",
"title": "List of Dutch discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Physics.:Van der Waals radius (1873).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The Van der Waals radius, \"r\", of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere which can be used to model the atom for many purposes. It is named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals equation of state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "70651",
"title": "Van der Waals radius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 412,
"text": "The van der Waals radius, \"r\", of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere representing the distance of closest approach for another atom. It is named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals equation of state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48900",
"title": "Atomic radius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The \"atomic radius\" of a chemical element is a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical distance from the center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding shells of electrons. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. Three widely used definitions of atomic radius are: Van der Waals radius, ionic radius, and covalent radius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1593985",
"title": "Atomic radii of the elements (data page)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "The atomic radius of a chemical element is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of the electron. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. Depending on the definition, the term may apply only to isolated atoms, or also to atoms in condensed matter, covalently bound in molecules, or in ionized and excited states; and its value may be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. Under some definitions, the value of the radius may depend on the atom's state and context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28048752",
"title": "Charge radius",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The problem of defining a radius for the atomic nucleus is similar to that of defining a radius for the entire atom; neither atoms nor their nuclei have definite boundaries. However, the nucleus can be modeled as a sphere of positive charge for the interpretation of electron scattering experiments: because there is no definite boundary to the nucleus, the electrons \"see\" a range of cross-sections, for which a mean can be taken. The qualification of \"rms\" (for \"root mean square\") arises because it is the nuclear cross-section, proportional to the square of the radius, which is determining for electron scattering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7181923",
"title": "Space-filling model",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "In 1952, Robert Corey and Linus Pauling described accurate scale models of molecules which they had built at Caltech. In their models, they envisioned the surface of the molecule as being determined by the van der Waals radius of each atom of the molecule, and crafted atoms as hardwood spheres of diameter proportional to each atom's van der Waals radius, in the scale 1 inch = 1 Å. To allow bonds between atoms a portion of each sphere was cut away to create a pair of matching flat faces, with the cuts dimensioned so that the distance between sphere centers was proportional to the lengths of standard types of chemical bonds. A connector was designed—a metal bushing that threaded into each sphere at the center of each flat face. The two spheres were then firmly held together by a metal rod inserted into the pair of opposing bushing (with fastening by screws). The models also had special features to allow representation of hydrogen bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48900",
"title": "Atomic radius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Depending on the definition, the term may apply only to isolated atoms, or also to atoms in condensed matter, covalently bonding in molecules, or in ionized and excited states; and its value may be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. The value of the radius may depend on the atom's state and context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1f4e1v
|
How is the infrastructure of the internet built?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"internet\" is simply a huge network. There are many subnetworks, and subnetworks of those networks, but it all is just a big web of connections. \n\nSome huge telecommunication companies own huge fiber optic cable trunks, and they have an agreement to connect them. The top level ISPs are called Tier 1 ISPs. Tier 1 ISPs are the backbone of the internet, and provide service to huge areas. They then sell space to the lower level ISPs, called Tier 2 ISPs. These are the cable internet providers that you probably buy internet from. Tier 3 ISPs are much smaller and buy from Tier 2 ISPs. They are much cheaper and serve small areas.\n\nEach computer on a network is assigned a certain address, called an IP address. Anybody on your network can access your computer through your unique IP address. Think of it like a home address.\n\nEvery single server on the internet has an IP address. Web servers do, game servers do, chat servers do, FTP servers, everything. It gets kind of annoying to memorize the IP addresses of every server you want to connect to, so DNS (domain name system) was invented. DNS servers basically route a domain name (such as _URL_0_) to an IP address of the server that its on (such as 74.125.239.135). If you want to try it out, go ahead and type in 74.125.239.135 into your browser.\n\nThe DNS root servers are managed by ICANN, which you may have heard of. Sometimes when you want to buy a domain from Godaddy or another registrar, they charge something like a 20 cent ICANN fee. ICANN is basically a nonprofit organization that manages the DNS for the world. You technically don't HAVE to use ICANN DNS servers. You can host your own DNS server and connect to it, and assign as many domain names as you want, but nobody else will be able to go to those domains unless they are using that DNS server.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34007488",
"title": "Digital divide in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Means of connectivity.:Infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The infrastructure by which individuals, households, businesses, and communities connect to the Internet refers to the physical mediums that people use to connect to the Internet such as desktop computers, laptops, cell phones, iPods or other MP3 players, Xboxes or PlayStations, electronic book readers, and tablets such as iPads. Other than desktops, most types of Internet capable infrastructure connect through wireless means. In 2009, 56% of Americans said that they had connected to the Internet through wireless means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12866752",
"title": "Multiven",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of Market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The Internet infrastructure comprises software-driven networked switches, routers, firewalls, servers and storage hardware that switch, route, protect and store all voice, video and text data intelligently across the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174521",
"title": "Infrastructure",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks, or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure, research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure and tourism infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19075413",
"title": "America COMPETES Act",
"section": "Section::::America COMPETES Act of 2010.:Provisions of Act.:United States innovation and competitive capacity.:COMPETES Report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Chapter 5: Infrastructure for the 21st Century presents the notion of an information infrastructure. Alongside traditional infrastructure such as the road network, telephone lines, water and sewage this chapter states the American advanced economy must have an information infrastructure – high speed internet access, adequate spectrum allotment, cloud network etc. – that can support the increasingly wireless and technology-based economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20699108",
"title": "Treasury Information System Architecture Framework",
"section": "Section::::TISAF building blocks.:TISAF Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The Infrastructure is the \"enabler\" of information systems which describes the supporting services, computing platforms, and internal and external interfaces needed to provide technology environments within which information systems run.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1644982",
"title": "Enterprise content management",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) (which refers to online services that abstract the user from the details of infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55810614",
"title": "Data preservation",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Cyber Infrastructures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Cyber infrastructures which consists of archive collections which are made available through the system of hardware, technologies, software, policies, services and tools. Cyber infrastructures are geared towards the sharing of data supporting peer-to-peer collaborations and a cultural community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cqfp3k
|
why does english pop up everywhere? like in anime, and foreign music they just say a line in english and then just back to their respective languages.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it's currently seen as the lingua franca of the western world I'd reckon",
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},
{
"answer": "English is the world's most popular second language. Hundreds of millions of people know a little English, enough to understand a word or two thrown into a song for fun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it has to do with a couple of things. If it's an English company name, like Apple, they would say the name of the company since it's a Pronoun. Just like we would say Toshiba, for example. The other could be common phrases, like OK or GOODBYE. Just like how we might say Adios or other common phrases in other languages. Sometimes it's just fun!",
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},
{
"answer": "Mostly because there is no word in that particular language for whatever it is they are referring to.\n\nSo for eg, very few languages have a word for rocketship or blackhole. They could use the litteral words to replace them, but that combination probably already exists and means something else.\n\nIf you want to say rap battle in urdu then you're gonna have a hard time. So you would just say rap battle.\n\nLanguage is at the end of the day a tool to express. If your expression is understood, then you won.",
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},
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"answer": "At different times, different languages are dominate across borders, which shapes other languages. It becomes trendy or profitable to know the dominate language and eventually, it gets ingrained in the other language. Right now, that language is English, but that is relatively recent and in the past English has absorbed other languages in the same way. \n\nWhen you broil beef to serve to the sergeant in the army, you are using a lot of words that came from french - Broil, beef, sergeant, and army all originate from French, which was the \"lingua franca\" of the world for a long time. \n\nWhen someone's husband looks through a window at a cake, you are using a lot of Scandinavian words that came in when the Vikings were trading/raiding England (husband, window, cake). \n\nEven today, we have major loanwords from all over - tsunami, blitzkrieg, kindergarten, schlep, schmuck, fika, hygge, croissant, ninja, baguette, smorgasbord, karate, piste, lego, kaputt, bikini, karaoke, teriyaki, etc. We insert these because we like them and they fit a particular use. Other languages do the same thing, but with English terms. \n\nAnother factor that significantly caused English to be a dominate language was the spread of the English Empire, which at it's height covered a huge amount of the world. More recently, the success after WWII of the US reinforced English as a world language - The occupation of Japan and subsequent preferred trading status to boost their economy caused English to become a major language there and the success of US and British companies in being major players in the oil industry in the middle east was influential in making English (and the dollar) relevant there. \n\nOutside of that, knowing English is profitable in many places and is essential for programming, business, and more. It's a social status indicator in many places and in other places, English is a second language. For example, in the nordic countries, just about every last person is fluent in English today - in 1915, most people spoke German, not English, which represented who they predominately traded with. \n\nSo, basically, it's a prestige language in many places, seen as \"cool\", and English has become the main international language (for the time being).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "496615",
"title": "Animutation",
"section": "Section::::Recurring themes.:Audio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "The foreign language songs are often \"misheard\" into English by the creators and added as subtitles. The words are not translations but soramimis, English words that sound roughly the same as the original lyrics. For example, the animutation title \"French erotic film\" is a soramimi of the original Dutch lyrics \"Weet je wat ik wil\" in an Ome Henk song. The actual translation of the lyrics is \"Do you know what I want?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38309024",
"title": "Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯FE",
"section": "Section::::Release and promotion.:Localization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Due to the game's Japanese setting and focus, in addition to people preferring overseas songs in their original languages, the Western version of the game features Japanese audio with subtitles rather than an English dub. Finding English actors to perform the game's songs would also have lengthened the estimated localization time by a whole year. Its localization was handled by Atlus staff rather than Nintendo's internal localization division Nintendo Treehouse. Atlus was chosen over Nintendo due to fan expectation of the type of localization common to an Atlus-published title, and the wish to make the game appeal to long-term fans of the company's work. This placed the game in contrast with the majority of other Nintendo titles localized for the West, where Nintendo's attitude was described as \"very hands-on\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::General use.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 270,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 270,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Many video games originally produced in North America, Japan, and PAL countries are dubbed into foreign languages for release in areas such as Europe and Australia, especially for video games that place a heavy emphasis on dialogue. Because characters' mouth movements can be part of the game's code, lip sync is sometimes achieved by re-coding the mouth movements to match the dialogue in the new language. The Source engine automatically generates lip-sync data, making it easier for games to be localized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304131",
"title": "Fan translation of video games",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The central focus of the fan translation community is historically of Japanese-exclusive computer and video games being made playable in English for the first time, and sometimes of games recently released in Japan that are import-worthy and are unlikely to be officially localized to English speaking countries. It has since expanded to include other languages as well. Fan translations to English have provided a starting point for translations to many other languages. A fan translation is also started if a certain game released in Japan is not announced for localization within one year from its Japanese release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13623042",
"title": "Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi",
"section": "Section::::Games.:\"Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Despite not featuring the original Japanese music, the American release of the game allows for selectable English (Funimation cast) and Japanese voices, while retaining the English-language written dialogue (as adapted from Steven J. Simmons' translation from the original Japanese version's script). However, there are known bugs in the American version of \"Budokai Tenkaichi\" that cause pieces of English and Japanese spoken dialogue to cross over into whichever selection the player is using at times, specifically Super Saiyan 4 Goku lacking an English dub audio clip after defeating Super Saiyan 4 Vegeta and Super Saiyan 1 Future Trunks lacking an English audio clip for his super finishing move, Finish Buster, though other examples may also apply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28648680",
"title": "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Localization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "The localization was done by the philosophy of keeping true to the spirit of the original Japanese, making dialogue sound like what a native speaker of English would say instead of strictly adhering the original's exact wording. The localization editor, Ben Bateman, did this by looking at the writing from a wider view, line by line or scene by scene rather than word by word or sentence by sentence, and thinking about how to convey the same ideas in English. Most parts of the game that include a joke in the localization also have a joke in the Japanese version, but a different one; Bateman did however try to make similar types of jokes, with similar contents and ideas. The game's use of Japanese language puns led to problems, as many of them relied on Japanese dialects to function; for these, Bateman replaced them with new puns in English. He was given mostly free rein in what he could change or add, as long as it did not disrupt the plot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Global use.:Asia.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Adult cartoons such as \"Family Guy\", \"South Park\", and \"The Simpsons\" are shown dubbed in Japanese on the WOWOW TV channel. \"\" was dubbed in Japanese by different actors instead of the same Japanese dubbing-actors from the cartoon because it was handled by a different Japanese dubbing studio, and it was marketed for the Kansai market. In Japanese theaters, foreign-language movies, except those intended for children, are usually shown in their original version with Japanese subtitles. Foreign films usually contain multiple Japanese-dubbing versions, but with several different original Japanese-dubbing voice actors, depending upon which TV station they are aired. NHK, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, and TBS usually follow this practice, as do software releases on VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray. As for recent foreign films being released, there are now some film theaters in Japan that show both dubbed and subtitled editions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
w08c8
|
Border Between Portugal and Spain
|
[
{
"answer": "Why specifically these borders and not somewhere else is a question that's beyond me, but Portugal, immediately after its Reconquista, was a County and vassal to the Kingdom of Galicia and later Leon. Afonso I of Portugal became independent mostly with papal support due to his role in driving out the Moors in present day Portugal. Since then borders have shifted and wasn't finalized for a few more hundred years.\n\nThe language thing is more clear - Portuguese used to be a lot more like Galician, but in the past thousand years or so they've become more and more different, with Castillan taking hold of the rest of Spain and slowly relegating other Iberian languages like Leonese, Aragonese, Basque, Catalan, and Asturian to secondary status. These languages all have similarities and were a varying degree of difference between Portuguese and Castillan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Borders in Europe will always look \"illogical\" because there's usually about a 1000 years of history behind them.\n\n > Also, on a related note, why do the two countries speak different languages? I would have thought with a border so porous the people would speak the same language or at most different dialects. Comparing Iberia to France or German speaking areas this seems a little odd.\n\nStandard languages are a product of the modern nation-states. In 17th century, villages on the both sides the Spanish-Portugal border would probably speak a very similar dialect. However, in 19th/20th century public education system, press, military service etc. would make them learn 'proper', literary Portuguese/Castillian. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "56959",
"title": "Geography of Portugal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 435,
"text": "Despite these definitions, the Portugal-Spain border remains an unresolved territorial dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between Caia and Ribeira de Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza by Spain. This territory, though under \"de facto\" Spanish occupation, remains a \"de jure\" part of Portugal, consequently no border is henceforth recognised in this area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48156426",
"title": "Portugal–Spain border",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Portugal–Spain border is referred to as \"la Raya\" in the Spanish language and \"A Raia\" in the Portuguese language (the stripe). The current demarcation is almost identical to that defined in 1297 by the Treaty of Alcañices. It is one of the oldest borders in the world. The Portugal–Spain border is long, and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union. The border is not defined for between the Caia river and Ribeira de Cuncos, because of the disputed status of Olivenza, which has been disputed between the two countries for two hundred years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49395381",
"title": "Borders of Spain",
"section": "Section::::Borders.:Spain–Portugal border.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The Spain-Portugal border, commonly known as \"La Raya\", is 1292 kilometers long. It extends through the provinces of Pontevedra, Ourense, Zamora, Salamanca, Cáceres, Badajoz and Huelva in Spain, and the districts of Viana do Castelo, Braga, Vila Real, Bragança, Guarda, Castelo Branco, Portalegre, Évora, Beja, Faro in Portugal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186492",
"title": "Portuñol",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Language contact between Spanish and Portuguese is the result of sustained contact between the two languages in border communities and multilingual trade environments. Such regions include the border regions between Portugal and Spain in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the ones between Brazil, whose official language is Portuguese, and most of its neighboring countries whose official languages are Spanish. Because \"Portuñol\" is a spontaneous register resulting from the occasional mixing of Spanish and Portuguese, it is highly diverse; there is no one dialect or standard of \"Portuñol\". There does, however, tend to be a stronger presence of Spanish in \"Portuñol\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49439464",
"title": "Convention of Limits (1926)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Portugal and Spain signed an agreement demarcating the border from the confluence of Ribeira de Cuncos with the Guadiana, just south of Olivenza, to the estuary of the Guadiana River, on the far South. The border between Portugal and Spain from the confluence of the Caia (river) to the confluence of the Ribeira de Cuncos is not demarcated and remains so nowadays, with the Guadiana River being the de facto border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48156426",
"title": "Portugal–Spain border",
"section": "Section::::Customs and identity checks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Portugal and Spain signed the Schengen Agreement in June 1991 which came into effect on 26 March 1995, making Portugal and Spain part of the Schengen area and thus the border then became an Open border. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16910381",
"title": "Portugal–Spain relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Portugal–Spain relations describes relations between the governments of the Portuguese Republic and the Kingdom of Spain. The two states make up the vast majority of the Iberian Peninsula and as such, the relationship between the two is sometimes known as Iberian relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53e6b3
|
- why do people want ivory so bad and why is it illegal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Before the advent of plastics, ivory was a very durable alternative to wood. It was considered a luxury good because of its relative scarcity. Most countries have made ivory trade illegal because harvesting it requires killing of endangered elephants.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26744317",
"title": "Ivory trade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Ivory has been traded for hundreds of years by people in regions such as Greenland, Alaska, and Siberia. The trade, in more recent times, has led to endangerment of species, resulting in restrictions and bans. Ivory was formerly used to make piano keys and other decorative items because of the white color it presents when processed but the piano industry abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49312534",
"title": "Destruction of ivory",
"section": "Section::::Justification, objections, and impact.:Messaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Advocates also believe that destroying ivory can influence the supply side of the ivory market by sending a strong, highly visible and well-publicized message that the ivory market is dangerous and futile. Similarly, those who would otherwise consider ivory as an investment opportunity may think twice if the market is so consistently disrupted. French Minister of Ecology Philippe Martin called the destruction of ivory \"indispensable in the fight against trafficking of threatened species\" and said that it sends \"a firm message\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52989",
"title": "Poaching",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Ivory, which is a natural material of several animals, plays a large part in the trade of illegal animal materials and poaching. Ivory is a material used in creating art objects and jewelry where the ivory is carved with designs. China is a consumer of the ivory trade and accounts for a significant amount of ivory sales. In 2012, \"The New York Times\" reported on a large upsurge in ivory poaching, with about 70% of all illegal ivory flowing to China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15165",
"title": "Ivory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The national and international trade in ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants is illegal. The word \"ivory\" ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian \"âb, âbu\" (\"elephant\"), through the Latin \"ebor-\" or \"ebur\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49312534",
"title": "Destruction of ivory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The destruction of ivory is a technique used by governments and conservation groups to deter the poaching of elephants for their tusks and to suppress the illegal ivory trade. , more than of ivory has been destroyed, typically by burning or crushing, in these high-profile events in 21 countries around the world. Kenya held the first event in 1989, as well as the largest event in 2016, when a total of of ivory were incinerated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9279",
"title": "Elephant",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence. Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold. The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century. This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan. Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks. CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected. Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local elephant populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15165",
"title": "Ivory",
"section": "Section::::Availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Since the ivory ban, some Southern African countries have claimed their elephant populations are stable or increasing, and argued that ivory sales would support their conservation efforts. Other African countries oppose this position, stating that renewed ivory trading puts their own elephant populations under greater threat from poachers reacting to demand. CITES allowed the sale of 49 tonnes of ivory from Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana in 1997 to Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m94kc
|
what is the difference between a credit card reader and a chip-and-pin machine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Chip and pin cards look [like this](_URL_0_), where you insert the chip into [the reader](_URL_1_), and are prompted to enter a PIN number (like an ATM) before you can make a purchase.\n\nTraditional credit card readers just [swipe the magnetic strip](_URL_2_), and you sign the receipt.\n\n**Edit**: Added images.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Magnetic stripe card readers use the same technology that older computers used to store data on magnetic tape, The magnetic stripe on the credit card just stores the same information as is written on the card but in a format that the computer can read easily. \n\nThe chip on a chip and pin card is a small computer with one job, it stores the same information as the magnetic stripe but it also has a complex encoding system on it, when you put the card into a chip and pin reader it contacts the bank and sends them the id details from the card (basically the long number). The bank knows that the credit card for that account has a certain chip on it, with a secret code and your pin number, the bank then chooses a long random number and does some maths with all the bits it knows and comes up with a final number, the bank then sends the same random number to the chip in your card (via the chip and pin reader) and asks it to do the same maths. If your pin is correct, the chip is the right one, and the secret information on the card is correct, the chip will come up with the same final number as the bank did proving that you have the right card and pin.\n\nNow if someone reads the magnetic stripe on a credit or debit card they can send that information to the bank over and over until you report the card stolen and the bank eventually blocks it. But if someone reads the number sent from the chip and pin reader back to the bank, they only know how to answer for that specific random number sent by the bank. And as the bank will not send that number again they cannot pretend they still have the card.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "684762",
"title": "POST card",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "POST cards are inserted into an expansion slot, and are available with connectors for the ISA (also supporting EISA), PCI, PCI Express, Mini PCIe (for laptops), Universal Serial Bus, or Low Pin Count bus, or for a parallel port. A typical card for desktop computers has a different bus interface on each edge; a card for laptop computers may have both a miniPCI and a parallel port connector (plus USB to supply power).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "458524",
"title": "EMV",
"section": "Section::::Chip and PIN versus chip and signature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Chip and PIN is one of the two verification methods that EMV enabled cards can employ. Rather than physically signing a receipt for identification purposes, the user just enters a personal identification number (PIN), typically of 4 to 6 digits in length. This number must correspond to the information stored on the chip. Chip and PIN technology makes it much harder for fraudsters to use a found card, so if someone steals a card, they can't make fraudulent purchases unless they know the PIN.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "458524",
"title": "EMV",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Chip and PIN systems can cause problems for travellers from countries that do not issue Chip and PIN cards as some retailers may refuse to accept their chipless cards. While most terminals still accept a magnetic strip card, and the major credit card brands require vendors to accept them, some staff may refuse to take the card, under the belief that they are held liable for any fraud if the card cannot verify a PIN. Non-chip-and-PIN cards may also not work in some unattended vending machines at, for example, train stations, or self-service check-out tills at supermarkets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337220",
"title": "Personal identification number",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The PIN originated with the introduction of the automated teller machine (ATM) in 1967, as an efficient way for banks to dispense cash to their customers. The first ATM system was that of Barclays in London, in 1967; it accepted cheques with machine-readable encoding, rather than cards, and matched the PIN to the cheque. 1972, Lloyds Bank issued the first bank card to feature an information-encoding magnetic strip, using a PIN for security. James Goodfellow, the inventor who patented the first personal identification number, was awarded an OBE in the 2006 Queen's Birthday Honours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104531",
"title": "Cleaning card",
"section": "Section::::Area of application.:Cleaning of motorized card readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Motorized readers are built in, for example ATMs. The credit/debit-card is inserted into the card slot, where the first magnetic head is placed. If a magnetic stripe can be recognized, a shutter will be opened and the card will be transported to the second magnetic head by roles. The card is read, thereby the device knows whether the transaction goes over the micro chip or the magnetic stripe. If no micro chip is placed on the card, the transaction goes directly above the magnetic head. If the data gives the order for a transaction over the micro chip, the card is placed on the chip reading contact and is stopped. The chip contacts, are fitted on the chip and now the transaction begins. If the reading of the magnetic stripe respectively by the micro chip is not possible, the card will be declined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61692",
"title": "PC Card",
"section": "Section::::CardBus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The notch on the left hand front of the device is slightly shallower on a CardBus device so, by design, a 32-bit device cannot be plugged into earlier equipment supporting only 16-bit devices. Most new slots accept both CardBus and the original 16-bit PC Card devices. CardBus cards can be distinguished from older cards by the presence of a gold band with eight small studs on the top of the card next to the pin sockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4397518",
"title": "Card reader",
"section": "Section::::Memory card readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "A memory card reader is a device, typically having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ni637
|
Is there any hard data to suggest that an animal that has killed a human (like the bear on the front page) is actually likely to repeat this behavior?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes there is. Especially if they develop a taste for human meat. Carnivores frequently will attack humans if they are sick, weak, or old. We are quite easy to eat. \n\nabout lions in the 1800's that preyed on Keyan construction Workers _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1941914",
"title": "Kilimanjaro Safaris",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Initially, there were a number of animal deaths from disease, toxic exposure, maternal killings, and park vehicles. The United States Department of Agriculture investigation found no violations of the Animal Welfare Act for the 29 deaths that happened September 1997 – April 1998.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29384146",
"title": "List of incidents at Walt Disney World",
"section": "Section::::Disney's Animal Kingdom.:Kilimanjaro Safaris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Initially, there were a number of animal deaths from disease, toxic exposure, maternal killings, and park vehicles. The United States Department of Agriculture investigation found no violations of the Animal Welfare Act for the 29 deaths that happened September 1997 – April 1998.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261105",
"title": "Roadkill",
"section": "Section::::Species affected.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "In 1993, 25 schools throughout New England, United States participated in a roadkill study involving 1,923 animal deaths. By category, the fatalities were: 81% mammals, 15% bird, 3% reptiles and amphibians, 1% indiscernible. Extrapolating these data nationwide, Merritt Clifton (editor of \"Animal People Newspaper\") estimated that the following animals are being killed by motor vehicles in the United States annually: 41 million squirrels, 26 million cats, 22 million rats, 19 million opossums, 15 million raccoons, 6 million dogs, and 350,000 deer. This study may not have considered differences in observability between taxa (e.g. dead raccoons are easier to see than dead frogs), and has not been published in peer-reviewed scientific literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18645314",
"title": "Death of Kenton Joel Carnegie",
"section": "Section::::Fatal attack.:Other opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1326,
"text": "A naturalist retained by the Carnegie family reviewed accounts of 80 events in Alaska and Canada where wolves closely approached or attacked people, found 39 cases of aggression by apparently healthy wolves, and 29 cases of fearless behavior by non-aggressive wolves. After examining photographs of Carnegie's body and the area around it, a naturalist concluded that the argument in favour of a bear culprit was weak: many black bears may have been hibernating, an active bear would have concentrated on an ample food supply from the nearby landfill 2 km from the kill site, and none of the camp employees saw bears or bear tracks, either the month before or after the attack occurred. A bruise on Carnegie's right lower leg (measured 4 × 2.5 cm), with what appeared to be bite mark impressions associated with the bruising was said to be consistent with injuries observed in 13 survivors of wolf attacks in Alaska and Canada. In many of these cases, the initial bites were fleeting and occurred in the hands or legs, and left only torn clothing, scratched skin, or minor puncture wounds. A photo, featuring the injured lower back of a six-year-old Alaskan boy attacked by a wolf near Icy Bay showed bite marks ½-3 cm in length; many of which were similar to those found near the nose, eyes, and right arm of Carnegie's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5461276",
"title": "Bear JJ1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "As of 21 June 2006, his kills included 33 sheep, four domestic rabbits, one guinea pig, as well as some hens and goats. Further concern was expressed due to the proximity of the bear's preferred prey to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18645314",
"title": "Death of Kenton Joel Carnegie",
"section": "Section::::Fatal attack.:Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Before Carnegie's death, there had been at least one verified case of a fatal wolf attack on a person in North America, namely Canada, where Patricia Wyman died on 18 April 1996. More than 300 occurrences of black bears behaving aggressively toward humans have been documented in the province, including three fatal attacks. The main evidence against a bear attack was that Carnegie's body was surrounded by the tracks of wolves, while no bear tracks were found near his body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145173",
"title": "Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981",
"section": "Section::::Penalties.:Exemptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- an individual can provide evidence showing it was necessary to kill or injure a protected animal or bird in order to protect livestock, crops, vegetables, fruit, growing timber and fisheries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vw3dn
|
why is it that the majority of the police officers/military in corrupt states defend the corrupted governments?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cops aren't as oppressed as those they help oppressed. Cops break the law a lot more than your average citizen and their position lets them get away with it. As long as they keep those in power they get to keep their jobs and the perks that come along with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51295787",
"title": "Corruption in Bolivia",
"section": "Section::::Police and narcotics trafficking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Police corruption is a major problem, owing partly to low wage and poor training. The police are generally viewed as the nation's third most corrupt institution, and corruption is widely seen as the main impediment to legitimate crime-fighting. In six years, three police chiefs have been fired for corruption or abuse of power. Many police officers have ties to organized crime, mainly drug traffickers, and many are appointed to senior positions, a power that is exclusively exercised by the president, because of their political connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512886",
"title": "Police corruption",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Police corruption affects society, including political, economic, and sociological. The social aspect is perhaps easiest to define, because even one corrupt officer in a department can generate an overall distrust of the department (the theory). This negative outlook on policing by civilians helps maintain an \"us versus them\" mentality among police, which only serves to further the rift between police officers and civilians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1181844",
"title": "Thomas Pogge",
"section": "Section::::Major works.:\"World Poverty and Human Rights\" (2002, 2008).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Local elites can afford to be oppressive and corrupt, because, with foreign loans and military aid, they can stay in power even without popular support. And they are often so oppressive and corrupt, because it is, in light of the prevailing extreme international inequalities, far more lucrative for them to cater to the interests of foreign governments and firms than to those of their impoverished compatriots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512886",
"title": "Police corruption",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Social effects.:Reduced effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 239,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 239,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Police corruption not only generates distrust among the public, but undermines the criminal justice system as a whole. Judges and prosecutors may develop a negative opinion of officers who come to testify in cases, especially those who have a history of disciplinary action related to corrupt acts. The trustworthiness of officers who work in departments where corruption has been discovered is severely diminished, and even if the testimony they provide in court is an exact recollection of the events in question, a prosecutor or judge may choose to simply ignore these facts because of their association with a seemingly corrupt department. In the case of the Waldo Police Department located in Florida, the entire department was disbanded partly due to allegations of corruption, meaning county law enforcement must take over where the city failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4068178",
"title": "Police misconduct",
"section": "Section::::Noted cases.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "It is believed that corruption among the Indian Police Service is pervasive and goes up to the top brass. Reform has been made difficult with honest officers pressured by powerful local officials and suffer punitive transfers and threats while corrupt officers receive promotions. An example is the transfer of Kiran Bedi for giving a parking ticket to the Prime Ministers car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512886",
"title": "Police corruption",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Social effects.:General distrust of police in the community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 235,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 235,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "While political issues can easily be worked through, the social effect of police corruption is much harder to overcome. Civilians, especially those who or know someone who has been victimized by certain types of corruption, tend to see police officers as enemy forces. Similarly, police officers view civilians in the same light. Both issues have only been exacerbated by the War on Crime and War on Drugs. The \"us versus them\" mentality is especially prevalent among inner city minorities, where stereotyping and racial targeting seem to be the norm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512886",
"title": "Police corruption",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.:Individual countries.:Cyprus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Corrupt activities among the police are typically defined as using a position of power to influence particular decisions, such as nepotism, the giving and taking of bribes, accessing information that is not directly related to an officer's current work or investigation(s), and lower levels of organised crime are also commonly noted in cases of police corruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4h1ntl
|
What is the Western Han and Eastern Han in the context of the Han Dynasty?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are the same dynasty ruled by the same family. The reason why there is the Western Han and the Eastern Han is because in between the two, a man named Wang Mang usurped power from the Western Han emperor and established the Xin Dynasty. After he was defeated and overthrown, the Han dynasty was reestablished in Luoyang (in the east), rather than in the old capital Chang'an (in the west), hence the name \"Eastern Han\". In some texts you might come across Former Han and Latter Han, which is the same as Western Han and Eastern Han.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "290122",
"title": "Han (state)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Han (, Old Chinese: \"*\") was an ancient Chinese state during the Warring States period of ancient China. It is conventionally romanized by scholars as Hann to distinguish it from the later Han dynasty (漢).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14097",
"title": "History of Asia",
"section": "Section::::Ancient.:Iron Age.:Classical China.:Han Dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "The Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; 206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han dynasty's greatest emperors, Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the \"Han people\". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21786810",
"title": "Society and culture of the Han dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Ancient China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43460",
"title": "Han dynasty",
"section": "Section::::History.:Eastern Han.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The Eastern Han (), also known as the Later Han (), formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21423531",
"title": "Economy of the Han dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) of ancient China experienced contrasting periods of economic prosperity and decline. It is normally divided into three periods: Western Han (206 BC – 9 AD), the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD), and Eastern Han (25–220 AD). The Xin regime, established by the former regent Wang Mang, formed a brief interregnum between lengthy periods of Han rule. Following the fall of Wang Mang, the Han capital was moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. In consequence, historians have named the succeeding eras Western Han and Eastern Han respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26377614",
"title": "Greater Han",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The Greater Han is a school of thought, \"which holds that all the inhabitants of China belong to one (Chinese) family, and that incidental differences of culture, religion and language are unfortunate aberrations, destined to be subsumed in a 'Greater Han' Chinese whole.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43460",
"title": "Han dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The Han dynasty (; ) was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the \"Han Chinese\" and the Chinese script is referred to as \"Han characters\". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17ns24
|
When you rinse out a glass of red wine, why does the water turn gray?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably the pH change, which turns the anthocyanidins from their \"native\" reddish/purple color (at the low pH of the wine) to a blue color which, when diluted, looks a bit gray. This is also a decent technique for removing red wine stains: use a cleaner with a higher pH. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20185928",
"title": "Aging of wine",
"section": "Section::::Effects on wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually lose its depth of color and begin to appear orange at the edges, and eventually turn brown. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processes that begin during fermentation and continue after bottling, these compounds bind together and aggregate. Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3675632",
"title": "Wine glass",
"section": "Section::::Shapes.:Red wine glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Glasses for red wine are characterized by their rounder, wider bowl, which increases the rate of oxidation. As oxygen from the air chemically interacts with the wine, flavor and aroma are believed to be subtly altered. This process of oxidation is generally considered more compatible with red wines, whose complex flavours are said to be smoothed out after being exposed to air. Red wine glasses can have particular styles of their own, such as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927688",
"title": "White wine",
"section": "Section::::Preparation of wine before packaging.:Stabilisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Finally some white wines can be victims of \"Rosissement\" (pinking). This phenomenon manifests itself in a light rosé colouration of the wine and takes the appearance of a \"stained\" wine or one that is contaminated by the presence of anthocyanins from red wine. Yet this is not so: the phenomenon is due to the presence of a normally colourless dissolved polyphenol which turns pink due to oxidation. An infusion of PVPP generally eliminates the substrate of oxidation. Some varieties are particularly sensitive to pinking: Sauvignon B, Viognier, Grenache B...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904269",
"title": "Red wine",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Fining and stabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Red wines sometimes undergo fining, which is designed to clarify the wine and sometimes to correct faults such as excess tannin. Fining agents include egg white and gelatin. Some red wines, particularly those designed for early drinking, are cold stabilized so as to prevent the precipitation of unsightly tartrate crystals in the bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927688",
"title": "White wine",
"section": "Section::::Health Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 244,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 244,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Because of its shorter maceration, white wine contains very little tannin and therefore little antioxidants that make red wine so interesting medically speaking. However, a team of researchers from Montpellier has developed a white wine enriched with polyphenols.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927688",
"title": "White wine",
"section": "Section::::Wine tasting.:Taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "When placed in the mouth white wine has a balance different from red wine from which the tannic structure is removed. The balance is no longer based only on alcohol and acidity: this is the factor that explains the difficulty of making a white wine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31048192",
"title": "Copigmentation",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Part of the color of red wine can be due to the copigmentation phenomenon. Copigmentation is only important during the early stages of a wine's age. Anthocyanins begin to polymerize with other wine compounds, such as hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins, glyceraldehyde or proteins, to form more complex structures with covalent C–C bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14e6kr
|
Why aren't we crushed by the weight of the air over our heads? And why don't we feel the weight of the air lifted off of us when we go into a car or building?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Atmospheric pressure](_URL_0_) is the measure of the amount of force the air exerts on you per area. So it _is_ already measuring the weight of air that exerts on some area. If your room is at one atm, it is pressurized. The weight of air is on you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason you don't feel the pressure crushing you down is because there is an equal pressure pushing *up*. Pressure does not work like force, where it can only push in one direction at a time. Because gases (and liquids) are free to move in any direction, pressure pushes equally in *every* direction, so for every pound of force pushing down from above you there is also a pound of force pushing up from below you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33931",
"title": "Weight",
"section": "Section::::Sensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the vestibular system, a three-dimensional set of tubes in the inner ear. It is actually the sensation of g-force, regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:How to avoid weightlessness.:Sensation of weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Humans experience their own body weight as a result of this supporting force, which results in a normal force applied to a person by the surface of a supporting object, on which the person is standing or sitting. In the absence of this force, a person would be in free-fall, and would experience weightlessness. It is the transmission of this reaction force through the human body, and the resultant compression and tension of the body's tissues, that results in the sensation of weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039392",
"title": "Off-roading",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle modification.:Dangers of vehicle lifting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "While lifting a vehicle to gain ground clearance is helpful to off-roaders, it can also make a vehicle dangerous as, when a vehicle has been lifted, its center of gravity rises, which causes the vehicle to be more likely to tumble in certain situations. Other dangers include loss of visibility of smaller objects and bumper height as compared to other vehicles on the road. In the United States, bumper and frame height laws are effective in most states to ensure that the vehicles on the road are not too much higher than their average car counterparts. Lifting vehicles improperly without taking driveline angles into consideration will wear out suspension components faster and make them more prone to failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "833011",
"title": "Duck and cover",
"section": "Section::::Efficacy during a nuclear explosion.:Blast effects.:Outdoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "The human body is more resistant to sheer overpressure than most buildings, however, the powerful winds produced by this overpressure, as in a hurricane, are capable of throwing human bodies into objects or throwing debris at high velocity, both with lethal results, rendering casualties highly dependent on surroundings. For example, Sumiteru Taniguchi recounts that, while clinging to the tremoring road surface after the Fat Man detonation, he witnessing another child being blown away, the destruction of buildings around him and stones flying through the air. Similarly, Akihiro Takahashi and his classmates were blown by the blast of Little Boy by a distance of about 10 meters, having survived due to not colliding with any walls etc. during his flight through the air. Likewise, Katsuichi Hosoya had a near identical testimony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574544",
"title": "Circular motion",
"section": "Section::::Non-uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:How to avoid weightlessness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In cases where an object is not weightless, as in the above examples, a force acts non-uniformly on the object in question. Aero-dynamic lift, drag, and thrust are all non-uniform forces (they are applied at a point or surface, rather than acting on the entire mass of an object), and thus create the phenomenon of weight. This non-uniform force may also be transmitted to an object at the point of contact with a second object, such as the contact between the surface of the Earth and one's feet, or between a parachute harness and one's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::From special to general relativity.:Gravity and acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "BULLET::::- Objects are falling to the floor because the room is aboard a rocket in space, which is accelerating at 9.81 m/s and is far from any source of gravity. The objects are being pulled towards the floor by the same \"inertial force\" that presses the driver of an accelerating car into the back of his seat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t5p53
|
why do some people who's parents are immigrants have an accent while others don't ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Accents tend to come more from peers than parents. So someone who grew up in an area where all the friends and neighbors share the same accent, or perhaps went to a private or parochial school where that was the case, will more likely have a similar accent. But when children go to assimilated schools, especially at the younger ages, they're more likely to get that accent than their parents'. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "256791",
"title": "Accent (sociolinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Children are able to take on accents relatively quickly. Children of immigrant families, for example, generally have a more native-like pronunciation than their parents, but both children and parents may have a noticeable non-native accent. Accents seem to remain relatively malleable until a person's early twenties, after which a person's accent seems to become more entrenched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35301457",
"title": "Second-generation immigrants in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Differences within the second generation immigrant population.:Asian Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Asian second-generation immigrants, like their Hispanic counterparts, tend to be bilingual. Children of Asian immigrants are likely to lose proficiency in their parents' native language while maintaining an emotional attachment to their family and heritage, which helps them develop their identity. While second generation Asian immigrants strive for the middle class white status, as many of their parents do, they develop a sensitivity to issues of race and ethnicity, which can be a major factor in the process of assimilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007667",
"title": "Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"section": "Section::::Cultural matters.:Language.:Spanish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants, and with many of the 60% who are U.S.-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53852190",
"title": "Education of immigrants in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Employment/Income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Academic research has identified an \"immigrant paradox\" where children of immigrants (or very young immigrants), despite sociocultural limitations, often perform better than their native-born (and native family) counterparts. This is likely due to immigrants wanting to rise to their previous social standing in their country of origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54220610",
"title": "Immigrant paradox",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:Acculturation and the erosion of protective factors.:Possible benefits of ethnic enclaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "First-generation immigrants often settle in ethnic enclaves, which carry a host of advantages. Residents of these neighborhoods have access to a strong and supportive network of same-ethnicity peers and potential access to culturally sensitive healthcare providers that may allow for increased financial gain and better physical and mental health outcomes. Ethnic enclaves also eliminate the challenges associated with language barriers, with residents often sharing linguistic similarity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35301457",
"title": "Second-generation immigrants in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Differences within the second generation immigrant population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "There is a great deal of diversity in terms of ethnicities and races within the second immigrant generation population. This diversity among immigrants can be seen in language use, as the majority of second-generation immigrants are bilingual, with 2/3 speaking a language other than English in their homes. In addition, differing ethnicity and racial groups have experiences that are unique to their group. Hispanics, Asian Americans, and African Americans are three of the major groups that make up the population of second-generation immigrants in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068783",
"title": "Monolingualism",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for persistence.:Predominance of English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "There is also increasing pressure on bilingual immigrants to renounce their mother tongue and to adopt their host country's language. As a result, even though there may be immigrants from a wide variety of nationalities and cultures, the main language spoken in the country does not reflect them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1feum5
|
When did winking become a thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can tell you the OED's first use of this definition of the word \"wink\" if that's useful at all.\n\n1541 Thomas Elyot's *Image of Gouernance* (Governance)\n\n\"Of a mayster sturdy and fierce, a lyttell wynke to his seruant is a fearefull commaundement.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::General overview and meanings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Winking is one of the more subtle gestures, usually involving eye contact between those involved. In most cases it is only meant to be known by the sender and their intended receivers, but in some cases can be more widely intended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::Cultural specific differences.:Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "However, winking in the Indian subcontinent often has similar connotations as in the West. It can be used to signal an \"inside\" joke, a sly gesture shared between two people privately, unbeknownst to those around them, as in a social gathering. It can also be a naughty \"come on\" by a girl to a boy or vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "A wink is a facial expression made by briefly closing one eye. A wink is an informal mode of non-verbal communication usually signaling shared hidden knowledge or intent. However, it is ambiguous by itself and highly dependent upon additional context, without which a wink could become misinterpreted or even nonsensical. For example, in some regions of the world, a wink may be considered rude or offensive. And depending on the relationship of the people involved, a wink could possibly constitute a sexual gesture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::Cultural specific differences.:Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In China and reportedly to some extent in India, winking may be seen as an offensive or at least an impolite gesture. This is demonstrated in the commotion caused by Sarah Palin in a number of Asian countries during the 2008 vice presidential debate, where she winked several times while debating Joe Biden. When Frederick Spencer Chapman was training Chinese guerillas in Malaya to shoot rifles, he found that a large proportion of them were unable to close only one eye at a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::General overview and meanings.:Single wink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "A wink could also be used as a somewhat humorous way to express sympathy, solidarity, and encouragement, especially when the winker is trying to put the receiver at ease in a situation where they might feel nervous or uncomfortable. In such cases a wink has a meaning very similar to that of a \"thumbs up\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::General overview and meanings.:Single wink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "In some cultures it is often a sexual interest, or flirtatious manner, during momentary eye contact. This is often followed by a smile and usually a smile from the receiver if it is accepted or approved by them, sometimes combined with blushing if they are embarrassed. A smile from the receiver sometimes—but not always—indicates (sexual) interest in the winker. For example, in the Wodaabe tribe in the Niger area, someone who wants to engage in sexual activities can wink at a person. If the person continues to look at them, they will slightly move their lip corner, showing the way to the bush the person is expected to have sex with them in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511397",
"title": "Wink",
"section": "Section::::Cultural specific differences.:The West.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Winking in Western culture can be used as a way of letting someone else know that the winker or some other person is joking or lying (e.g., a parent tells their child a story about a fairy princess, and then winks at the child's older sibling, the sibling thus knows the parent is lying to the younger child). It may also be used to communicate sexual intentions, ranging from flirtation to an explicit invitation. In Australia, however, winking is generally considered improper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d2vj0
|
why do we use olive oil instead of frying oil when stirfrying vegetables?
|
[
{
"answer": "Properly stir-frying anything requires using really high temperatures.\n\nMost olive oil has a relatively low smoke point (the temperature at which it starts to break down & smoke). Stir-fry oils are generally things that handle temperatures better like corn, peanut, canola & soy.\n\nThere's also the bit that olives are not native to Asia, where stirfry recipes are from so the flavor profile of olive oil (which is relatively pronounced compared to many other cooking oils) is a poor match for the types of dishes you'd normally be stir frying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22478",
"title": "Olive oil",
"section": "Section::::Extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil that is rancid, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. The process is generally as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52982",
"title": "Deep frying",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Some studies have found that deep frying in olive and sunflower oils has been found to be less of a detriment to health and in some cases have positive effects on insulin levels. Oil can be reused a few times after original use after straining out solids. However, excessive use of the same oil can cause it to break down and release compounds into the food that may be carcinogenic, affect liver health, or influence the body's ability to absorb vitamins. Some European countries have set public health standards for the safety of frying oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11973663",
"title": "Darbechtar",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Olive oil extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Traditionally, olive oil was produced by crushing olives in stone or wooden mortars or beam presses. Nowadays, olives are ground to tiny bits, obtaining a paste that is mixed with water and processed by a centrifuge, which extracts the oil from the paste, leaving behind pomace.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22478",
"title": "Olive oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant, and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents. Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base, and it can be used as a substitute for machine oil. Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in the synthesis of cadmium selenide quantum dots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22478",
"title": "Olive oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The taste of the olive oil is influenced by the varietals used to produce the oil and by the moment when the olives are harvested and ground (less ripe olives give more bitter and spicy flavors – riper olives give a sweeter sensation in the oil).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22478",
"title": "Olive oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Skin care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "Olive oil is popular for use in massaging infants and toddlers, but scientific evidence of its efficacy is mixed. One analysis of olive oil versus mineral oil found that, when used for infant massage, olive oil can be considered a safe alternative to sunflower, grapeseed and fractionated coconut oils. This stands true particularly when it is mixed with a lighter oil like sunflower, which \"would have the further effect of reducing the already low levels of free fatty acids present in olive oil\". Another trial stated that olive oil lowered the risk of dermatitis for infants in all gestational stages when compared with emollient cream. However, yet another study on adults found that topical treatment with olive oil \"significantly damages the skin barrier\" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers concluded that due to the negative outcome in adults, they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22478",
"title": "Olive oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "When extra virgin olive oil is heated above , depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to deteriorated taste. Also, most consumers do not like the pronounced taste of extra virgin olive oil for deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are suited for deep frying because of the higher smoke point and milder flavour. Extra virgin oils have a smoke point around 165–190 °C (325–375 °F) whereas refined light olive oil has a smoke point up to 240 °C (465 °F).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mxjni
|
why european civilizations were so much more advanced in terms of everything compared to african and native american civilizations. and so when white ppl came to america they basically just took over with guns.
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_4_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14099",
"title": "History of Africa",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:European trade, exploration and conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 261,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 261,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa. For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast. Few dared venture inland from the coast; those that did, like the Portuguese, often met defeats and had to retreat to the coast. Several technological innovations helped to overcome this 400-year pattern. One was the development of repeating rifles, which were easier and quicker to load than muskets. Artillery was being used increasingly. In 1885, Hiram S. Maxim developed the maxim gun, the model of the modern-day machine gun. European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17984371",
"title": "African military systems (1800–1900)",
"section": "Section::::Summary of African military systems: 1800–1900.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The introduction of firearms does not tell the whole story of the 19th century due to their mixed impact and use in many regions. Indeed, some historians argue that mere advanced technology was not the single most decisive factor in the outcome of many colonial conquests. More important, was the divided, fragmented nature of many small African polities that enabled them to be defeated separately by their enemies. Such fragmentation is not unique to Africa. Germany for example in 1815, was split into over 30 separate states. Despite these weaknesses, until well into the second part of the century, many native forces held their own until the coming of modern artillery, machine guns and rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586840",
"title": "Colonial war",
"section": "Section::::Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "By the early 20th century, colonial campaigns in Africa had become increasingly \"modern\". Colonial powers were forced to commit larger bodies of troops for conquest or to suppress rebellion, as the British had to in the Second Boer War or the Italians did in their conquest of Libya. Some of this was due to the fact that in many —but not all— places the technological gap between European armies and native forces had shrunk considerably, mostly with the proliferation of quick-firing rifles. Most of this change was brought on by the evolution of Africans' tactics and strategy. They had abandoned pitched battles and had instead adopted methods of guerrilla warfare. In this fashion, the Boers (in South Africa), the Herero and Nama (in German South-West Africa), the Moroccans, and the Libyans all enjoyed considerable success against their opponents before their eventual respective defeats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17785123",
"title": "African military systems to 1800",
"section": "Section::::Horses, guns and military transformation.:The coming of the gun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "Importance of guns. Guns were to have an important effect on African military systems. Rising quantities of guns are associated with increases in the slave trade, as major powers such as Dahomey, Benin and Ashanti stepped up their conquests to feed the insatiable demand for human bodies. Guns were the single most important item traded to Africans in the decades prior to 1800, usually paid for in gold or slaves. Some historians argue that the introduction of firearms had an enormous impact on slave gathering in Africa. Flintlocks, which were more reliable than matchlocks, sparked the first big wave of gun sales, and obsolete smoothbore muskets of this type were being exported to Africa even into the 19th century. The psychological impact of guns in the night and dawn attacks favored by slave raiders was significant, and in slave-catching, flintlocks could also be loaded with shot, wounding and crippling victims rather than killing them outright. The connection between the gun trade and the slave trade is described by the Dutch Director-General at Elmina in 1730:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23001091",
"title": "Christianity in the 19th century",
"section": "Section::::Roman Catholicism.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior. The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries. Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, monasteries, and churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17785123",
"title": "African military systems to 1800",
"section": "Section::::Military change and the African environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Few African states in the late nineteenth century were capable of fielding armies even remotely as large as those routinely assembled for war in Europe, and the same conditions that kept African populations small also militated against deployment of large European armies in Africa. As one British military historian has put it, there were 'no agricultural revolutions here [in Africa] to allow large-scale requisitioning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1323516",
"title": "Military history of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Colonial era.:Frontier warfare, 1788–1934.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1255,
"text": "Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
arrggi
|
the united states is over $22 trillion in debt. what does that mean?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a whole lot, actually. Somewhere between 70-80% of that debt is held by American citizens in the form of bonds, including savings bonds. Bonds are heavily used as a stable investment to protect your money from inflation (the rates on the bonds basically keep up with the rate of inflation). And none of the debt is callable, which means that the individuals holding the debt cannot just order to be paid everything due in advance of the payment schedule. \n\nIn effect, as long as the GDP grows at about the rate of inflation, the amount of debt that the US has is stable. If inflation shoots up, or if GDP falls heavily, it can get a little bit tricky. But that's why we've got the Federal Reserve to look out for those things well in advance and take action to mitigate it before it becomes a problem. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US government is heavily funded by financial instruments such as bonds. In exchange for cash now, the US treasury will give you more cash later. That debt is about $22 trillion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you have a bunch of credit cards and you owe 22 trillion. This is the United States if it was a person. The only difference is the United States can choose what interest rate it charges itself. Now you might say to yourself, I’ll charge myself 0%, well yes and no. In order to get people to buy your debt (bonds) you need to pay them some interest. Bonds are seen as secure investment by every government in the world because we are seen as a stable economy. Most US citizens by bonds for the same reason, we will get our money back. Now the deficit is meaningless in terms of how much we produce (GDP) but you don’t want it to continually grow long term. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::Government and politics.:Government finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The total national debt of the United States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014. The United States has the largest external debt in the world and the 14th largest government debt as a % of GDP in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Financial position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The U.S. public debt was $909 billion in 1980, an amount equal to 33% of America's gross domestic product (GDP); by 1990, that number had more than tripled to $3.2 trillion—or 56% of GDP. In 2001 the national debt was $5.7 trillion; however, the debt-to-GDP ratio remained at 1990 levels. Debt levels rose quickly in the following decade, and on January 28, 2010, the U.S. debt ceiling was raised to $14.3 trillion. Based on the 2010 United States federal budget, total national debt will grow to nearly 100% of GDP, versus a level of approximately 80% in early 2009. The White House estimates that the government's tab for servicing the debt will exceed $700 billion a year in 2019, up from $202 billion in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Financial position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "U.S. household and non-profit net worth exceeded $100 trillion for the first time in Q1 2018; it has been setting records since Q4 2012. The U.S. federal government or \"national debt\" was $21.1 trillion in May 2018, just over 100% GDP. Using a subset of the national debt called \"debt held by the public\", U.S. debt was approximately 77% GDP in 2017. By this measure, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest among 2017 nations. Debt held by the public rose considerably as a result of the Great Recession and its aftermath. It is expected to continue rising as the country ages towards 100% GDP by 2028.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53405836",
"title": "American Health Care Act of 2017",
"section": "Section::::Estimated impact of the Republican AHCA and BCRA.:Budget deficit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "For scale, CBO has estimated that the U.S. will add approximately $9.4 trillion to the debt total over the 2018-2027 period, based on laws in place as of January 2017. The $321 billion therefore represents a reduction of about 3.5% of the total debt increase over the decade, while the $150 billion is about 1.6%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32442495",
"title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011",
"section": "Section::::Reaction.:US reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The national debt rose $238 billion (or about 60% of the new debt ceiling) on August 3, the largest one-day increase in the history of the United States. The US debt surpassed 100 percent of gross domestic product for the first time since World War II. According to the International Monetary Fund, the US joined a group of countries whose public debt exceeds their GDP. The group includes Japan (229 percent), Greece (152 percent), Jamaica (137 percent), Lebanon (134 percent), Italy (120 percent), Ireland (114 percent), and Iceland (103 percent).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322221",
"title": "National debt of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "As of June 2019, federal debt held by the public was $16.17 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.86 trillion, for a total national debt of $22.03 trillion. At the end of 2018, debt held by the public was approximately 76.4% of GDP, and approximately 39% of the debt held by the public was owned by foreigners. The United States has the largest external debt in the world. In 2017, the US debt-to-GDP ratio was ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that debt held by the public will rise to nearly 100% of GDP by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32442495",
"title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Debt Ceiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The US has had public debt since its inception. Debts incurred during the American Revolutionary War and under the Articles of Confederation led to the first yearly report on the amount of the debt ($75,463,476.52 on January 1, 1791). Every president since Harry Truman has added to the national debt. The debt ceiling has been raised 74 times since March 1962, including 18 times under Ronald Reagan, eight times under Bill Clinton, seven times under George W. Bush and three times () under Barack Obama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sl6ow
|
what is the bubonic plague, and would it be as fatal today as it was in the middle ages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bubonic plague is a specific kind of disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. (Pneumonic and septicemic plague are the other kinds, less famous because they didn't destroy Europe.) Yersinia lives in fleas, which live on rodents. As a result, plague was able to spread very quickly in a time when sailors could bring rats across the Mediterranean, and when huge numbers of people lived in crowded, filthy cities where parasites were a normal part of life.\n\nIs it as deadly now? No. Antibiotics have made plague dramatically more survivable, while hygiene in the developed world means you're highly unlikely to get fleas. In fact, when plague was found in squirrels near Los Angeles, the only response was to close a few campgrounds. There are many fine things to worry about, but the Black Death isn't one of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is from today\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bubonic plague actually still exists, and an outbreak in Madagascar was announced just today. It's certainly survivable these days because we understand more about it and have developed effective treatments against it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Survival rates for the bubonic plague with modern antibacterial treatment are 85%-99%. Survival rates without treatment is more like 40%, which is what happened in the middle ages, combined with poor hygiene and wound treatment that made nonfatal side effects significantly more dangerous. I actually knew a guy in boy scouts when I was a kid who apparently contracted it from infected rodents living under his family's cabin or some such. He was treated and suffered no long term ill effects, though I think catching it early is pretty important, as untreated it kills the infected in less than a week, so there's not a lot of time to wait and see.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4047052",
"title": "The Spooners of Porthmadog",
"section": "Section::::Postscripts.:Footnote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The reference above to bubonic plague seems improbable. Typhoid is far more likely; it was both endemic and epidemic at the period, killing Prince Albert in 1861, but bubonic plague had a heyday from 1348 to about 1700. Cholera is just possible; there were outbreaks in 1832 in Liverpool and reputedly as late as 1860 in London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1349803",
"title": "Mass grave",
"section": "Section::::Epidemic.:Bubonic plague.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The bubonic plague outbreak existed in three pandemic waves and is known as the Black Death. In the 1300s alone, an estimated 20–30 million people were killed in Europe and approximately 12 million people were killed in China. These deaths were at least 30 percent of the European population at that time. The last major outbreak of the bubonic plague occurred in London from 1665–1666 and is known as The Great Plague.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8430768",
"title": "Globalization and disease",
"section": "Section::::Specific diseases.:Plague.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Bubonic plague is a variant of the deadly flea-borne disease plague, which is caused by the enterobacteria \"Yersinia pestis\", that devastated human populations beginning in the 14th century. Bubonic plague is primarily spread by fleas that lived on the black rat, an animal that originated in south Asia and spread to Europe by the 6th century. It became common to cities and villages, traveling by ship with explorers. A human would become infected after being bitten by an infected flea. The first sign of an infection of bubonic plague is swelling of the lymph nodes, and the formation of buboes. These buboes would first appear in the groin or armpit area, and would often ooze pus or blood. Eventually infected individuals would become covered with dark splotches caused by bleeding under the skin. The symptoms would be accompanied by a high fever, and within four to seven days of infection, more than half the victims would die. During the 14th and 15th century, humans did not know that a bacterium was the cause of plague, and efforts to slow the spread of disease were futile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543486",
"title": "Third plague pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Pattern of the pandemic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The bubonic plague was endemic in populations of infected ground rodents in central Asia, and was a known cause of death among migrant and established human populations in that region for centuries. An influx of new people due to political conflicts and global trade led to the distribution of this disease throughout the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543486",
"title": "Third plague pandemic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The name refers to this pandemic being the third major bubonic plague outbreak to affect European society. The first was the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire and surrounding areas in 541 and 542. The second was the Black Death, which killed at least one third of Europe's population in a series of expanding waves of infection from 1346 to 1353.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5473348",
"title": "Great Plague of Seville",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The disease is generally believed to have been bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium \"Yersinia pestis\", transmitted via a rat vector. Other symptom patterns of the bubonic plague, such as septicemic plague and pneumonic plague were also present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560306",
"title": "Plague doctor",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The first European epidemic of the bubonic plague dates back to the mid 6th century and is called the Plague of Justinian. The largest plague epidemic was the Black Death in Europe in the 14th century. In medieval times, the large loss of people (due to the bubonic plague) in a town created an economic disaster. Community plague doctors were quite valuable and were given special privileges; for example, plague doctors were freely allowed to perform autopsies, which were otherwise generally forbidden in Medieval Europe, to research a cure for the plague.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8akuip
|
[Medicine] Improper alcohol detoxification can kill a person. How then can people rehabilitate alcoholics?
|
[
{
"answer": "have them (the addict) continue to consume alcohol as needed to avoid serious withdrawal symptoms.\n\nHowever, the amount consumed per day is decreased continually over a span of several days, so that their dependance on ethanol is gradually reduced to zero.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Switch to other longer acting drugs that work on the same receptors (diazepam or other benzos) and then taper down the dosage at a safe and tolerable rate. Cold turkey is very rarely an effective method of overcoming moderate-severe cases of physical dependency because even overlooking the risks of seizures and strokes relapse rates are very high due to how psychologically challenging it is to overcome acute withdrawal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "338738",
"title": "Detoxification",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Alcohol detoxification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Alcohol detoxification is a process by which a heavy drinker's system is brought back to normal after being habituated to having alcohol in the body continuously for an extended period of substance abuse. Serious alcohol addiction results in a downregulation of GABA neurotransmitter receptors. Precipitous withdrawal from long-term alcohol addiction without medical management can cause severe health problems and can be fatal. Alcohol detox is not a treatment for alcoholism. After detoxification, other treatments must be undergone to deal with the underlying addiction that caused alcohol use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2965",
"title": "Alcoholism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by regulating and limiting the sale of alcohol, taxing alcohol to increase its cost, and providing inexpensive treatment. Treatment may take several steps. Due to medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol detoxification should be carefully controlled. One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam. These can be either given while admitted to a health care institution or occasionally while a person remains in the community with close supervision. Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment. After detoxification, support such as group therapy or support groups are used to help keep a person from returning to drinking. One commonly used form of support is the group Alcoholics Anonymous. The medications acamprosate, disulfiram or naltrexone may also be used to help prevent further drinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2965",
"title": "Alcoholism",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Detoxification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Alcohol detoxification or 'detox' for alcoholics is an abrupt stop of alcohol drinking coupled with the substitution of drugs, such as benzodiazepines, that have similar effects to prevent alcohol withdrawal. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be detoxified as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions are generally treated as inpatients. Detoxification does not actually treat alcoholism, and it is necessary to follow up detoxification with an appropriate treatment program for alcohol dependence or abuse to reduce the risk of relapse. Some symptoms of alcohol withdrawal such as depressed mood and anxiety typically take weeks or months to abate while other symptoms persist longer due to persisting neuroadaptations. Alcoholism has serious adverse effects on brain function; on average it takes one year of abstinence to recover from the cognitive deficits incurred by chronic alcohol abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12630375",
"title": "Alcohol detoxification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Alcohol detoxification, or \"detox\", for individuals with alcohol dependence, is the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake, a process often coupled with substitution of cross-tolerant drugs that have effects similar to the effects of alcohol in order to prevent alcohol withdrawal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42764205",
"title": "Detoxification (disambiguation)",
"section": "Section::::Medicine and science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alcohol detoxification is the medical treatment for alcohol dependence through the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake, often coupled with substitution of cross-tolerant drugs that have effects similar that of alcohol so as to prevent alcohol withdrawal\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12630375",
"title": "Alcohol detoxification",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "As such, the term \"detoxification\" may be somewhat of a misnomer since the process need not refer exclusively to the removal of toxic substances from the body. Detoxification may or may not be indicated depending upon an individual's age, medical status, and history of alcohol intake. For example, a young man who binge drinks and seeks treatment one week after his last use of alcohol may not require detoxification before beginning treatment for alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12274183",
"title": "Hangover",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "After being ingested, the ethanol in alcoholic beverages is first converted to acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and then to acetic acid by oxidation and egestion process. These reactions also convert nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to its reduced form NADH in a redox reaction. By causing an imbalance of the NAD/NADH redox system, alcoholic beverages make normal bodily functions more difficult. Consequences of the alcohol induced redox changes in the human body include increased triglyceride production, increased amino acid catabolism, inhibition of the citric acid cycle, lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, hyperuricemia, disturbance in cortisol and androgen metabolism and increased fibrogenesis. The metabolism of glucose and insulin are also influenced. However, recent studies showed no significant correlation between hangover severity and the concentrations of various hormones, electrolytes, free fatty acids, triglycerides, lactate, ketone bodies, cortisol, and glucose in blood and urine samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wmfo2
|
What is a plausible scientific explanation for "glory clouds" in church services?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's dust. Definitely dust, you can tell by the straight line it makes coming from the light. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Edit: Probably [This.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt is most likely due to the condensation of water from evaporated sweat and breath. Supposedly if one of Hitler's buildings had been created the amount of people within the room's combined water generation would cause rain. \n\nMost likely in the video the air conditioning system cooled the evaporated water into mist giving the \"glory\" cloud.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1408562",
"title": "Morning Glory cloud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The Morning Glory cloud is a rare meteorological phenomenon consisting of a low-level atmospheric solitary wave and associated cloud, occasionally observed in different locations around the world. The wave often occurs as an amplitude-ordered series of waves forming bands of roll clouds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252572",
"title": "Glory (optical phenomenon)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "A glory is an optical phenomenon, resembling an iconic saint's halo around the shadow of the observer's head, caused by sunlight or (more rarely) moonlight interacting with the tiny water droplets that compose mist or clouds. The glory consists of one or more concentric, successively dimmer rings, each of which is red on the outside and bluish towards the centre. Due to its appearance, the phenomenon is sometimes mistaken for a circular rainbow, but the latter has a much larger diameter and is caused by different physical processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47510",
"title": "Cirrus cloud",
"section": "Section::::Optical phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "More rarely, cirrus clouds are capable of producing glories, more commonly associated with liquid water-based clouds such as stratus. A glory is a set of concentric, faintly-colored glowing rings that appear around the shadow of the observer, and are best observed from a high viewpoint or from a plane. Cirrus clouds only form glories when the constituent ice crystals are aspherical, and researchers suggest that the ice crystals must be between 0.009 millimeters and 0.015 millimeters in length. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33388684",
"title": "Media Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The Media Cloud is one of the tools used by the Center for Civic Media, and with the capacity for providing data analysis about news coverage from different sources, it has been used in many situations to derive conclusions about the history of news coverage of an event or category, and to generate civic engagement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1408562",
"title": "Morning Glory cloud",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The Morning Glory cloud is not clearly understood because its rarity means it has little significance in terms of rainfall or climate. Regardless of the complexity behind the nature of this atmospheric phenomenon, some conclusions have been made about its causes. Through research, one of the main causes of most Morning Glory occurrences is the mesoscale circulations associated with sea breezes that develop over the peninsula and the gulf. On the large scale, Morning Glories are usually associated with frontal systems crossing central Australia and high pressure in northern Australia. Locals have noted that the Morning Glory is likely to occur when the humidity in the area is high, which provides moisture for the cloud to form, and when strong sea breezes have blown the preceding day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47530",
"title": "Cumulonimbus cloud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Cumulonimbus (from Latin \"cumulus\", \"heaped\" and \"nimbus\", \"rainstorm\") is a dense, towering vertical cloud, forming from water vapor carried by powerful upward air currents. If observed during a storm, these clouds may be referred to as thunderheads. Cumulonimbus can form alone, in clusters, or along cold front squall lines. These clouds are capable of producing lightning and other dangerous severe weather, such as tornadoes and hailstones. Cumulonimbus progress from overdeveloped cumulus congestus clouds and may further develop as part of a supercell. Cumulonimbus is abbreviated Cb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166736",
"title": "Stratocumulus cloud",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Precipitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Most often, stratocumulus produce no precipitation, and when they do, it is generally only light rain or snow. However, these clouds are often seen at either the front or tail end of worse weather, so they may indicate storms to come, in the form of thunderheads or gusty winds. They are also often seen underneath the cirrostratus and altostratus sheets that often precede a warm front, as these higher clouds decrease the sun's heat and therefore convection, causing any cumulus clouds to spread out into stratocumulus clouds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
301iom
|
how do cough suppressants, decongestants and expectorants work together to help with a cold?
|
[
{
"answer": "None of the above help colds. They help the symptoms of a cold. Decongestants, fine. Cough suppressants and expectorants seem illogical if mixed but separately they might help the symptoms. \n\nMany of this type of symptomatic \"cure\" has ingredients that defy strict logic. Despite this, people buy them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3210174",
"title": "Laryngospasm",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "When laryngospasm is coincident with a cold or flu, it may be helpful for some sufferers to take acid reflux medication to limit the irritants in the area. If a cough is present, then treat a wet cough; but limit coughing whenever possible, as it is only likely to trigger a spasm. Drink water or tea to keep the area from drying up. Saline drops also help to keep the area moist. Pseudoephederine may also help to clear any mucus that may cause coughing and thereby triggering more spasms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26534505",
"title": "Panic disorder",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Substance misuse.:Stimulants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Certain cold and flu medications containing decongestants may also contain pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylephrine, naphazoline and oxymetazoline. These may be avoided by the use of decongestants formulated to prevent causing high blood pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613640",
"title": "Upper respiratory tract infection",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Decongestants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "According to a Cochrane review, a single oral dose of nasal decongestant in the common cold is modestly effective for the short-term relief of congestion in adults; however, data on the use of decongestants in children are insufficient. Therefore, decongestants are not recommended for use in children under 12 years of age with the common cold. Oral decongestants are also contraindicated in patients with hypertension, coronary artery disease, and history of bleeding strokes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "401630",
"title": "H1 antagonist",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The authors of the American College of Chest Physicians Updates on Cough Guidelines (2006) recommend that, for cough associated with the common cold, first-generation antihistamine-decongestants are more effective than newer, non-sedating antihistamines. First-generation antihistamines include diphenhydramine (Benadryl), carbinoxamine (Clistin), clemastine (Tavist), chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton), and\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67436",
"title": "Pseudoephedrine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Pseudoephedrine is a stimulant, but it is well known for shrinking swollen nasal mucous membranes, so it is often used as a decongestant. It reduces tissue hyperemia, edema, and nasal congestion commonly associated with colds or allergies. Other beneficial effects may include increasing the drainage of sinus secretions, and opening of obstructed Eustachian tubes. The same vasoconstriction action can also result in hypertension, which is a noted side effect of pseudoephedrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3293166",
"title": "Mucoactive agent",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "An expectorant (from the Latin \"expectorare\", to expel or banish) works by signaling the body to increase the amount or hydration of secretions, resulting in more yet clearer secretions and as a byproduct lubricating the irritated respiratory tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462508",
"title": "Decongestant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "A decongestant, or nasal decongestant, is a type of pharmaceutical drug that is used to relieve nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredient in most decongestants is either pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine (the latter of which has disputed effectiveness). Intranasal corticosteroids can also be used as decongestants and antihistamines can be used to alleviate runny nose, nasal itch, and sneezing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1orquy
|
What causes the varied distribution of resources across the Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not a random process. Certain minerals only form under a set of very precise geological conditions. Much like how you need just the right ingredients to make a cake, you need just the right conditions to produce certain types of rock. These conditions include depth below the surface, temperature, pressure, local rock composition, hydrothermal activity, volcanic-tectonic activity. If you happen to get all these factors just right, then a body of ore will form. An understanding of what conditions produce what types of ore is useful to geologists who predict the locations in which to search for ore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2670830",
"title": "Resource distribution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Resource distribution refers to the distribution of resources, including land, water, minerals, fuel and wealth in general among corresponding geographic entities (states, countries, etc.).Resource distribution refers to the geographic occurrence or spatial arrangement of resources on earth. In other words, where resources are located. Any particular place may be rich in the resources people desire and poor in others. ... As a result, resources are distributed unevenly across the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2670830",
"title": "Resource distribution",
"section": "Section::::Unequal resource distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The most common use of this concept has not been in examining the unequal distribution of resources among nation states. Such unequal distribution of resources was commonly related to land for agriculture, necessary for population growth. A more recent emphasis has been on differences from the unequal dispersion of technological progress. The distribution of natural resources depends upon many physical factors like land, climate and altitude. The distribution of resources is unequal because these factors differ from place to place on this earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897230",
"title": "Pamela C. Rasmussen",
"section": "Section::::Early life and career.:Research highlights.:Biodiversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Other studies by Rasmussen and her international colleagues looked at the importance of energy availability, and a 2007 paper showed that global patterns of spatial turnover are driven principally by widespread species rather than restricted ones. This complements other work, and helps to establish a unified model of how terrestrial biodiversity varies both within and between the Earth's major land masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12662131",
"title": "Occupancy–abundance relationship",
"section": "Section::::Possible explanations.:Density-dependent habitat selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "Many species exhibit density-dependent dispersal and habitat selection. For species exhibiting this pattern, dispersal into what would otherwise be sub-optimal habitats can occur when local abundances are high in high quality habitats (see Source-sink dynamics, thus increasing the size of the species geographic range. An initial argument against this hypothesis is that when a species colonizes formerly empty habitats, the average abundance of that species across all occupied habitats drops, negating an O–A relationship. However, all species will occur at low densities in some occupied habitats, while only the abundant species will be able to reach high densities in some of their occupied habitats. Thus it is expected that both common and uncommon species will have similar minimum densities in occupied habitats, but that it is the maximum densities obtained by common species in some habitats that drive the positive relationship between mean densities and AOO. If density-dependent habitat selection were to determine positive O–A relationships, the distribution of a species would follow an Ideal Free Distribution (IFD). Gaston et al. cites Tyler and Hargrove who examined the IFD using simulation models and found several instances (e.g. when resources had a fractal distribution, or when the scale of resource distribution poorly matched the organisms dispersal capabilities) where IFDs poorly described species distributions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177694",
"title": "Ecological economics",
"section": "Section::::Nature and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The Earth's carrying capacity is a central issue in ecological economics. Early economists such as Thomas Malthus pointed out the finite carrying capacity of the earth, which was also central to the MIT study \"Limits to Growth\". Diminishing returns suggest that productivity increases will slow if major technological progress is not made. Food production may become a problem, as erosion, an impending water crisis, and soil salinity (from irrigation) reduce the productivity of agriculture. Ecological economists argue that industrial agriculture, which exacerbates these problems, is not sustainable agriculture, and are generally inclined favorably to organic farming, which also reduces the output of carbon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180210",
"title": "Biogeographic realm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The patterns of distribution of living organisms in the world's biogeographic realms were shaped by the process of plate tectonics, which has redistributed the world's land masses over geological history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143338",
"title": "Land (economics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In economics, land comprises all naturally occurring resources as well as geographic land. Examples include particular geographical locations, mineral deposits, forests, fish stocks, atmospheric quality, geostationary orbits, and portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Supply of these resources is fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16ddlo
|
How did Italian-Americans react to the extremely racist Allied anti Axis propaganda films?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're referring to American films? Or is that incorrect? If so, I apologize. \n\nTo answer the question to the best of my ability, most Italian-Americans realized by 1939 that Benito Mussolini wasn't a champion of the people of Italy. But, more and more, he appeared to be a cancerous tyrant who wanted to create a \"New Roman Empire\" (and therefore subjugate/enslave millions of people). \n\nSo, the very biased films produced in America weren't all that offensive to them. The majority of Italian-Americans despised the man by the time WWII started. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can we broaden this to include Asian Americans?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anti-Italian racism had existed strongly in the US during the years of large-scale Italian immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The prevailing American view of Italians during the early 20th century was that Italians were inferior (some thought permanently racially inferior, others thought mostly culturally inferior), low class foreigners whose lack of education and Catholic religion made them unfit for American citizenship. During the WWII era, Americans did not develop a racism towards Italian-Americans that had not existed before.\n\nWWII propaganda primarily demonized the Japanese, then the Nazis, and only occasionally the Italians. In addition, WWII propaganda more often portrayed Italians as incompetent cowards than as inhuman villains like the Japanese and Nazis. \n(Source: Peter Schrag's \"Not Fit for Our Society\")\n\nAlso, I will point out that unlike the US's interment of all west coast Japanese Americans based on race alone, the wartime treatment of Italian and German Americans was based on individual selection and investigation.\n\nFor example, immediately following Pearl Harbor, the US Justice Department arrested 1,393 German nationals, 264 Italian nationals, and 2,192 Japanese under the authority of the Alien Enemy Act and Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066. These people had been under surveillance by the FBI as potentially dangerous, and were sent to regional detention facilities where individual loyalty hearings were conducted. The Justice Department released most of the Germans and Italians, but the Japanese (who comprised most of the business, social, cultural and political leadership of Japanese American communities) either remained in detention camps or were \"paroled\" to Japanese internment camps.\n(Source: Mai Ngai's \"Impossible Subjects\")\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "125320",
"title": "Italian Americans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Wartime violation of Italian-American civil liberties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "From the onset of the war, and particularly following Pearl Harbor many viewed Italian Americans with suspicion. Groups such as The Los Angeles Council of California Women's Clubs petitioned General DeWitt to place all enemy aliens in concentration camps immediately, and the Young Democratic Club of Los Angeles went a step further, demanding the removal of American-born Italians and Germans—U.S. citizens—from the Pacific Coast. These calls along with substantial political pressure from congress resulted in President Franklin D. Roosevelt issuing Executive Order No. 9066, as well as the Department of Justice classifying unnaturalised Italian Americans as \"enemy aliens\" under the Alien and Sedition Act. Thousands of Italians were arrested, and hundreds of Italians were interned in military camps, some for up to 2 years. As many as 600,000 others were required to carry identity cards identifying them as \"resident alien\". Thousands more on the West Coast were required to move inland, often losing their homes and businesses in the process. A number of Italian-language newspapers were forced to close. Two books, Una Storia Segreta by Lawrence Di Stasi and Uncivil Liberties by Stephen Fox; and a movie, Prisoners Among Us, document these World War II developments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437598",
"title": "Air Force (film)",
"section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Anti-Japanese propaganda in the film included scenes in which the crew is forced to land on Maui Island and is shot at by \"local Japanese,\" and the assertion by the Hickam Field commander that vegetable trucks knocked off the tails of parked P-40 fighters as the attack began. Also, Lt. Rader claims a Japanese blocked the road in front of him, as he hurried to the airfield, and then shot at him with a shotgun. As detailed in Walter Lord's book \"Day of Infamy\", later investigations proved no Japanese-American was involved in any sabotage during the Pearl Harbor attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2012056",
"title": "Rome, Open City",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "It was one of the first Italian films of the war to depict the struggle against the Germans, unlike the films made in the early years of the war (when Italy was Germany's ally under Mussolini) that depicted the British, Americans, Greeks, Russians and other allied countries, as well as Ethiopians, communists, and partisans as the antagonists. After the Allied Invasion of Italy in 1943, Italian morale crumbled and they agreed to a separate peace with the allies, causing their former German allies to occupy large parts of Italy, intern Italian soldiers, deport Italian Jews to concentration camps, and treat many of its citizens with disdain for what they saw as a cowardly betrayal by one of their major allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203841",
"title": "Starship Troopers (film)",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The use of Nazi imagery for the film's Americanized heroes (actually, Argentineans, etc.) occasioned comment. At the time of the film's theatrical release, the filmmakers did not explain their reasons for this choice. Some viewers interpreted it as a satirical takedown of fascism, while others saw a celebration of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11722716",
"title": "Lo squadrone bianco",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "As in other Fascist colonial films like \"Il cammino degli eroi\", the native \"rebels\" are portrayed as well-armed with European weapons. The film plays down the overwhelming disparities between the Italian and Tripolitanian forces, omitting for example the offensive use of aircraft (in addition to reconnaissance) and the use of gas warfare by the Italians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10787",
"title": "Cinema of Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Neorealism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "\"Ossessione\" angered Fascist officials. Upon viewing the film, Vittorio Mussolini is reported to have shouted, \"This is not Italy!\" before walking out of the theater. The film was subsequently banned in the Fascist-controlled parts of Italy. While neorealism exploded after the war, and was incredibly influential at the international level, neorealist films made up only a small percentage of Italian films produced during this period, as postwar Italian moviegoers preferred escapist comedies starring actors such as Totò and Alberto Sordi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5934518",
"title": "Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1118,
"text": "Much as American propagandists, Japanese film makers extensively used prejudice and xenophobia in films produced after war was formally declared on the Allied nations. In \"Fire on That Flag!\" (1944, あの旗を撃て！) the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines. Japan's first full-length animated feature film (1945, 桃太郎海の神兵) similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak \"devils.\" A sub-category of the costume picture is the samurai movie. Themes used within these films include self-sacrifice and honor to the emperor. Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering, often portraying its troops as the underdog. This had the effect of making Japan look as though it was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience. The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally. The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ogz05
|
The ratio of the distance between a planet and its star vs the ratio of the distance between an electron and its nucleus, are the two ratios similar?
|
[
{
"answer": "Compared to the radius of the sun, the Earth is 215 times farther away.\n\nCompared to the radius of a proton, the average position of the ground state hydrogen electron is 62,350 times farther away.\n\nNow, there are other planets and stars and other elements, but that gives you a rough picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11694610",
"title": "Two-body problem in general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Schwarzschild solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius \"r\" of the Earth is roughly 9 mm ( inch); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion. The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio \"r\"/\"r\" is roughly 4 parts in a million. A white dwarf star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million. The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1410576",
"title": "Schwarzschild geodesics",
"section": "Section::::Schwarzschild metric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius formula_17 of the Earth is roughly 9 mm ( inch); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion. The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio formula_21 is roughly 4 parts in a million. A white dwarf star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million. The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42518279",
"title": "Kepler-186f",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Mass, radius and temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The only physical property directly derivable from the observations (besides the orbital period) is the ratio of the radius of the planet to that of the central star, which follows from the amount of occultation of stellar light during a transit. This ratio was measured to be 0.021, giving a planetary radius of 1.11±0.14 times that of Earth, The planet is about 11% larger in radius than Earth (between 4.5% smaller and 26.5% larger), giving a volume about 1.37 times that of Earth (between 0.87 and 2.03 times as large).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37397040",
"title": "Kepler-80",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "All six known planets in the Kepler-80 system orbit very close to the star, and their distances to the star (the semi major axes) are all smaller than 0.2 AU. For comparison the planet in the Solar System closest to the star, Mercury, has a semi major axis of 0.389 AU, and so the entire known system of Kepler-80 can lie within the orbit of Mercury. This makes Kepler-80 a very compact system and it is one of many STIP's (Systems with Tightly-packed Inner Planets) that have been discovered by the Kepler telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "Section::::Attributes.:Dynamic characteristics.:Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- The \"semi-major axis\" is the distance from a planet to the half-way point along the longest diameter of its elliptical orbit (see image). This distance is not the same as its apastron, because no planet's orbit has its star at its exact centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46783337",
"title": "Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research",
"section": "Section::::Science goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The angular separation between the planet and its host star is very small. For a planet ∼10 AU from its host and tens of parsec away, the separation would be only a few tenths of an arcsec.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979",
"title": "Alpha Centauri",
"section": "Section::::Stellar system.:Orbital properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Viewed from Earth, the \"apparent orbit\" of A and B means that their separation and position angle (PA) are in continuous change throughout their projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2019 are separated by 4.92 arcsec through the PA of 337.1°, increasing to 5.49 arcsec through 345.3° in 2020. The closest recent approach was in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through the PA of 300°. The observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum distance is 1.7 arcsec. The widest separation occurred during February 1976, and the next will be in January 2056.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h6htd
|
Considering all dogs have 38 chromosomes, can a very small dog mate with(in some manner) and give birth to a very large dog's pups?
|
[
{
"answer": "A family member of mine breeds dogs so I've seen newborn puppies firsthand. There were two simultaneous litters of puppies; one from a toy poodle, and one litter from a standard poodle. What was amazing is that these newborns were practically the same size, just the toy poodle had considerably less (2) than the standard who delivered 13. Humans have been able to alter the appearance and behavior of dogs but we have not so much affected their reproduction.\n\nThus, the small dog will deliver puppies of the \"standard puppy size\" which is about 3-4 inches which will then grow into dogs much larger than the bitch.\n\nEdit for clarity: We - > Humans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49399",
"title": "XY sex-determination system",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome will develop male characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4269567",
"title": "Dog",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7366581",
"title": "Gunnison's prairie dog",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The Gunnison's prairie dog, \"C. gunnisoni\", is the only prairie dog species that has 40 chromosomes. The other four species, black-tailed, white-tailed, Utah, and Mexican prairie dogs, have 50 chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7118482",
"title": "Dog behavior",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction behavior.:Estrous cycle and mating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The female dog can bear another litter within 8 months of the previous one. Dogs are polygamous in contrast to wolves that are generally monogamous. Therefore, dogs have no pair bonding and the protection of a single mate, but rather have multiple mates in a year. The consequence is that wolves put a lot of energy into producing a few pups in contrast to dogs that maximize the production of pups. This higher pup production rate enables dogs to maintain or even increase their population with a lower pup survival rate than wolves, and allows dogs a greater capacity than wolves to grow their population after a population crash or when entering a new habitat. It is proposed that these differences are an alternative breeding strategy, one adapted to a life of scavenging instead of hunting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2268863",
"title": "Canine transmissible venereal tumor",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The CTVT cells have fewer chromosomes than normal dog cells. Dog cells normally have 78 chromosomes, while the cancer cells contain 57–64 chromosomes that are very different in appearance from normal dog chromosomes. All dog chromosomes except X and Y are acrocentric, having a centromere very near to the end of the chromosome, while many of the CTVT chromosomes are metacentric or submetacentric, having a centromere nearer to the middle. There is no evidence that the tumor is caused by a virus or virus-like organism. The infectious agent of canine transmissible venereal tumor is the cancer cell itself and the tumor is clonal in origin. All tumor cells of this type of cancer share extremely similar genetic code, often if not always unrelated to the DNA of their host. Specifically, the LINE-1 element in the tumor cells is in a different location than in normal canine DNA. This demonstrates that the tumors do not arise from separate cancerous transformation in individual animals. Rather, the malignant tumor cells from one dog are transferred to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344879",
"title": "Cytogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Human abnormalities and medical applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Other numerical abnormalities discovered include sex chromosome abnormalities. A female with only one X chromosome has Turner syndrome, whereas an additional X chromosome in a male, resulting in 47 total chromosomes, has Klinefelter syndrome. Many other sex chromosome combinations are compatible with live birth including XXX, XYY, and XXXX. The ability for mammals to tolerate aneuploidies in the sex chromosomes arises from the ability to inactivate them, which is required in normal females to compensate for having two copies of the chromosome. Not all genes on the X chromosome are inactivated, which is why there is a phenotypic effect seen in individuals with extra X chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33927991",
"title": "Purebred breeders",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "A study in 2004 was able to classify 99% of the dogs under human reproductive control into breed categories based on their DNA sequences. Dogs are grouped into the following eight breed categories of herding, hound, nonsporting, sporting, terrier, toy, working and miscellaneous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jc7wr
|
why are vishnu and his avatars blue?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blue is considered a divine/pure colour. \nI.e. connected to the sky / the sea",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4543",
"title": "Blue",
"section": "Section::::In world culture.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "BULLET::::- Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the preserver of the world and thus intimately connected to water. Krishna and Ram, Vishnu's avatars, are usually blue. Shiva, the destroyer, is also depicted in light blue tones and is called \"neela kantha\", or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison in an attempt to turn the tide of a battle between the gods and demons in the gods' favour. Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, throat, chakra (Vishuddha).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26203851",
"title": "Themes in Avatar",
"section": "Section::::Religion and spirituality.:Parallels with Hinduism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Explaining the choice of the color blue for the Na'vi, Cameron said \"I just like blue. It's a good color ... plus, there's a connection to the Hindu deities, which I like conceptually.\" Commentators agreed that the blue skin of the Na'vi, described in a \"New Yorker\" article as \"Vishnu-blue\", \"instantly and metaphorically\" relates the film's protagonist to such avatars of Vishnu as Rama and Krishna. An article in the \"San Francisco Examiner\" described an 18th-century Indian painting of Vishnu and his consort Laksmi riding the great mythical bird Garuda as \"\"Avatar\" prequel\" due to its resemblance with the film's scene in which the hero's blue-skinned avatar flies a gigantic raptor. Asra Q. Nomani of \"The Daily Beast\" likened the hero and his Na'vi mate Neytiri to images of Shiva and Durga.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32130387",
"title": "Pavalavannam temple",
"section": "Section::::Legend.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "It is believed that Vishnu assumed various colours during various eras according to the nature of the living beings and their behaviour. During Krita Yuga, people were well-behaved (\"satvaguna\") and Vishnu was white (called \"svetavarna\") in colour. During Tretayuga, he assumed the colour of Pavalam (emerald) and hence came to be known as Pavalavannar or Pralavannar (in Sanskrit). In Dvapara Yuga, he assumed green colour (\"pachai\" in Tamil). In the current Kali Yuga, he assumed blue tint called \"syamalavarna\" and it is believed that people will not be influenced by the form Vishnu appears. Vishnu is believed to have appeared for twin Aswini gods as Pavalavannar and hence retains the name in modern times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42154",
"title": "Krishna",
"section": "Section::::Iconography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu. However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul (\"Jamun\", a purple-colored fruit).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291008",
"title": "Vanessa atalanta",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Red admirals have color vision in the 440–590 nm range of the visible spectrum which includes indigo, blue, green, and yellow. They have compound eyes with a transparent, crystalline structure called a rhabdom which is similar in function to a human retina. These butterflies do not have the specific lateral filtering pigments coating their rhabdom found in some other nymphalid butterflies that likely evolved later. A consequence of this lack of pigment is that the red admiral cannot differentiate between colors in the 590–640 nm range, which includes orange and red. In species such as the monarch butterfly that express these lateral filtering pigments, higher wavelengths of light are altered, so they can excite the sensory photopigments. This physiological difference between butterfly species provides insight into the evolutionary adaptation of color vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7353969",
"title": "Kuttichathan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Kuttichathans except Vishnumaya are often portrayed in dark colors sometimes with horns and tail. Unlike his brothers, Vishnumaya is considered to be a virtuous Chathan and is often depicted in white color. Vishumaya means \"resemblance of Lord Vishnu\". He got his name because of his similarity with Lord Vishnu in his appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8066855",
"title": "Neminatha",
"section": "Section::::Iconography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to be Krishna's cousin and has the same dark-bluish colored skin. Painting depicting his life stories generally identify him as dark colored. His iconographic identifier is a conch carved or stamped below his statues. Sometimes, as with Vishnu's iconography, a chakra is also shown near him, as in the 6th-century sculpture found at the archaeological site near Padhavali (Madhya Pradesh). Artworks showing Neminatha sometimes include Ambika yakshi, but her color varies from golden to greenish to dark-blue, by region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kvd7u
|
How long can a plant survive in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on the environment. Plants can grow in microgravity with an artificial atmosphere, but if you're just talking about throwing a naked plant into space, the extreme temperatures would start rupturing cells immediately (areas in the sun would be very hot, and areas in shade would be well below freezing). Between these two extreme temperatures and the very low pressure, which would also accelerate the rate at which volatiles boiled off, the plant would start to die as soon as it was exposed to this type of environment. How long is likely a function of the species and plant size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37137",
"title": "Arabidopsis",
"section": "Section::::Status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station grew some Arabidopsis, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. They had a life span of 40 days. \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" seeds were taken to the Moon on the Chang'e 4 lander in 2019, as part of a student experiment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16598780",
"title": "EXPOSE",
"section": "Section::::EXPOSE-E.:EXPOSE-E results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "The plausibility that life was imported to Earth from elsewhere was tested by subjecting plant seeds to 1.5 years of exposure to solar UV, solar and galactic cosmic radiation, temperature fluctuations, and space vacuum outside the International Space Station. Of the 2100 exposed wild-type \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and \"Nicotiana tabacum\" (tobacco) seeds, 23% produced viable plants after being returned to Earth. Germination was delayed in seeds shielded from solar light, yet full survival was attained, which indicates that longer space travel would be possible for seeds embedded in an opaque matrix. The team conclude that a naked, seed-like entity could have survived exposure to solar UV radiation during a hypothetical transfer from Mars to Earth, and even if seeds do not survive, components (e.g., their DNA) might survive transfer over cosmic distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46565922",
"title": "Tanpopo (mission)",
"section": "Section::::Analyses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Early mission results from the first sample show evidence that some clumps of microorganism can survive for at least one year in space. This may support the idea that clumps greater than 0.5 millimeters of microorganisms could be one way for life to spread from planet to planet. It was also noted that glycine's decomposition was less than expected, while hydantoin's recovery was much lower than glycine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10494220",
"title": "Astrobotany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "It has been a subject of study that plants may be grown in outer space typically in a weightless but pressurized controlled environment in specific space gardens. In the context of human spaceflight, they can be consumed as food and/or provide a refreshing atmosphere. Plants can metabolize carbon dioxide in the air to produce valuable oxygen, and can help control cabin humidity. Growing plants in space may provide a psychological benefit to human spaceflight crews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177602",
"title": "Outer space",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and \"Nicotiana tabacum\" germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of \"bacillus subtilis\" has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment. The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "539816",
"title": "Silent Running",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "In the future, all plant life on Earth is becoming extinct. As many specimens as possible have been preserved in a series of enormous, greenhouse-like geodesic domes, attached to a large spaceship named \"Valley Forge\", forming part of a fleet of American Airlines space freighters, currently just outside the orbit of Saturn. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16598780",
"title": "EXPOSE",
"section": "Section::::EXPOSE-R2.:EXPOSE-R2 results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "BULLET::::- In March 2019, scientists reported that life-forms from Earth survived 18 months living in outer space outside the International Space Station (ISS), as part of the BIOMEX studies related to the EXPOSE-R2 mission, suggesting that life could survive, theoretically, on the planet Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3riw90
|
Why were brass knuckles made of brass?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak to the historical aspect but from an industrial aspect brass is pretty inexpensive and is usually cast in a mold. Forged steel would be much more labor intensive. Cast iron would be subject to rusting. Brass is a good tradeoff of strength, cost, and corrosion resistance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "599009",
"title": "Brass knuckles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Brass knuckles, also sometimes called knuckles, knucks, brass knucks, knucklebusters, knuckledusters, an English punch or a classic, are weapons used in hand-to-hand combat. Brass knuckles are pieces of metal shaped to fit around the knuckles. Despite their name, they are often made from other metals, plastics or carbon fibers. Designed to preserve and concentrate a punch's force by directing it toward a harder and smaller contact area, they result in increased tissue disruption, including an increased likelihood of fracturing the victim's bones on impact. The extended and rounded palm grip also spreads across the attacker's palm the counter-force that would otherwise be absorbed primarily by the attacker's fingers, reducing the likelihood of damage to the attacker's fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34420",
"title": "Zinc",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC. They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible. The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry. Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings, doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical instruments such as horns and bells where a combination of high workability (historically with hand tools) and durability is desired. It is also used in zippers. Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56124894",
"title": "Coinage of the Kingdom of Pontus",
"section": "Section::::Brass coinage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Brass is an alloy that was used relatively rarely in ancient times. Phrygia is the only region with a recorded regular use of brass from antique. Previously it was thought that Romans were the first to make brass coinage. Specimens contemporary with Julius Caesar and Augustus are known. Research conducted in 1970s revealed that brass was used half a century earlier than previously thought. Phrygia and Bithynia are known sources for Pontic brass coinage. Pontic brass coins were struck during the reign of Mithridates VI, and he can be regarded as the first ruler to make use of brass. Modern analyzes have revealed that some of his bronze coins are in fact made from brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::Use in musical instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various percussion instruments, most notably cymbals, gongs, and orchestral (tubular) bells (large \"church\" bells are normally made of bronze). Small handbells and \"jingle bell\" are also commonly made of brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Although forms of brass have been in use since prehistory, its true nature as a copper-zinc alloy was not understood until the post-medieval period because the zinc vapor which reacted with copper to make brass was not recognised as a metal. The King James Bible makes many references to \"brass\" to translate \"nechosheth\" (bronze or copper) from Hebrew to archaic English. The Shakespearean English use of the word 'brass' can mean any bronze alloy, or copper, an even less precise definition than the modern one. The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper ores. By the Roman period brass was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the cementation process, the product of which was calamine brass, and variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced by speltering, the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to Europe in the 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38918352",
"title": "Bronze and brass ornamental work",
"section": "Section::::European brass and bronze.:Monumental brasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "The earliest existing brass is that of Bishop Ysowilpe at Verden, in Germany, which dates from 1231 and is on the model of an incised stone, as if by an artist accustomed to work in that material. In England the oldest example is at Stoke D'Abernon church, in Surrey, to the memory of Sir John D'Abernon, who died in 1277. Numerous brasses are to be found in Belgium, and some in France and the Netherlands. Apart from their artistic attractiveness, these ornamental brasses are of the utmost value in faithfully depicting the costumes of the period, ecclesiastical, civil or military; they furnish also appropriate inscriptions in beautiful lettering (cf. Brass Gallery).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b9wwcw
|
why did ants ( and other insects maybe idk) get an exoskeleton rather than a normal skeleton?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because a hard outer shell doubles as protection from predators, as well as anchor points for muscles.\n\nEndoskeletons evolved to provide otherwise soft-bodied animals leverage to generate more power in their appendages without sacrificing as much flexibility as an exoskeleton.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insects are part of a larger group of animals called Ecdysozoa, all of which have the ability to shed the outer layer of their skin, or cuticle. Though some members of the Ecdysozoa are still somewhat soft-bodied, like [roundworms](_URL_3_), one group developed a much harder and more inflexible outer cuticle with segments and jointed limbs to allow some movement. This group, the Arthropoda, contains most animals we think of as having exoskeletons, including the extinct [trilobites](_URL_0_), as well as the still living [chelicerates](_URL_4_) (most of which are arachnids), [myriapods](_URL_8_) (centipedes and millipedes), and pancrustacea (which consists of crustaceans as well as insects, which are [nested inside crustaceans](_URL_6_)).\n\nPresumably, the exoskeleton in arthropods developed as a form of protection against predators, but it's hard to be completely sure, since it first appeared in the ancestors of this group which lived over 500 million years ago. The benefits of this kind of protection are obvious, and importantly, the preexisting ability to shed their skins allowed them to continue to grow larger over their lives, and even regrow lost body parts. Having a tough outer covering also helped arthropods like [*Pneumodesmus*](_URL_5_) to become the first animals to colonize land, tens of millions of years before vertebrates would ([source](_URL_7_)). Interestingly, though earlier arthropods probably shed their skins regularly throughout their lives (as many still do today), the majority of insect species no longer do this, and instead have a finite number of moults they go through as they grow before reaching a final and permanent adult stage.\n\nAs opposed to arthropods and other ecdysozoans, the ancestors of vertebrates (the earliest of which lived around the same time as the first arthropods \\~500 million years ago, like [*Haikouichthys*](_URL_2_)) were relatively soft and did not shed their skins. However, they did have rigid internal structures like notochords made of cartilage-like materials, which allowed them to swim effectively using full body [movements from side to side](_URL_1_). Eventually, bones developed from cartilage in vertebrates, leading to the internal skeletons we have now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2594",
"title": "Ant",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Like other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the \"dorsal aorta\") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40792319",
"title": "Zigrasimecia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Due to the highly specialized mandibles, scientists believe that the ants exhibited habits no longer seen in extant ants. The highly movable head suggests that mobility was an important factor for them (probably for feeding behavior), and the rugose projections may have played a major role in nest excavation because the mandibles would have prevented such activity. \"Zigrasimecia\" most likely interacted with the extinct ant genus \"Gerontoformica\" through conflict and probably shared some of their ecological niches. The mandibles of these ants were probably used for mechanical interactions with food, and they may also have served as traps for potential arthropod prey such as mites and small flies. \"Zigrasimecia\" was possibly a generalist predator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16796904",
"title": "Sphecomyrma",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "\"Sphecomyrma\" ants can be distinguished from other ants by their extremely primitive body structure, small, narrow wasp-like mandibles, short scapes (the basal segment of the antenna) and the exceptionally long funiculus, which is four times longer than the scape. The suture (a pattern of shallow grooves on the head) is well developed and the trochantellus (the proximal end of the femur) is absent. The node (a segment between the mesosoma, the middle part of the body, and gaster) of the petiole is noticeably dome-shaped and is separated from the propodeum, the first abdominal segment, and parts of the metasoma, the posterior part of the body, by several constrictions. The cuticle (outer exoskeleton of the body) is not sculptured and is covered with either scattered or spare setae, which are different types of bristle or hair-like structures. The body structure shows that \"Sphecomyrma\" ants were medium-sized formicids. Workers are known to have stingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369232",
"title": "Leafcutter ant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "\"Acromyrmex\" and \"Atta\" ants have much in common anatomically; however, the two can be identified by their external differences. \"Atta\" ants have three pairs of spines and a smooth exoskeleton on the upper surface of the thorax, while \"Acromyrmex\" ants have four pairs and a rough exoskeleton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7954779",
"title": "Odontomachus bauri",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The mandibles of \"O. bauri\" are an exaggerated form of the sturdy and long mandibles found in many ant species. Additionally, the muscles found in the mandibles of \"O. bauri\" are found in other ants, although those found in \"O. bauri\" are large and look very similar to those found in cicadas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285708",
"title": "Mutillidae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The exoskeleton of all velvet ants is unusually tough (to the point that some entomologists have reported difficulty piercing them with steel pins when attempting to mount them for display in cabinets). This characteristic allows them to successfully invade the nests of their prey and also helps them retain moisture. Mutillids exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism. Like some related families in the Vespoidea, males have wings, but females are wingless. The males and females are so distinct in their morphology that entomologists often find it very hard to determine whether a given male and female belong to the same species, unless they are captured while mating. In some species, the male carries the smaller female aloft while mating, which is also seen in the related family Thynnidae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104729",
"title": "Insect morphology",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an exoskeleton, a hard outer layer made mostly of chitin which protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and wings (if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen for digestion, respiration, excretion, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs, antennae, and mouthparts being highly variable from group to group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ye88c
|
do people who talk languages other than english think in those languages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you think in English?\n\nSeriously, when you think of a dog running across a field, do you imagine those words \"a dog running across a field\"? Or do you imagine an actual dog running across an actual field?\n\nThe only times that we actually think in words, is when we are thinking of a language. I could think \"My name is Thomas\" in those words, I could also think \"Je m'appelle Thomas\", or I could think in the abstract sense that Thomas and myself are one in the same.\n\nIt's similar to \"how do deaf people think?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5052508",
"title": "Moutfort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "English is on the school program latest in 7th class, and it sounds somehow familiar so that everyone believes he knows English at once. Anyhow, most people can communicate a bit in English. It is being said: If you don't know how to speak English, just take a hot potato in your mouth and speak a funny Luxembourgish, and they will understand you.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415406",
"title": "English as a second or foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties for learners.:Pronunciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44203",
"title": "Ezra Pound",
"section": "Section::::London (1908–1920).:Imagism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Neither can anyone learn English, one can only learn a series of Englishes. Rossetti made his own language. I hadn't in 1910 made a language, I don't mean a language to use, but even a language to think in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21514416",
"title": "COLA (software architecture)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Natural language analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Also, anyone can become an English speaker simply by having this base translated into their native tongue (a more tractable problem than translating the whole of English). Once they know this subset then they know enough English to understand other statements like the giraffe one, and thus grow their knowledge to the whole language through English sentences (which can be reused by everyone, regardless of their first language). This is analogous to the bootstrapping and compatibility of a COLA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165745",
"title": "Singapore English",
"section": "Section::::English language trends in Singapore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Those who learnt English as a native language (sometimes as a sole native language, but usually alongside other languages) and use it as their dominant language (many people, mostly children born after 1965 to highly educated parents).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2580434",
"title": "Regents Park, New South Wales",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- 25.7% of people only speak English at home, with 71.2% of people speaking a non-English language at home. The top responses for non-English languages spoken at home were Arabic (12.9%), Cantonese (10.3%), Mandarin (8.7%), Vietnamese (7.1%) and Urdu (2.6%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415406",
"title": "English as a second or foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties for learners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6sfpj2
|
How is corruption measured?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's the sources for the Corruption Perception Index of 2016:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Transparency International publishes what they call a \"Corruption Perception Index\" made up from polls. They ask people how often in the past year (or whatever timeframe) they paid a bribe, and how much, and in what situation. \nIt is true that the data is not entirely reliable because of the very nature of the thing but they openly acknowledge this. \n\n[From their Website:](_URL_0_)\n\n > WHY IS THE CPI BASED ON PERCEPTIONS?\n\n > Corruption generally comprises illegal activities, which are deliberately hidden and only come to light through scandals, investigations or prosecutions. There is no meaningful way to assess absolute levels of corruption in countries or territories on the basis of hard empirical data. Possible attempts to do so, such as by comparing bribes reported, the number of prosecutions brought or studying court cases directly linked to corruption, cannot be taken as definitive indicators of corruption levels. Instead, they show how effective prosecutors, the courts or the media are in investigating and exposing corruption. Capturing perceptions of corruption of those in a position to offer assessments of public sector corruption is the most reliable method of comparing relative corruption levels across countries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "66220",
"title": "Political corruption",
"section": "Section::::Conditions favorable for corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lack of measurement of corruption. For example, using regular surveys of households and businesses in order to quantify the degree of perception of corruption in different parts of a nation or in different government institutions may increase awareness of corruption and create pressure to combat it. This will also enable an evaluation of the officials who are fighting corruption and the methods used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66220",
"title": "Political corruption",
"section": "Section::::Measuring corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Measuring corruption accurately is difficult if not impossible due to the illicit nature of the transaction and imprecise definitions of corruption. Few reliable measures of the magnitude of corruption exists and among those, there is a high level of heterogeneity. One of the most common ways to estimate corruption is through perception surveys. They have the advantage of good coverage, however, they do not measure corruption precisely. While \"corruption\" indices first appeared in 1995 with the Corruption Perceptions Index CPI, all of these metrics address different proxies for corruption, such as public perceptions of the extent of the problem. However, over time the refinement of methods and validation checks against objective indicators has meant that, while not perfect, many of these indicators are getting better at consistently and validly measuring the scale of corruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512886",
"title": "Police corruption",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "It is not possible to measure the level of corruption in a country. Surveys of police officers, citizens and businesses can be used to provide estimates on levels of corruption. These are often inaccurate, as respondents involved in corruption are reluctant to provide any information implicating themselves in criminal activity. Despite this limitation, information collected from International Crime Victim Surveys and surveys conducted by the Global Corruption Enumerated Barometer can be used to estimate the level of police corruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3174020",
"title": "Corruption Perceptions Index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is an index published annually by Transparency International since 1995 which ranks countries \"by their perceived levels of public sector corruption, as determined by expert assessments and opinion surveys.\" The CPI generally defines corruption as \"the misuse of public power for private benefit\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3608404",
"title": "Corruption",
"section": "Section::::Corruption in different sectors.:Government/public sector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as the police as well as corruption in processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by the World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions (elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22937795",
"title": "Value-form",
"section": "Section::::Erosion of the value-form and energy.:The informal circuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 544,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 544,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The Corruption Perceptions Index is only an indicator of corruption in the \"public\" sector of the economy, and not of corruption in the private sector, even although the private sector is much larger than the public sector. This index cannot show whether the total amount of corruption globally is increasing, constant, or decreasing. A more comprehensive measure is the Global Corruption Barometer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66241",
"title": "Transparency International",
"section": "Section::::Role.:Corruption Perceptions Index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) ranks countries and territories based on how corrupt their public sector is perceived to be. It is a composite index – a combination of polls – drawing on corruption-related data collected by a variety of reputable institutions. The CPI reflects the views of observers from around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
80u2q7
|
what happens to the food company when someone who is allergic to a secret ingredient consumes their food? will it be revealed? why has it not ever happened?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think due to FDA regulations all ingredients must be listed, so the secrets are usually formulas and combinations. But the individual ingredients that people may be allergic to are listed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there's a list of specific allergens that must be listed if it's in the food or if the food could come in contact with that. other than that, everything's fair game. only prepacked products are subject to fda labeling requirements. other than that, it's up to the eater to due their diligence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3274245",
"title": "Soy allergy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking can help make protein molecules less allergenic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679350",
"title": "Food allergy",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The mainstay of treatment for food allergy is total avoidance of the foods identified as allergens. An allergen can enter the body by consuming a food containing the allergen, and can also be ingested by touching any surfaces that may have come into contact with the allergen, then touching the eyes or nose. For people who are extremely sensitive, avoidance includes avoiding touching or inhaling the problematic food. Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679350",
"title": "Food allergy",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "To avoid an allergic reaction, a strict diet can be followed. It is difficult to determine the amount of allergenic food required to elicit a reaction, so complete avoidance should be attempted. In some cases, hypersensitive reactions can be triggered by exposures to allergens through skin contact, inhalation, kissing, participation in sports, blood transfusions, cosmetics, and alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6317707",
"title": "Egg allergy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6317707",
"title": "Egg allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2795105",
"title": "Natural skin care",
"section": "Section::::Cautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The FDA recommends understanding the ingredient label and says \"There is no list of ingredients that can be guaranteed not to cause allergic reactions, so consumers who are prone to allergies should pay careful attention to what they use on their skin\", further warning that \"[t]here is no basis in fact or scientific legitimacy to the notion that products containing natural ingredients are good for the skin\". Food preservatives are commonly used to preserve the safety and efficacy in these products. Alternative remedies may increase the prevalence of eczema. Bhuchar recommends that \"ingestible substances including most homeopathic, Ayurvedic, and traditional Chinese medicine herbal formulations that are not US FDA regulated should be viewed with caution as they may cause severe adverse effects\" such as arsenic poisoning and liver failure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5558520",
"title": "Milk allergy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not. One theory is resistance to digestion, the thinking being that when largely intact proteins reach the small intestine the white blood cells involved in immune reactions will be activated. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. Allergic responses can be divided into two phases: an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen, which can then either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction,\" prolonging the symptoms of a response and resulting in more tissue damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j0cns
|
if it is illegal to melt down pennies, how is it legal to press them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you talking about how it's legal for the US Mint to press them? Because they're authorized by law to do so.\n\nIf you're asking about those novelty machines that strech out a penny, it's because defacing the currency for non-fraudulent purposes isn't illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "164092",
"title": "Penny (United States coin)",
"section": "Section::::Numismatics and regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "In anticipation of the business of melting down U.S. pennies and U.S. nickels for profit, the U.S. Mint, which is a part of the US Department of the Treasury, implemented new regulations on December 14, 2006, which criminalize the melting of pennies and nickels and place limits on export of the coins. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 USD and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358546",
"title": "Nickel (United States coin)",
"section": "Section::::Jefferson nickel (1938–present).:Increase in metal values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "Meanwhile, in an attempt to avoid losing large quantities of circulating nickels to melting, the United States Mint introduced new interim rules on December 14, 2006, that criminalized the melting and export of pennies (which as of 2013 cost 1.83 cents to produce) and nickels. Violators of these rules can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000, five years imprisonment, or both. The rules were finalized on April 17, 2007. The melt value of a nickel for some time was more than five cents, including nearing over one-and-a-half times its face value in May 2007. Since then, the supply and demand of the coin's composition metals have stabilized. A nickel's melt value fell below its face value from late 2008 through mid-2010, and more recently again from late mid-2012 through the present. In February 2014, it was reported that the Mint was conducting experiments to use copper-plated zinc (the same composition used for the United States 1 cent coin) for the nickel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23830729",
"title": "Money burning",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Under Section 10 of the Coinage Act (1971) \"No person shall, except under the authority of a licence granted by the Treasury, melt down or break up any metal coin which is for the time being current in the United Kingdom or which, having been current there, has at any time after 16th May 1969 ceased to be so.\". As the process of creating elongated coins does not require them to be melted nor broken up, however, Section 10 does not apply and coin elongation is legal within the UK with penny press machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6017455",
"title": "Penny debate in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Laws regarding melting and export.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "On April 17, 2007, a Department of the Treasury regulation went into effect prohibiting the treatment, melting, or mass export of pennies and nickels. Exceptions were allowed for numismatists, jewelry makers, and normal tourism demands. The reason given was that the price of copper was rising to the point where these coins could be melted for their metal content. In 1969, a similar law regarding silver coinage was repealed. Because their silver content frequently exceeds collector value, silver coins are often sold by multiplying their \"face value\" times a benchmark price that floats relative to the spot silver price per ounce. According to American law, US citizens are allowed to melt foreign coinage (e.g., Canadian pennies) for personal or commercial use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446026",
"title": "Elongated coin",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In the UK, the Coinage Act of 1971, Section 10 states: \"No person shall, except under the authority of a licence granted by the Treasury, melt down or break up any metal coin which is for the time being current in the United Kingdom or which, having been current there, has at any time after 16th May 1969 ceased to be so.\". As the process of creating elongated coins does not require them to be melted nor broken up, however, Section 10 does not apply and coin elongation is legal within the UK with penny press machines a common sight at tourist attractions across the nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26421394",
"title": "Coinage metals",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for a coinage metal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "When minting coins, especially low denomination coins, there is a risk that the value of metal within a coin is greater than the face value. This leads to the possibility of smelters taking coins and melting them down for the scrap value of the metal. Pre-1992 British pennies were made of 97% copper; but as of 2008, based on the price of copper, the value of a penny from this period is 1.5 new-pence. Modern British pennies are now made of copper-plated steel. For similar reasons, American pennies (cents) were once made of copper alloys, but since 1982 have been made of copper-plated zinc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38700128",
"title": "Copper Panic of 1789",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "As more counterfeiters began production and caused minters to have to debase their coins to remain in business, the value of copper began to fall. Several laws were passed during this time period, including the prohibiting of debased coins from being considered legal tender. The State of New York prohibited the circulation of copper coins entirely. The State of New Jersey in 1787 declared it would no longer accept any legal tender of other states for any debts. This furthered the decline in copper prices, forcing many minters to shut down, leaving only counterfeiters who produced extremely low quality coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3k85qd
|
why the american corn taste different from middle eastern corn or asian one?
|
[
{
"answer": "They differ in species, soil composition, environment, exposure to the sun. These all could effect the taste.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many different variations of corn. In Korea (s), supermarkets usually have 2 or 3 different corns in the vegetable section (starchy, sweet). In the US, it's usually the same sweet corn, unless you have a large farmers' market.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the corn can only build itself from whatever nutrients it can obtain.\n\nif you plant something in another soil that has different properties these properties will change the plant.\n\nafter a few generations of this your plant will evolve to better cope with the changed soil conditions (with assistance of the farmer who seeks to maximize his yield), resulting in \"different\" corn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913091",
"title": "Peruvian cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Crops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "BULLET::::- Maize: Maize (\"Indian\" corn), is native to Mesoamerica and Peru, The varieties used in Europe and most of the world are from Central America. The corn grown in Peru is so sweet and unique in the world cause the characteristics it has and has very large grains and is not popular outside of Latin America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89251",
"title": "Sweet corn",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Sweet corn occurs as a spontaneous mutation in field corn and was grown by several Native American tribes. The Iroquois gave the first recorded sweet corn (called 'Papoon') to European settlers in 1779. It soon became a popular food in the southern and central regions of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37131493",
"title": "Peruvian corn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Choclo, also referred to as Peruvian corn or Cuzco corn (after the capital city of the Inca empire), is a large-kernel variety of field corn from the Andes. It is consumed in parts of Central America and South America, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia. As field corn, it is not generally regarded in industrialized societies as desirable for human food without commercial pre-processing. When compared to sweet corn, the kernels are larger and chewier and have a starchy, hefty texture, rather than a sweet taste. The taste and appearance are somewhat similar to hominy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "135494",
"title": "Helotes, Texas",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Corn played an important role in the heritage of Helotes. The local Native Americans planted corn, actually maize, in the fertile valleys of the area, and feed corn was a major crop grown in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The town name is derived from the Spanish word \"elote\", which can mean \"ear of maize\", \"corncob\", or simply \"corn\", but exactly how the town came to be called Helotes is still a subject of debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28129244",
"title": "Blue corn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Blue corn (also known as Hopi maize, Yoeme Blue, Tarahumara Maiz Azul, and Rio Grande Blue) is several closely related varieties of flint corn grown in Mexico, the Southwestern United States, and the Southeastern United States. It is one of the main types of corn used for the traditional Southern and Central Mexican food known as tlacoyo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1395226",
"title": "Corn on the cob",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Corn was eaten by Native American tribes before European settlers arrived in the Americas, and was a prominent source of sustenance for the Gallimore tribe, which occupied areas of the Midwest as far East as what is now Ohio. The Maya ate corn as a staple food crop and ate it off the cob, either roasting or boiling it. Aboriginal Canadians in southern parts of Canada also eat corn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14353060",
"title": "Corn fritter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "European settlers learned recipes and processes for corn dishes from Native Americans, and soon devised their own cornmeal-based variations of European breads made from grains available on that continent. The corn fritter probably was invented in the Southern United States, whose traditional cuisine contains a lot of deep fried foods, none more famous perhaps than Southern fried chicken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7aguu2
|
what's the difference between tense, mood, and case?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tense is the time of the action, past, future, happening right now. The tenses give a sense of when an action was completed, or if we expect the action to continue into the foreseeable future. It puts the verbs into a context of when. \n\nMood adds or removes a certain certainty or uncertainty or more commonly, obligation. We use modal verbs to add a stronger sense of obligation (must, have to) or soften a statement to suggestion (should). We don't really moods in English because we use these modal verbs, if you study Italian then you'll see mood a lot use with different verbs - \"essere\", to be, changes to \"sia\", for example, the actual verb \"to be\" changes the mood of the sentence, in English we add \"should\" and leave the next verb alone \"he should leave\". \n\nCases you'll see a lot in German, which is when the pronoun changes depending on who is doing what to whom. We have them in English too, but not to a greater degree as in German. For example, you don't say \"I'll give the bucket to he\", you say \"I'll give the bucket to him\". The possessive is \"his bucket\" - the cases that we have in English mean that you must change \"he\" to \"him\" and \"he\" to \"his\" depending on who is doing what to what/with what object. He is 'owning' his bucket\". \n\nThis is my understanding of it, at least, having taught English for 10 years and studied Italian, German and French. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947",
"title": "Grammatical tense",
"section": "Section::::Uses of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The term \"tense\", then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood. As regards English, there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood. Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28717995",
"title": "Tense–aspect–mood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Tense–aspect–mood (commonly abbreviated ') or tense–modality–aspect (abbreviated as ') is a group of grammatical categories that covers the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of time – a single block of time, continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of necessity, obligation, probability, ability). Some authors extend this term as tense–aspect–mood–evidentiality ( in short). In some languages, evidentiality (whether evidence exists for the statement, and if so what kind) and mirativity (surprise) may also be included.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263587",
"title": "Present perfect",
"section": "Section::::English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past. It always implies a strong connection with the present and is used chiefly in conversations, letters, newspapers and TV and radio reports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947",
"title": "Grammatical tense",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking. In some contexts, however, their meaning may be relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being spoken about). This is called \"relative\" (as opposed to \"absolute\") tense. Some languages have different verb forms or constructions which manifest relative tense, such as pluperfect (\"past-in-the-past\") and \"future-in-the-past\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947",
"title": "Grammatical tense",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference with reference to the moment of speaking. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3697482",
"title": "A series and B series",
"section": "Section::::McTaggart's use of the A series and B series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Although originally McTaggart defined tenses as relational qualities, i.e. qualities that events possess by standing in a certain relations to something outside of time, something that does not change its position in time, then today it is popularly believed that he treated tenses as monadic properties. As R. D. Ingthorsson notes, this is probably because later philosophers have independently inferred that this is how McTaggart must have understood tense merely because tenses are normally expressed in ordinary English by non-relational singular predicates \"is past\", \"is present\" and \"is future\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23534467",
"title": "Grammatical mood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b15c9b
|
if peanuts aren't actually nuts why do people with a nut allergy die from them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because peanut allergies are different from nut allergies. I'm allergic to peanuts but not nuts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "896467",
"title": "Carrier oil",
"section": "Section::::Safety aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Peanuts are legumes, not true nuts, but they share with true nuts the risk of causing allergic reactions, even in minute amounts. Pure peanut and nut-derived oils are not usually allergenic (as they do not typically contain the proteinaceous part of the plant), but avoiding them may be safer, as serious peanut and nut allergy is widespread, oil purity cannot be guaranteed, and other hypoallergenic oils are easily substituted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases. However, the study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, \"Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178037",
"title": "Mixed nuts",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Because they are relatively inexpensive, peanuts are typically a major ingredient in mixed nuts, although they are viewed as less fancy than other nuts; often \"deluxe mixed nuts\" are advertised as containing no peanuts. \"Alrifai\", a brand in the Middle East, Identifies the expensive nuts as kernels. In 2006, a batch of \"deluxe\" mixed nuts was recalled because peanuts had crept into the mix. The move was not to save face: peanuts are the ingredient of mixed nuts most commonly associated with life-threatening food allergies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20167640",
"title": "Indianapolis 500 traditions",
"section": "Section::::Track lore.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 212,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 212,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Peanuts are considered bad luck. An ambiguous, long-standing superstition against eating peanuts at the race track has dominated Indianapolis dating back to at least the 1940s. Legend says, though unconfirmed, that a crashed car was found with peanut shells in the cockpit. As of 2009, however, peanuts are sold at trackside concessions, and the myth has lost a lot of its following.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024211",
"title": "Bamba (snack)",
"section": "Section::::Peanut allergy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "As Bamba is made with peanuts, people allergic to peanuts may be severely affected by it. However early peanut consumption is associated with less prevalence of peanut allergy. In fact, a 2008 study concluded that, due to the extensive consumption of Bamba by infants in Israel, peanut allergy is rare. A control group of Jewish children in the UK had ten times higher rates of allergy; the difference is not accounted for by differences in atopy, social class, genetic background, or peanut allergenicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Some school districts in the United States and elsewhere have banned peanuts. However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A recent study in Canada has shown that there is no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts than in schools allowing them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55hnmh
|
why does my cat retain the ability to bound at 30 mph and jump vertically 5ft if he sleeps all day?
|
[
{
"answer": "I assume your cat, like almost every cat, likes to jump up on things and tends to go bat-shit crazy in the middle of the night and run around like a maniac sometimes. This is its exercise. \n\nCompare that to a reasonably fit human that works out regularly - not a gym nut or anything but just a guy who works out like twice a week to stay healthy and fit. He'll probably work out for what, a couple of hours? And that won't be nonstop, it'll be in sets with frequent breaks. So in reality he spends less than 30 minutes actually exercising, and he does that twice a week. So less than an hour per week exercising and he's perfectly fine.\n\nTL:DR You only need to exercise a little to maintain your muscles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other animals don't need to \"work out\" to stay strong. Humans lose muscle because it helps us reduce calorie needs if we're not using those muscles. Hence why you can go 30 days or so without food and still survive (in decent conditions). Look at how strong gorillas are, they literally sit around all day just eating grass or whatever. They're not banging out push-ups on the side or anything. \n\nSource: some askscience thread I read a few months ago I think ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is evidence to show that it might be related to purring - they purr as a form of self healing and to keep their muscles toned: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They have explosive energy stores so they don't exercise heaps.\n\nThey exercise in short bursts throughout a 24 hour period.\n\nEg cat goes crazy at night and hunts during the day for like 20% and sleep the rest.\n\nEg2 my dog sleeps all day but will run around the yard when i let him out first thing in the morning. I take him for walks but it is as much for me as him.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Every species maintains a certain natural muscle mass. Obviously if you go to extremes you can either lose most of it (muscle atrofy, ever had your leg/arm in a cast for a few months?) or gain a lot more (like bodybuilders). The \"natural state\" is determined by our DNA.\n\nAs an example, look at these two animals:\n\nThe [Belgian Blue cattle](_URL_2_) maintains an enormous amount of muscle mass despite leading a rather stationery life. It was selectively bred for beef. The Belgian Blue has a mutation that prevents Myostatin from inhibiting muscle growth. Because of the amount of muscle it has, it devours extreme amounts of food but that's not a problem because humans feed it.\n\nThe [Gibbon](_URL_0_) maintains a relatively low muscle mass despite leading a rather active life. It's Myostatin is working just right - preventing excessive muscle growth when it's moving a lot.\n\nThe amount of muscle mass an animal has is in it's perfect ratio - enough to move, jump and do stuff but not too much, because it would have to eat a lot more. Muscle atrophy, on the other end, only occurs when there's hardly *any* movement, not just little movement.\n\nA great example of this is bodybuilding. You can lose a lot of muscle very quickly if you stop working out but at a certain point (the natural state of human muscles) that loss will stop as long as you walk around and do stuff. Only the excess is lost quickly. That's also why you can sit at a computer for 10 hours a day without atrophy. [This graph illustrates it.](_URL_1_)\n\nHumans have evolved to use our brains more than our muscles so our natural state is just enough to walk around and run for a few hundred meters at 10 km/h. Cats still rely on muscles a lot so their natural state is just enough to jump around and run fast.\n\nEDIT: Fixed link. EDIT2: Spelling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14103683",
"title": "High-rise syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Righting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "During a fall from a high place, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute sense of balance and its flexibility. This is known as the cat's \"righting reflex\". The minimum height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) would be around .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4395646",
"title": "Cat righting reflex",
"section": "Section::::Terminal velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "In addition to the righting reflex, cats have other features that reduce damage from a fall. Their small size, light bone structure, and thick fur decrease their terminal velocity. While falling, a cat spreads out its body to increase drag. An average-sized cat with its limbs extended achieves a terminal velocity of about , while an average-sized man reaches a terminal velocity of about . A 2003 study of feline high-rise syndrome found that cats 'orient [their] limbs horizontally after achieving maximum velocity so that the impact is more evenly distributed throughout the body'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Communication.:Body postures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fearful posture – The cat is lying on its belly or crouching directly on top of its paws. Its entire body may be shaking and very near the ground when standing up. Breathing is also fast, with its legs bent near the surface, and its tail curled and very close to its body when standing on all fours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11740250",
"title": "The Ignition Factor",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Controls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "The character is only capable of carrying five items (including the required red extinguisher/oxygen tank and mask) before their weight begins to affect his actions. While carrying five or six items, he is incapable of running or kicking but he will still walk at his normal speed. If he carries seven or more items not only can he not run or kick, his walking speed is drastically reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24764501",
"title": "The Shrinking Man",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "He has to survive on tiny scraps of food and bits of water. At one point he has to try and jump to reach a hanging spar of wood away—a leap whose distance seems over away to him. A cat goes after him when he is about tall. He is forced to engage in a victorious battle with a black widow spider that towers over him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Reflexes.:Righting reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The righting reflex is the attempt of cats to land on their feet at the completion of a jump or a fall. They can do this more easily than other animals due to their flexible spine, floating collar bone, and loose skin. Cats also use vision and their vestibular apparatus to help tell which way to turn. They then can stretch themselves out and relax their muscles. The righting reflex does not always result in the cat landing on its feet\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Communication.:Body postures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "BULLET::::- Anxious/ovulating posture – The cat is lying on its belly. The back of the body is more visibly lower than the front part when the cat is standing or moving. Its breathing may be fast, and its legs are tucked under its body. The tail is close to the body and may be curled forward (or close to the body when standing), with the tip of the tail moving up and down (or side to side).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37tihf
|
why don't we just use two or more different antibiotics, with different ingredients to kill off 100% of bacteria
|
[
{
"answer": "Well antibitoics don't all target the same things. But even if the did, it would be a terrible idea to try. Because if any of the bacteria live? They now have a resistance to all of those antibiotics, instead of just one or two.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We do. Antibiotic cocktails are quite common when resistance is suspected. But as /u/sablemint notes, any survivors - and there are likely to be some - then develop resistance more quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not trolling, but your question is too general. Bacteria exists in so many different places, inside your body and outside your body. Not all bacteria are harmful to humans, in fact some are beneficial. If you killed off all the bacteria in or on the human body, then fungus would take over the surface area inside and out, because bacteria are no longer present to compete for food. Then you would have a fungal infection and that can kill you as much as a bacterial infection. Here's a link to a 12 minute video that might help you out.\n _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simplest answer: most bacteria is in no way harmful to you. A decent amount is actually helpful. If we killed off all bacteria, we'd lose our ability to digest food (or at least make it a lot less comfortable)\n\nSo even if we could, it would be a very bad idea. In other news, most forms of radiation are also harmless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "425881",
"title": "Brucellosis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Antibiotics such as tetracyclines, rifampin, and the aminoglycosides streptomycin and gentamicin are effective against \"Brucella\" bacteria. However, the use of more than one antibiotic is needed for several weeks, because the bacteria incubate within cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9028799",
"title": "Bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with other organisms.:Pathogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilised to prevent contamination by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15464966",
"title": "Pathogenic bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. For example, the antibiotics chloramphenicol and tetracyclin inhibit the bacterial ribosome but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome, so they exhibit selective toxicity. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth. Both uses may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Phage therapy can also be used to treat certain bacterial infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38162533",
"title": "Antimicrobials in aquaculture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacterium allowing that bacterium to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2515404",
"title": "Production of antibiotics",
"section": "Section::::Identifying useful - antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Despite the wide variety of known antibiotics, less than 1% of antimicrobial agents have medical or commercial value. For example, whereas penicillin has a high therapeutic index as it does not generally affect human cells, this is not so for many antibiotics. Other antibiotics simply lack advantage over those already in use, or have no other practical applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38162533",
"title": "Antimicrobials in aquaculture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38156540",
"title": "Seafood mislabelling",
"section": "Section::::Antimicrobials in aquaculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ebayp
|
how do different sound waves of the same wavelengths carry a different timbre?
|
[
{
"answer": "The shape of the wave affects its sound, or timbre.\n\nThere are some examples [here](_URL_0_). (I don't think the instrument names next to the waves are correct... but it gives you the right idea.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a big difference between 'wavelength' and 'pitch'.\n\nAll sounds are made up of many pure sine waves overlaped on top of eachother. A pure sine wave is what you here when you strike a tuning fork. \n\nPitch means a note, like C# or D. Each note corresponds to a specific wavelength. But again, the sounds you hear in every day life are made of many of these wavelengths mixed together. \n\nSomething you perceive as a note with a specific pitch is a mixture dominated by a specific wavelength. But, there is still a whole mix of other wavelengths on top of that. That extra mixture is what makes a C# on a piano sound different than the same C# on a flute.\n\nA sound without a specific pitch, like a crashing wave, has a pretty much even mixture of all wavelengths. This is also know as 'white noise' as analogous to white light.\n\nTo carry the analogy further, light you see is a mixture of wavelengths of color. All images are a mixture of wavelengths in different positions just like all sounds are mixtures of wavelengths at different times. This is why a red truck looks different than a red apple; even though they have the same dominate 'tone'.\n\nIf you are interested in explinations which are math intensive and outside the scope of eli5, check out [Fourier Transforms](_URL_0_)\n\ntl;dr \"two sound waves of the same length\" cant carry different sounds, you need a mixture of many different wavelengths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Sound modality.:Pitch, loudness and timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Aside from pitch and loudness, another quality that distinguishes sound stimuli is timbre. Timbre allows us to hear the difference between two instruments that are playing at the same frequency and loudness, for example. When two simple tones are put together they create a complex tone. The simple tones of an instrument are called harmonics or overtones. Timbre is created by putting the harmonics together with the fundamental frequency (a sound's basic pitch). When a complex sound is heard, it causes different parts in the basilar membrane to become simultaneously stimulated and flex. In this way, different timbres can be distinguished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5442380",
"title": "Sensory cue",
"section": "Section::::Auditory Cues.:Principles of auditory cue grouping.:Similarity of timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Timbre is the tone quality or tone character of a sound, independent of pitch. This helps us distinguish between musical instruments playing the same notes. When hearing multiple sounds, the timbre of each sound will be unchanging (regardless of pitch), and thus we can differentiate between sounds from different sources over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77892",
"title": "Timbre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound have a different sound from another. For instance, it is the difference in sound between a guitar and a piano playing the same note at the same volume. Both instruments can sound equally tuned in relation to each other as they play the same note, and while playing at the same amplitude level each instrument will still sound distinctively with its own unique tone color. Experienced musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments of the same type based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same fundamental pitch and loudness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77892",
"title": "Timbre",
"section": "Section::::ASA definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The Acoustical Society of America (ASA) Acoustical Terminology definition 12.09 of timbre describes it as \"that attribute of auditory sensation which enables a listener to judge that two nonidentical sounds, similarly presented and having the same loudness and pitch, are dissimilar\", adding, \"Timbre depends primarily upon the frequency spectrum, although it also depends upon the sound pressure and the temporal characteristics of the sound\" .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29329",
"title": "Spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Spectrogram.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "A source of sound can have many different frequencies mixed. A Musical tone's timbre is characterized by its harmonic spectrum. Sound in our environment that we refer to as \"noise\" includes many different frequencies. When a sound signal contains a mixture of all audible frequencies, distributed equally over the audio spectrum, it is called white noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77892",
"title": "Timbre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In music, timbre ( , also known as tone color or tone quality from psychoacoustics) is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or tone. Timbre distinguishes different types of sound production, such as choir voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. It also enables listeners to distinguish different instruments in the same category (e.g., an oboe and a clarinet, both woodwind instruments). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Perception of sound.:Timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a fallen rock, the whir of a drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the quality of a voice) and represents the pre-conscious allocation of a sonic identity to a sound (e.g. “it’s an oboe!\"). This identity is based on information gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness, perceived pitch and the spread and intensity of overtones in the sound over an extended time frame. The way a sound changes over time (see figure 4) provides most of the information for timbre identification. Even though a small section of the wave form from each instrument looks very similar (see the expanded sections indicated by the orange arrows in figure 4), differences in changes over time between the clarinet and the piano are evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are the different noises heard, such as air hisses for the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ayhxa
|
Were torches used in medieval times as much as movies make us believe and what were they made out off?
|
[
{
"answer": "Were torches used as often as we see in movies?\n\nNo. Movies generally seem to show torches as the most common light source for medieval people, when in fact rushlights (reeds soaked in animal fat), tallow candles and simple oil lamps seem to have been much more common.\n\nWhat were torches made of?\n\nUsually a wooden handle (possibly with some metal fittings), some kind of fibre to act as a wick and oil or fat to serve as fuel (apparently some of them used other forms of fuel, like sulphur and pitch, which seems even less practical). The fibre is soaked in the fuel and either wrapped around the handle or stuffed inside, depending on the design.\n\nHow functional were they?\n\nBased on modern reconstructions, not very. They are heavier and more difficult to carry than other forms of lighting, they can't be conveniently put down on a flat surface as most alternatives can and the light they produce is very flickery and difficult to see by. The only benefit seems to be that they are fairly easy to make and less prone to being blown out than a rushlight, which is the other simple-to-manufacture medieval light source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060546",
"title": "Early thermal weapons",
"section": "Section::::Types of weapons.:Flaming arrows, bolts, spears and rockets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Lit torches (burning sticks) were likely the earliest form of incendiary device. They were followed by incendiary arrows, which were used throughout the ancient and medieval periods. The simplest flaming arrows had oil- or resin-soaked tows tied just below the arrowhead and were effective against wooden structures. Both the Assyrians and the Judeans used fire arrows at the siege of Lachish in 701 BC. More sophisticated devices were developed by the Romans which had iron boxes and tubes which were filled with incendiary substances and attached to arrows or spears. These arrows needed to be shot from loose bows, since swift flight extinguished the flame; spears could be launched by hand or throwing machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30051",
"title": "Torch",
"section": "Section::::Torch construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Torch construction has varied through history depending on the torch's purpose. Torches were usually constructed of a wooden stave with one end wrapped in a material which was soaked in a flammable substance. In ancient Rome some torches were made of sulfur mixed with lime. This meant that the fire would not diminish after being plunged into water. Modern procession torches are made from coarse hessian rolled into a tube and soaked in wax. A wooden handle is usually used, and a cardboard collar is attached to deflect any wax droplets. They are an easy, safe and relatively cheap way to hold a flame aloft in a parade or to provide illumination in any after-dark celebration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59700813",
"title": "Military history of the Song dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Gunpowder weapons.:Flamethrower.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "The flamethrower was a well known device by the 11th century when it was joked that Confucian scholars knew it better than the classics. Both gunpowder and the fierce fire oil were produced under the Arsenals Administration of the Song dynasty. In the early 12th century AD, Kang Yuzhi recorded his memories of military commanders testing out fierce oil fire on a small lakelet. They would spray it about on the opposite bank that represented the enemy camp. The flames would ignite into a sheet of flame, destroying the wooden fortifications, and even killing the water plants, fishes and turtles.In 1126 AD, Li Gang used flamethrowers in an attempt to prevent the Jurchens from crossing the Yellow River. Illustrations and descriptions of mobile flamethrowers on four-wheel push carts were documented in the \"Wujing Zongyao\", written in 1044 AD (its illustration redrawn in 1601 as well).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56941237",
"title": "Chinese siege weapons",
"section": "Section::::Incendiaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Prior to the introduction of gunpowder, fire arrows used mineral oil and sulphur as incendiaries. They were most commonly used by defenders to burn enemy siege engines such as ladders and rams. They were also used create fires in defending cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2211965",
"title": "Fire striker",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "From the Iron Age forward, until the invention of the friction match (ca. 1830), the use of flint and steel was a common method of firelighting. Percussion fire-starting was prevalent in Europe during ancient times, the Middle Ages and the Viking Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26905",
"title": "Siege",
"section": "Section::::Ancient era.:Tactics.:Offensive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The Byzantine Empire used Greek fire, which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive flamethrower, it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12063194",
"title": "History of gunpowder",
"section": "Section::::Early modern Europe.:Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Shot and gunpowder for military purposes were made by skilled military tradesmen, who were later called \"firemakers\", who were also required to make fireworks for celebrations of victory or peace. During the Renaissance two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nürnberg, Germany. The Italian school of pyrotechnics emphasized elaborate fireworks, the German school stressed scientific advancement. Both schools added significantly to the further development of pyrotechnics and, by the mid-17th century, fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe—being popular even at resorts and public gardens. At the same time some military men were disguising gray in their beards by dusting them with gunpowder, the antiquary John Aubrey noted in his memoranda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
900fcz
|
why do monotonous noises (like the sound of an alarm clock) begin to sound like it has two different pitches after hearing it for a while?
|
[
{
"answer": "i think that it may be because of our natural tendency to turn repetitive sounds into melodies. So a repetitive sound gets given different pitches by our brains. Its called the speech to song illusion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6799095",
"title": "Flicker noise",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In electronic devices, it shows up as a low-frequency phenomenon, as the higher frequencies are overshadowed by white noise from other sources. In oscillators, however, the low-frequency noise can be mixed up to frequencies close to the carrier, which results in oscillator phase noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Many types of noise exist in cells. First, there is intrinsic noise and extrinsic, or synaptic, noise. Within each category there are two further divisions of noise – voltage noise or temporal noise. Intrinsic voltage noise is due to random changes in the membrane potential of a cell, and intrinsic temporal noise is caused by variations in spike generation timing. The following sections give explanations about the causes of synaptic noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302693",
"title": "Illusory continuity of tones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The illusory continuity of tones is the auditory illusion caused when a tone is interrupted for a short time (approximately 50ms or less), during which a narrow band of noise is played. The noise does, however, have to be of a sufficiently high level to effectively mask the gap. Whether the tone is of constant, rising or decreasing pitch, the ear perceives the tone as continuous if the 50ms (or less) discontinuity is masked by noise. Because the human ear is very sensitive to sudden changes, however, it is necessary for the success of the illusion that the amplitude of the tone in the region of the discontinuity not decrease or increase too abruptly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Background activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13692152",
"title": "Dichotic pitch",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1355,
"text": "When continuous white noise (with a frequency content below about 2000 Hz) is presented by headphones to the left and right ear of a listener, and given a particular interaural phase relationship between the left and right ear signals, a sensation of pitch (psychophysics) may be observed. Thus, stimulation of either ear alone gives rise to the sensation of white noise only, but stimulation of both ears together produces pitch. Therefore, as a special case of dichotic listening, such a pitch is called dichotic pitch or binaural pitch. Generally, a dichotic pitch is perceived somewhere in the head amidst the noisy sound filling the binaural space. To be more specific, the dichotic pitch is characterized by three perceptual properties: pitch value, timbre, and in-head position (lateralization). Experiments on dichotic pitch were motivated in the context of the study of pitch in general, and of the binaural system in particular, relevant for sound localization and separation of competing sound sources (see cocktail party effect). In the past, various configurations of dichotic pitch were studied and several auditory models were developed. The great challenge for psychophysical and physiological acoustics is to predict both the pitch value and pitch-image position in one model. For more information, references, audio demos etc. see more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41549",
"title": "Phase noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "In signal processing, phase noise is the frequency-domain representation of random fluctuations in the phase of a waveform, corresponding to time-domain deviations from perfect periodicity (\"jitter\"). Generally speaking, radio-frequency engineers speak of the phase noise of an oscillator, whereas digital-system engineers work with the jitter of a clock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3474296",
"title": "Neuronal noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Neuronal noise or neural noise refers to the random intrinsic electrical fluctuations within neuronal networks. These fluctuations are not associated with encoding a response to internal or external stimuli and can be from one to two orders of magnitude. Most noise commonly occurs below a voltage-threshold that is needed for an action potential to occur, but sometimes it can be present in the form of an action potential; for example, stochastic oscillations in pacemaker neurons in suprachiasmatic nucleus are partially responsible for the organization of circadian rhythms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8h9hve
|
how come many fish were able to survive the great k–pg extinction, but pretty much no sea reptiles (mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, etc) were able to?
|
[
{
"answer": "It takes a LOT of food and a very balanced ecosystem to keep a giant alpha predator alive. If the food diminishes or the ecosystem shifts, alpha predators die out pretty easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another additional reason. Reptiles are dependent on the surface for air. Fish down deeper might have survived and later expanded and speciated to fill the missing niches near the surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44503418",
"title": "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "A wide range of species perished in the K–Pg extinction, the best-known being the non-avian dinosaurs. It also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms, including some mammals, pterosaurs, birds, lizards, insects, and plants. In the oceans, the K–Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards (Mosasauridae) and devastated fish, sharks, mollusks (especially ammonites, which became extinct), and many species of plankton. It is estimated that 75% or more of all species on Earth vanished. Yet the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities: in its wake, many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiation—sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches. Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene, evolving new forms such as horses, whales, bats, and primates. Birds, fish, and perhaps lizards also radiated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2221992",
"title": "Lystrosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Paleoecology.:Dominance of the Early Triassic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "BULLET::::- The most specialized and the largest animals are at higher risk in mass extinctions; this may explain why the unspecialized \"L. curvatus\" survived while the larger and more specialized \"L. maccaigi\" perished along with all the other large Permian herbivores and carnivores. Although \"Lystrosaurus\" generally looks adapted to feed on plants similar to \"Dicroidium\", which dominated the Early Triassic, the larger size of \"L. maccaigi\" may have forced it to rely on the larger members of the \"Glossopteris\" flora, which did not survive the end-Permian extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23948682",
"title": "Guizhouichthyosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Following the Permian-Triassic extinction event (also colloquially known as The Great Dying), the decline and disappearance of eugeneodonts and giant nautiloids left an environmental niche empty that many marine reptiles began to fill. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" was one of the largest marine vertebrates of the time, whose only predators composed of large macro-predatory Ichthyosaurs (that of which preferred to hunt smaller ichthyosaurs). The rise of the shelled cephalopods (ammonites that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event, along with the appearance of belemnites) gave ichthyosaurs an abundant food supply with little competition. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" and other ichthyosaurs began to adapt to hunting these cephalopods through larger eyes, and thick bodies, to handle the pressures of diving deep to hunt for their prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70144",
"title": "Cypriniformes",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Threats and extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Habitat destruction, damming of upland rivers, pollution, and in some cases overfishing for food or the pet trade have driven some Cypriniformes to the brink of extinction or even beyond. In particular, Cyprinidae of southwestern North America have been severely affected; a considerable number went entirely extinct after settlement by Europeans. For example, in 1900 the thicktail chub (\"Gila crassicauda\") was the most common freshwater fish found in California; 70 years later, not a single living individual existed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45249020",
"title": "Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 205,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 205,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sheehan and Fastovsky found terrestrial vertebrates to be the primary victims of the end Cretaceous extinction event, with 88% of their biodiversity lost. Freshwater vertebrates only lost 10% of their biodiversity across the boundary and the researchers found this divide in habitat preference to be the single greatest source of variation in survivorship rates among the taxa they studied. They observed that the better survival rates among aquatic tetrapods as opposed to terrestrial ones was consistent with the idea of an extensive period of darkness following an asteroid impact. This is due to aquatic ecosystems being less dependent on primary productivity than terrestrial ones because many aquatic tetrapods would be able to subsist on detritus and scavenged remains until photosynthesis resumed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305742",
"title": "Squamata",
"section": "Section::::Humans and squamates.:Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Though they survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, many squamate species are now endangered due to habitat loss, hunting and poaching, illegal wildlife trading, alien species being introduced to their habitats (which puts native creatures at risk through competition, disease, and predation), and other anthropogenic causes. Because of this, some squamate species have recently become extinct, with Africa having the most extinct species. However, breeding programs and wildlife parks are trying to save many endangered reptiles from extinction. Zoos, private hobbyists and breeders help educate people about the importance of snakes and lizards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2646789",
"title": "Procoptodon",
"section": "Section::::\"Procoptodon goliah\".:Possible factors for extinction.:Environmental factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "There is evidence that supports both of the claims that the extinction of \"P. goliah\" may have been due to climate shifts during the Pleistocene or to human hunting. \"P. goliah\", depending heavily on free-standing water, was more vulnerable to drought. This can explain why the red kangaroo survived the increasing aridity and \"Procoptodon goliah\" did not. However, there is also evidence that suggests that humans could have a significant influence in the extinction of \"P. goliah\". \"P. goliah's\" need for a constant free-standing source of water, plus its height and its common habitat in open shrub lands, made the \"P. goliah\" more noticeable to the human hunters, thus making it vulnerable to humans who were also water-bound like the \"Procoptodon\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2w5p7r
|
how do bank errors leaving customers with extra money happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have this saying: \"As long as humans are involved, there will be human error.\" \n \nSimple as that - someone at the bank done goofed. You are right - banks *do* have incredibly strict controls to prevent errors, but as long as human beings are punching keys and inputting information, there's going to be human error on occasion. \n \nI remember one time a customer called in to say that he noticed he had an extra $50,000 in his account, wondered where it came from. Did some digging around through our systems, and figured it out. A third party had walked into a branch to make a deposit into his friend's account, didn't have the account number handy so the teller looked it up by the account holder's name. Even though it was a fairly uncommon name, our bank had *two* customers with the same name. Guess where the money went? \n \nIt was an easy enough fix, and it did not cause any problems with the other customer, but it is still clearly a bank error. Very, very rare (I've seen it maybe twice), but it does happen. \n \nAnother more common error I see is \"check encoding errors\", where someone is manually typing in the information from the checks and types in some digits wrong - such as transposing two numbers, and the money ends up in the wrong account. I see that a few times a year. \n \nBasically, as long as human beings are part of the process of handling the transactions, there will be errors. The error rate is extremely low, but our bank processes several billion individual transactions each day, so a few creep into the system here and there. \n \n > Also- if you did withdraw and use the money completely, how is this against the law? \n \nWell, no, you can't keep it. In the terms and account agreements that you agree to when you open your account, there are disclaimers about bank errors. Pretty much every bank, credit union or financial institution will have a disclaimer about the bank's ability to make corrections, and that you would be responsible for returning any misapplied funds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2600081",
"title": "Direct debit",
"section": "Section::::Direct debit in different countries.:United Kingdom.:Fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "However, the problem is exacerbated by some of the banks themselves for failing to implement any controls which prevent companies or fraudsters taking monies from business and consumer accounts. The problem of cancelled and obsolete direct debits being wrongfully revived or re-implemented is estimated to cost UK consumers £385 million in 2010. For those customers who find out, it takes them on average four months to notice. Although no specific figures were collected it appears a substantial number of people lose considerable amounts of money annually because the obsolete direct debit is neither noticed nor recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2878852",
"title": "Financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Banking crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "When a bank suffers a sudden rush of withdrawals by depositors, this is called a \"bank run\". Since banks lend out most of the cash they receive in deposits (see fractional-reserve banking), it is difficult for them to quickly pay back all deposits if these are suddenly demanded, so a run renders the bank insolvent, causing customers to lose their deposits, to the extent that they are not covered by deposit insurance. An event in which bank runs are widespread is called a \"systemic banking crisis\" or \"banking panic\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1662004",
"title": "Deposit insurance",
"section": "Section::::Why it exists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Banks are allowed (and usually encouraged) to lend or invest most of the money deposited with them instead of safe-keeping the full amounts (see fractional-reserve banking). If many of a bank's borrowers fail to repay their loans when due, the bank's creditors, including its depositors, risk loss. Because they rely on customer deposits that can be withdrawn on little or no notice, banks in financial trouble are prone to bank runs, where depositors seek to withdraw funds quickly ahead of a possible bank insolvency. Because banking institution failures have the potential to trigger a broad spectrum of harmful events, including economic recessions, policy makers maintain deposit insurance schemes to protect depositors and to give them comfort that their funds are not at risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1322506",
"title": "Banking in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Interbank lending market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "During the course of every day, each bank executes a large number of transactions, such as payroll, retail and business purchases, credit card payments, etc. Some involve cash (or its equivalent) coming into the bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with a surplus in the interbank lending market. Depending on the bank's assessment of the type of shortfall and costs, the bank may take out an overnight loan, the interest rate of which is based on the cash rate, which is set by the Reserve Bank (RBA) every month (currently 1.25%); or else take out a \"short duration loan\", known as \"prime bank paper\", for a term of between one and six months and whose interest rate is called the \"bank bill swap rate\" (BBSW), which is set by the commercial banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608407",
"title": "Cashier's check",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "When cashier’s checks took weeks to clear the banks, they were often forged in fraud schemes. The recipient of the check would deposit it in their account and withdraw funds under next-day availability, assuming it was legitimate. The bank might not be informed the check was fraudulent until, perhaps, weeks after the customer had withdrawn funds made available by the fraudulent deposit, by which time the customer would be legally liable for the cash already withdrawn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46628",
"title": "Automated teller machine",
"section": "Section::::Reliability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "This said, not all errors are to the detriment of customers; there have been cases of machines giving out money without debiting the account, or giving out higher value notes as a result of incorrect denomination of banknote being loaded in the money cassettes. The result of receiving too much money may be influenced by the card holder agreement in place between the customer and the bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19587311",
"title": "Coin rolling scams",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "To prevent these problems, many banks will require people turning in coins to have an account, and will debit the customer's account in the event of a shorted roll. Some banks also have machines to count coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nhgjt
|
Did European explorers/settlers encounter any Native American urban centers in the in modern-day USA and Canada?
|
[
{
"answer": " > the Pueblo Indians had urban centers, but I'm not sure what happened to them\n\nMany are alive and well. Consider Acoma Pueblo and Taos Pueblo, both of which were founded around 1000 years ago and both currently home to between 4500 and 5000 people. Others didn't survive, such as Hawikuh - an old Zuni pueblo that was the first to encounter Coronado's *entrada*. It was one of the legendary Seven Cities of Cibola, which the Spanish believed to have reserves of gold to rival the Aztecs and the Inca (but were sorely disappointed when they actually arrived). The Spanish held it for a time, but eventually abandoned and has now become a ruin. Even at its peak, however, its population estimates are considerably lower that modern Acoma and Taos. But the Southwest isn't my area of expertise so I'll leave a more detailed discussion of that area to others.\n\nInstead, let's turn our attention east.\n\nWhile Coronado was marching through the Southwest, de Soto was [snaking his way through the Southeast](_URL_1_). Along the way, he encountered several prominent Mississippian polities. Among them were the Apalachee, which I'll get to in a moment, and Coosa. \n\n##**COOSA**\n\nTo discuss Coosa, I'm going to introduce you to two Muscogee terms (anglicized a bit for ease of reading): italwa (*etvlwv*) and talofa (*tvlofv*). An italwa is major political center and all its subsidiary elements (by extension, it also refers to a nation and its people). A talofa is town or city in the physical sense - its buildings and its boundaries. Coosa was both. \n\nAs an italwa, it was perhaps the most extensive in what's now the US at the time of European contact. It stretched some 400 miles long. If you refer back to the map, it bordered the Chiscas to the northeast, and its southwestern limit was Talisi (which the neighboring Atahachi italwa was trying to bring into its own sphere of influence as de Soto came through). It was a large and populous nation, with many large towns surrounded by extensive fields of maize and beans, stream-side vineyards, and plum orchards. It was the heir, and probably a direct continuation of, the older Etowah italwa (which is rather redundant actually, since the name \"Etowah\" is derived from *etvlwv* as well), which had been based nearby. I marked their locations on [GoogleMaps](_URL_2_) for you. The location of the Etowah talofa is clearly labeled, with the Coosa talofa is now submerged by a reservoir. \n\nSince I haven't been able to find a decent reconstruction of Coosa, I thought I'd show [this reconstruction](_URL_0_) of its predecessor. The reconstruction of the Etowah talofa gives you an idea, in general, of what Coosa talofa would have looked like when de Soto arrived, but the specifics would have been different of course. In particular, the Etowah reconstruction is much more sparsely populated than Coosa was (and likely more sparsely populated than Etowah actually was too). The population estimates for the Coosa talofa at the time of de Soto range from 2500 to 5000, with the population for the whole italwa at 50,000+. Like Etowah, Coosa had a plaza surrounded by three igan halwa (*ekunhvlwv*), or \"mounds\" if you want the more familiar term. It had at least two distinct districts. One for the common people, and another for the elites. The elite district was built later, at the same time the Etowah talofa was abandoned, which is why it appears that Coosa is the direct continuation of the Etowah italwa - it just moved its capital. Unlike Etowah, Coosa did not have elaborate defensive structures like the palisade walls or moat. When the italwa's capital moved, its leadership must have felt secure in their hegemony over the region and deemed such defenses unnecessary (this was not true for the up-and-coming Atahachi italwa to the southeast, where most of the talofa had defensive fortifications).\n\nThe micco (*mekko*, or \"chief\") of Coosa when de Soto arrived was described as an erudite and cultured man in his mid-20s. He had an air of sophistication about him that reminded the Spanish of the nobility of Europe. Despite his cooperation with the Spanish, he and many of the other high-ranking members of Coosa society were taken captive. This caused a panic in the talofa, as well as the neighboring talofa. The people fled, but the Spanish pursued and captured many of them. The micco negotiated the release of most of his people, but he, his sister, and a few of the prominent members of Coosa society remained captives and were forced to escort de Soto and his men through the remainder of the Coosa italwa. Once they reached Talisi, the micco and most of the other nobles were freed, but de Soto kept the micco's sister. Her fate is unknown, though she either escaped or, more likely, died at the Battle of Mabila that happened shortly thereafter.\n\nAfter de Soto, about a century goes by before there's additional European contact with Coosa. By this time, its power had waned considerably. It was no longer a great italwa stretching along the southern Appalachians. Instead, it had allied three other italwas in the area to form the Mother Towns of the Creek Confederacy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "520190",
"title": "New Albion",
"section": "Section::::Site recognition and identification.:Official recognition: United States National Historic Landmark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "This district, a nationally significant distinction, provides material evidence of one of the earliest instances of interaction between native people and European explorers on the west coast of what is now the United States of America. This distinction is based on the two historical encounters, Sir Francis Drake's 1579 California landing and the 1595 Manila galleon shipwreck, \"San Agustin\", which was commanded by Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010881",
"title": "Southern California Bight",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In 1513, there were an estimated 700,000 Native Americans living in the region making it the most populated area of North America. In 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo of Spain and his crew were the first European explorers to land on this coastal region in the present day San Diego Bay. The first permanent European settlers of the Southern California Bight led by Juan Pérez arrived in 1769 on the San Antonio. The Spanish government had planned a three-part occupation plan to check the Russian’s settlement in Alta California. The Chumash Indian tribe occupied the coastal region of Southern California for thousands of years prior to the arrival of international explorers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708307",
"title": "Chetco River",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The first European American to visit the area may have been Sir Francis Drake on June 5, 1579, during his circumnavigation of the world. The Vancouver Expedition also explored the area in 1792. In June 1828 Jedediah Smith and his company of fur traders camped on the south bank of the river near a Native American village. Between 1853 and 1855, many Native Americans were killed and their villages destroyed in skirmishes occurring around the same time as the nearby Rogue River Wars. On July 9, 1856, the remaining Chetco were marched north to the Siletz Reservation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178866",
"title": "Brockville",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Indigenous peoples lived along both sides of the Saint Lawrence River for thousands of years. The first people known to have encountered the Europeans in the area were the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, a group distinct from and preceding the Iroquois nations of the \"Haudenosaunee,\" based further to the south. While the explorer Cartier recorded about 200 words in their Laurentian language and the names of two villages, the people had disappeared from the area by the late 16th century. Anthropologists believe they may have been driven out or defeated by the powerful Mohawk people of the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee), who by then reserved the Saint Lawrence Valley as a hunting ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "96704",
"title": "Stewart County, Georgia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The first Europeans to encounter the Native Americans were Spanish explorers in the mid-16th century. At that time the historical Creek tribe inhabited the southern two thirds of what is now defined as Georgia, west of the Low Country. they are believed to be the descendants of the Mississippian culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46944291",
"title": "Skowhegan, Maine",
"section": "Section::::History.:First European Settlers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1399,
"text": "The first permanent European settlement of the area began in 1771. The first settlers of the region around Skowhegan were a small group of pioneers from southern Massachusetts who traveled by ship up the Kennebec River to the head of tide near Gardiner. From there, they made their way upriver on the eastern side to Winslow, in the area of Fort Halifax. There, any semblance of roads ended and it was necessary to follow rough trails (created by the indigenous inhabitants of the region) on the eastern bank of the river about twenty-five miles to their destination. Their first place of settlement was an island in the River of about nine acres in size that was part of the property acquired by Joseph Weston through the proprietary company known as Plymouth Company or Kennebec Proprietors, a Boston-based company seeking to settle the lands along the Kennebec River. Their initial claim was established through the purchase of a grant originally made to William Bradford in 1629 from the English monarch Charles I. The settlers arrived on an island two miles south of the Great Eddy of the Kennebec in the spring of 1771. The group consisted of two families, the Heywoods and the Westons. The Heywoods included Peter Heywood of Concord, his son Asa, and Isaac Smith, who lived with the Heywoods. The Westons included Peter Heywood's brother-in-law, Joseph Weston of Lancaster, and his son Eli. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93041",
"title": "Paulding County, Ohio",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The Ottawa tribe of Native Americans were the prevalent occupants of the region before Europeans arrived in North America following the 1492 expedition of Christopher Columbus. By 1750, however, there were Miamis, Prankaahaws, Delawares, Shawnee, Kickapoos, Muscounteres, Huron, Weas, Wyandotts and Mohawks .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45gr6y
|
why does light/sound propogate as a wave? why not a straight line?
|
[
{
"answer": "They both do propagate in a straight line just as a wave in the water does. A sound wave or water wave is a varying pressure, not space. And luckily google gave me the answer [from Reddit](_URL_0_) on what varies in a photon: \n\n > The wave is not the path that the photon takes. The wave is a representation of the electromagnetic field associated with that photon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It travels as both, sorta. \nSo there's only a little chance this will be actually understood by a five year old. \nLight (and all energy, therefor matter itself) travels as a probability. What's that really mean though? It means that when you aren't looking at something, there's a chance that it might not exist. For large objects, this chance of not existing is extremely, extremely small. For smaller quantum-level objects, this chance varies. For example, the electrons around a nucleus of an atom exist in certain formations based off which element we're talking about. [See this picture](_URL_1_). These \"areas\" are really just higher probability of the electron existing in that specific region. \nA good thought exercise on this is the ol' [Schrödinger's cat](_URL_0_) thought experiment. Essentially, the cat exists in all viable states (Alive and Dead) at the same time until it is actually observed. When it is observed, the wave function collapses into reality. This really makes no logical sense with something this size. Go down into the smaller level, and it is a very real (and scientifically proven) scenario. \nTake a gander at the [Double Slit Experiment](_URL_3_) for a great example. This [video](_URL_2_) is a good one. The summed up version of that is: Electrons fired through a slit would act as a wave when not being observed. When being observed, they acted like a particle. What really was happening was happening was that the light existed as a wave of probability until it was observed, which then caused it to collapse into a particle. \nThat's my basic understanding of the whole thing, so if any experts exist on there and want to provide some corrections to my answer, please do!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about it like this:\n \n . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . . \n\nThe dots are arranged in a line, yet they carry the information of a wave. When you put them at all angles of a sphere, they represent waves of pressure in 3D. I don't know if this analogy works for light, so keep that in mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "863741",
"title": "Light field",
"section": "Section::::The 4D light field.:Sound analog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "This two-dimensionality, compared with the apparent four-dimensionality of light, is because light travels in rays (0D at a point in time, 1D over time), while by Huygens–Fresnel principle, a sound wave front can be modeled as spherical waves (2D at a point in time, 3D over time): light moves in a single direction (2D of information), while sound simply expands in every direction. However, light travelling in non-vacuous media may scatter in a similar fashion, and the irreversibility or information lost in the scattering is discernible in the apparent loss of a system dimension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1387051",
"title": "SOFAR channel",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Sound propagates in the channel by refraction of sound, which makes sound travel near the depth of slowest speed. If a sound wave propagates away from this horizontal channel, the part of the wave furthest from the channel axis travels faster, so the wave turns back toward the channel axis. As a result, the sound waves trace a path that oscillates across the SOFAR channel axis. This principle is similar to long distance transmission of light in an optical fibre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sound wave diffraction is the bending of sound waves, as the sound travels around edges of geometric objects. This produces the effect of being able to hear even when the source is blocked by a solid object. The sound waves bend appreciably around the solid object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603",
"title": "Diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17939",
"title": "Light",
"section": "Section::::Historical theories about light, in chronological order.:Wave theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young). Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light, and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in \"Nova theoria lucis et colorum\" (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Acoustical diffraction near the Earth's surface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "In the case of sound waves travelling near the Earth's surface, the waves are diffracted or bent as they traverse by a geometric edge, such as a wall or building. This phenomenon leads to a very important practical effect: that we can hear \"around corners\". Because of the frequencies involved considerable amount of the sound energy (on the order of ten percent) actually travels into this would be sound \"shadow zone\". Visible light exhibits a similar effect, but, due to its much shorter wavelength, only a minute amount of light energy travels around a corner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33516",
"title": "Wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "In physics, mathematics, and related fields, a wave is a disturbance of a field in which a physical attribute oscillates repeatedly at each point or propagates from each point to neighboring points, or seems to move through space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kaii4
|
are there gradual forms of depression or is it purely binary?
|
[
{
"answer": "As someone who is very depressed, it's gradual. Never binary. You have good days, you have bad days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20529621",
"title": "History of depression",
"section": "Section::::20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "A half century ago, diagnosed depression was either endogenous (melancholic), considered a biological condition, or reactive (neurotic), a reaction to stressful events. Debate has persisted for most of the 20th century over whether a unitary or binary model of depression is a truer reflection of the syndrome; in the former, there is a continuum of depression ranked only by severity and the result of a \"psychobiological final common pathway\", whereas the latter conceptualizes a distinction between biological and reactive depressive syndromes. The publishing of DSM-III saw the unitarian model gain a more universal acceptance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51045418",
"title": "Self-blame (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Theories of Self-Blame.:Depression and self-blame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1479,
"text": "The hopelessness theory of depression proposes that depression is caused by two variables: attribution of negative events to stable and global causes, and other cognitive factors like low self-esteem (Krith, 2014). CSB attributes occurrence of events to stable aspects of the individual that are not controllable. CSB attributions seem likely to cause helplessness, since individuals believe they are powerless to control the characteristics that lead to negative events. On the other hand, BSB has an indeterminate effect under hopelessness theory, since BSB attributes events to behaviors that can be controlled to produce better outcomes. These theories of attributional style and stress and coping have similar predictions to Janoff-Bulman’s BSB/CSB distinction. Depression occurs when individuals feel that they cannot control the future. The CSB/BSB distinction also corresponds to Dweck’s distinction between ability and effort attributions. Effort attributions are when individuals assign success or failure to the hard work and other controllable factors, while ability attributions assign outcomes to internal, stable characteristics, like intelligence. Dweck noted that individuals that believe outcomes are uncontrollable are more likely to be debilitated by setbacks, procrastinate or avoid stressors, and show greater stress responses. In short, theorists believe that the type of cause to which events are attributed is a central factor of effectiveness of blame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13190302",
"title": "Evolutionary approaches to depression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders. Depression is generally thought of as dysfunction, but it is much more common than schizophrenia or autism, and its prevalence does not increase with age the way dementia and other organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may have evolutionary roots, in the same way that others suggest evolutionary contributions to schizophrenia, sickle cell anemia and other disorders. Psychology and psychiatry have not generally embraced evolutionary explanations for behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16407460",
"title": "Endogenous depression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Endogenous depression \"(melancholia)\" is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13190302",
"title": "Evolutionary approaches to depression",
"section": "Section::::Social risk hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1129,
"text": "As such, depression is seen to represent an adaptive, risk-averse response to the threat of exclusion from social relationships that would have had a critical impact on the survival and reproductive success of our ancestors. Multiple lines of evidence on the mechanisms and phenomenology of depression suggest that mild to moderate (or \"normative\") depressed states preserve an individual's inclusion in key social contexts via three intersecting features: a cognitive sensitivity to social risks and situations (e.g., \"depressive realism\"); it inhibits confident and competitive behaviours that are likely to put the individual at further risk of conflict or exclusion (as indicated by symptoms such as low self-esteem and social withdrawal); and it results in signalling behaviours directed toward significant others to elicit more of their support (e.g., the so-called \"cry for help\"). According to this view, the severe cases of depression captured by clinical diagnoses reflect the maladaptive, dysregulation of this mechanism, which may partly be due to the uncertainty and competitiveness of the modern, globalised world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10534087",
"title": "Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Indications.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Major depression can strike at virtually any time of life as a function of genetic and developmental pre-disposition in interaction with adverse life-events. Although common in the elderly, over the course of the last century, the average age for a first episode has fallen to ~30 years. However, depressive states (with subtly different characteristics) are now frequently identified in adolescents and even children. The differential diagnosis (and management) of depression in young populations requires considerable care and experience; for example, apparent depression in teenagers may later transpire to represent a prodromal phase of schizophrenia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Negative social life events.:Dependent versus independent events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The negative life events that lead to depression are often classified as dependent or independent, with dependent events being those an individual has some control over and independent events being those which are mostly due to unavoidable chance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fa95vx
|
why is it that it's possible to shake a cup with a bunch of dice in it to the point that they can all stack on top of each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not just being shaken randomly. If you'll note, the predominant motion is a circular swinging. What they're doing is forcing the dice to the edge of the cup and getting them to swirl around. If done right, that forces the dice to assume a vertical stack inside the cup. It takes practice of course, but it's no more magic than any physical trick like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "726508",
"title": "Liar's dice",
"section": "Section::::Single hand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Each round, each player rolls a \"hand\" of dice under their cup and looks at their hand while keeping it concealed from the other players. The first player begins bidding, announcing any face value and the minimum number of dice that the player believes are showing that value, under all of the cups in the game. Ones are often wild, always counting as the face of the current bid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1799177",
"title": "Tilt (poker)",
"section": "Section::::Advice when tilted.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "One commonly suggested way to fight tilt is to disregard the outcomes of pots, particularly those that are statistically uncommon. So-called “bad beats,” when one puts a lot of chips in the pot with the best hand and still loses, deserve little thought; they are the product of variance, not bad strategy. This mindset calls for the player to understand poker is a game of decisions and correct play in making the right bets over a long period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8763022",
"title": "Dice stacking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Dice stacking is a performance art, akin to juggling or sleight-of-hand, in which the performer scoops dice off a flat surface with a dice cup and then sets the cup down while moving it in a pattern that stacks the dice into a vertical column via centripetal force and inertia. Various dice arrangements, colors of dice, scooping patterns and props allow for many degrees of complexity and difficulty. Dice stacking is usually performed with canceled casino dice, as their square edges and heavy weight give them an advantage when being stacked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6062",
"title": "Craps",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Dice setting or dice control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Another approach is to \"set\" the dice in a particular orientation, and then throw them in such a manner that they do not tumble randomly. The theory is that given exactly the same throw from exactly the same starting configuration, the dice will tumble in the same way and therefore show the same or similar values every time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312836",
"title": "Cups and balls",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The cups and balls is a performance of magic with innumerable adaptations. A typical cups and balls routine includes many of the most fundamental effects of magic: the balls can vanish, appear, transpose, reappear and transform. Basic skills, such as misdirection, manual dexterity, sleight of hand, and audience management are also essential to most cups and balls routines. As a result, mastery of the cups and balls is considered by many as the litmus test of a good magician. Magician John Mulholland wrote that Harry Houdini had expressed the opinion that no one could be considered an accomplished magician until he had mastered the cups and balls. Professor Hoffman called the cups and balls \"the groundwork of all legerdemain\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2389589",
"title": "Card throwing",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Forceful throws will usually spiral somewhat on the way to the target when thrown at long distance, since most cards are not perfectly flat. With a given deck, the bend of the cards are usually similar enough to each other that this spiral is easily predictable, and a practiced magician can hit very small targets even at many yards away. It is also possible to throw a card very flat at lower speeds to get the card to land in or on top of something.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5942562",
"title": "Poker dice",
"section": "Section::::As a game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The classic poker dice game is played with 5 dice and two or more players. Each player has a total of 3 rolls and the ability to hold dice in between rolls. After the three rolls the best hand wins. Neither a \"flush\" nor a \"straight flush\" is a possible hand, due to the lack of suits on the dice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eofhe
|
how come putin has the same power in russia now as a prime minister as he had as a president?
|
[
{
"answer": "Vladimir Putin *is* the President of Russia. Has been since 2012. Before that he was Prime Minister. Before *that*, he was President. \n\nIt is fairly accepted that he was still running things when he was Prime Minister, though and that the president at the time (Dmitry Medvedev) was merely his puppet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being prime minister was a dodge to avoid term limits. The acting president intentionally let Putin make the decisions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because he's only there because Putin put him there. If he wasn't willing to let Putin make the decisions, Putin would have chosen someone else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3162905",
"title": "Dmitry Medvedev",
"section": "Section::::2008 presidential elections.:Election campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "In his first speech after being endorsed, Medvedev announced that, as president, he would appoint Vladimir Putin to the post of prime minister to head the Russian government. Although constitutionally barred from a third consecutive presidential term, such a role would allow Putin to continue as an influential figure in Russian politics. Putin pledged that he would accept the position of prime minister should Medvedev be elected president. Although Putin had pledged not to change the distribution of authority between the president and prime minister, many analysts expected a shift in the center of power from the presidency to the prime minister post when Putin assumed the latter under a Medvedev presidency. Election posters portrayed the pair side-by-side with the slogan \"Together We Win\" (\"\"). Medvedev vowed to work closely with Putin once elected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52630",
"title": "History of Russia (1991–present)",
"section": "Section::::Vladimir Putin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Putin was barred from a third term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. In a power-switching operation on 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32817",
"title": "Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Political career.:2008–2012: Second premiership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Putin was barred from a third consecutive term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. In a power-switching operation on 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45164781",
"title": "Tandemocracy",
"section": "Section::::Opinion: Putin is in charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "On February 1, 2009, an analytical piece in \"The International Herald Tribune\" said: \"Putin is still considered Russia's paramount leader, but by taking the title of prime minister, he may have deprived himself of a fall-guy-in-waiting. That role traditionally has gone to Russia's prime ministers; Yeltsin repeatedly dismissed his during the 1998 default. So far, Putin has instead made a scapegoat of the United States, saying it was at the heart of Russia's crisis, rather than Moscow's over-reliance on the export of natural resources.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223104",
"title": "2008 Russian presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In his first speech since he was endorsed, Medvedev announced that, as president, he would appoint Vladimir Putin to the post of prime minister to head the Russian government. Although constitutionally barred from a third consecutive presidential term, such a role would allow Putin to continue as an influential figure in Russian politics Putin pledged that he would accept the position of prime minister should Medvedev be elected president. Election posters portrayed the pair side-by-side with the slogan \"Together we will win\" (\"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3162905",
"title": "Dmitry Medvedev",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (2008–12).:Relationship with Putin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Although the Russian constitution clearly apportions the majority of power to the President, speculation arose over the question of whether it was Medvedev or Prime Minister Vladimir Putin who actually wielded the most power. According to \"The Daily Telegraph\", \"Kremlin-watchers\" note that Medvedev uses the more formal form of 'you' (Вы, 'vy') when addressing Putin, while Putin addresses Medvedev with the less formal 'ty' (ты).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40848178",
"title": "Political career of Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Second Premiership (2008–2012).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Putin was barred from a third term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. On 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lqbiu
|
What was the military organization, equipment, and tactics of Carthage like during the Punic Wars?
|
[
{
"answer": "In large part, the Carthaginian armies during the first Punic War were largely composed of mercenary troops from a variety of different areas under the control of Carthage (think North Africa, Spain and southern Gaul). \n\nDuring this period, the command was generally along the lines of the Romans - upper class members who could afford the armour and weapons with ~~the King~~ senior general (Roman = consul) in overall command. ~~This changed in the 2nd and subsequent wars when a more professional command structure was instituted (ala Hannibal)~~\n\nIn the 2nd Punic War, the makeup of the forces lent more heavily on a formal African contingent made up primarily of heavy infantry spearman - think Greek Phalanx based and you won't be too far off the mark - with Phoenician/Spanish swordsman and then irregulars based around Gaulish troops.\n\nCavalry were where the Carthaginians had it over the Romans as their javelin equipped Nubians were considered the best in the world at the time.\n\nThe general tactics were for the Numidians to ride up to the Roman lines and conduct fast skirmishes to break up the Roman ranks. These were then followed up by the heavy cavalry (mainly Libyan/Phoenician) who drove into the Roman infantry. Into this hole was then marched the heavy spear equipped infantry supported by sword wielding heavy infantry and the lesser equipped lighter Gaulish irregulars.\n\nElephants also formed a basis for \"shock troops\" and would generally be used on the flanks and/or on the front with infantry in support.\n\nThere is a good book on Scribd that goes into much more detail on the make up of forces during the Punic Wars. You can find it [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question on this topic: I read in [I think it was] \"Carthage Must be Destroyed\" that the elephants Hannibal used were a now extinct breed of Moroccan elephant, which was actually quite small (size of a camel). \n\nI had never heard of this and still skeptical. Does anyone know whether this is true or that if it was indeed the huge African elephants?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6778622",
"title": "Military of Carthage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 535,
"text": "Carthage's military battled the Greeks over control of the island of Sicily. These encounters influenced the development of the Carthaginians' weapons and tactics, causing Carthage to adopt the Greek-style hoplite soldier fighting in the phalanx formation. However, the Carthaginian war machine faced its biggest challenge in the military of the Roman Republic during the Punic Wars. While Carthage was finally defeated by Rome in 146 BC, its military achieved notable success under the command of Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6778622",
"title": "Military of Carthage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 566,
"text": "The military of Carthage was one of the largest military forces in the ancient world. Although Carthage's navy was always its main military force, the army acquired a key role in the spread of Carthaginian power over the native peoples of northern Africa and southern Iberian Peninsula from the 6th century BC and the 3rd century BC. Carthage's military also allowed it to expand into Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. This expansion transformed the military from a body of citizen-soldiers into a multinational force composed primarily of foreign mercenary units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455379",
"title": "Hellenistic period",
"section": "Section::::Other states and Hellenistic influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Carthage was a Phoenician colony on the coast of Tunisia. Carthaginian culture came into contact with the Greeks through Punic colonies in Sicily and through their widespread Mediterranean trade network. While the Carthaginians retained their Punic culture and language, they did adopt some Hellenistic ways, one of the most prominent of which was their military practices. In 550 BC, Mago I of Carthage began a series of military reforms which included copying the army of Timoleon, Tyrant of Syracuse. The core of Carthage's military was the Greek-style phalanx formed by citizen hoplite spearmen who had been conscripted into service, though their armies also included large numbers of mercenaries. After their defeat in the First Punic War, Carthage hired a Spartan mercenary captain, Xanthippus of Carthage, to reform their military forces. Xanthippus reformed the Carthaginian military along Macedonian army lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4043136",
"title": "La Marsa",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "BULLET::::- For much of its history, Carthage was in a constant state of struggle with the Greeks on Sicily and the Roman Republic, which led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars and Punic Wars. They also had to deal with the volatile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the entire area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed and then occupied by Roman forces. Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies fell into Roman hands from then on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20663625",
"title": "Ancient Carthage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile terms with the Greeks in Sicily and with the Roman Republic; tensions led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars (–265 BC) and the Punic Wars (264–146 BC) respectively. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed Carthage then redesigned and occupied the site of the city. Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36113870",
"title": "History of Málaga",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and antiquity.:Greek Mainake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Carthage created its hegemony in part to resist Greek encroachments in the Phoenician sphere of influence. The Phoenicians initially (750–650 BC) did not resist the Greeks, but after the Greeks had reached Iberia sometime later than 638 BC, Carthage emerged as the leader of the Phoenician resistance. During the 6th century BC, mostly under the leadership of the Magonid dynasty, Carthage established an empire which would commercially dominate the western Mediterranean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24417",
"title": "Punic Wars",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "During the mid-3rd century BC, Carthage was a large city located on the coast of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in the mid-9th century BC, it was a powerful thalassocratic city-state with a vast commercial network. Of the great city-states in the western Mediterranean, only Rome rivaled it in power, wealth, and population. While Carthage's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time, it did not maintain a large, permanent, standing army. Instead, Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries, especially the indigenous Numidians, to fight its wars. These mercenaries were primarily led by officers who were Carthaginian citizens. The Carthaginians were famed for their abilities as sailors, and many Carthaginians from the lower classes served in their navy, which provided them with a stable income and career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o7nee
|
what are you supposed to do when an emergency vehicle passes you on the opposite side of the road?
|
[
{
"answer": "If there is a physical obstruction in the median (for example trees, bushes, dirt etc.) then you do not need to do anything but if it is just yellow lines or there is a big enough opening for them to cross onto your side of the road then you should pull over until they pass.\n\nThis is so that if for example traffic is heavy on the other side of the road they can cross over to your side or if the street entrance they have to go into would normally be blocked on their side of the road to get where they need to go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Move over America](_URL_0_) has the state by state laws. You know, for when you turn 15 and start working toward your licence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "860027",
"title": "Emergency vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Depending on local laws, vehicles on the road may be required to yield the right of way to emergency responders who are using their warning devices. For example, in Utah, when an emergency vehicle is on the road while using its warning devices, all cars are required to pull over to the side of the road, stop, and wait for the vehicle to pass before resuming normal driving, unless doing so would cause an accident or if stopped at a red light/stop sign. Even in areas where no such laws exist, many motorists may allow the vehicle to pass as a matter of courtesy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21916015",
"title": "Move over law",
"section": "Section::::In Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In Canada, move over laws require motorists, upon noticing an incoming emergency vehicle (coming from any direction) with sirens or flashing lights operating, to move to the shoulder and stop, until the vehicle has passed the vicinity. This gives emergency vehicles a clear roadway for responding to emergencies, encouraging the fast response of emergency vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5411373",
"title": "Illinois State Police",
"section": "Section::::Scott’s Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 380,
"text": " right-of-way and shall immediately drive to a position parallel to, and as close as possible to, the right-hand edge or curb of the highway clear of any intersection and shall, if necessary to permit the safe passage of the emergency vehicle, stop and remain in such position until the authorized emergency vehicle has passed, unless otherwise directed by a police officer and\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430646",
"title": "Traffic stop",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Similar alerting devices are also typically equipped on other emergency vehicles such as fire trucks and ambulances, although police departments often use blue lights to signal drivers to pull over. In all cases, such signals and the laws requiring that other vehicles pull to the shoulder allow the emergency vehicles to pass other traffic safely and efficiently when responding to emergency situations. In the case of a traffic stop, the officer pulls the patrol vehicle behind the subject vehicle as it stops instead of proceeding past as he or she would during other emergency responses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "870957",
"title": "Single-track road",
"section": "Section::::User etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "In Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if a driver were to see an oncoming vehicle in the distance and was reasonably close to a passing place, the driver would flash the headlights which would signal the other car to proceed forward while either the other vehicle reversed back to a passing place, or waited beside a passing place for the other car to arrive. In the United States, it is customary to move the right hand to the top of the steering wheel, palm down, and raise four fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50984053",
"title": "Tesla Autopilot",
"section": "Section::::Driving features.:Safety features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The Autopilot can detect a potential front or side collision with another vehicle, bicycle or pedestrian within a distance of , if one is found it sounds a warning. Autopilot has automatic emergency braking that detects objects that may hit the car and applies the brakes. The car may also automatically swerve out of the way to prevent fast moving collisions. Autopilot also can automatically adjust the high/low beam headlights as the nighttime lighting changes or if a car is detected in the high beams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43081",
"title": "Traffic",
"section": "Section::::Rules of the road.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "As a general rule, drivers are expected to avoid a collision with another vehicle and pedestrians, regardless of whether or not the applicable rules of the road allow them to be where they happen to be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9iywvj
|
what is a generator in electricity?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's like an *electron pump* that pushes electrons away from one end and toward the other end. This creates a *voltage* (electric pressure) which is then used to power the flow of electricity through wires and other things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I majored in physics and it sounds like these answers are dancing around what is causing the current. \n\nFirst you need a wire. This supplies the electrons that will become a current. In order to make them move you need to have a moving magnetic field. A generator simply uses some fuel to turn a magnet. If the wire (electrons specifically inside the wire) is coiled and inside a continually changing magnetic field it creates an emf (or electromagnetic feild). And bam. Electricity.\n\nThese forces are always tethered. Moving charged partials will in turn create magnetic fields. Hope this helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "82330",
"title": "Electric generator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13764124",
"title": "Electric machine",
"section": "Section::::Generator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical energy, the , may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13764124",
"title": "Electric machine",
"section": "Section::::Generator.:DC generator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. An electric generator works based on the principle that whenever conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf is induced which will cause the current to flow if conductor circuit is closed. Take the working of simple loop Generator as an example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10457720",
"title": "Engine-generator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "An engine-generator or portable generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an \"engine-generator set\" or a \"gen-set\". In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the combined unit is simply called a \"generator\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10457720",
"title": "Engine-generator",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Engine-generators are used to provide electrical power in areas where utility (central station) electricity is unavailable, or where electricity is only needed temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to provide electricity to power tools at construction sites. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12185896",
"title": "Vibration-powered generator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "A vibration powered generator is a type of electric generator that converts the kinetic energy from vibration into electrical energy. The vibration may be from sound pressure waves or other ambient sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246533",
"title": "Small hydro",
"section": "Section::::Generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height for the water to fall, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a pipe into a turbine. The water flowing through the turbine causes a electrical generator to rotate, converting the motion into electrical energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6jc1bw
|
why are media companies so obsessive about pirating movies or music online, when just a few years ago people would record movies off of tv or music from the radio and it wasn't a big deal?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were making a big deal about it then, that's why they would put in warnings and videos about piracy, but they had to crackdown harder on internet privacy because the ease of it caused piracy numbers to skyrocket creating a bigger problem",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back in the 70's and 80' a small portion of every cassette tape went to the music industry. I'm not sure about VHS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935619",
"title": "Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "Rather than destroying film studios, videotape sales became increasingly important to their revenue. The press discussed the VCR \"and the viewing habits it has engendered — the Saturday night trip down to the tape rental store to pick out for a couple of bucks the movie you want to see when you want to see it\". Film studios opened new divisions to produce prerecorded tapes, and by 1985 their sales were about the same as box office revenue; the Associated Press reported that \"because of the VCR, even a bad movie can make money\". Although the VCR received blame for a 25% decline in the summer 1985 box office compared to 1984's, and closing movie theaters, by 1987 it was credited with causing a record-high box office, as videotapes' popularity encouraged consumers' interest in films and watching them in theaters. Cable movie channels worried about VCRs affecting subscriptions, but began to offer more films for owners who wanted to build a home library, even encouraging time shifting by broadcasting the movies during the night so VCRs could record them while their owners slept.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783",
"title": "History of film",
"section": "Section::::1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching films on their home [[VCR]]s. In the early part of that decade, the [[film studio]]s tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of [[copyright]], which proved unsuccessful. Eventually, the sale and rental of films on [[home video]] became a significant \"second venue\" for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the film industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38798790",
"title": "Mass amateurization",
"section": "Section::::History.:Videography/film-making.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "A fall in the cost of consumer video recording technology in the early 1980s meant that amateurs were now free to make their own films at home. In \"Convergence Culture\", Henry Jenkins examines how a fall in the cost of video recording technology led to the rise of amateur films, particularly fan film. Fan films mentioned by Jenkins include \"Kid Wars\", \"The Jedi Who Loved Me\", and \"Boba Fett: Bounty Trail\". While discussing the Star Wars prequels filmmaker George Lucas once referenced mass amateurization by stating \"Some of the special effects that we redid for \"Star Wars\" were done on a Macintosh, on a laptop, in a couple of hours... I could have very easily shot the Young Indy TV series on Hi-8...So you can get a Hi-8 camera for a few thousand bucks, more for the software and the computer for less than $10,000 you have a movie studio.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3651239",
"title": "Re-edited film",
"section": "Section::::History of manual re-editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "At the end of the 1990s, some small companies began selling copies of movies, without the violent, indecent or foul language parts, to appeal to the family audience. By 2003, Hollywood reacted against these unauthorized modifications, as it considered them to be a destruction of the filmmakers work, and a violation of the controls an author has over his or her works. Famous directors and producers, such as Steven Spielberg, have publicly criticized this practice in magazines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3526949",
"title": "Cam (bootleg)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Around the start of the millennium, many first time camera recordings originated from Malaysia, recognizable by the burn-in Malay subtitles. VCDs often appeared 2 to 3 days before the theatrical release. In some cases, they were even available online 3 months before release. Robert Krulwich sees two possibilities as the main reason for such early availability of these illicit recordings. Someone in Hollywood shows movies a couple of days before they show them in America, or some people get prints sent to them from people in the Californian movie business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28389435",
"title": "Pink Floyd bootleg recordings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "During the 1970s, bands such as Pink Floyd created a lucrative market for the mass production of unofficial recordings with large followings of fans willing to purchase them. In addition, the huge crowds that turned up to these concerts made the effective policing of the audience for the presence of recording equipment virtually impossible. Vast numbers of recordings were issued for profit by bootleg labels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935619",
"title": "Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In 1989 Sony purchased Columbia Pictures and became owner of its own Hollywood studio. By 1995 more than half of Hollywood's American revenue came from home video compared to less than a quarter from movie theaters. \"Forbes\" wrote in 2001 that the VCR was no longer \"arguably believed to be the death knell of the movie business. Instead it became arguably its savior\" because consumers much preferred buying or renting films to recording their own onto blank tapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d0ls1
|
Were there any devout Christians among the Nazis who participated in the Holocaust? How did they come to terms with the things they had done? How did they justify their actions in front of the altar of God?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not sure if this would be considered devout. Josef Tizo was a Catholic priest and also one of the leaders of the Slovaks Peoples Party a Clerical-Fascist party that was installed in power during WW2. It was also founded by another Catholic priest Andrej Hlinka, for which their paramilitary, the Hlinka Guard was named.\n\nThe party ruled from 1939-1945, pretty much the duration of the war. And its record is not pretty. The party not only acquiesced to every single Nazi request, but participated enthusiastically. This included the \"Final Solution\", the party actively used the state to find and deport Slovakia's Jews to the Polish death and concentration camps in 1942. This was on top of variations of the Nuremburg Laws (The Jewish Code as known locally) that had been enacted in 1941. \n\nThe leadership of the Catholic church was supportive initially, an apostolic blessing from Pope Pius XII was given to President Tiso after his ascension. They were not so pleased as the antisemitic nature of the clerical-fascist regime took hold. In general, Tiso was supported by large numbers of ordinary Catholic priests and deplored by the bishops and the Vatican itself. Though there are lots of exceptions, such as Bishop Jan Vojtaššák, who thoroughly supported Tiso and the persecution of the Jews.\n\nWhile opposed by the Church, the Vatican made no effort to excommunicate or restrict Tiso (or his prime minister, also a Catholic priest). \n\nAfter the war, Tiso would be tracked down and arrested by the American occupying forces and handed over to a judicial tribunal in Czechoslovakia the Americans had organized. This was prior to the takeover by the Communists. Tiso was condemned to death and executed in 1947 for his crimes against Slovakia's citizens, including Jews. \n\nIn 1995, the Catholic Church did a good job of offending Jews when Pope John Paul II proposed beautifying previously mentioned Tiso supporter Bishop Jan Vojtaššák for his opposition to the Communist state. Despite that Jan Vojtaššák had not found a persecution of Jews he could not support.\n\nSome Sources:\nDr. Pavol Mest’an, Slovak historian, director of Museum of Jewish Culture of Bratislava\n\nThe Vatican, the Catholic Church, the Catholics and the Persecution of the Jews during World War II: The Case of Slovakia in Jews and non-Jews in Eastern Europe by Yeshajahu Jelinek, University of Minnesota, 1974 (at the time, he jumped back to Israel's Hebrew University after his stint in Minnesota)\n\nThere is another book specifically on Slovakian Jews was contributed to by Yeshajahu Jelinek, The Tragedy of the Jews of Slovakia: 1938-1945 Slovakia and the Final Solution of the Jewish Question, published in 2002 I have yet to read. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42399463",
"title": "Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "During the Holocaust, the Roman Catholic Church played a role in the rescue of hundreds of thousands of Jews from being murdered by the Nazis. Members of the Church, through lobbying of Axis officials, provision of false documents, and the hiding of people in monasteries, convents, schools, among families and the institutions of the Vatican itself, saved hundreds of thousands of Jews. The Israeli diplomat and historian Pinchas Lapide estimated the figure at between 700,000 and 860,000, although the figure is contested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40676800",
"title": "Catholic resistance to Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Catholic resistance to the Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "The Catholic Church resisted the Holocaust by rejecting the racial ideology underpinning the mass exterminations; making public pronouncements against racial persecutions; and by lobbying officials, providing false documents, and hiding people in monasteries, convents, schools, among families and the institutions of the Vatican itself, leading many leading Jews to offer thanks to the Roman Church at the completion of the war. In every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews. Catholic historian Michael Phayer wrote that \"Rescuers and perpetrators were but a slight minority of Europe's Catholic population.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6728",
"title": "Antisemitism in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Nazi antisemitism.:Opposition to the Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "By the 1940s fewer Christians were willing to oppose Nazi policy publicly, but many secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, dedicated to honoring these \"Righteous Among the Nations\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31337022",
"title": "Six Million Crucifixions",
"section": "Section::::Main Themes.:The consequences of anti-Jewish teachings in Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "\"Six Million Crucifixions\" makes the point that even though not all Christians during the Nazi period were actively antisemitic, most were at a minimum passive bystanders during the persecution and extermination of Jews during the Holocaust. As Father John T. Pawlikowski, Director of the Catholic-Jewish Studies Program at Catholic Theological Union in Chicago stated, \"(Christianity) provided a seedbed—at least for acquiesence during the attacks on Jews.\" Wilensky notes that even though many Christians may have disagreed with extermination as a means of solving the so-called \"Jewish Question\", they were passive bystanders precisely because as inheritors of centuries of anti-Jewish teachings they felt the Jews were guilty of a number of crimes and thus deserving of punishment, or that there was indeed a need to act that way in self-defense against what they perceived to be a Jewish threat. As the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops explained, \"Christian anti-Judaism did lay the groundwork for racial, genocidal anti-semitism by stigmatizing not only Judaism but Jews themselves for opprobrium and contempt.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23001171",
"title": "Christianity in the 20th century",
"section": "Section::::Role under authoritarianism.:Catholics and Protestants under the Third Reich.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of antisemitism, and they accused Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Prominent members of the Jewish community, including Golda Meir, Albert Einstein, Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews, while others such as rabbi David G. Dalin noted that \"hundreds of thousands\" of Jews were saved by the Church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13268070",
"title": "Nes Ammim",
"section": "Section::::Aims of the movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- To learn about the origins of Christian faith by studying Jewish tradition. A starting point is the shocking realization: that the Nazi Holocaust directed against the Jews was facilitated by a centuries-long negative image of Jews and Judaism, promoted by numerous church leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "442272",
"title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
"section": "Section::::Baptism for the dead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "In late 2002, information surfaced that members of the church had not stopped the practice of baptizing Jewish Holocaust victims despite directives from the church leadership. Criticism once again arose from Jewish groups. The Los Angeles-based Simon Wiesenthal Center is on record as opposing the vicarious baptism of Holocaust victims. Rabbi Marvin Hier of the center stated, \"If these people did not contact the Mormons themselves, the adage should be: Don't call me, I'll call you. With the greatest of respect to them, we do not think they are the exclusive arbitrators of who is saved.\" Recently, church leaders have agreed to meet with leaders of the \"World Gathering of Jewish Holocaust Survivors\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42iokp
|
many american football players have brain diseases in their old age because they have so many concussions during their career. why don't rugby players, who don't wear helmets, have this problem?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because American Football players wear helmets and protective armor, they regularly crash into each other way more violently than rugby players would, leading to the apparently paradoxical effect that football players' \"protection\" actually make the sport more dangerous. \n\nIn a similar case, the introduction of soft, cushy gloves in boxing has lead to significantly more deaths in boxing matches, since boxers were now able to hit their opponent's head with great force without breaking their own hands.",
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"answer": "They do have the same problem. But the research was done on football players so that's what we're talking about. ",
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{
"answer": "I used to wonder this as well until I started watching rugby. When they \"tackle\" each other to the ground it's more like an aggressive wrestle. ",
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{
"answer": "I work in big time college football and \"rugby tackling\" is so hot right now. Pete Carroll of the Seahawks has been teaching this for as long as I can remember (here's a video if anyone is interested _URL_1_). \n\nLike others have state here the hard helmet and facemask give the player the illusion that they are protected. Vicis is a new company with a soft helmet that is trying to keep the helmet (and violence of the game that's so popular) and increase the safety of the player (here's their website with a fantastic promo if anyone is interested _URL_0_).",
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"answer": "It's all about the tackling and how they are trained to tackle. Far less head injuries in rugby",
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"answer": "I was curious if there had been any studies done on concussions in rugby. Here are some articles that actually compare football to rugby.\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\ntl;dr: concussions are very common in rugby, at a comparable rate to the NFL. Also, never race horses.\n\n*edit: missed \"rate\" in the last line",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[Risk Compensation](_URL_0_) \n\nBasically people will take more risks if they feel safer, or less risk if they feel more vulnerable.",
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"answer": "There are a few reasons, many of which are covered in length here, but also:\nTackling above the shoulder in rugby is a big no-no. This is great way to get sent off the field, while the other guy gets sent to the hospital.\n\nIt has been my experience that -apart from the usual vicious rivalries- rugby players have a sense of brotherhood and innate respect for anyone who is willing to lace up their boots and play. Yeah you want to knock that guy on his ass, but you also want to drink some beer with him after, and then play some more rugby with him. It is much less fun to do that if you or he are concussed. Sportsmanship exists in football, but it is a much more integral part of rugby.\n\nExcessive violence is generally highly celebrated in football, and discouraged in rugby. If you \"ring someone's bell\" in football you get a slap on the ass and a sticker on your helmet after the game. In Rugby you can get penalized or yellow/red carded.\nIt is also very likely that you put a bullseye on your own back. My former rugby team had a play known as \"Fuck that Guy\" if someone on the other team was punching, kicking or otherwise playing violently and not getting a stern talking to from the ref, we would, whenever the ref wasn't looking would pull hair, eye gouge, rake (stepping on him and then dragging your cleats across his body) or punch him, until he got the message or limped off the field.\n\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36082813",
"title": "Concussions in American football",
"section": "Section::::Concussions in the National Football League.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Other organizations continued to publish study results that linked repeated concussions and long-term health problems contrary to reports by the MTBI Committee. A 2003 report by the Center for the Study of Retired Athletes at the University of North Carolina, for example, found a connection between numerous concussions and depression among former professional football players. Further, the Center's follow-up study in 2005 associated both brain impairment and Alzheimer's disease with retired NFL players who had histories of concussions.\n",
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"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "47676981",
"title": "Concussions in Australian sport",
"section": "Section::::AFL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The occurrence of concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head knock, 7 of which resulted in concussion. 18.9% of players participating in the test suffered from concussion, bearing in mind that the sample size is also small.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "11689605",
"title": "Fred Willis",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The nature of these injuries are complicated and pose significant rehabilitation challenges. These, symptoms at first technically mild, though significant, head injuries were often overlooked during active playing days, and it has become painfully apparent that following release from the NFL the debilitating effects of TBI have continued. The HPN Neurologic Clinical Treatment Trial Studies have shown significant clinical improvement in Retired NFL Players with the symptoms of Post-Concussion Syndrome, TBI/CTE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36082813",
"title": "Concussions in American football",
"section": "Section::::Concussions in the National Football League.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The MTBI Committee began studying the nature of tackle plays resulting in concussive impacts and developing its own biomechanical analysis of the effect of these forces on the brain. It started publishing study results in 2003 that stated there were no long-term negative health consequences associated with concussions sustained by NFL players. A six-year study by the Committee concluded that, \"Players who are concussed and return to the same game have fewer initial signs and symptoms than those removed from play. Return to play does not involve a significant risk of a second injury either in the same game or during the season.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36082813",
"title": "Concussions in American football",
"section": "Section::::Concussions in other leagues.:Concussions in high school football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 1331,
"text": "Many concussions that occur during high school football often go untreated and are not monitored. This is a big concern because repeated trauma to the head, especially injuries with concussion like symptoms, puts a young athlete health at serious risk. A 2013 study by Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center found that, despite knowing the risk of serious injury from continuing to play with a concussion, half of high school football players would still play if they had a headache from an injury sustained on the field. Researchers surveyed 120 high school football players. Of those students, 30 reported having suffered a concussion. More than 90 percent recognized the risk of serious injury if they returned to play too quickly, but more than half of those aware of the risks responded they would \"always or sometimes continue to play with a headache sustained from an injury,\" and only 54 percent indicated they would \"always or sometimes report symptoms of a concussion to their coach.\" Another study found that 15.8% of football players who sustain a concussion severe enough to cause loss of consciousness return to play the same day. Due to the fact that only 42% of high schools have access to athletic training services, there has been a large debate regarding the risks that high school football players face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37486537",
"title": "Causes of Parkinson's disease",
"section": "Section::::Environmental factors.:Head injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A study in 2018 notes that \"Even a mild head injury, commonly called a concussion, makes veterans more likely to get Parkinson's disease later on in life\" with this being \"the same type of injury suffered by many Americans on the sports field or in a motor vehicle crash each year.\" An earlier study, published in 2012, suggests that playing in the NFL triples the risk of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36306767",
"title": "Concussions in sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Concussions, a type of traumatic brain injury, are a frequent concern for those playing sports, from children and teenagers to professional athletes. Repeated concussions are a known cause of various neurological disorders, most notably chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which in professional athletes has led to premature retirement, erratic behavior and even suicide. Because concussions cannot be seen on X-rays or CT scans, attempts to prevent concussions have been difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6f60dj
|
When history says "Alexander founded a new city," what is being described here?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging responses here, but fyi there was a fairly lengthy thread on this topic last week that would be worth catching up on - see here\n\n* [In ancient times I've heard that historical figures \"built cities\" like Alexander did at Bucephala in honor of his horse. How did a ruler in Greco times go about establishing a city? What did that at a minimum constitute?](_URL_3_) featuring /u/ikahjalmr\n\nAlso\n\n* [Who populated the cities founded by Alexander the Great?](_URL_1_) featuring /u/Daeres \n\n* [How did Alexander the great build alexandria?](_URL_0_) featuring /u/Docimus\n\nOf possible tangential interest\n\n* [How were cities founded by traveling armies in antiquity?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [There's a legend that Hercules himself founded my city (Cádiz, Spain) 3000 years ago. Can anyone direct me to that legend or tell me something about it?](_URL_4_)",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "168548",
"title": "Guardians of the Lost Library",
"section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The exact quote found in \"Guardians of the Lost Library\", \"The city was founded by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B. C. to be the capital of his empire!\" is a bit ambiguous, meaning either that it was Alexander's direct personal intention or that it was about to happen independently of whatever Alexander had intended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "53852856",
"title": "Alexander Constantin Watzke Sr.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Alexander became a prominent founder of the wool and hide business in the New Orleans area, he was also noted in his obituary to have been prominent in the city's German community as well as in the city's business and civic life generally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "580279",
"title": "İzmir",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient times.:Alexander the Great.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Alexander the Great re-founded the city at a new location beyond the Meles River around 340 BC. Alexander had defeated the Persians in several battles and finally the Emperor Darius III himself at Issus in 333 BC. Old Smyrna on a small hill by the sea was large enough only for a few thousand people. Therefore, the slopes of Mount Pagos (Kadifekale) was chosen for the foundation of the new city, for which Alexander is credited, and this act lay the ground for a resurgence in the city's population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23663744",
"title": "Alexandria Prophthasia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Alexander the Great, arrived in Drangiana in November 330BC on his way to Kandahar, and found a well-organized province of the Achaemenid empire. Alexander appointed a new satrap, Arsames, and renamed the capital city as Prophthasia, (\"Anticipation\"), because Alexander had here discovered a conspiracy against his life, organized by his companion Philotas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "36973792",
"title": "Farah Citadel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Alexander the Great, who arrived in Drangiana in November 330 BC on his way to Kandahar, found a well-organized province of the Achaemenid empire, ruled by a man named Barsaentes, who was satrap of both Drangiana and Arachosia. Alexander appointed a new satrap, Arsames, and renamed the capital; it became known as Prophthasia, 'Anticipation', because Alexander had here discovered a conspiracy against his life, said to be organized by his companion Philotas. After the death of Alexander, his empire fell apart and his generals divided the countries he had conquered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637602",
"title": "Diadochi",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Ancient role.:Hegemon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "When Alexander the Great died on June 10, 323 BC, he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and parts of India in the east. It included parts of the present day Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, and most of the former Persia, except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2456061",
"title": "Qumis, Iran",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Alexander the Great stopped here in the summer of 330 BCE and it became part of the Seleucid Empire after his death. The Parni tribe took the city around 237 BCE and made it one of the first capitals of their Parthian Empire. It was mentioned as the royal city of the Parthians by a number of classical writers including Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, although the Parthians seemed to have used a number of cities as their \"capital\" at different periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
1gtbbl
|
Do we have any idea what the relationship between Sumer/Mesopotamia and Egypt was?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to [this website](_URL_0_) \"There is no mention of the Egyptians in the Sumerian archives, or vice-versa, and there is no direct evidence that they had a noticeable influence on one another, except for their propensity to build giant pyramids and ziggurats. Although on a modern map they appear to be quite close, they seemed to have been completely unaware of each other’s existence. Back then, the world was a much larger place.\"",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "23410226",
"title": "Sumerian religion",
"section": "Section::::Pantheon.:Major deities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The majority of Sumerian deities belonged to a classification called the \"Anunna\" (“[offspring] of An”), whereas seven deities, including Enlil and Inanna, belonged to a group of “underworld judges\" known as the \"Anunnaki\" (“[offspring] of An” + Ki). During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian pantheon was said to include sixty times sixty (3600) deities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "49448",
"title": "Horus",
"section": "Section::::Mythological roles.:Conflict between Horus and Set.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1946,
"text": "Egyptologists have often tried to connect the conflict between the two gods with political events early in Egypt's history or prehistory. The cases in which the combatants divide the kingdom, and the frequent association of the paired Horus and Set with the union of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggest that the two deities represent some kind of division within the country. Egyptian tradition and archaeological evidence indicate that Egypt was united at the beginning of its history when an Upper Egyptian kingdom, in the south, conquered Lower Egypt in the north. The Upper Egyptian rulers called themselves \"followers of Horus\", and Horus became the tutelary deity of the unified nation and its kings. Yet Horus and Set cannot be easily equated with the two halves of the country. Both deities had several cult centers in each region, and Horus is often associated with Lower Egypt and Set with Upper Egypt. Other events may have also affected the myth. Before even Upper Egypt had a single ruler, two of its major cities were Nekhen, in the far south, and Nagada, many miles to the north. The rulers of Nekhen, where Horus was the patron deity, are generally believed to have unified Upper Egypt, including Nagada, under their sway. Set was associated with Nagada, so it is possible that the divine conflict dimly reflects an enmity between the cities in the distant past. Much later, at the end of the Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BCE), Pharaoh Seth-Peribsen used the Set animal to writing his serekh name in place of the falcon hieroglyph representing Horus. His successor Khasekhemwy used both Horus and Set in the writing of his serekh. This evidence has prompted conjecture that the Second Dynasty saw a clash between the followers of the Horus king and the worshippers of Set led by Seth-Peribsen. Khasekhemwy's use of the two animal symbols would then represent the reconciliation of the two factions, as does the resolution of the myth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "79183",
"title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Following a brief Sumerian revival with the Third Dynasty of Ur or Neo-Sumerian Empire, Mesopotamia broke up into a number of Akkadian states. Assyria had evolved during the 25th century BC, and asserted itself in the north circa 2100 BC in the Old Assyrian Empire and southern Mesopotamia fragmented into a number of kingdoms, the largest being Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45087159",
"title": "Deity",
"section": "Section::::Regional cultures.:Ancient Near Eastern.:Mesopotamian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki, and included deities known as the \"seven gods who decree\": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu and Inanna. After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad, many Sumerian deities were syncretized with East Semitic ones. The goddess Inanna, syncretized with the East Semitic Ishtar, became popular, with temples across Mesopotamia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1153620",
"title": "Third Dynasty of Ur",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Third Dynasty of Ur was the last Sumerian dynasty which came to preeminent power in Mesopotamia. It began after several centuries of control by Akkadian and Gutian kings. It controlled the cities of Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna and extended as far north as Upper Mesopotamia. The dynasty corresponded to a Sumerian renaissance following the fall of the First Dynasty of Ur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79195",
"title": "History of Sumer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Third Dynasty of Ur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "After the Ur III dynasty was destroyed by the Elamites in 2004 BC, a fierce rivalry developed between the city-states of Larsa, more under Elamite than Sumerian influence, and Isin, that was more Amorite (as the Western Semitic nomads were called). Archaeologically, the fall of the Ur III dynasty corresponds to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. The Semites ended up prevailing in Mesopotamia by the time of Hammurabi of Babylon, who founded the Babylonian Empire, and the language and name of Sumer gradually passed into the realm of antiquarian scholars. Nevertheless, Sumerian influence on Babylonia, and all subsequent cultures in the region, was undeniably great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78332",
"title": "Inanna",
"section": "Section::::Origins and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Inanna has posed a problem for many scholars of ancient Sumer due to the fact that her sphere of power contained more distinct and contradictory aspects than that of any other deity. Two major theories regarding her origins have been proposed. The first explanation holds that Inanna is the result of a syncretism between several previously unrelated Sumerian deities with totally different domains. The second explanation holds that Inanna was originally a Semitic deity who entered the Sumerian pantheon after it was already fully structured, and who took on all the roles that had not yet been assigned to other deities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
4w3km1
|
if i have an electrical circuit, run a current through it, and then suddenly interrupt the circuit, what happens to the electricity still within the circuit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine a channel of water. On one end you pump in water, on the other end you suck water away. Imagine that you suddenly stop doing both. The water briefly builds up due to leftover inertia and then it stops moving.\n\nSame thing in a circuit. The electrons are slowly moving through your circuit. If you interrupt it the electrons stop moving. Electricity is the movement of the electrons in one direction, not the electrons themselves.\n\nThe brief buildup also has an equivalent in electricity, inductance in electrical circuits is equivalent to inertia in water flows. So if you take a big coil (lots of inductance) and you suddenly interrupt a current flowing through it you get a pretty damn big spark. That's how spark plugs in your car work.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "If you are talking about a simple circuit, the simple answer is nothing happens to it, it just stops flowing. \n\nElectricity is the flow of electrons. Voltage is how hard the electrons are being pushed. When you apply voltage to an electron it moves. This movement is what is referred to as electricity. When you interrupt the circuit it no longer has anywhere to go, so it stops moving. \n\nIt's like when you turn your water off at a sink, the water is still in the pipes, but now that you've closed the valve, the water has no where to go so it stops moving. ",
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"answer": "Some great answers, but what I feel you have to realize is that the 'electricity' or electrons are present whether or not you're running a current. It's not like an empty channel; the electrons were present before the current and never changed appreciably. Some moved in at one end and some moved out at the other. That's all.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "An electrical circuit has a property called inductance. While resistance is the property of a conductor that opposes current, inductance is the property of a conductor that opposes *changes* in current. Without going into much detail, it's caused by the magnetic field around the conductor created by the current going through it.\n\nThere's a good water analogy for this. Imagine a pump and loop of pipe with a large water turbine in it. The pump starts running and the water slowly starts flowing faster and faster as the big turbine with a lot of inertia starts spinning faster and faster. When you shut the pump off the turbine is still spinning and wants to keep spinning because of it's inertia. The spinning turbine now acts as a pump itself and forces the water through the loop. If there is a restriction to the flow, the pipe or pump may burst.\n\nIn the actual electrical circuit the inductance wants to keep the current going, and if the circuit is broken suddenly, it may even arc over the switch contacts. This is analogous to the turbine bursting the pipe.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In reality electricity is not quantifiable like this question appears to assume, there are also a lot of transient effects that can happen when you go from a completed circuit to an interrupted circuit. For the sake of answering this i will assume that we go from a completed circuit to a disconnected circuit at steady state.\n\nIf we think of electricity as energy (as in what your utility company charges you for) then electricity must be measured over a length of time. You don't have a volume of it like you would have a volume of water in a glass.\n\nWhat is generally used to quantify electricity is kWh (kilo Watt-hours) which is a measurement of power over a length of time. Power is itself defined as Voltage times Current.\n\nEnergy = V * I * t\n\nFrom the equation we can immediately see that when we interrupt the circuit and current goes to 0 we have 0 real energy. What is left is the electrical potential, or Voltage.\n\nThe voltage of the circuit will change on both sides at the disconnect on the circuit. While the circuit is connected the length of the circuit will have a voltage gradient where the measured voltage will vary along the entire length of the circuit from the source voltage all the way down to 0. Once the circuit has been interrupted, the positive side of the disconnect will rise up to the source voltage, while the negative side will drop down to 0. Essentially the voltage will be flat, across the length of the circuit, with the disconnected points acting as the change from source voltage, to no voltage.\n\nSo in short when you interrupt the circuit you go from a real energy being used to a potential energy that is available. The potential energy available ends up being whatever your source can provide. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
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"answer": "There is a ton of misinformation here, but there is really no ELI5 way to accurately describe electricity. Electricity is not just the \"flow of electrons.\" In fact, electricity cannot adequately be described using any single definition. \n\nElectrons do move in a conductor, but they do not \"flow\" like water through a channel. In DC circuits, electrons move from negative to positive, albeit very slowly (inches per minute). In AC circuits, they just wiggle back and forth but don't actually flow at all. \n\n/u/GlamRockDave was correct in stating the water analogy is misleading, but he's gotten downvoted on every post for trying to point out the common misconceptions. I'm sure I'll be downvoted as well, but I can live with that. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2174083",
"title": "Power-system automation",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Overcurrent protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "All lines and all electrical equipment must be protected against prolonged overcurrent. If the cause of the overcurrent is nearby then automatically that current is interrupted immediately. But if the cause of the overcurrent is outside the local area then a backup provision automatically disconnects all affected circuits after a suitable time delay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "50771501",
"title": "Overheating (electricity)",
"section": "Section::::Preventive measures.:Use of circuit breaker or fuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Circuit-breakers placed at different portions of circuit (in series to the path of current it will affect). If more current than expected goes through the circuit-breaker, the circuit breaker \"opens\" the circuit and stops all current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "853826",
"title": "Electrical breakdown",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown is when current flows through an electrical insulator when the voltage applied across it exceeds the breakdown voltage. This results in the insulator becoming electrically conductive. Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event (as in an electrostatic discharge), or may lead to a continuous arc if protective devices fail to interrupt the current in a power circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1561900",
"title": "Switchgear",
"section": "Section::::Protective circuitry.:Circuit breakers and fuses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Circuit breakers and fuses disconnect when current exceeds a predetermined safe level. However they cannot sense other critical faults, such as unbalanced currents—for example, when a transformer winding contacts ground. By themselves, circuit breakers and fuses cannot distinguish between short circuits and high levels of electrical demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235899",
"title": "Circuit breaker",
"section": "Section::::Short-circuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Under short-circuit conditions, the calculated or measured maximum prospective short-circuit current may be many times the normal, rated current of the circuit. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gases and molten or vaporized metal, which can cause further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61328143",
"title": "Performance and Modelling of AC Transmission",
"section": "Section::::Long Transmission Line.:Travelling waves in Transmission Line.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 299,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 299,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "When the switch is closed at the transmission line's starting end, voltage will not appear instantaneously at the other end. This is caused by the transient behavior of inductor and capacitors that are present in the transmission line. The transmission lines may not have physical inductor and capacitor elements but the effects of inductance and capacitance exists in a line. Therefore, when the switch is closed the voltage will build up gradually over the line conductors. This phenomenon is usually called as the voltage wave is travelling from transmission line's sending end to the other end. And similarly the gradual charging of the capacitances happens due to the associated current wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235899",
"title": "Circuit breaker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kbb68
|
When did nations begin to regularly levy taxes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you winnow this question down more, whether geographically, temporally or both? It's quite broad, considering that taxation was introduced, disappeared, and reintroduced at varying times as well as varying regions throughout history.\n\nAre you talking about taxation in antiquity? Late medieval European feudal taxation? Or specifically state taxation of the early modern period? Taxation in coin, or taxation in kind? \n\nPlease be more specific. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12255114",
"title": "History of taxation in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The history of taxation in the United States begins with the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s, leading to the American Revolution. The independent nation collected taxes on imports (\"tariffs\"), whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows. States and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. In addition, there were state and federal excise taxes. State and federal inheritance taxes began after 1900, while the states (but not the federal government) began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. The United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s. In 1913, the 16th Amendment was ratified, permanently legalizing an income tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30443242",
"title": "History of taxation in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Prior to the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, taxation had been levied in the countries that joined to become the UK. For example, in England, King John introduced an export tax on wool in 1203 and King Edward I introduced taxes on wine in 1275. Also in England, a Poor Law tax was established in 1572 to help the deserving poor, and then changed from a local tax to a national tax in 1601. In June 1628, England's Parliament passed the Petition of Right which among other measures, prohibited the use of taxes without its agreement. This prevented the Crown from creating arbitrary taxes and imposing them upon subjects without consultation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2673279",
"title": "Taxation in France",
"section": "Section::::History of taxes in France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Before 1914, taxes mainly applied to the wealth (wealth, land, inheritance) or incomes from wealth. The tax burden did not exceed 10%. Many propositions, successively from Doumer, Cavaignac and Waldeck-Rousseau, failed, due to the opposition of the right. It was the Great War which gave the opportunity to create a tax on income, in 1917, thanks to Joseph Caillaux, the minister of Finances. At the same time, the four contributions created in 1790 and 1791 were turned into local taxes, and replaced by the income tax as the main national tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23633659",
"title": "Legal history of income tax in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History through 1916.:First income tax law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. Tax rates were 3% on income exceeding $600 and less than $10,000, and 5% on income exceeding $10,000. This tax was repealed and replaced by another income tax in the Revenue Act of 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23326372",
"title": "Papal income tax",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Fourteenth and fifteenth century popes leveled similar taxes for personal uses as well as for wars against the Ottoman Turks and others. Taxes could be imposed either on the universal church, the clergy of a single country, or even on a group of provinces. Whereas the first crusading taxes were paid directly to crusaders, by the middle of the thirteenth century it became customary to pay the tax directly to kings, princes, or nobles who promised to join the crusade; if the crusade never took place, the money was to be returned to the Apostolic Camera. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25780640",
"title": "Taxation in medieval England",
"section": "Section::::Norman and Angevin England (1066–1216).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Besides taxes on land and taxes on personal property, this period saw the introduction of taxes on trade. In 1202, King John imposed a custom duty of a fifteenth of the value of all goods imported or exported. It appears, however, that these duties were discontinued in 1206.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "978991",
"title": "Stamp act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "This system of taxation was first devised in the Netherlands in 1624 after a public competition to find a new form of tax. Stamp acts have been enforced in many countries, including Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Ireland, India, Malaysia, Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bf94sd
|
What are those curvy distortions in the air above a hot stove?
|
[
{
"answer": "The index of refraction (how much the speed of light changes through a medium) of a gas depends on its temperature. What you are seeing is light going through regions whose temperature is changing (and possibly also a changing composition, e.g. leaky propane above a bbq). You can see it more clearly with [Schlieren imaging](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3488248",
"title": "Cook stove",
"section": "Section::::Advanced biomass cookstoves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- Forced air stoves have a fan powered either by a battery, an external source of electricity, or a thermoelectric generator. This fan blows high velocity, low volume jets of air into the combustion chamber, which when optimized results in more complete combustion of the fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174818",
"title": "Wood gas",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Stoves, cooking and furnaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Certain stove designs are, in effect, gasifiers working on the updraft principle: The air passes up through the fuel, which can be a column of rice hulls, and is combusted, then reduced to carbon monoxide by the residual char on the surface. The resulting gas is then burnt by heated secondary air coming up a concentric tube. Such a device behaves very much like a gas stove. This arrangement is also known as a Chinese burner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3488248",
"title": "Cook stove",
"section": "Section::::Advanced biomass cookstoves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gasifier stoves force the gases and smoke that result from incomplete combustion of fuels such as biomass back into the cookstove's flame, where the heat of the flame then continues to combust the particles in the smoke until almost complete combustion has occurred, reducing emissions. Typical gasifier stoves are known as Top Lit Updraft (TLUD) stoves because some fuel is lit on top of the stove, forcing combustible products to pass through the flame front before being emitted into the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "556358",
"title": "Stove",
"section": "Section::::Modern stove designs.:Air-tight stove.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Most modern air-tight stoves feature a damper at the stove's outlet that can be closed to force the exhaust through an after burner at the top of the stove, a heated chamber in which the combustion process continues. Some air-tight stoves feature a catalytic converter, a platinum grid placed at the stove outlet to burn remaining fuel that has not been combusted, as gases burn at a much lower temperature in the presence of platinum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15743602",
"title": "Pellet baskets",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "No fan is needed to circulate air within the stove because there is enough air flow through the basket itself to allow pellets to burn with a flame. Wood pellets can be added on top of the hot pellets with a small metal scoop when needed. They may smolder for a few minutes until they ignite. Readjust the air settings for a safe working temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216057",
"title": "Pellet stove",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1683,
"text": "Fan systems are necessary for clean, economical performance. The flame produced is concentrated and intense in the small area of the burn pot as a combustion blower introduces air into the bottom of the burn pot, while also forcing exhaust gases into the chimney. While some pellet stoves will be hot to the touch (especially on the viewing window), most manufacturers utilize a series of cast-iron or steel heat exchangers that run along the back and top areas of the visible firebox. With a convection blower, room air is circulated through the heat exchangers and directed into the living space. This method allows for a much higher efficiency than the radiant heat of a hand-fed wood or coal stove, and will in most cases cause the top, sides, and back of the stove to be at most warm to the touch. Along with convection air, an exhaust fan forces air from the firebox through special venting specifically made for pellet fuel. This cycle of circulation is an integral part of the combustion system as well, for the concentrated high temperature flame will quickly overheat the firebox. The possible problems associated with overheating are electrical component failure and flames traveling into the auger tube causing a hopper fire. As safeguards, all pellet stoves are equipped with heat sensors, and sometimes vacuum sensors, enabling the controller to shut down if an unsafe condition is detected. For daily maintenance, an ash vacuum is recommended. These are similar to shop vacs, but are designed for the removal of ash materials. These vacuums are available with a pellet stove kit which enables the cleaning of the interior areas of the stove which improves efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216057",
"title": "Pellet stove",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "Unlike wood stoves, which operate exclusively on a principle of chimney draft, a pellet stove must use specially sealed exhaust pipe to prevent exhaust gases escaping into the living space due to the air pressure produced by a combustion blower. Pellet stoves require certified double-walled venting, normally three or four inches in diameter with a stainless steel interior and galvanized exterior. Because pellet stoves have a forced exhaust system, they have the advantage of not always requiring a vertical rise to vent, although a vertical run to induce some draft is recommended to prevent leakage in the case of a power outage. Like a modern gas appliance, pellet stoves can be vented horizontally through an outside wall and terminated below the roof line, making it an excellent choice for structures without an existing chimney. If an existing chimney is available, manufacturers urge use of a correctly sized stainless steel liner the length of the chimney for proper drafting. Modern building techniques have created tightly sealed homes, forcing many pellet stove manufacturers to recommend their stoves be installed with outside air intake to ensure the stoves will run efficiently and prevent potential negative pressure within the home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hjlns
|
what happens during an internet outage?
|
[
{
"answer": "There can be a million reasons ... The chain from you to the data center is: PC -- > LAN -- > Router/Modem -- > Landline/cable/fibre to some more central place (plus converters) -- > Another Router/Modem -- > fatter line to data center -- > [more hardware] -- > interconnection with other ISPs -- > repeat until you reach your destination page.\n\nliterally anything in that chain can break or in the case of routers be misconfigured.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There'll be people working out where the problem lies, and how to fix it.\n\nThere's a lot of equipment involved in connecting you to the internet. The more important connections and devices in the chain are \"redundant\", where there will be a backup that can take over fully if the primary system fails (hopefully that has been tested to ensure that it does take over). Others are not redundant - if they fail, they will cause an outage.\n\nAn outage could be caused by lots of things. It could be as simple as a misconfiguration somewhere, to a building being on fire or flooded or has lost power. There's even been outages caused because of burglary - someone broke into a facility and literally stole the network equipment\n\nAny ISP worth their salt will have tons of monitoring on everything they can monitor, so as soon as something fails, they know what appears to have failed and can try to fix it. Hopefully it's something that has a backup, so it can be fixed or replaced calmly, rather than causing a massive outage that needs immediate attention and needs to be fixed yesterday\n\nStorms could take out equipment (for cable or DSL there may be equipment in your neighbourhood that won't like a lightning strike, or if they lose power), or maybe they damage the cables themselves",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1691376",
"title": "Amazon Web Services",
"section": "Section::::History.:Significant service outages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- On October 22, 2012, a major outage occurred, affecting many sites such as Reddit, Foursquare, Pinterest, and others. The cause was a memory leak bug in an operational data collection agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300602",
"title": "Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Natural disasters and access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At Hurricane Katrina's peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without power, while around 14% of Louisiana's networks were disrupted. Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”. Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two explanations for the long delay in returning service. The company Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21844118",
"title": "AS 7007 incident",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The AS 7007 incident was a major disruption of the Internet on April 25, 1997, that started with a router operated by autonomous system 7007 (MAI Network Services, although sometimes incorrectly attributed to the Florida Internet Exchange) accidentally leaking a substantial part of its entire route table to the Internet, creating a routing black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35242701",
"title": "Internet bottleneck",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Network congestion or Internet bottleneck generally occurs and is felt by users in homes and businesses. This is what is known as the last mile of transmission, which is when there is not enough bandwidth available for individual users to access the content they want. Everyone is attempting to use the bandwidth at the same time creating an Internet traffic jam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28218781",
"title": "Netdisaster",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Before the website's engine was shut down, users could choose from a list of disasters and the entire internet. Users could type in any URL, select a disaster from a drop-down list, and click \"Go!\". The disasters were divided into six categories, each one containing a variety of different options. Most of the disasters have been made available on the desktop application and the \"Netdisaster-Yourself!\" tool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1395085",
"title": "IRC flood",
"section": "Section::::Types of floods.:ICMP flood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Typically referred to as a ping flood. This attack overloads the victim's internet connection with an amount of ICMP data exceeding the connection's capacity, potentially causing a disconnection from the IRC network. For the duration of the attack, the user's internet connection remains hindered. Technically speaking, this is not an IRC flood, as the attack itself doesn't traverse the IRC network at all, but operates entirely independent of anything but the raw internet connection and its IP protocol (of which ICMP is a subset). Even so, the actual IP address to flood (the address of the victim's connection) is frequently obtained by looking at the victim's user information (e.g. through the /whois or /dns command) on the IRC network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11031479",
"title": "Internet Explorer 8",
"section": "Section::::New features.:Automatic tab-crash recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "If a website or add-on causes a tab to crash in Internet Explorer 8, only that tab is affected. The browser itself remains stable and other tabs remain unaffected, thereby minimizing any disruption to the browsing experience. If a tab unexpectedly closes or crashes it is automatically reloaded with the same content as before the crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2537bd
|
Why do scientists currently refer to Dark Matter as matter? Isn't it possible that the evidence for Dark Matter may actually be an incomplete understanding of gravity or other forces?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've had this same question. Observations of galactic interactions, however, point strongly to a cloud of invisible matter that accompanies galaxies. This is famously evident in the bullet cluster, where the mass distribution just isn't right, until one factors in dark matter.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Isn't it possible that the evidence for Dark Matter may actually be an incomplete understanding of gravity or other forces?\n\nYes, it's possible. Actually several scientists have thought of this and proposed alternate theories aimed to refine gravitation. They are [MOND](_URL_0_) and it's relativistic version, [TeVeS](_URL_2_).\n\nThey are good at explaining the galaxy rotation problem. However, MOND cannot explain [gravitational lensing](_URL_1_). TeVes can, but it's not completely consistent with the observations. Particularly, the behavior of the Bullet Cluster pointed out by thiosk is *not compatible with any current modified gravity theories* - quoted from [TeVeS](_URL_2_).\n\nSo far Dark Matter is the theory that best explains the observations.\n\nninja edit: accuracy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to reuse [an old comment](_URL_2_) for this:\n\n----\nSo we haven't ruled out alternate gravity theories, but the majority of astronomers are definitely in the WIMP dark matter camp. There are alternate gravity people, but it hasn't really caught on at all. But yet, in the general public people seem to think of dark matter as some sort of weird phlogiston theory, and that it seems much \"simpler\" to \"just change gravity\".\n\nSo I'll try to defend why dark matter isn't as weird as it seems:\n\n1. We already know that there are particles that interact only through the weak nuclear force and gravity: neutrinos. We have built neutrino detectors and found them. We're just looking for a fatter neutrino, not something entirely different to anything we've ever seen before.\n\n2. The Bullet Cluster can't be explained by alternate gravity - it really shows that the gravity is not where the visible matter is.\n\n3. It's actually quite elegant physically, because we have all the physics for particles worked out. We can set up a simulation with a bunch of dark matter and see if it falls into galaxy-sized clumps etc. This means it's a very testable theory, because it's not as flexible as changing gravity. We have some unknowns (like the mass of the particle), but we aren't changing the basic laws of physics, so we can run simulations and make predictions for observations, and hence either confirm or rule-out dark matter. For example, dark matter should be its own anti-particle, so with a good enough instrument we should be able to observe the gamma-rays it produces\n\n4. Some fairly sensible extensions of the \"standard model of particle physics\" naturally produce a particle with properties very similar to what a dark matter particle should be. Although there's no proof that any of these models are correct yet, so this point is not super solid.\n\nAlthough it's worth pointing out that we really do need to actually find the particle before this is in the 100% confirmed category, it's definitely the favoured option.\n\nNext: why is changing gravity weirder than it seems?\n\n1. Einstein changed gravity by making a very small number of very strong assumptions, and all of general relativity naturally flowed from that. GR is basically the simplest possible solution that satisfies these basic assumptions. But if you're making GR more complex, you can change it in any direction you like. You can make it fit pretty much any data you want. You aren't bound by the laws of physics any more, because you're changing these laws. So if anything contradicts your theory, it's much easier to adjust your theory to make it fit. So it's much harder to prove or disprove the theory, and that makes it unsatisfying.\n\n2. The most popular model, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) doesn't even change GR properly. It's more or less just an ad-hoc modification to basic Newtonian gravity to make it fit the data. The fundamental physics isn't justified at all, it's literally just changing the equations to fit the data.\n\nSo, to put it a bit harsher than it probably deserves, we have a choice between a minor adjustment (adding a new particle similar to other particles we have observed) that is inflexible enough and specific enough to be properly tested, and a major adjustment (changing the fundamental laws of general relativity) that is too flexible and unspecific for us to design really good tests to confirm or disprove it.\n\nThis is all my perspective as an astrophysicist. Someone who does particle physics or who works directly on general relativity may have a different opinion.\n\n----\n\n[hikaruzero](_URL_0_) then [replied](_URL_1_) to explain the particle physics a bit more:\n\n > There is a much simpler candidate for a dark matter particle that does not require invoking supersymmetry: a sterile neutrino. This is actually currently the most favored candidate, more favored than a neutralino or other supersymmetric particle. And indeed, evidence for supersymmetry has not been found in most of the places we expected to find it if it exists, so it must be a badly broken symmetry if it does exist at all (and that raises the question of why it is so badly broken, which is basically just fobbing off the heirarchy problem and not really solving it).\n\n > The main reason it is favoured is because it \"kills three birds with two stones,\" so-to-speak. In the current Standard Model, all of the known fermions have both left-handed and right-handed versions *except* for neutrinos -- we have only observed left-handed neutrinos. Additionally, only left-handed particles interact via the weak interaction, so if a right-handed neutrino did exist, it would be expected that it would *only* interact gravitationally, and not through any of the other three fundamental forces. Furthermore, the known left-handed neutrinos have an extraordinarily small but apparently nonzero mass, and there is the question of why their mass is so small.\n\n > There is a proposed mechanism called the [see-saw mechanism](_URL_3_) by which the mass of the left-handed neutrino can be driven down, but only if there is a corresponding increase in mass of a right-handed neutrino.\n\n > Introducing a right-handed sterile neutrino (stone 1) with a Majorana mass tied to a see-saw mechanism (stone 2) would solve the problem of why right-handed neutrinos have never been observed (bird 1), why the known left-handed neutrinos have such a small mass (bird 2), and also provides an ideal candidate for a very massive dark matter particle (bird 3).\n\n > Hope that helps!\n\n----\n\nI hope that's thorough enough for you :P",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8651",
"title": "Dark matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the scientific community, some astrophysicists, intrigued by certain observations which do not fit the dark matter theory, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity, such as modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental non-baryonic matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8651",
"title": "Dark matter",
"section": "Section::::Composition of dark matter: baryonic vs. nonbaryonic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. However, for the reasons outlined below, most scientists think the dark matter is dominated by a non-baryonic component, which is likely composed of a currently unknown fundamental particle (or similar exotic state).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "985963",
"title": "Lambda-CDM model",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Dark matter is postulated in order to account for gravitational effects observed in very large-scale structures (the \"flat\" rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies) that cannot be accounted for by the quantity of observed matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "Section::::Other types.:Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "In astrophysics and cosmology, \"dark matter\" is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Observational evidence of the early universe and the Big Bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed ordinary baryons (protons and neutrons). The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is non-baryonic in nature. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are supersymmetric particles, which are not Standard Model particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22691628",
"title": "European Underground Rare Event Calorimeter Array",
"section": "Section::::Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "Dark matter is one of the significant unsolved problems in modern science. There is considerable evidence from astronomy and cosmology that a significant fraction of the mass of the Universe, and of galaxies is made up of non-luminous material. The nature of dark matter is currently unknown. However a popular hypothesis is that it consists of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), particles with a large mass, but which only interact with ordinary matter through the weak nuclear force, so the majority that pass through the Earth do not hit a single atom. The aim of dark matter search experiments such as EURECA is to test this hypothesis by searching for WIMP dark matter interactions. WIMPs are predicted to exist by supersymmetry theory, which predicts a wide range of scattering cross-sections down to 10pb, corresponding to an interaction rate of ~1 event per year in a 1 tonne detector. Existing experiments such as CRESST and EDELWEISS have already ruled out higher interaction rates, but EURECA will search down to this lower limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27228351",
"title": "Axion Dark Matter Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Although dark matter can't be seen directly, its gravitational interactions with familiar matter leave unmistakable evidence for its existence. The universe we see today simply wouldn't look the way it does without dark matter. Approximately five times more abundant than ordinary matter, the nature of dark matter remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics today. In addition to solving the strong CP problem, the axion could provide an answer to the question \"what is dark matter made of?\" The axion is a neutral particle that is extraordinarily weakly interacting and could be produced in the right amount to constitute dark matter. If the dark matter accounting for the bulk of all matter in our universe is axions, ADMX is one of only few experiments able to detect it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3snuyq
|
What is an inertial frame of reference?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a reference frame that's not accelerating. If you're just floating in space, you're in an inertial frame of reference. If you're on an accelerating spaceship, you're not, so you feel like there's something pulling you towards the engines when it's really just the engines accelerating towards you.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20213962",
"title": "Quantum reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Reference frame in classical mechanics and inertial frame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "An inertial reference frame (or inertial frame in short) is a frame in which all the physical laws hold. For instance, in a rotating reference frame, Newton's laws have to be modified because there is an extra Coriolis force (such frame is an example of non-inertial frame). Here, \"rotating\" means \"rotating with respect to some inertial frame\". Therefore, although it is true that a reference frame can always be chosen to be any physical system for convenience, any system has to be eventually described by an inertial frame, directly or indirectly. Finally, one may ask how an inertial frame can be found, and the answer lies in the Newton's laws, at least in Newtonian mechanics: the first law guarantees the existence of an inertial frame while the second and third law are used to examine whether a given reference frame is an inertial one or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14838",
"title": "Inertial frame of reference",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 697,
"text": "An inertial frame of reference in classical physics and special relativity possesses the property that in this frame of reference a body with zero net force acting upon it does not accelerate; that is, such a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line. An inertial frame of reference can be defined in analytical terms as a frame of reference that describes time and space homogeneously, isotropically, and in a time-independent manner. Conceptually, the physics of a system in an inertial frame have no causes external to the system. An inertial frame of reference may also be called an inertial reference frame, inertial frame, Galilean reference frame, or inertial space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19555586",
"title": "Classical mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Description of the theory.:Position and its derivatives.:Frames of reference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "An inertial frame is a frame of reference within which an object interacting with no forces (an idealized situation) appears either at rest or moving uniformly in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. These are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate from identifiable sources caused by fields, such as electro-static field (caused by static electrical charges), electro-magnetic field (caused by moving charges), gravitational field (caused by mass), and so forth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2434557",
"title": "Non-inertial reference frame",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "A non-inertial reference frame is a frame of reference that is undergoing acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial frame will, in general, detect a non-zero acceleration. In a curved spacetime all frames are non-inertial. The laws of motion in non-inertial frames do not take the simple form they do in inertial frames, and the laws vary from frame to frame depending on the acceleration. To explain the motion of bodies entirely within the viewpoint of non-inertial reference frames, fictitious forces (also called inertial forces, pseudo-forces and d'Alembert forces) must be introduced to account for the observed motion, such as the Coriolis force or the centrifugal force, as derived from the acceleration of the non-inertial frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74263",
"title": "Frame of reference",
"section": "Section::::Different aspects of \"frame of reference\".:Observational frames of reference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "There are two types of observational reference frame: inertial and non-inertial. An inertial frame of reference is defined as one in which all laws of physics take on their simplest form. In special relativity these frames are related by Lorentz transformations, which are parametrized by rapidity. In Newtonian mechanics, a more restricted definition requires only that Newton's first law holds true; that is, a Newtonian inertial frame is one in which a free particle travels in a straight line at constant speed, or is at rest. These frames are related by Galilean transformations. These relativistic and Newtonian transformations are expressed in spaces of general dimension in terms of representations of the Poincaré group and of the Galilean group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4674852",
"title": "Proper frame",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "An \"inertial frame\" has an inertial reference vector to a fixed point in the spacetime continuum. For example, suppose I place an object on a horizontal line and extend the line upwards. The line originates at an point x at the center of vertical symmetry in the plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane (and the line continues downwards to the bottom of the vertical line) at x = -X where x is the horizontal line velocity on my line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "54334250",
"title": "Proper reference frame (flat spacetime)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 924,
"text": "A proper reference frame in the theory of relativity is a particular form of accelerated reference frame, that is, a reference frame in which an accelerated observer can be considered as being at rest. It can describe phenomena in curved spacetime, as well as in \"flat\" Minkowski spacetime in which the spacetime curvature caused by the energy-momentum tensor can be disregarded. Since this article considers only flat spacetime—and uses the definition that special relativity is the theory of flat spacetime while general relativity is a theory of gravitation in terms of curved spacetime—it is consequently concerned with accelerated frames in special relativity. (For the representation of accelerations in inertial frames, see the article Acceleration (special relativity), where concepts such as three-acceleration, four-acceleration, proper acceleration, hyperbolic motion etc. are defined and related to each other.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
740tkn
|
Looking at maps of Yugoslavia, its clear that large parts of Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia had ethnic majorities from one of the other nations. Did this cause problems before the 90's? Were there any attempts to change the internal borders?
|
[
{
"answer": "The only real evidence I can find of any internal attempts to change borders prior to the late 80s/ early 90s was the Nazi and Fascist Italy attempting to \"persuade\" Croatia to become independent, to push for more autonomy so to speak. \nWhen Yugoslavia as a whole was invaded by Axis powers in 1941, Croatia was given independence from Yugoslavia by the Nazis, who then encouraged the Croatians to participate in the killing of Serbs within its borders (these killings seem to be more motivated by religious rivalries as opposed to nationalist or ethnic motives). \nIt was throughout this war that the Chetniks (Royalists determined to see the re-establishment of a monarchy) and the Partisans (communists) fought for control of Yugoslavia from the Axis powers (led by Nazi Germany). During this war, Josip Broz Tito distinguished himself when he led the Partisans to victory over both the Axis powers and the Chetniks. He had a dedicated following, dedicated enough that when the war came to an end, it was decided that the exiled monarch (King Peter II, the last King of Yugoslavia) would stay in exile. \nTito also received aid from the Soviets during this war, and the Soviets also helped him set up the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1945. I'm harping on about Tito here because of the defining role he played in keeping Yugoslavia together during his reign as President. \nTito modeled his secret police on the Soviet KGB, they acted in a manner similar to the KGB, often extrajudicially and almost always omnipresent. Tito used his secret police to crack down on any feelings of nationalism, purging any and all growth of nationalism. The suppression of nationalistic feelings and an odd mix of deference and repression is what held Yugoslavia together during Tito's reign.\nTito allowed all ethnic groups to speak their own language. Eg; Croatians could speak Croatian and Serbians could speak Serbian and so on. However, in relation to Albanians, Tito took an incredibly harsh stance, arresting and imprisoning many Albanians for expressing their ethnic identity. According to Matas, almost half of the political prisoners in Yugoslavia were Albanians. This is significant because Matas also asserts that Yugoslavia had more political prisoners outside the USSR than the rest of Europe combined.\n\nI may have gone on a bit long about the role of Tito but that's because he was instrumental in keeping Yugoslavia together. When he died in 1980, the Presidency became decentralised and the country was held together by the ideological force of Communism. It was when communism collapsed in 1989 (with the Fall of the Berlin Wall etc.) that Yugoslavia lost its unifying factor and ethnic tensions began to rise.\n\nEdit: In my studies on this, I haven't found any evidence of attempts to change internal borders during Tito's rule\n\nResources:\nMatas, David (1994). No More: The Battle Against Human Rights Violations. ISBN 1-55002-221-0.\nFinlan, Alastair (2004). The Collapse of Yugoslavia 1991–1999. New York, USA: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1027-4.\nCorbel, Josef (1951). Tito's Communism. Denver, Colorado: The University of Denver Press.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:Post-Communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
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"text": "Within Yugoslavia, separating Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia is an invisible line of previous conquests of the region. Croatia and Slovenia to the northwest were conquered by Catholics or Protestants, and benefited from European history; the Renaissance, French Revolution, Industrial Revolution and are more inclined towards democracy. The remaining Yugoslavian territory was conquered by the Ottoman or Tsarists empires; are Orthodox or Muslims, are less economically advanced and are less inclined toward democracy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "42541906",
"title": "Sandžak Muslim militia",
"section": "Section::::Partition of Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 630,
"text": "Yugoslavia was soon partitioned. Some Yugoslav territory was annexed by its Axis neighbors, Hungary, Bulgaria and Italy. The Italians also occupied Montenegro with the intention of setting up a vassal state, and the borders of this territory included most of the Sandžak. The Germans engineered and supported the creation of the \"Ustaše\"-led puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH), which roughly comprised most of the pre-war Banovina Croatia, along with rest of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and some adjacent territory. The Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians occupied other parts of Yugoslavian territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42399",
"title": "History of Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "Section::::Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–41).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the joining of the Tripartite Pact, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:Post-Communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "In the 1970s the leadership of the separate territories within Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross the territories adjacent; Bosnia and Herzegovina. Within Bosnia there was no group who had a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslav were all there so the leadership could not advance here either. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalism. Within the territories the leadership could not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another, raising the possibility of a serious conflict. This strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities. This caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2488658",
"title": "Battle of Vukovar",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "From 1945, Yugoslavia was governed as a federal socialist state comprising six newly created republics – Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia. The current border between Serbia and Croatia was defined in 1945 by a Yugoslav federal government commission which assigned areas with a Serb majority to the Socialist Republic of Serbia and those with a Croat majority to the Socialist Republic of Croatia. Nevertheless, a sizable Serb minority remained within the latter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3463",
"title": "Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "Section::::History.:Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or \"banovinas\" that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1917091",
"title": "Greater Croatia",
"section": "Section::::Cvetković–Maček Agreement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Amid rising ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs in the 1930s, an autonomous state within Yugoslavia, called the Banovina of Croatia was peacefully negotiated in the Yugoslav parliament in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of 1939. Croatia was united into a single territorial unit and was provided territories of parts of present-day Vojvodina, and both Posavina and southern parts of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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1ipyqt
|
Tesseract 4th dimension
|
[
{
"answer": "The square doesn't have to be within the other cube. When you see a tesseract drawn... What you're looking at is a 2 dimensional representation of a 3 dimensional representation of a 4 dimensional shape. If you were to build one out of matchsticks and view it front on at the correct angle, you'd start to get the illusion of two cubes occupying the same space (that's the reason for one cube being smaller for fake perspective).\n\nBut as I said it doesn't have to be inside. If you draw a square, and draw a smaller square within it, then connect the corners... You end up with a 2d representation of a cube. At the same time... The second smaller square does not have to be within the bounds of the first square... It can be offset for a different perspective.",
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"answer": "What you're seeing can be considered the tesseract's 3D shadow. I always enjoyed Sagan's talk about [Flatland](_URL_0_) to help describe higher dimension ideas. Though this doesn't really answer your particular question.",
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"answer": "I recommend taking a look at _URL_0_\nTo get a good understanding of how visual metaphors can help us imagine other dimensions. It's not accurate, but it is useful to understand how to imagine forms outside of our perception ( the best language of course being math, but visual language can be helpful too)\n\nThat being said, every dimension increase can be though of a perpendicular bisector to each dimension.\n\nSo :\n\n0.. Point \n1. Line - perpendicularly bisects a point\n2. X-y- perpendicularly bisects a line\n3. X-y-z - you have to have a z line now , on paper the only way to perpendicularly bisect an x-y axis would be to have a line coming out of the page.\n\nHere's where things get weird, instead we often use a diagonal line consistent with our understanding of 3 point perspective to visualize depth. But as mentioned earlier, this is a 2d representation of a 3d space. We can relate because perspective illusions are now common place but honestly a cube without imagination drawn on piece of paper looks weird!\n\n4. X-y-z-w Perpendicular bisector to all three lines- this is hard, we already used a visual illusion to simulate 3d, so merely choosing another diagonal line is going to fail, we don't have a class of visual illusion to use as a simulation. One artistic representation is of course the tesseract. ;)\n\nJust remember, \"the map is not the territory\" , you're looking at one way to imagine 4 dimensions in 2! It's a clever and beautiful image, but it's not accurate- so don't try to create a mental model of \"this is how 4 dimensions look\" because your brain doesn't process 4 dimensions that way, it's processes 3 dimensions over a time period.\n\nHope this helps someone\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If a 3d cube can be made with 6 2d squares, from how many 3d cubes is a 4d tesseract made?",
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},
{
"answer": "the important thing is how many borders are connected with how many corners and faces, which results in a border per corner ratio...",
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{
"answer": "Shouldn't the tesseract demonstrate the movement of time? I thought time was the 4th dimension...? (Yes this question is serious, I know nothing about this stuff but it seems fascinating.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A line is a point extruded in a direction perpendicular to itself. Whichever direction you choose has now created a single spatial dimension. It has 'left' and 'right,' but no up or down, forward or back. You now have a 1 dimensional line.\n\nA square is a line extruded in a direction perpendicular to all of its points. That direction is either up and down, or forward and back. It doesn't matter which, but it can't be both. Say it was backwards. You now have a 2 dimensional planar space. \n\nA cube is a square extruded in a direction perpendicular to all of its lines. We generally consider it to be the Z axis, which is up and down. You now have a 3 dimensional volumetric space. \n\nA tesseract is a cube extruded in a direction perpendicular to all of its cubes. Now that doesn't make sense because we cannot conceive of a 4th spatial dimension. We try to demonstrate this by drawing it in a similar manner as we do a cube on a 2D space. Note that when you draw a cube on a 2D page, not all of the lines form 90 degree angles. But in a cube in 3D space they do. So, when we draw a tesseract not all of the lines form 90 degree angles, but in 4D space they would.\n\n[This](_URL_1_) shows an unfolded tesseract just as [this](_URL_0_) shows an unfolded cube. To form the tesseract you'd fold all 8 cubes into a fourth dimensional space. From a 3D point of view all you would see is a cube, just as when you look at a cube from a 2D point of view all you see is a square. Same all the way down to a point.\n\nDoes this make more sense?",
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"answer": "I think it makes a lot more sense once you see it rotating so you can view the projection from different angles.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIf you look carefully you can see how it is 8 cubes mutually connected by their faces. \nA cube similarly is 6 squares mutually connected by their edges (lines). \nA square is 4 lines connected by their end points. \nA line is a connection between 2 points.\n\nI always liked how it goes 2 4 6 8",
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"answer": "I read about a great way to help you think about higher dimensions.\n\nImagine putting your hand into a pool, fingers first.\n\n2d creatures, who would love on the 2d film of the water, would see a point slowly get larger until another appears then morphs together and continues to grow and combine with others until you are in up to your wrist.\n\nNow think of a higher dimension creature doing this to us. We would see a 3d blob appear out of nowhere, grow and morph into another blob and strangely warp and move around.",
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},
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"answer": "Think of a zero dimensional object. That's a point. The point does not occupy any space at all. This point can exist anywhere, but it doesn't matter how it is oriented. \n\nIf you take that point, and duplicate it, and move it relative to the first point, you can draw a line between the two. Now, this line can exist anywhere, even in 2 dimensions, but the object itself is only 1 dimension. An example is of a line on a plane - you can create a set of axes and draw a line from 0, 0 to 5, 5 and that line would extend in the X and Y directions, but take the axes away and it is still only represented by a single dimension.\n\nNow, do the same thing again - take the line, and duplicate it, and create lines between each of the vertices that were duplicated. This creates a parallelogram, as long as the 2nd set of vertices have the same transformation relative to each other. This shape has two dimensions, because even if you took away the axes you can see that it requires two variables to describe each vertex position.\n\nDo the same thing again, and duplicate all the vertices. You now have 8 vertices, and as long as the 2nd set of vertices moved normal to the first set in the same distance as they are long, you have a cube. This is a three-dimensional object, because each vertex requires three variables to describe. See where this is going?\n\nNow, do the same thing again. You have 16 vertices - and nowhere to put them physically. Since the universe ostensibly exists in three spatial dimensions, we would need a 4th to graphically represent the additional vertices. Since we can't, we have to project their locations into 3d. This is basically just a trick - you aren't seeing the whole object, just the slice that happened to be projected for you. But that doesn't mean that the object doesn't exist, mathematically. \n\nNow, for hyperstuff. Anytime someone says \"hyper\", like in \"hypercube\", or \"hyperplane\", or \"hypersurface\" they are referring to objects that exist in three dimensions but are extended to many dimensions. Many being variable, so something like \"n\" dimensions. This is important because we can keep describing things in similar manners, because the math all checks out. \n\nFor example, in 3 dimensions if we have 2 variables X and Y, we can create a dependent variable Z such that Z = f(x, y). This gives us a surface. A surface that is flat, is called a plane. Now, if we take the same logic and say W = f(x, y, z) - this creates a hypersurface. It can represent density, or the amount of stuff crammed per unit space in 3 dimensions, so it's still got a physical meaning. But if this surface is 'flat', mathematically, we can call it a hyperplane (Rather than a hypersurface). We need to go deeper! \n\nFinally, let's do H = f(a, b, c, d) - this requires 5 variables to describe every point. You can keep doing this, ad infinitum. Any time you add another independent variable, you are creating a higher-dimensional object. One application of these is in machine learning. For example, it is easy to see that 2 points on the XY plane are linearly separable - because you can separate them with a line. But the same math that you use to determine this can be applied in N dimensions. Another example is training - if you have a neural network with N inputs, it becomes a linear function of f(a, b, c, d, ...n) where a, b, c, d, up to n are its inputs. If we put the values in with the weights we have selected, we can subtract the 'expected' value to get the 'error' value. This creates a hypersurface that we call the error surface. We can use calculus in 3 dimensions to find the gradient of such a surface intuitively - this is important because the gradient is the direction of steepest ascent, so the negative of the gradient is the direction of steepest descent, and since we are talking about an error hypersurface, we can use gradient descent to pretty much ski down the error surface to some minimum point. This can all be extended to N dimensions (which is a good thing, too, because a lot of neural networks have millions and millions of neurons!).\n\nOh, tesseracts. Yeah, these are just points extended into N dimensions, where N = 4. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone ever read \"A wrinkle in time\"? I read that book in 7th grade and i still remember how the book talked about tesseracting through the fourth demension aka travelling from point a to point b by cutting the distance in half by a fold. For example if an ant had to cross the newspaper what would be the easiest way? take one end and the other and put them next to each other (close the paper) and the ant steps to the other side. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My geometry teacher put it this way about a depiction of a hypercube:\n\n\"It's a 2-dimensional drawing of a 3-dimensional model of a 4-dimensional cube.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "5 year old here. I think the most confusing part about the depiction of a 4th dimensional object is that it appears like a 3 dimensional object that is moving. Does this depiction indicate that the movement is the 4th dimension? What is the purpose for depicting a 4th dimensional object? What about this depiction indicates whether or not it is actually 4th dimensional?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here is a picture of a cube.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe small square in the middle is the far away face, it's just smaller looking because it's farther away. But if you didn't know it was a cube, and could only think in two dimensions, you would say \"that's just a small square inside of a large square, does this mean that the third dimension points outward?\" No, the third dimension does not point outward, it's just a way of depicting that the other face is farther away. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might help visualize a 4th dimension:\n\nLet's say that you have a cube in orthographic perspective. We imagine the x, y and z directions on that cube. If you look into the end of that cube (so that z is currently toward and away from us, y is up/down, and x is side to side), and pretend that there is a fleck of dirt in that cube, you could easily tell where that fleck is on the x and y axes. You cannot, however tell where it is on the z axis so easily. It is only when you turn the cube that you can infer more information about the placement on the z axis.\n\nTo apply this to a 4th dimension, you cannot tell where a particular particle is in the 4th dimension with our 3D frame of reference. two dirt specks may seem very close to each other in 3D space, and two others may seem farther apart, but the first two may be farther apart than the second two, when you take the 4th dimension into account.\n\nLook at [this](_URL_0_) link if you want my more speculative approach.\n\nEdit: forgot the link.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Around halfway of the video, there's a very interesting representation of a 4D object, it might help you a little bit:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as visualizing 4D goes we are limited because of our confinement to three dimensions but we can still make analogies based on how we do see.\n\nAs three dimensional beings our vision is made up of 2 dimensional vertical slices, the only way we intuit that we are in 3 dimensions is by things like shadows and perspective and the way those 2 dimensional slices change as we move in one of the six directions that we can move in.\n\nSo it stands to reason that a 4D being would see in 3 dimensional slices, meaning that if a four dimensional being were watching you right now, he or she would be able to see every side of you at the same time. \n\nWe as 3 dimensional beings have to turn around to see behind us or walk around an object to see what the back of it looks like, a 4D being would have no such limitation. They could see your face, your back, the top of your head, and the soles of your feet all at once. In addition to that they could see inside of you without having to cut you open.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is less scientific than it probably should be, but I had a professor who always explained those images of tesseracts as being like representations of three-dimentional shadows. And the animated gif. on [this](_URL_0_) page is like looking at the shadow of an object that is rotating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8398",
"title": "Dimension",
"section": "Section::::In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term \"dimension\" is as in: \"A tesseract \"has four dimensions\"\", mathematicians usually express this as: \"The tesseract \"has dimension 4\"\", or: \"The dimension of the tesseract \"is\" 4\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7479772",
"title": "The Tesseract (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The term 'tesseract' is used for the three-dimensional net of the four-dimensional hypercube rather than the hypercube itself. It is a metaphor for the characters' inability to understand the causes behind the events which shape their lives: they can only visualize the superficial world they inhabit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31112",
"title": "Tesseract",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In geometry, the tesseract is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube; the tesseract is to the cube as the cube is to the square. Just as the surface of the cube consists of six square faces, the hypersurface of the tesseract consists of eight cubical cells. The tesseract is one of the six convex regular 4-polytopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "710426",
"title": "Polycube",
"section": "Section::::Octacubes and hypercube unfoldings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "The tesseract (four-dimensional hypercube) has eight cubes as its facets, and just as the cube can be unfolded into a hexomino, the tesseract can be unfolded into an octacube. One unfolding, in particular, mimics the well-known unfolding of a cube into a Latin cross: it consists of four cubes stacked one on top of each other, with another four cubes attached to the exposed square faces of the second-from-top cube of the stack, to form a three-dimensional double cross shape. Salvador Dalí used this shape in his 1954 painting \"Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus)\" and it is described in Robert A. Heinlein's 1940 short story \"And He Built a Crooked House\". In honor of Dalí, this octacube has been called the \"Dalí cross\". It can tile space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31112",
"title": "Tesseract",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The tesseract is also called an eight-cell, C, (regular) octachoron, octahedroid, cubic prism, and tetracube. It is the four-dimensional hypercube, or 4-cube as a part of the dimensional family of hypercubes or measure polytopes. Coxeter labels it the formula_1 polytope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "562977",
"title": "Charles Howard Hinton",
"section": "Section::::Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Hinton's advocacy of the tesseract as a means to perceive higher dimensions spawned a long lineage of science fiction, fantasy, and spiritual works that similarly refer to the tesseract as a way to understand—or even access—higher dimensions, including Charles Leadbeater's \"Clairvoyance\" (1899), Claude Bragdon's \"A Primer of Higher Space\" (1913), Algernon Blackwood's \"Victim of Higher Space\" (1914), H. P. Lovecraft's \"The Shadow Out of Time\" (1935), Robert Heinlein's \"—And He Built a Crooked House—\" (1941), Madeleine L'Engle's \"A Wrinkle in Time\" (1962), and Christopher Nolan's film \"Interstellar\" (2014).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3715231",
"title": "Cantellated tesseract",
"section": "Section::::Cantitruncated tesseract.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "In geometry, the cantitruncated tesseract or great rhombated tesseract is a uniform 4-polytope (or uniform 4-dimensional polytope) that is bounded by 56 cells: 8 truncated cuboctahedra, 16 truncated tetrahedra, and 32 triangular prisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bzamp4
|
why do instruments sound different if sound is just vibrating air?
|
[
{
"answer": "It all has to do with what they call timbre.\n\nDifferent instruments may be capable of playing the same note or pitch, but they all do it differently. Not only is the pitch (or frequency of the note) being sounded, but also other frequencies get sounded, too. These might be overtones, or multiples of the intended frequency, or other non-multiple frequencies. Which additional frequencies are sounded, and their relative strengths compared to the pitch frequency, color the overall sound. That is the instrument’s timbre.\n\nThe timbre is a function of many properties of the instrument. An instrument that creates sound through cavity resonance, like a clarinet, will excite different frequencies than an instrument that creates sound through vibrating a string, like an electric guitar. And then different models of the same instrument can excite different frequencies through the use of different materials, or different playing skills, or slight changes in design, etc.\n\nHope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14439",
"title": "Harmonic series (music)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously. At the frequencies of each vibrating mode, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic series (see harmonic series (mathematics)).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664363",
"title": "Consonance and dissonance",
"section": "Section::::Instruments producing non-harmonic overtone series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Musical instruments like bells and xylophones, called Idiophones, are played such that their relatively stiff, non-trivial mass is excited to vibration by means of a blow. This contrasts with violins, flutes, or drums, where the vibrating medium is a light, supple string, column of air, or membrane. The overtones of the inharmonic series produced by such instruments may differ greatly from that of the rest of the orchestra, and the consonance or dissonance of the harmonic intervals as well .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333081",
"title": "Piano acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Inharmonicity and piano size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Any vibrating thing produces vibrations at a number of frequencies above the fundamental pitch. These are called overtones. When the overtones are integer multiples (e.g., 2×, 3× ... 6× ... ) of the fundamental frequency (called harmonics), then - neglecting damping - the oscillation is periodic—i.e., it vibrates exactly the same way over and over. Humans seem to enjoy the sound of periodic oscillations. For this reason, many musical instruments, including pianos, are designed to produce nearly periodic oscillations, that is, to have overtones as close as possible to the harmonics of the fundamental tone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14439",
"title": "Harmonic series (music)",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Partial, harmonic, fundamental, inharmonicity, and overtone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as \"harmonics\", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity. The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3628115",
"title": "Acoustic music",
"section": "Section::::Types of acoustic instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Acoustic instruments can be split into six groups: string instruments, wind instruments, percussion, other instruments, ensemble instruments, and unclassified instruments. String instruments have a tightly stretched string, that, when set in motion creates energy at (almost) harmonically related frequencies. Wind instruments are in the shape of a pipe and energy is supplied as an air stream into the pipe. Percussion instruments make sound when they are struck, as with a hand or a stick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24638",
"title": "Percussion instrument",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:By musical function or orchestration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "For example, some percussion instruments (such as the marimba and timpani) produce an obvious fundamental pitch and can therefore play melody and serve harmonic functions in music. Other instruments (such as crash cymbals and snare drums) produce sounds with such complex overtones and a wide range of prominent frequencies that no pitch is discernible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41232",
"title": "Harmonic",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials (component simple tones or sinusoidal waves), but the untrained human ear typically does not perceive those partials as separate phenomena. Rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Many acoustic oscillators, such as the human voice or a bowed violin string, produce complex tones that are more or less periodic, and thus are composed of partials that are near matches to integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and therefore resemble the ideal harmonics and are called \"harmonic partials\" or simply \"harmonics\" for convenience (although it's not strictly accurate to call a partial a harmonic, the first being real and the second being ideal).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6m0ytn
|
there are people who claim that drinking beer gives them a "happy-go-lucky" drunk, but drinking whiskey or liquor makes them a "mean" drunk. what could cause this?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's mostly due to accelerated drunkenness. 1 shot of 80 proof liquor is roughly equivalent to 1 beer. So taking a shot is like drinking a whole beer in a matter of seconds. Even if you sip liquor, most people will end up drinking it faster if you are out with the boyz. So people that claim that a certain liquor makes them act a certain way probably just got drunk faster than they expected. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The active ingredient in all of these beverages is alcohol, specifically ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol. The only real difference between getting drunk via beer vs. getting drunk via \"spirits\" (whiskey, and other liquors, are also known as spirits) is that the alcohol in spirits is more concentrated, so the beverage is smaller, so one can consume it faster, then consume one beverage after another, and therefore get intoxicated faster. But people *expect* different beverages to have different effects, so they behave accordingly. It's a myth. Alcohol is alcohol.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797132",
"title": "Alcohol and cardiovascular disease",
"section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms of alcohol cardioprotection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "There is a lack of medical consensus about whether moderate consumption of beer, wine, or distilled spirits has a stronger association with heart disease. Studies suggest that each is effective, with none having a clear advantage. Most researchers now believe that the most important ingredient is the alcohol itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "754199",
"title": "Beer Bad",
"section": "Section::::Writing and acting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20175388",
"title": "Malcolm Gluck",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "In January 2009, Gluck made a series of contentions on the nature of beer drinkers in the \"Word of Mouth\" pages of \"The Guardian\", in an article asserting the rising numbers of wine drinkers in Britain, stating that \"beer is only drunk by losers and sadsacks, unsexy people who care nothing for their minds or their bodies,\" and, \"are also terrible lovers, awful husbands, and untidy flatmates\". The statements drew prompt responses from beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole, with Gluck challenged by Cole to appear at a beer and food pairing event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948043",
"title": "Alcoholic drink",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Long-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1307,
"text": "Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all global deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. Even moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. No professional medical association recommends that people who are non-drinkers should start drinking wine. Another long-term effect of alcohol usage, when also used with tobacco products, is alcohol acting as a solvent, which allows harmful chemicals in tobacco to get inside the cells that line the digestive tract. Alcohol slows these cells' healing ability to repair the damage to their DNA caused by the harmful chemicals in tobacco. Alcohol contributes to cancer through this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60714624",
"title": "Suicide in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Risk Factors.:Alcohol Consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Evidence showed that there was a high amount of alcohol consumption by young people usually in the weekend and public holiday as they might drink when hanging with friends or having a party (Arensman et al., 2016). Young people who drank at an earlier age might also make them drink regularly and more in the future (Departments of Public Health, 2001). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29981150",
"title": "Drunk drivers",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of drunk drivers.:Personality traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "It is also common for offenders to use drinking as a coping mechanism, not necessarily for social or enjoyment reasons, when they are antisocial in nature and have a father with a history of alcoholism. Offenders who begin drinking at an earlier age for thrills and \"fun\" are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more \"normal\" circumstances. This group was older when they began drinking, came from families without a history of alcoholism, were relatively well-behaved as children, were not as physically and emotionally affected by alcohol when compared with the rest of the study, and had the less emotional complications, such as anxiety and depression. The smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is generally considered less than desirable circumstances, or \"not normal\". They tended to start drinking heavily earlier in life and \"exhibited more premorbid risk factors, had a more severe substance abuse and psychosocial impairment.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948043",
"title": "Alcoholic drink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Alcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes euphoria, reduces anxiety, and improves sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness, stupor, unconsciousness, or death. Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, cancer, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Alcohol is one of the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, with about 33% of people being current drinkers. , women on average drink 0.7 drinks and males 1.7 drinks a day. In 2015, among Americans, 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, 70% had drunk it in the last year, and 56% in the last month. Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5u88pe
|
If the population of rome was so large in its early history, why is there so little written down?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why are you equating size of settlement with presence of surviving written literature? The two are in no way correlated. We have a plethora of sources from democratic Athens, including tragedy, comedy, history, and philosophy, and that city was absolutely tiny compared to Rome as far as population. We have only scraps from her contemporary equals in population--Corinth, Miletus, Syracuse, for instance.\n\nMeanwhile, Carthage was one of the biggest cities in the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic period and barely a word of written literature survives from there. Throw in Gadir (Cadiz) as well. Or Tyre, or Sidon. The list of what survives today has more to do with subject matter, tastes, and the accident of preservation.\n\nThere were plenty of texts being written in the early Roman period. Livy drew upon the now-lost works of Quintius Fabius Pictor (3rd century) and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. Ennius and Naevius both wrote epic poems on Roman subjects, only fragments of which survive. Plautus and Terrence are well-preserved examples of early Roman comedy, but they were just two of many poets who were producing for the stage at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "867792",
"title": "Battle of the Allia",
"section": "Section::::Size of the belligerent forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The size of the population of Rome at the time also needs to be considered. In its early days, Rome was still a city-state of only regional significance, and its territory did not stretch beyond 50 km (30 mi) from the city. Cornell notes that the estimates of the population of Rome in the late 6th century BC, based on the size of its territory range between 25,000 and 50,000, and thinks that the more likely figure is 25,000-40,000. The seminal work by Fraccaro gives a pool of military manpower of 9,000 men of military age (aged between 17 and 47), which would require a minimum population of 30,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "867792",
"title": "Battle of the Allia",
"section": "Section::::Size of the belligerent forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Archaeological evidence shows that in the 5th century BC, there was an economic downturn. That would have precluded considerable population growth. The territory of Rome had increased by 75% by the early 4th century, but the bulk of the increase was caused by the recent conquest of the city of Veii and her territory, and its population did not have Roman citizenship, a requirement to serve in the Roman army. Such considerations make it unlikely that the size of the population of Roman citizens would have been large enough to provide a military pool of 24,000 or more soldiers at the time of the Battle of the Allia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47948609",
"title": "Cura Annonae",
"section": "Section::::End of the Cura Annonae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "The population of the city of Rome peaked at possibly more than one million people from the late 1st century to the 3rd century CE and thereafter declined by 400 CE to 700,000-800,000, between 400,000 and 500,000 in 452, and thereafter to a population estimated at only 100,000 in 500 CE, declining still further thereafter in the Middle Ages. Due to its \"decreasing population, smaller army, and more land to feed its population,\" Rome did not need many of its watermills, storehouses, bakeries, and port and transportation facilities. Writing in the early 6th century, Cassiodorus noted the large decrease in the population and the number of watermills. \"The vast numbers of the Roman people in old time are evidenced by the extensive Provinces from which their food supply was drawn ...and the enormous multitude of mills, which could only have been made for use, not for ornament.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8430775",
"title": "Deforestation during the Roman period",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Housing and building.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "At one point it is estimated that the Roman Empire had a population of 56.8 million people and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a population that was not matched in size in Europe until London in the 19th century). With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for the urbanized communities of the Roman world, resource consumption became exponentially extensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9843",
"title": "Ephesus",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman period.:The Roman population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Until recently the population of Ephesus in Roman times was estimated to number up to 225,000 people by Broughton. More recent scholarship regards these estimates as unrealistic. Such a large estimate would require population densities seen in only a few ancient cities, or extensive settlement outside the city walls. This would have been impossible at Ephesus because of the mountain ranges, coastline and quarries which surrounded the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47948609",
"title": "Cura Annonae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The population of the city of Rome declined precipitously during the 5th, the last century of the Western Roman Empire, and 6th centuries AD. It is unknown when the Cura Annonae ended. It may have persisted into the 6th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "823343",
"title": "Late antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Rome went from a population of 800,000 in the beginning of the period to a population of 30,000 by the end of the period, the most precipitous drop coming with the breaking of the aqueducts during the Gothic War. A similar though less marked decline in urban population occurred later in Constantinople, which was gaining population until the outbreak of plague in 541. In Europe there was also a general decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of late antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe, and a reversion to more of a subsistence economy. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a greater degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce and specialized production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s9bxp
|
why isn't the data on a black box saved 'in the cloud'?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some of the newer devices can upload data, but it's a recent development that hasn't yet spread to every airline in every territory.\n\nIt's a lot of data to push, if you don't have a good connection. Many planes just don't have that sort of bandwidth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No doubt it will be one day.\n\nYou'd probably need a dedicated satellite constellation to do it though. Very high cost that no one airline would ever front.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because all you care about is the last 5 minutes and that's not going to upload during a crash.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17398267",
"title": "Backblaze",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "For Backblaze B2 Cloud Storage, data is stored in Backblaze Storage Pods and Vaults using Reed-Solomon erasure coding. Encryption is handled entirely by the user and client software used to manage the stored data, making it immune to government subpoena or data breach and protecting the data during transfer and ultimate storage in Backblaze's data centers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47825086",
"title": "Dark data",
"section": "Section::::Relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Useful data may become dark data after it becomes irrelevant, as it is not processed fast enough. This is called \"perishable insights\" in \"live flowing data\". For example, if the geolocation of a customer is known to a business, the business can make offer based on the location, however if this data is not processed immediately, it may be irrelevant in the future. According to IBM, about 60 percent of data loses its value immediately. Not analysing data immediately and letting it go 'dark' can lead to significant losses for an organisation in terms of not identifying fraud, for example, fast enough and then only addressing the issue when it is too late.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11295734",
"title": "Cloud storage",
"section": "Section::::Potential concerns.:Other concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cloud storage is a rich resource for both hackers and national security agencies. Because the cloud holds data from many different users and organizations, hackers see it as a very valuable target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53296282",
"title": "Cloudbleed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "As a result, data from Cloudflare customers was leaked out and went to any other Cloudflare customers that happened to be in the server's memory on that particular moment. Some of this data was cached by search engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40572678",
"title": "Object storage",
"section": "Section::::Market adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Cloud storage has become pervasive as many new web and mobile applications choose it as a common way to store binary data. As the storage back-end to many popular applications like Smugmug and Dropbox, AWS S3 has grown to massive scale, citing over 2-trillion objects stored in April 2013. Two months later, Microsoft claimed that they stored even more objects in Azure at 8.5 trillion. By April 2014, Azure claimed over 20-trillion objects stored. Windows Azure Storage manages Blobs (user files), Tables (structured storage), and Queues (message delivery) and counts them all as objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43204134",
"title": "Cloud computing issues",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is on the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or even delete information. This becomes a major concern as these service providers employ administrators, which can leave room for potential unwanted disclosure of information on the cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27138990",
"title": "Fabasoft Folio Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "All Folio Cloud data is saved in data centers in Europe, where European standards for security, reliability and data protection apply. Cloud data is kept permanently synchronized in two mirrored data centers in Austria so that a fail over is possible at any time. A backup of data is constantly maintained in a third data center. Further data center locations are being integrated in Germany and Switzerland and in future users will be able to decide at which data center location their data is stored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4a183y
|
if there are over 7 billion people in the world & only a limited number of features on the face (eyes, nose, chin, etc.)that can determine how a person looks, why is it that almost everyone looks different?
|
[
{
"answer": "There may be a limited number of features on human face, but there is a near infinite number of tiny changes you can make to them. \n\nSubtle changes in size, shape, and position of each of the individual features all add up to give everyone their own unique look.\n\nRecognizing faces is immensely important for non-verbal human communication, as well as being able to identify friends and family, and therefore the human brain evolved to be very, very good at facial recognition. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's probably like a billion different 'face combinations' (?), people with wide eyes, different shape face, nose, ears, mouth, eyebrows, different colour eyes, skin tone, hair. Im assuming if two people looked exactly the same, changing just their eye colour/hair or position of their mouth will probably make them look 'completely' different",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you don't know seven billion people. In fact, you probably don't even know a million either, maybe a few thousands. So, you know a few thousands different faces, that's not a lot. If we had ten kinds of nose, ten kinds of mouth and ten different hairstyles that's 1000 faces already. Surely there's more kinds of variation. \nNow, if you actually knew a billion people, I'm sure you'd find some almost identical, beyond human capacity to distinguish. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33932515",
"title": "Social cue",
"section": "Section::::Use in communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Judgments made by others are greatly influenced by facial appearance from multiple cues. There is a wealth of information that people gather simply from a person's face in the blink of an eye, such as gender, emotion, physical attractiveness, competence, threat level and trustworthiness. One of the most highly developed skills that humans have is facial perception. The face is one of the greatest representations of a person. A person's face allows others to gain information about that person, which is helpful when it comes to social interaction. The fusiform face area of the human brain plays a large role in face perception and recognition; however it does not provide useful information for processing emotion recognition, emotional tone, shared attention, impulsive activation of person knowledge and trait implications based on facial appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285294",
"title": "Facial feminization surgery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Faces contain secondary sex characteristics that make male and female faces readily distinguishable, including the shape of the forehead, nose, lips, cheeks, chin, and jawline; the features in the upper third of the face seem to be the most important, but subtle changes in the lips can have a strong effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3765596",
"title": "Chernoff face",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Chernoff faces, invented by Herman Chernoff in 1973, display multivariate data in the shape of a human face. The individual parts, such as eyes, ears, mouth and nose represent values of the variables by their shape, size, placement and orientation. The idea behind using faces is that humans easily recognize faces and notice small changes without difficulty. Chernoff faces handle each variable differently. Because the features of the faces vary in perceived importance, the way in which variables are mapped to the features should be carefully chosen (e.g. eye size and eyebrow-slant have been found to carry significant weight).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29029594",
"title": "Human head",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485309",
"title": "Face perception",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The proportions and expressions of the human face are important to identify origin, emotional tendencies, health qualities, and some social information. From birth, faces are important in the individual's social interaction. Face perceptions are very complex as the recognition of facial expressions involves extensive and diverse areas in the brain. Sometimes, damaged parts of the brain can cause specific impairments in understanding faces or prosopagnosia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53234",
"title": "Face",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9769425",
"title": "Social perception",
"section": "Section::::Observation.:Persons – physical influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Although society tries to train people not to judge others based on their physical traits, as social perceivers, we cannot help but be influenced by others' hair, skin color, height, weight, style of clothes, pitch in voice, etc., when making a first impression. People have the tendency to judge others by associating certain facial features with specific personality types. For example, studies indicate that people are perceived as stronger, more assertive, and competent if they have small eyes, low eyebrows, an angular chin, wrinkled skin, and a small forehead. People tend to associate baby-faced people with impotence and harmlessness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uixqj
|
when big movie producers send out movies to be reviewed by critics, shouldn't it be easy to catch who uploaded the dvdscr?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a decent idea.\n\nAmazon tried to do something simillar for their e-book sale, they thought of placing 1-2 random spelling mistakes in each one, to see who uploaded something at a torrent tracker. But eventually they abandoned the plan. \n\nI'm not answering your question though :( ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4097569",
"title": "Everyone's a Critic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "By clicking on the name of critics closest to your film tastes, you get a list of the movies they've seen that you haven't; in order from their highest rated films, down to the lowest rated. This method allows critics to not only use recommendations for what movies to go see, also what movies to avoid seeing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11065202",
"title": "Film criticism",
"section": "Section::::Online film criticism.:User-submitted reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "A number of websites allow Internet users to submit movie reviews and aggregate them into an average. Community-driven review sites have allowed the common movie goer to express their opinion on films. Many of these sites allow users to rate films on a 0 to 10 scale, while some rely on the star rating system of 1–5, 0–5 or 0–4 stars. The votes are then culled into an overall rating and ranking for any particular film. Some of these community driven review sites include Reviewer, Movie Attractions, Flixster, FilmCrave, Flickchart and Everyone's a Critic. Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic aggregate both scores from accredited critics and those submitted by users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19098",
"title": "History of Malawi",
"section": "Section::::One-party rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "All movies shown in theatres were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board. Content considered unsuitable – particularly nudity or political content – was edited. Mail was also monitored by the Censorship Board. Some overseas mail was opened, read, and sometimes edited. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed by censors. Once edited, the movie was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing, and sent back to the owner. Telephone calls were monitored and disconnected if the conversation was politically critical. Items to be sold in bookstores were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out or blacked out of magazines such as \"Newsweek\" and \"Time\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1202625",
"title": "MovieTome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Each movie information page at Movie Tome included cast, crew, synopsis, notes, quotes, goofs, links, and a forum for discussion of the movie. There was also the ability to rate a movie from 1 to 10, the average vote being displayed on the left side of the guide, as well a link to reviews for the movie. Titles were added by users, and an individual user could request data manager status for titles he/she was interested in preserving from error or vandalism. The majority of titles on the site were of recent vintage, however, with a wide smattering of pre-2000 titles, largely American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11065202",
"title": "Film criticism",
"section": "Section::::Journalistic criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, broadcast media, and online publications, mainly review new releases, although also review older films. An important task for these reviews is to inform readers on whether or not they would want to see the film. A film review will typically explain the premise of the film before discussing its merits. The verdict is often summarised with a form of rating. Numerous rating systems exist, such as 5- or 4-star scales, academic-style grades and pictograms (such as in the \"San Francisco Chronicle\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822930",
"title": "The Movies",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:\"The Movies Online\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "\"The Movies Online\" was the online portal for those who wished to release their movies to other gamers. As well as its own section on the general Lionhead forums, TMO allowed players to upload their own movies to the Internet for others to review and criticize. Reviews allowed users to rate movies from 1 to 5 stars, as well as leave a comment. When uploading a movie, the player could place the movie into one of five different categories: Romance, Action, Comedy, Horror, and Sci-Fi. This translated into Virtual Credits (VCs), a form of virtual currency that was used to buy new props, costumes, and sets, and to advertise online movies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4552880",
"title": "Film distribution",
"section": "Section::::Film release.:Simultaneous release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "In the course of the years simultaneous release approaches have gained both praise, with Mark Cuban claiming movies should simultaneously be made available on all media allowing viewers to choose whether to see it at home or at the theater, and disapproval, with director M. Night Shyamalan claiming it could potentially destroy the \"magic\" of moviegoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qtynz
|
why are fruits that can be grown on the east coast so much more expensive to purchase than produce in california?
|
[
{
"answer": "Transport is basically cheap. You might add a nickel a pound to transport a truckload across the country.\n\nTransporting by ship might be a nickel a ton per thousand miles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/friend1949 explained why the shipping costs don't add significantly to the price, but that doesn't explain why the east coast produce is *more* expensive.\n\nPart of the answer is that the farms on the east coast are smaller, and don't have the economies of scale. But also locally grown produce is *perceived* as being better, thus allowing stores to charge more. It *is* better in many cases, but the perception is what's important and that applies across the board. Two well known examples of being better are fresh picked strawberries and tomatoes. (I think it was Garrison Keillor who described the pink, flavorless, mass-produced tomatoes as \"strip mined.\")\n\nApples, which you mentioned, are more interesting because they have names attached to their varieties, some of which are well-known trademarks, valuable as such. Most of the Oregon apples that I see on the east coast are Red Delicious - consistent, predictable, with a long shelf life, and a slightly sweet but bland flavor. Kids are very happy with them, but all it took was one trip to a Pennsylvania apple orchard during apple season to show me how boring they are.\n\nCompare that to Honeycrisp, a more recent variety that's both patented and trademarked by the University of Minnesota. (According to Wikipedia, the patent has expired in the US, and the trademark may be at risk.) It's usually sweeter than the better known varieties, has a bit more flavor, and decent shelf life. For whatever reason, their marketing has been successful and it commands a premium (often a dollar per pound more in the stores I frequent compared to other north east varieties). \n\nI also tried some Sweet Tango apples this year. This is a newer variety, also from U. Minn, and descended from the Honeycrisp. But, in spite of having much smaller supplies, it was cheaper than the Honeycrisp. Why? Because it's not as well known. Maybe someday it will be. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supply and demand. California farming operations are on an industrialized scale, and some fruits and vegetables are produced in multiple growing seasons a year. Fruits and vegetables produced in California are grown for the whole country, while a lot of east coast farms are geared towards local distribution, thus California markets are saturated with extra product year around, decreasing their value in local markets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2363031",
"title": "Economy of California",
"section": "Section::::Sectors.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Compared to other states, California has a large agriculture industry (including fruit, vegetables, dairy, and wine production), but at less than 2% of the GDP, it makes a relatively minor direct contribution to the state's overall economy. The total economic contribution is likely more than double this value (see below). Airborne exports of perishable fruits and vegetables amounted to approximately $579 million in 2007. By way of comparison, California exported more agricultural products by air that year than 23 other states did by all modes of transport. California agriculture is dependent on undocumented labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2936787",
"title": "History of rail transportation in California",
"section": "Section::::Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of fruit trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild berries or grew on small bushes. Spanish missionaries brought fruit seeds over from Europe, many of which had been introduced to the Old World from Asia following earlier expeditions to the continent; orange, grape, apple, peach, pear, and fig seeds were among the most prolific of the imports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46974828",
"title": "Cider in the United States",
"section": "Section::::By region.:California hard cider.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "California is a large contributor to the agriculture business in the United States, growing much of the nation's fruit and vegetables. Settlers coming west over the Sierra Nevadas brought with them their own seeds and saplings in covered wagons, especially to areas north of Sacramento. Very few of these young apple trees would have been of cider making provenance, however their introduction was crucial to intensifying agricultural production in what would become the western United States, contributing to the variety of citrus fruit, grapes, figs, and olives that Spanish settlers had begun in Southern California in the 1700s. New varieties of apples better adapted to the cool and rainy climate slowly were developed, most notably by breeders like Albert Etter and Luther Burbank. During World War II, California often produced the bulk of apples for consumption by troops using just one cultivar: Gravenstein, brought to California by Russian settlers in the 19th century. much of the production was centered around Sonoma and the trees were cut down to make way for vineyards in the subsequent decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45544699",
"title": "Specialty foods",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.:California.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In 1998, the U.S. state of California had the second-highest amount of specialty and gourmet foods of all U.S. states. This has been attributed as possible due a diverse variety of unique fruits and vegetables that can be grown in Southern California. Another possibility for the high quantity and diversity of specialty foods in California is that food innovations often occur in the state, as has occurred in other sectors such as health food and organic produce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11512137",
"title": "Sphaceloma perseae",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The Californian avocado industry produces approximately 95% of the avocados grown in the United States, and approximately 10% of total global production. From this production, nearly all fruit is consumed within the U.S., very little is exported out of the country. Pest importance has risen significantly over recent years, as production struggles to keep up with rising demand. Costs from integrated pest management may soon outweigh the returns from small scale orchards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72844",
"title": "Atacama Region",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Over recent decades, fresh fruit also emerged as regional export item, when the Copiapó and Huasco valleys joined Chile’s fruit-growing boom. They enjoy a comparative advantage because, thanks to the sunny climate, fruit ripens earlier than in the rest of the country and reaches northern hemisphere markets first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8077754",
"title": "Culture of California",
"section": "Section::::Cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Produce plays an important role in California cuisine. California encompasses many diverse climates and therefore is able to grow many types of produce. Additionally, California's Central Valley contains some of the most fertile soil in the world. California is the number one U.S. producer of many common fruits and vegetables, including broccoli, spinach, tomatoes and avocados, amongst others. A health-conscious culture also contributes to the popularity of fresh produce. Fruit festivals, such as the National Orange Show Festival in San Bernardino County, are common throughout the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wo9y2
|
why can't you compress a rar file with rar or zip?
|
[
{
"answer": "Compression is a technique for finding patterns in a file and writing it in a way that takes more space. For example instead of writing \"aaaaaaaa\" you may write 8*\"a\" which is much shorter. Or instead of writing \"abcdefgh\" you may write \"a\"-\"h\". However if you have already compressed a file and written it in the shortest way you can think of then another compression program will not have much luck trying to compress it further.\n\nIf you think of your file as a sponge. It consists of a sponge material and a lot of air. This is practical for cleaning but not very practical for transport. So you put in though a vacuum sealing machine to suck all the air out and put on a plastic seal to keep all the air out. Now the sponge is much smaller. But you read of another way to do it by using a vice. However when you put the already compressed sponge in the vice you can not get it much smaller. This is like trying to compress an already compressed file.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Software developer here,\n\nCompression works by reducing repetition. So if you're compressing \"aaaaaaabbbb\", it would look something like \"7a4b\", for example. There's not much else to reduce there. This is, of course, a simplistic example of compression. More sophisticated algorithms will perform a series of matrix transforms (arrange the data into rows and columns, then start rotating rows and columns like a rubix cube, or change the values in a mathematical way) in order to align the data into bigger sets of repeating sequences, and then reduce that similar to my example above. The output is the transformed and reduced data, and a matrix to transform the data back to it's original form. But in the end, there's just nothing more to reduce, and you end up with a larger file because you have to store the meta-data for the encompassing compression format.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188488",
"title": "Zip (file format)",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 598,
"text": " files are archives that store multiple files. ZIP allows contained files to be compressed using many different methods, as well as simply storing a file without compressing it. Each file is stored separately, allowing different files in the same archive to be compressed using different methods. Because the files in a ZIP archive are compressed individually it is possible to extract them, or add new ones, without applying compression or decompression to the entire archive. This contrasts with the format of compressed tar files, for which such random-access processing is not easily possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322689",
"title": "7-Zip",
"section": "Section::::File manager.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "7-Zip comes with a file manager along with the standard archiver tools. The file manager has a toolbar with options to create an archive, extract an archive, test an archive to detect errors, copy, move, and delete files, and open a file properties menu exclusive to 7-Zip. The file manager, by default, displays hidden files because it does not follow Windows Explorer's policies. The tabs show name, modification time, original and compressed sizes, attributes, and comments (4DOS codice_3 format).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888029",
"title": "Solid compression",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.:Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "On the other hand, getting a single file out of a solid archive originally required processing all the files before it, so modifying solid archives could be slow and inconvenient. Later versions of 7-zip use a variable solid block size, so that only a limited amount of data must be processed in order to extract one file. Parameters control the maximum solid block window size, the number of files in a block, and whether blocks are separated by file extension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322689",
"title": "7-Zip",
"section": "Section::::Formats.:7z.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "By default, 7-Zip creates 7z-format archives with a codice_1 file extension. Each archive can contain multiple directories and files. As a \"container\" format, security or size reduction are achieved using a stacked combination of filters. These can consist of pre-processors, compression algorithms, and encryption filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6507929",
"title": "Self-extracting archive",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "There are several functionally equivalent but incompatible archive file formats, including ZIP, RAR, 7z and many others. Some programs can manage (create, extract, or modify) only one type of archive whilst many others can handle multiple formats. There is additionally a distinction between the file format and compression algorithm used. A single file format, such as 7z, can support multiple different compression algorithms including LZMA, LZMA2, PPMd and BZip2. For a decompression utility to correctly expand an archive of either the self-extracting or standard variety, it must be able to operate on both the file format and algorithm used. The exact executable code placed at the beginning of a self-extracting archive may therefore need to be varied depending on what options were used to create the archive. The decompression routines will be different for a LZMA 7z archive when compared with a LZMA2 7z archive, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12783",
"title": "Gzip",
"section": "Section::::File format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, which also uses DEFLATE. The ZIP format can hold collections of files without an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data, because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files (solid compression).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "359396",
"title": "7z",
"section": "Section::::Features and enhancements.:Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The 7z format does not allow extraction of some \"broken files\"—that is (for example) if one has the first segment of a series of 7z files, 7z cannot give the start of the files within the archive—it must wait until all segments are downloaded. The 7z format also lacks recovery records, making it vulnerable to data degradation unless used in conjunction with external solutions, like parchives, or within filesystems with robust error-correction. By way of comparison, zip files also lack a recovery feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mnehc
|
Considering the universe is constantly expanding, what would happen if you suddenly stopped in place?
|
[
{
"answer": "Weird as it might sound, the expansion of the Universe doesn't actually mean that you're moving at all. It means that the distance we measure between two fixed points will grow with time. It's a statement about how we measure distances - or in other words, the geometry of the Universe - rather than what the stuff in the Universe is doing. So there's no point asking what would happen if you stopped in place, because to a very good approximation (ignoring our motion around the Sun, within the galaxy, etc., which are negligible on cosmic scales), you're stopped already!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Weird as it might sound, the expansion of the Universe doesn't actually mean that you're moving at all. It means that the distance we measure between two fixed points will grow with time. It's a statement about how we measure distances - or in other words, the geometry of the Universe - rather than what the stuff in the Universe is doing. So there's no point asking what would happen if you stopped in place, because to a very good approximation (ignoring our motion around the Sun, within the galaxy, etc., which are negligible on cosmic scales), you're stopped already!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1540711",
"title": "Phantom energy",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Big Rip mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The expansion of the universe reaches an infinite degree in finite time, causing expansion to accelerate without bounds. This acceleration necessarily passes the speed of light (since it involves expansion of the universe itself, not particles moving within it), causing more and more objects to leave our observable universe faster than its expansion, as light and information emitted from distant stars and other cosmic sources cannot \"catch up\" with the expansion. As the observable universe expands, objects will be unable to interact with each other via fundamental forces, and eventually the expansion will prevent any action of forces between any particles, even within atoms, \"ripping apart\" the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23704170",
"title": "The Whole Shebang: A State-of-the-Universe(s) Report",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "universe will expand forever. Contrary to this he shows that if Ω is a number greater than 1 then the universe will eventually collapse into itself in a \"big crunch\", the opposite of the Big Bang. Ferris then shows, in a third possibility, that the universe is hanging in the balance in a \"critical density\" that says Ω looks to be \"exactly\" 1. Ferris makes the summation the universe will then always expand, but at a slower and slower rate that never completely comes to a halt. He follows this up with some exceptions that Ω is not always observed as \"exactly\" 1 by all cosmologists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 9: The Arrow of Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Because of the \"no boundary\" proposal for the Universe, after a period of expansion, the Universe will probably start to contract. It will probably not go backwards in time to a smoother, orderly state. The thermodynamic arrow in the contracting phase will not be as strong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1982016",
"title": "Paul Steinhardt",
"section": "Section::::Cyclic/ekpyrotic theory of the universe.:Early development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "According to this model, the current expanding universe emerges from a bounce that occurred 13.7 billion years ago and that is a result of the preceding (contracting) universe. The smoothing and flattening of the universe and the generation of density variations occur during the phase of slow contraction before the bounce and remain after the bounce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382",
"title": "Inflation (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical status.:Eternal inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In many models, the inflationary phase of the Universe's expansion lasts forever in at least some regions of the Universe. This occurs because inflating regions expand very rapidly, reproducing themselves. Unless the rate of decay to the non-inflating phase is sufficiently fast, new inflating regions are produced more rapidly than non-inflating regions. In such models, most of the volume of the Universe is continuously inflating at any given time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382",
"title": "Inflation (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Far future and ultimate fate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "If the expansion of the universe continues and it stays in its present form, eventually all but the nearest galaxies will be carried away from us by the expansion of space at such a velocity that our observable universe will be limited to our own gravitationally bound local galactic cluster. In the very long term (after many trillions – thousands of billions – of years, cosmic time), the Stelliferous Era will end, as stars cease to be born and even the longest-lived stars gradually die. Beyond this, all objects in the universe will cool and (with the possible exception of protons) gradually decompose back to their constituent particles and then into subatomic particles and very low level photons and other fundamental particles, by a variety of possible processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xt81u
|
Why were so many Nazi war criminals released very early into their prison sentences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not only were Nazi war criminals released relatively early into their sentences, but also Japanese war criminals. This largely took place in the mid-1950's, not only by the United States, but the majority of the Western Allies, who realised that there was limited political value in holding war criminals, who were seen as a relic of the immediate post-war disgust by the Allies of atrocities committed by the Axis forces.\n\nWhile there continued to be a desire to punish those who had committed such atrocities, it was also countered by a perceived need to move on from the war, and engage in the Cold War. \n\nEspecially in regards to Japanese war criminals, it was felt that releasing them would strengthen ties to Japan, and limit the perception of a punitive occupation. While I don't have similar sources for Nazi war criminals, it seems likely that the Western Allies held similar conceptions in relation to West Germany, which was the centre point of the Cold War at the time. \n\nAnother aspect was that the Soviets still had a large number of German POWs at the time. By releasing war criminals early, the Western Allies were able to claim that they had legitimate claims to representing freedom and international cooperation. The influence of international religious and pacifist organisations also influenced diplomats and politicians, as well as the general public, with a growing campaign for clemency. \n\nSources:\n\nWilson S., Cribb R., Trefalt B., and Aszkielowicz D., \"Japanese War Criminals and the Politics of Justice, 1945-1958\" 2017.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "510764",
"title": "Einsatzgruppen",
"section": "Section::::Einsatzgruppen Trial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Most of the perpetrators of Nazi war crimes were never charged, and returned unremarked to civilian life. The West German Central Prosecution Office of Nazi War Criminals only charged about a hundred former \"Einsatzgruppe\" members with war crimes. And as time went on, it became more difficult to obtain prosecutions; witnesses grew older and were less likely to be able to offer valuable testimony. Funding for trials was inadequate, and the governments of Austria and Germany became less interested in obtaining convictions for wartime events, preferring to forget the Nazi past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1863232",
"title": "Dachau trials",
"section": "Section::::Proceedings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "During almost three years, the American military tribunals tried 1,672 German alleged war criminals in 489 separate proceedings. In total 1,416 former members of the Nazi regime were convicted, of these, 297 received death sentences and 279 were sentenced to life in prison. All convicted prisoners were sent to War Criminals Prison #1 at Landsberg am Lech to serve their sentences or to be hanged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31316619",
"title": "German prisoners of war in the United States",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Prisoner resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1406,
"text": "Relying on Germans to discipline themselves, while efficient, also permitted committed groups of Nazi prisoners to exist despite American attempts to identify and separate them. Often members of the Afrika Korps who had been captured early in the war during Germany's greatest military successes led work stoppages, intimidated other prisoners, and held secret kangaroo court for those accused of disloyalty. Those convicted were sometimes attacked or killed in a process known as the \"Holy Ghost\"; most prisoner \"suicides\" were likely murders. While the American government executed 14 Germans after the war for murdering other prisoners in three incidents, hundreds of such murders may have occurred. Many devoted Nazis remained loyal to their political beliefs and expected a German victory until the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945; their faith amazed prisoners captured during and after the Battle of Normandy, who had more realistic views of the likely outcome of the war. In turn, the earlier prisoners often viewed the others with contempt, calling them \"traitors\" and \"deserters\". Fear of secret punishment by such men caused one prisoner to later state that \"there was more political freedom in the German army than in an American prison camp.\" He and other anti-Nazis were sent to Camp Ruston in Louisiana to protect them, while an Oklahoma camp received Waffen-SS and violent prisoners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58531081",
"title": "List of Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS divisions that committed war crimes in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Only very few soldiers of German divisions accused of war crimes ever stood trial and even fewer served time in jail after their conviction. Notable exceptions include Eduard Crasemann, commander of the 26th Panzer Division, which was involved in the Padule di Fucecchio massacre, and who was found guilty of war crimes by an Allied military tribunal and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment, dying in jail in 1950, and Walter Reder, sentenced to life in prison by an Italian military court for his role in the Marzabotto massacre as the commander of the SS-Panzer-Aufklärungsabteilung 16 of the 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS, who was released in 1985.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16467627",
"title": "World War I prisoners of war in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Conditions of detention.:Detention and sentencings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Sabotage, espionage, sexual crimes, and murder were the most serious crimes, consequently judged by military tribunals. These could impose the death penalty, which, however, was never used except in the case of four British prisoners shot on 24 June 1918 upon the order of two German military tribunals for having killed a German guard during an escape attempt. From 1915 to 1918, the high court martial of Württemberg handed down 655 sentences. Prison terms might be for one year for aggravated insubordination or one to three years for bodily harm to a superior. Harsher penalties could reach up to 15 years; for instance, this was the term given to two French prisoners who murdered a guard in 1916.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827286",
"title": "Germanic SS",
"section": "Section::::Post-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "After World War II, many Germanic SS members were tried by their respective countries for treason. Independent war crimes trials (outside the jurisdiction of the Nuremberg Trials) were conducted in several European countries, such as the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark, leading to several death sentences, e.g. for the commander of the Schalburg Corps Knud Børge Martinsen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37736370",
"title": "13 May 1945 German deserter execution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Nazi German prisoners of war formed a firing squad which carried out the sentence. They were supplied with captured German rifles and a three-ton truck by the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada, and escorted by Canadian Captain Robert K. Swinton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
127uc8
|
Sports in History
|
[
{
"answer": "Goodness, where to begin...\n\nIn 1770s-1780s Canada, though not competitive, people loved \"carioling,\" a form of sled dragged by horses. Ice skating was also very popular, though hockey wouldn't be invented for another century.\n\nIn the Thirteen Colonies, there were many sports played. One of the most popular was [rounders](_URL_2_), a predecessor of baseball. Trap-ball, or [bat and trap](_URL_1_), was also a popular game, where the batter would smack the trap, popping the ball into the air, and then whack the ball toward the opposite team, who tried to catch it.\n\nBritish soldiers during the Revolution played an early form of croquet, but cards and [teetotum](_URL_0_) gambling appears to have been more popular.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cricket. In the army twentieth century, everyone in the West Indies played cricket. For men, there were vast numbers of teams ranging from highly competitive clubs to social groups based around villages or farms. Even women could play - Learie Constantine rated his own sister as a good club-level wicketkeeper.\n\nGames were played whenever possible, though usually on weekends. In major grounds, like the maidan in Kolkata or the Queen's Park Savannah in Port of Spain, as many as seven or eight games could be played simultaneously. Even small villages would turn out a competitive XI.\n\nEven children started young. Garry Sobers, the greatest cricketer ever, honed his accuracy as a child when factory workers would put a penny on a stump and challenge him to hit it with a ball. Kids who were too poor to buy bats and balls would play with unfold fruit and sticks. \n\nI'm not sure if there's ever been a period or place in which a single game so utterly dominated cultural and social life. The anthropologist Orlando Patterson even suggested that West Indians hate cricket, with its symbols of white authority and British rule, yet compete so fiercely as it was one of the only areas in which they could challenge the colonial masters on a level playing field (no pun intended!).\n\nUnsurprisingly, one of the most influential books in the Carribean is *Beyond a Boundary*, by CLR James - perhaps the only instance of Marxist sportswriting in existence...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related:\n\n[What were the most popular sports in your fields (pun totally intended)? Is the game still around? How has it changed? Why did it die?] (_URL_3_)\n\n[What were and where were the earliest known sports and tests of skill?] (_URL_2_)\n\n[Over the last few centuries, how did organized sports grow from a pastime, to the crazy multi-billion dollar industry that it is today?] (_URL_1_)\n\n[Why isn't Soccer the most popular sport in the former 'white' dominions of the British Empire?] (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As Ken Burns describes it, everyone (lots of Americans) played baseball in the 20s. Indeed, even the Klan played baseball. They played Negro League minor league teams or other barnstorming, racialized teams, like the Hebrew All-Stars. They may have even had their own league in the 1950s. They may have had a league in the 1920s, which seems very likely considering the ambiance, but I have not found much that suggests that they did. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Currently writing my senior thesis on how modern football developed in England through the country's political transformation from 1860-1906. Interesting to see how football would edge out cricket and rugby to become the dominant spectator sport among the working and middle classes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52613646",
"title": "Globalization of sports",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The roots of modern sports can be found in the mid-nineteenth century in Great Britain and the United States where first professional sports were organised in mining and industrial towns and cities. Back then, sport competition was conducted mostly on local and national level. First signs of globalization in that matter appeared because of the global hegemonic position that Great Britain had in the nineteenth century. Due to the British influence, popularity of such sports as football, rugby or cricket grew rapidly throughout the world, very often replacing traditional local games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52936560",
"title": "Sébastien Nadot",
"section": "Section::::University work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "These works are to be placed in a wider debate: the dedicated authors of the history of sport (Norbert Elias, Allen Guttmann) consider that modern sport emerges only at the turn of the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, the specialists of medieval and modern periods claiming the right to use this concept, even though many of the criteria of modern sport do not end up before the nineteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31717",
"title": "United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Major sports, including association football, tennis, rugby union, rugby league, golf, boxing, netball, rowing and cricket, originated or were substantially developed in the UK and the states that preceded it. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th century Victorian Britain, in 2012, the President of the IOC, Jacques Rogge, stated; \"This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398318",
"title": "History of sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Study of the history of sport can teach lessons about social changes and about the nature of sport itself, as sport seems involved in the development of basic human skills (compare play). As one delves further back in history, dwindling evidence makes theories of the origins and purposes of sport more and more difficult to support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2747846",
"title": "Federation of International Sports Table Football",
"section": "Section::::TIMELINE Sports Table Football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The historical relevance of the sport, game and hobby of Sports Table Football/Soccer (aka Newfooty/Subbuteo), from the first day in 1925 till this day. Mentioned are main upcoming anniversaries in the timeline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13981",
"title": "Hockey",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "By the 19th century, the various forms and divisions of historic games began to differentiate and coalesce into the individual sports defined today. Organizations dedicated to the codification of rules and regulations began to form, and national and international bodies sprang up to manage domestic and international competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31797",
"title": "University of Oxford",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern period.:Students.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "M. C. Curthoys and H. S. Jones argue that the rise of organised sport was one of the most remarkable and distinctive features of the history of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was carried over from the athleticism prevalent at the public schools such as Eton, Winchester, Shrewsbury, and Harrow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38y3yx
|
Please steer me in the right direction about Civil wars in Republican Rome
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you elaborate a bit?\n\n* What's the paper for?\n* Where have you searched for sources?\n* What have you found so far?\n* What do you know already? (You do know *something*.)\n\nAnything else you may think is relevant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "354390",
"title": "Battle of Thapsus",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1474,
"text": "In 49 BC, the last Republican civil war was initiated after Julius Caesar defied senatorial orders to disband his army following the conclusion of hostilities in Gaul. He crossed over the Rubicon river with the 13th Legion, a clear violation of Roman Law, and marched to Rome. The Optimates fled to Greece under the command of Pompey since they were incapable of defending the city of Rome itself against Caesar. Led by Caesar, the Populares followed, but were greatly outnumbered and defeated in the Battle of Dyrrhachium. Still outnumbered, Caesar recovered and went on to decisively defeat the Optimates under Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey then fled to Egypt, where to Caesar's consternation, Pompey was assassinated. The remaining Optimates, not ready to give up fighting, regrouped in the African provinces. Their leaders were Marcus Cato (the younger) and Caecilius Metellus Scipio. Other key figures in the resistance were Titus Labienus, Publius Attius Varus, Lucius Afranius, Marcus Petreius and the brothers Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey's sons). King Juba I of Numidia was a valuable local ally. After the pacification of the Eastern provinces, and a short visit to Rome, Caesar followed his opponents to Africa and landed in Hadrumetum (modern Sousse, Tunisia) on December 28, 47 BC. After landing, Caesar's forces were engaged by the Optimates led by Petreius and Labienus, Scipio being absent. The result was ultimately indecisive and both sides retreated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54782",
"title": "88 BC",
"section": "Section::::Events.:By place.:Roman Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- The First Roman Civil War starts with a democratic uprising led by Gaius Marius, but the democrats under the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus are crushed by the conservatives under Sulla. Marius flees to Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3158354",
"title": "Caesar's Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BC), also known as Caesar's Civil War, was one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic before the establishment of the Roman Empire. It began as a series of political and military confrontations, between Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), his political supporters (broadly known as Populares), and his legions, against the Optimates (or \"Boni\"), the politically conservative and socially traditionalist faction of the Roman Senate, who were supported by Pompey (106–48 BC) and his legions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12240532",
"title": "Philadelphia in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The Civil War led to decades of Republican Party dominance in city politics. Antebellum Republicans held little support in the city, mainly for the party's anti-slavery position. But the Democrats' opposition to the war transferred much popular support to Republicans during and after the war, enough to allow the creation of a powerful and eventually corrupt political machine that would dominate city politics for almost a century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19261103",
"title": "Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The civil war between Caesar and Pompeius is often said to have been made inevitable by the deaths of two people: Caesar's daughter Julia, whose political marriage to Pompeius surprised Roman social circles by its affection; and Marcus Crassus, whose political influence and wealth had been a counterweight to the two greater militarists. It would be idle to speculate on what role Publius Crassus might have played either in the civil war or during Caesar's resulting dictatorship. In many ways, his career follows a course similar to the early life of Decimus Brutus, whose role in the assassination of Caesar was far from foreseeable. Elizabeth Rawson concludes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15214",
"title": "Irish Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Attacks on former Loyalists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Although the cause of the Civil War was the Treaty, as the war developed the Republicans sought to identify their actions with the traditional Republican cause of the \"men of no property\" and the result was that large Anglo-Irish landowners and some less well-off former Protestant Loyalists were attacked. A total of 192 \"stately homes\" of the old landed class and Free State politicians were destroyed by Republicans during the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19491691",
"title": "Political career of Cicero",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "After the civil war, Cicero recognised that the end of the Republic was almost certain. He stated that \"the Republic, the Senate, the law courts are mere ciphers and that not one of us has any constitutional position at all.\" The civil war had destroyed the Republic. It wreaked destruction and decimated resources throughout the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar's victory had been absolute. Caesar's assassination failed to reinstate the Republic, despite further attacks on the Romans’ freedom by \"Caesar’s own henchman, Mark Antony.\" His death only highlighted the stability of ‘one man rule’ by the ensuing chaos and further civil wars that broke out with Caesar's murderers, Brutus and Cassius, and finally between his own supporters, Mark Antony and Octavian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
313f15
|
how does diet coke cause cancer? was that just media hype for a while, or is there legitimacy behind it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Diet Coke contains Aspartame, which is an artificial sweetener that many people believed for a long time helped contribute to cancer, specifically brain cancer.\n\nWhile there are people that will argue this is true and swear by it, the overwhelming majority of the medical industry believes that it is not carcinogenic in any way if consumed at levels that are likely in everyday life.\n\nThis is intuitive because Aspartame breaks down into Aspartic Acid, Methanol, and Phenylalanine in your small intestine before it is absorbed into your blood stream. All 3 of these things are likely to be found in higher concentrations after you eat a steak, for example. So unless you think steak causes cancer, it isn't any more likely that Aspartame does.\n\nPlease don't confuse this as saying that Aspartame is completely harmless, or that it's even effective as a dieting aid; it just doesn't cause cancer.\n\n\nTL;DR Either steak causes cancer too, or neither do",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It contains Saccharin and Aspartame/Neotame sweetners.\n\naspartame was found to cause cancer in rodents in the 70s those results are disputed and it is considered OK for humans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "599985",
"title": "Tab (drink)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Saccharin safety debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Studies on laboratory rats during the early 1970s linked high volumes of cyclamate and saccharin with the development of bladder cancer. As a result, the United States Congress mandated that further studies of saccharin be performed and required that all food containing saccharin bear a label warning that the sweetener had been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. Despite this, Tab remained commercially successful, and was the best-selling diet soda in 1982. In May 1984, Coca-Cola introduced Nutrasweet into the Tab formula, which maligned a significant portion of its market, and resulted in numerous consumer complaints regarding a perceived change in flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20359",
"title": "Mutagen",
"section": "Section::::Protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include mycotoxins from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as aflatoxins which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn; heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon (ascobate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate acrylamide, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive alcohol consumption has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2752",
"title": "Aspartame",
"section": "Section::::Intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In a report released on 10 December 2013, the EFSA said that, after an extensive examination of evidence, it ruled out the \"potential risk of aspartame causing damage to genes and inducing cancer,\" and deemed the amount found in diet sodas an amount safe to consume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49877",
"title": "Areca nut",
"section": "Section::::Effects on health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "In 2003 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a World Health Organization sponsored group, found sufficient evidence that the habit of chewing betel quid, with or without tobacco, causes cancer in humans. Support for this conclusion is provided by a recent study which found that \"paan\", even without concurrent tobacco use, is a risk factor for oral cancer. In October, 2009, 30 scientists from 10 countries met at IARC to reassess the carcinogenicity of various agents including areca nut, and mechanisms of carcinogenesis. They confirmed there is sufficient evidence that areca nut, with or without tobacco, can cause cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44325909",
"title": "Cancer prevention",
"section": "Section::::The concerned.:Dietary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, the evidence to support them is not definitive. The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption; with a diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat being implicated but not confirmed. A 2014 meta-analysis did not find a relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer. Consumption of coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer. Studies have linked excessive consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon which could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures. Dietary recommendations for cancer prevention typically include an emphasis on vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and fish, and an avoidance of processed and red meat (beef, pork, lamb), animal fats, and refined carbohydrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83877",
"title": "Enema",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Alternative medicine.:Dangerous.:Coffee enemas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Some proponents of alternative medicine have claimed that coffee enemas have an anti-cancer effect by \"detoxifying\" metabolic products of tumors but there is no medical scientific evidence to support this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Dietary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce cancer risks, the evidence to support them is not definitive. The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption. Diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat have been implicated but reviews and meta-analyses do not come to a consistent conclusion. A 2014 meta-analysis find no relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer. Coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer. Studies have linked excess consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon that could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures. In 2015 the IARC reported that eating processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) and, to a lesser degree, red meat was linked to some cancers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fh3muh
|
clueless about economics. how will the dow dropping 1,400+ points today and a potential recesssion/etc affect everday working people like me? those who aren't wealthy.
|
[
{
"answer": "Jobs may begin to slow down due to worry or lack of funding. Because of this your employer may limit hours or lay people off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Immediately, it won't, outside of any 401k you may have. If the market rebounds within a month or so, you probably won't see much impact overall. If the drop lingers, then you can see potential layoffs and reduced hours from employers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "842953",
"title": "Harry Dent",
"section": "Section::::Forecasts and performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "BULLET::::- On December 10, 2016, Dent predicted that the Dow Jones Industrial average could fall 17,000 points as a result of Donald Trump's election win. Less than two weeks later, Dent reversed his opinion and thinks there is short term growth for the US stock market, but demographic forces will keep the economic growth stagnant in the longer term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47361",
"title": "Dow Jones Industrial Average",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bull market of 2009–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Towards the latter half of 2009, the average rallied towards the 10,000 level amid optimism that the Late-2000s (decade) Recession, the United States Housing Bubble and the Global Financial Crisis of 2008–2009, were easing and possibly coming to an end. For the decade, the Dow saw a rather substantial pullback for a negative return from the 11,497 level to 10,428, a loss of a little over 9%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173354",
"title": "Automation",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to unemployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The Obama White House has pointed out that every 3 months \"about 6 percent of jobs in the economy are destroyed by shrinking or closing businesses, while a slightly larger percentage of jobs are added\". A recent MIT economics study of automation in the United States from 1990 to 2007 found that there may be a negative impact on employment and wages when robots are introduced to an industry. When one robot is added per one thousand workers, the employment to population ratio decreases between 0.18–0.34 percentages and wages are reduced by 0.25–0.5 percentage points. During the time period studied, the US did not have many robots in the economy which restricts the impact of automation. However, automation is expected to triple (conservative estimate) or quadruple (a generous estimate) leading these numbers to become substantially higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9797779",
"title": "Chinese stock bubble of 2007",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "After the Chinese market drop, the Dow Jones Industrial Average in the United States dropped 416 points, or 3.29% from 12,632 to 12,216 amid fears for growth prospects, then the biggest one-day slide since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The S&P 500 saw a larger 3.45% slide. Sell orders were made so fast that an additional analysis computer had to be used, causing an instantaneous 200 point drop at one point in the Dow Industrials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21870930",
"title": "United States bear market of 2007–09",
"section": "Section::::Opinions regarding the cause.:Blaming the Barack Obama administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "As of early March 2009, the Dow Jones Industrial Average had fallen 20% since the inauguration of President Barack Obama (less than two months earlier), the fastest drop under a newly elected president in at least 90 years. Editorials in the \"Wall Street Journal\" by the editorial staff and Michael Boskin, one of George H.W. Bush's Council of Economic Advisors, blamed this on Obama's economic policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15177467",
"title": "2008 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- December 1 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average drops 680 points, its fourth worst drop in its history, after the National Bureau of Economic Research declared on the same day that the United States economy officially entered a recession in December 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9740633",
"title": "Automated trading system",
"section": "Section::::Market disruption and manipulation.:Notable examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "BULLET::::- On May 6, 2010, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined about 1,000 points (about 9 percent) and recovered those losses within minutes. It was the second-largest point swing (1,010.14 points) and the largest one-day point decline (998.5 points) on an intraday basis in the Average's history. This market disruption became known as the Flash Crash and resulted in U.S. regulators issuing new regulations to control market access achieved through automated trading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5yzjlo
|
The rule of India by East India Company is famously cited as a case of Corporation ruling an entire country. How did this work in practise? Did they separate their Commercial activities and Governance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question: what was the British people's opinion of this rule by the East Indian company? Did they have any anxieties about a company having so much power or was it mostly just accepted?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question: what was the construction that the Indian population held regarding the Company? Did they understand that it was not the British Government, or make no difference between government and corporation?\n\ne: phone typos",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60771425",
"title": "Economic Deindustrialisation of India",
"section": "Section::::Economy of India During Deindustrialisation.:Company Rule (1757-1858).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Company Rule in India refers to areas in the Indian subcontinent which were under the rule of British East Indian Company. The East Indian Company began its rule over the Indian subcontinent starting with the Battle of Plessey, which ultimately led to the vanquishing of the Bengal Subah and the founding of the Bengal Presidency in 1765, one of the largest subdivisions of British India. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295335",
"title": "Company rule in India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "The East India Company was a private company owned by stockholders and reporting to a board of directors in London. Originally formed as a monopoly on trade, it increasingly took on governmental powers with its own army and judiciary. It seldom turned a profit, as employees diverted funds into their own pockets. The British government had little control, and there was increasing anger at the corruption and irresponsibility of Company officials or \"nabobs\" who made vast fortunes in a few years. Pitt's India Act of 1784 gave the British government effective control of the private company for the first time. The new policies were designed for an elite civil service career that minimized temptations for corruption. Increasingly Company officials lived in separate compounds according to British standards. The Company's rule lasted until 1858, when it was abolished after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. With the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295335",
"title": "Company rule in India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Company rule in India (sometimes, Company \"Raj\", \"\"raj\", lit. \"rule\" in Hindi) is the rule or dominion of the British East India Company over parts of the Indian subcontinent. This is variously taken to have commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal Sirajuddaulah surrendered his dominions to the Company, in 1765, when the Company was granted the \"diwani\", or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1773, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance, and by 1818, with the defeat of Marathas followed by the pensioning of the Peshwa and the annexation of his territories, British supremacy in India was complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158019",
"title": "Kingdom of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Second British Empire.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "India was not directly ruled by the British government, instead certain parts were seized by the East India Company, a private, for-profit corporation, with its own army. The \"John Company\" (as it was nicknamed) took direct control of half of India and built friendly relations with the other half, which was controlled by numerous local princes. Its goal was trade, and vast profits for the Company officials, not the building of the British empire. Company interests expanded during the 18th century to include control of territory as the old Mughal Empire declined in power and the East India Company battled for the spoils with the French East India Company (\"Compagnie française des Indes orientales\") during the Carnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. Victories at the Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar by Robert Clive gave the Company control over Bengal and made it the major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the extent of territories under its control, ruling either directly or in cooperation with local princes. Although Britain itself only had a small standing army, the Company had a large and well trained force, the presidency armies, with British officers commanding native Indian troops (called sepoys).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35536005",
"title": "Political warfare in British colonial India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "The East India Company obtained a foothold in India in 1695 and from that start expanded the territory it controlled until it was the primary power in the subcontinent. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British Government nationalised the Company creating the British Raj. The Company lost all its administrative powers; its Indian possessions, including its armed forces, were taken over by the Crown pursuant to the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858. A new British government department, the India Council, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor-General of India gained a new title (Viceroy of India), and implemented the policies devised by the India council. As a result of their relatively small presence in the country the British resorted to many methods to retain control of India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682496",
"title": "Princely state",
"section": "Section::::Doctrine of lapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the doctrine of lapse, a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the Company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3574003",
"title": "Presidencies and provinces of British India",
"section": "Section::::British India (1793–1947).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "Company rule in Bengal from 1793, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857. From then known as British India, it was thereafter directly ruled by the British Crown as a colonial possession of the United Kingdom, and India was officially known after 1876 as the Indian Empire. India was divided into British India, regions that were directly administered by the British, with Acts established and passed in British Parliament, and the Princely States, ruled by local rulers of different ethnic backgrounds. These rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population; in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area and included over 77% of the population. In addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d51ia
|
Do worms have a home?
|
[
{
"answer": "They just kind of roam around eating tasty soil. No set place of residence other than the entire patch of soil they came off of",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43146",
"title": "Hemichordate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Acorn worms are solitary worm-shaped organisms. They generally live in burrows (the earliest secreted tubes) and are deposit feeders, but some species are pharyngeal filter feeders, while the family Torquaratoridae are free living detritivores. Many are well known for their production and accumulation of various halogenated phenols and pyrroles. Pterobranchs are filter-feeders, mostly colonial, living in a collagenous tubular structure called a coenecium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19180096",
"title": "Worm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Worms are many different distantly related animals that typically have a long cylindrical tube-like body and no limbs. Worms vary in size from microscopic to over in length for marine polychaete worms (bristle worms), for the African giant earthworm, \"Microchaetus rappi\", and for the marine nemertean worm (bootlace worm), \"Lineus longissimus\". Various types of worm occupy a small variety of parasitic niches, living inside the bodies of other animals. Free-living worm species do not live on land, but instead, live in marine or freshwater environments, or underground by burrowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681430",
"title": "Earthworm",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Earthworms are classified into three main ecophysiological categories: (1) leaf litter- or compost-dwelling worms that are nonburrowing, live at soil-litter interface and eat decomposing organic matter (called Epigeic) e.g. \"Eisenia fetida\"; (2) topsoil- or subsoil-dwelling worms that feed (on soil), burrow and cast within soil, creating horizontal burrows in upper 10–30 cm of soil (called Endogeics); and (3) worms that construct permanent deep vertical burrows which they use to visit the surface to obtain plant material for food, such as leaves (called Anecic (meaning \"reaching up\")), e.g. \"Lumbricus terrestris\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9075229",
"title": "Spirobranchus giganteus",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The worms' most distinct features are two \"crowns\" shaped like Christmas trees. These are highly modified prostomial palps, which are specialized mouth appendages. Each spiral is composed of feather-like tentacles called \"radioles\", which are heavily ciliated and cause any prey trapped in them to be transported to the worm's mouth. While they are primarily feeding structures, \"S. giganteus\" also uses its radioles for respiration; hence, the structures commonly are called \"gills.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32259138",
"title": "Amphitrite ornata",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The ornate worm can grow to up to forty centimetres long and lives in a firm, sand-encrusted tube. All that is visible are the three bright red bushy gills and a spread of long, peach-coloured tentacles above them. The tentacles can extend to forty centimetres and are constantly in motion, searching for food particles. The rest of the worm's segmented, tapering body remains concealed in the tube.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19180096",
"title": "Worm",
"section": "Section::::Informal grouping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Familiar worms include the earthworms, members of phylum Annelida. Other invertebrate groups may be called worms, especially colloquially. In particular, many unrelated insect larvae are called \"worms\", such as the railroad worm, woodworm, glowworm, bloodworm, inchworm, mealworm, silkworm, and woolly bear worm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681430",
"title": "Earthworm",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Also, while, as the name suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, they are not restricted to this habitat. The brandling worm \"Eisenia fetida\" lives in decaying plant matter and manure. \"Arctiostrotus vancouverensis\" from Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula is generally found in decaying conifer logs. \"Aporrectodea limicola\", \"Sparganophilus\" spp., and several others are found in mud in streams. Some species are arboreal, some aquatic and some euryhaline (salt-water tolerant) and littoral (living on the sea-shore, e.g. \"Pontodrilus litoralis\"). Even in the soil species, special habitats, such as soils derived from serpentine, have an earthworm fauna of their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25se4n
|
How much difference was there in the way different ancient Mediterranean people dressed and clothed themselves, before the dominance of the Roman Empire?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unfortunately I can't give you a very full answer at the moment as I am away from my computer for today, but I can write something more detailed tomorrow. Until then, I would recommend this website: _URL_0_\n\nAlong the side you can see there is a section dedicated to costume. It does not deal with North Africa but many of the same issues apply. One of the major problems is that we have only very scattered information on what \"the man on the street\" wore, as clothing does not preserve, and so we are dependent on portraits. As is the case today, clothing in a portrait does not necessarily reflect everyday ware.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10420424",
"title": "Clothing in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Roman and Italic clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "The clothing of ancient Italy, like that of ancient Greece, is well known from art, literature & archaeology. Although aspects of Roman clothing have had an enormous appeal to the Western imagination, the dress and customs of the Etruscan civilization that inhabited Italy before the Romans are less well imitated (\"see the adjacent image\"), but the resemblance in their clothing may be noted. The Etruscan culture is dated from 1200 BCE through the first two phases of the Roman periods. At its maximum extent during the foundation period of Rome and the Roman kingdom, it flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps, and of Latium and Campania. Rome was sited in Etruscan territory. There is considerable evidence that early Rome was dominated by Etruscans until the Romans sacked Veii in 396 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10420424",
"title": "Clothing in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Roman and Italic clothing.:Toga and tunics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The ancient Romans were aware that their clothing differed from that of other peoples. In particular, they noted the long trousers worn by people they considered barbarians from the north, including the Germanic Franks and Goths. The figures depicted on ancient Roman armored breastplates often include barbarian warriors in shirts and trousers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10117762",
"title": "Clothing in ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. On formal occasions, adult male citizens could wear a woolen toga, draped over their tunic, and married citizen women wore a woolen mantle, known as a palla, over a stola, a simple, long-sleeved, voluminous garment that hung to midstep. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class, and thus offered a means of social control. This was probably most apparent in the segregation of seating tiers at public theatres, games and festivals, and in the distinctive, privileged official dress of magistrates, priesthoods and the military. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11288017",
"title": "Men's skirts",
"section": "Section::::In Western cultures.:Ancient times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The Romans adopted many facets of Greek culture including the same manner of dressing. The Celts and Germanic peoples wore a skirted garment which the historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC) called chiton. Below they wore knee-length trousers. The Anglo-Saxons, Normans, Franks and other people of Western and Northern Europe continued this fashion well into the Middle Ages, as can be seen in the Bayeux Tapestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981466",
"title": "Tunic",
"section": "Section::::Ancient era.:Greek tunic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted. Later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In ancient Greece, a person's tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived. Tunics might be dyed with bright colours, like red, purple, or green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214974",
"title": "Culture of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Social structure.:Clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the \"tunica angusticlavi\"; senators wore tunics with purple stripes (\"clavi\"), called \"tunica laticlavi\". Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:Clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Roman clothing styles changed over time, though not as rapidly as fashions today. In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embroidered stripes \"(clavi)\" and circular roundels \"(orbiculi)\" applied to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures. The use of silk increased, and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals, affected habits of dress: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g74jp
|
What is the fastest you can move, taking into account relativity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Massive objects can get asymptotically close to the speed of light given enough force.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An observer at your destination (your \"appointment\" location) would probably have a hard time distinguishing you traveling at 99.999% the speed of light and the speed of light itself. \n\nSo, to directly answer your question, an observer 10 miles away could not see your trip take less than 10 miles / 186,282.397 miles per second (about 53 microseconds). As you say though, this trip could feel arbitrarily short to you, depending on how fast you go. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24503102",
"title": "Propagation of light in non-inertial reference frames",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The description of motion in relativity requires more than one concept of speed. Coordinate speed is the coordinate distance measured by the observer divided by the coordinate time of the observer. Proper speed is the local proper distance divided by the local proper time. For example, at the event horizon of a black hole the coordinate speed of light is zero, while the proper speed is c. The coordinate speed of light (both instantaneous and average) is slowed in the presence of gravitational fields. The local instantaneous proper speed of light is always c.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163103",
"title": "Future",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "One of the outcomes of Special Relativity Theory is that a person can travel into the future (but never come back) by traveling at very high speeds. While this effect is negligible under ordinary conditions, space travel at very high speeds can change the flow of time considerably. As depicted in many science fiction stories and movies (e.g. \"Déjà Vu\"), a person traveling for even a short time at near light speed will return to an Earth that is many years in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24372574",
"title": "One-way speed of light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Those experiments directly establish that synchronization with slow clock-transport is equivalent to Einstein synchronization, which is an important feature of special relativity. Though those experiments don't directly establish the isotropy of the one-way speed of light, because it was shown that slow clock-transport, the laws of motion, and the way inertial reference frames are defined, already involve the assumption of isotropic one-way speeds and thus are conventional as well. In general, it was shown that these experiments are consistent with anisotropic one-way light speed as long as the two-way light speed is isotropic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10346",
"title": "Gravitational redshift",
"section": "Section::::Early historical development of the theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "This was precisely Einstein's conclusion in 1911. He considered an accelerating box, and noted that according to the special theory of relativity, the clock rate at the \"bottom\" of the box (the side away from the direction of acceleration) was slower than the clock rate at the \"top\" (the side toward the direction of acceleration). Nowadays, this can be easily shown in accelerated coordinates. The metric tensor in units where the speed of light is one is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in an inertial frame of reference, a clock that is moving relative to him will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest in his frame of reference. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time dilation. The faster the relative velocity, the greater the time dilation between one another, with the rate of time reaching zero as one approaches the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s). This causes massless particles that travel at the speed of light to be unaffected by the passage of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Principle of relativity.:Standard configuration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Since there is no absolute reference frame in relativity theory, a concept of 'moving' doesn't strictly exist, as everything may be moving with respect to some other reference frame. Instead, any two frames that move at the same speed in the same direction are said to be \"comoving\". Therefore, \"S\" and \"S\"′ are not \"comoving\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11701033",
"title": "Scale relativity",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Special scale relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In Galilean relativity, it was considered \"obvious\" that we could add speeds without limit (\"w\" = \"u\" + \"v\"). This composition laws for speed was not challenged. However, Poincaré and Einstein did challenge it with special relativity, setting a maximum speed on movement, the speed of light. Formally, if \"v\" is a velocity, \"v + c = c\". The status of the speed of light in special relativity is a horizon, unreachable, impassable, invariant under changes of movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20b4md
|
POW mail in WWII: were mail ships neutral or was mail routed through neutral countries/states, or...
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe this was answered in another thread, so to make a long story short, the [Red Cross did most of the leg work of delivering mail to prisoners of war](_URL_1_), at least in the European theater. Mail would be routed through a neutral country such as [Portugal, Switzerland or Sweden] (_URL_0_), then sent on to the POW camps, typically by rail. As the Red Cross was considered an illegitimate target by all belligerents, RC shipments were considered to be out of bounds for targeting. However, due to the fact on the ground that most shipment lines were used for military purposes as a priority, RC shipments could and would occasionally be destroyed. \n\nThis model was attempted in the Pacific, however, the Japanese had not signed on to the different Conventions regarding treatment of Prisoners of War, and it was much more difficult for the RC to get supplies or correspondence to them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Previously discussed here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3386533",
"title": "Military mail",
"section": "Section::::Classified information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Military mail was subjected to censorship when it was the primary means for deployed servicemen to communicate with their families. The following text was printed on the message (non-address) side of standardized postcard \"Subron 4 Standard Form No. F14 471-A-S/M Base. PH-7-15-41-20M.\" distributed to naval personnel at Pearl Harbor to communicate with their families following the Attack on Pearl Harbor:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3968551",
"title": "Postal censorship",
"section": "Section::::Countries known to have enacted postal censorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Throughout modern history, various governments, usually during times of war, would inspect mail coming into or leaving the country so as to prevent an enemy from corresponding with unfriendly entities within that country. There exist also many examples of prisoner of war mail from these countries which was also inspected or censored. Censored mail can usually be identified by various postmarks, dates, postage stamps and other markings found on the front and reverse side of the cover (envelope). These covers often have an adhesive seal, usually bearing special ID markings, which were applied to close and seal the envelope after inspection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3968551",
"title": "Postal censorship",
"section": "Section::::Countries known to have enacted postal censorship.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "During World War II, both the Allies and Axis instituted postal censorship of civil mail. The largest organisations were those of the United States, though the United Kingdom employed about 10,000 censor staff while Ireland, a small neutral country, only employed about 160 censors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "Section::::Universal service obligation and monopoly status.:Alternative transmission methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Between 1942 and 1945, \"V-Mail\" (for \"Victory Mail\") service was available for military mail. Letters were converted into microfilm and reprinted near the destination, to save room on transport vehicles for military cargo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39768119",
"title": "BX convoys",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Allied war materials had been transported from North America to the United Kingdom in HX convoys since 1939 and in slower SC convoys since 1940. These convoys were escorted by the Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy. The United States Navy provided a few escorts to HX and SC convoys beginning in September 1941. Declaration of war on 8 December 1941 removed United States neutrality assertions which had previously protected trade shipping in the Western Atlantic. Although the United States was slow to convoy coastal shipping, the Royal Canadian Navy established the WLEF in February 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7023",
"title": "Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Government and politics.:Constitution.:Post Office.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 222,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 222,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "When the war began, the US Post Office still delivered mail from the secessionist states for a brief period of time. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing US postage was still delivered. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry some of the mail across enemy lines. Later, mail that crossed lines had to be sent by 'Flag of Truce' and was allowed to pass at only two specific points. Mail sent from the South to the North states was received, opened and inspected at Fortress Monroe on the Virginia coast before being passed on into the U.S. mail stream. Mail sent from the North to the South passed at City Point, also in Virginia, where it was also inspected before being sent on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "589278",
"title": "William Stephenson",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "While it was still neutral, agreement was made for all trans-Atlantic mails from the U.S. to be routed through the British colony of Bermuda, 640 miles off the North Carolina coast. Airmails carried by both British and American aircraft were landed at RAF Darrell's Island and delivered to 1,200 censors of \"British Imperial Censorship\", part of BSC, working in the Princess Hotel All mail, radio and telegraphic traffic bound for Europe, the U.S. and the Far East were intercepted and analyzed by 1,200 censors, of \"British Imperial Censorship\", part of British Security Coordination (BSC), before being routed to their destination with no indication that they had been read. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3c9nat
|
what is this 'google dream code' thing i keep seeing every where and what is it used for?
|
[
{
"answer": "Think of your own brain, and imagine you are five (slaps knee), lying down on a field of grass looking up at all of the funny shaped clouds in the sky.\n\nYou notice one cloud looks like something, but you can't quite put your finger on it. You think of every single thing you've ever seen in your life that kind of looks like this cloud, and naturally, this takes you awhile because you're young. Finally, after a bit, you realize that this cloud looks like a dog! So you start imagining dogs in all of the funny scenarios you've seen them in, until you notice another cloud you want to think about next. \n\nThis is a pretty good analogy of what's going on in [Google's DeepDream project](_URL_1_). Essentially, Google made an [artificial brain](_URL_3_) modeled after our own and is testing how much this brain knows by feeding it \"cloud images\" and seeing what it thinks about. You know how you thought that cloud looked like a dog? Well, perhaps at five years old, you were really into dogs and hence know a lot about them. Same thing with DeepDream: If you give it a \"cloud image\" and it outputs a bird-like image, then you know that this artificial brain in particular must be \"trained\" to know what birds look like, especially if you have a bird-like cloud in your cloud image.\n\nThe important thing to realize is that these \"cloud images\" do NOT have to be pictures of clouds! They can be anything: a selfie of yourself, a landscape picture, etc. The artificial brain will essentially just emphasize the features it's been trained to recognize. If you look at the [example gallery](_URL_0_), you can see some pretty psychedelic results. The purpose of this project is mainly for researching and improving these artificial brains, and making them better for more applicable things in the future.\n\n**TL;DR** Google made a robot brain and is seeing what it recognizes by giving it \"cloud images\", and examining the results so they can make the brains better.\n\n[Google gives a more complicated and thorough explanation of all of this in their research blog!](_URL_2_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22589449",
"title": "Charles McPhee",
"section": "Section::::Web site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "McPhee launched www.dreamdoctor.com in 1997. It was among the first sites on the Internet devoted entirely to providing credible information about dreams and sleep. Through it, he had amassed the largest database of dreams in the world. With it, he broke their code. Taking a scientific approach to dream interpretation and understanding, he used the database to arrive at his findings about dreams, all of which are evidenced in his writings, radio show, and web site. He concluded that everyone dreams in the same language of dream symbols, regardless of age, gender, geography, culture, religion, or native language. As all languages evolve and are influenced by contextual realities ranging from personal experience to regionalisms, so, contended McPhee, does the language of dreams. He added that what makes every dream unique and specific to the dreamer is the waking life background that generated the dream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318918",
"title": "Adobe Dreamweaver",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Adobe Dreamweaver CC is a web design and development application that uses both a visual design surface known as Live View and a code editor with standard features such as syntax highlighting, code completion, and code collapsing as well as more advanced features such as real-time syntax checking and code introspection for generating code hints to assist the user in writing code. Combined with an array of site management tools, Dreamweaver allows for its users design, code and manage websites, as well as mobile content. Dreamweaver is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) tool. You can live preview of changes for the frontend. Dreamweaver is positioned as a versatile web design and development tool that enables visualization of web content while coding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5088832",
"title": "Tetris effect",
"section": "Section::::Other examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "On the mental level, computer programming has resulted in dreams about coding. Mathematicians have reported dreaming of numbers or equations, for example Srinivasa Ramanujan, or Friedrich Engels who remarked \"last week in a dream I gave a chap my shirt-buttons to differentiate, and he ran off with them\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42044387",
"title": "List of items in Once Upon a Time",
"section": "Section::::D.:Dreamcatcher.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "A Dreamcatcher is a magical item of unknown origin used to retrieve memories. As the Dark One, Emma made dreamcatchers to preoccupy herself at night because Dark Ones do not sleep. It is also used as an ingredient in the third Dark Curse by Emma to wipe out everyone's memory of their time in Camelot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344337",
"title": "DREAM (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The Distributed Real-time Embedded Analysis Method (DREAM) is a platform-independent open-source tool for the verification and analysis of distributed real-time and embedded (DRE) systems which focuses on the practical application of formal verification and timing analysis to real-time middleware. DREAM supports formal verification of scheduling based on task timed automata using the Uppaal model checker and the Verimag IF toolset as well as the random testing of real-time components using a discrete event simulator. DREAM is developed at the Center for Embedded Computer Systems at the University of California, Irvine, in cooperation with researchers from Vanderbilt University.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1701250",
"title": "Dream dictionary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "A dream dictionary is a tool made for interpreting images in a dream. Dream dictionaries tend to include specific images which are attached to specific interpretations. However, dream dictionaries are generally not considered scientifically viable by those within the psychology community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22665619",
"title": "Dreamwidth",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Dreamwidth is based upon the free and open-source server software that was designed to run LiveJournal. It is written primarily in Perl. The majority of the Dreamwidth code is available under the GPL for other sites to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wmkg8
|
Why did elevated beds arise in some cultures while others use beds low to the ground?
|
[
{
"answer": "**EDIT: /u/extesser is right, it's mostly dominated by heat conduction and not a temperature gradient. I'll leave the post untouched for the history books, since it sparked some interesting replies!**\n_________________________________________________________\n\nI can only speak for the Vikings in Norway. Temperature is one reason for why it emerges. Cold air sinks, hot air rises. \n\nIf you're a Viking living in a longhouse(ref: _URL_0_ ), sleeping on the floor might just kill you. Get up on a bench, and you're much better off. \n\nIdeally you'd want to stay up against the roof if you wanted to stay as warm as possible - but smoke from the firepits collect there so the practical middleground would be benches or elaborate furniture with legs. \n\nI can't speak about what they do in the tropics, but I know from personal experience that bugs alone make elevated beds an attractive solution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can speak for Middle Ages Nobility; Beds were raised about a foot off the ground to deter mice from nesting under them. If a bed was too low to the ground, the small crack could attract mice, rats and other creatures for use as a nesting spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i can only speak for Bedouin culture, but sleeping on mats, rugs, and furs is common until today, necessitated by the fact that they live a nomadic lifestyle, so rolling up your bed and throwing it on the back of your pack-animal is infinitely more convenient and practical than, say, disassembling and lugging around a four-post bed. Also, the air is slightly cooler on the ground, and that's where the drafts are felt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5392614",
"title": "Platform bed",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Platform bed development was closely intertwined with the evolution of the modern bed. The earliest humans most probably slept on the ground. It would have been cold, hard and offered no protection from crawling insects or small animals. Readily available piles of leaves and branches could be covered with animal pelts which provided superior warmth and comfort to sleeping on the ground probably inspiring the first thoughts of a raised dedicated sleeping space. The basic platform bed concept was born from this and has developed ever since in numerous styles and materials but always on the basic principle of raising one's sleeping surface off the ground developed by early humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951407",
"title": "Bed",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1212,
"text": "Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material (e.g. a heap of palm leaves, animal skins, or dried bracken). An important change was raising them off the ground, to avoid drafts, dirt, and pests. 23-5 million years ago, before the advent of humans, apes began creating beds composed of a sleeping platform including a wooden pillow. Bedding dated around to 3600 BC was discovered in Sibudu Cave, South Africa. The bedding consists of sedge and other monocotyledons topped with the leaves of Cryptocarya woodii Engl. Beds found in a preserved northern Scottish village, which were raised boxes made of stone and likely topped with comfortable fillers, were dated to between 3200 BC and 2200 BC. The Egyptians had high bedsteads which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to hang around. The elite of Egyptian society such as its pharaohs and queens even had beds made of wood, sometimes gilded. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood, or metal. Ancient Assyrians, Medes, and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or appliques of metal, mother-of-pearl, and ivory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1857283",
"title": "Infant bed",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "It wasn't until the 19th century that infant beds developed from bassinettes, acquiring a role of keeping the child in their bed. The development of a distinction between infant beds and bassinettes was natural because it was \"considered vital that the child's bed be raised off the ground.\" This was due to a perception of noxious fumes below knee level, and explosive vapours near the ceiling, with good air in between. Once children's beds were raised off the ground the role of the sides changed from a convenience to a safety feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29345712",
"title": "Box-bed",
"section": "Section::::The closet-bed in the Netherlands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "During the 16th and 17th century, closet-beds were much smaller. Lying down was associated with death, and therefore sleeping was done in a half-upright position. These closet-beds held two people, and beneath them were often drawers \"rolkoetsen\" that pulled out and provided beds for the children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5392614",
"title": "Platform bed",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Platform beds that might be recognized as more accurate representations of today's platform beds were better defined as loft beds. The beds were originally situated high off the ground to allow for more living space below. Over time the beds moved closer to the ground, to their present placement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29345712",
"title": "Box-bed",
"section": "Section::::The closed-bed in Brittany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Closed-beds were 1.60 to 1.70 m length, long enough for people of that region who were rather small. And because they slept in an almost sitting position, they leaned on three or four pillows. It was the tradition of the Middle Ages not to sleep lying down, because that is the position of the dead and of effigies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826952",
"title": "Bunk bed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Bunk beds are normally supported by four poles or pillars, one at each corner of the bed. A ladder is used to get to the upper bed, which is normally surrounded by a railing to prevent the sleeper from falling out. Some models also have a privacy curtain for the lower bunk. Because of the need for a ladder and the height of the bed, the top bunk of a bunk bed is not recommended for children under six years of age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sp8to
|
If a mosquito bites a person who is HIV positive, then bites me, will I become HIV positive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Almost assuredly not.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) is a pretty good answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV infection.:HIV is transmitted by mosquitoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV infection.:HIV can be spread through casual contact with an HIV infected individual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "One cannot become infected with HIV through normal contact in social settings, schools, or in the workplace. One cannot be infected by shaking someone's hand, by hugging or \"dry\" kissing someone, by using the same toilet or drinking from the same glass as an HIV-infected person, or by being exposed to coughing or sneezing by an infected person. Saliva carries a negligible viral load, so even open-mouthed kissing is considered a low risk. However, if the infected partner or both of the performers have blood in their mouth due to cuts, open sores, or gum disease, the risk is higher. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has only recorded one case of possible HIV transmission through kissing (involving an HIV-infected man with significant gum disease and a sexual partner also with significant gum disease), and the Terence Higgins Trust says that this is essentially a no-risk situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Vectors of disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Potential transmission of HIV was originally a public health concern, but practical considerations and detailed studies of epidemiological patterns suggest that any transmission of the HIV virus by mosquitoes is at worst extremely unlikely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5069516",
"title": "HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "HIV is spread by three main routes: sexual contact, significant exposure to infected body fluids or tissues, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding (known as vertical transmission). There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood. It is also possible to be co-infected by more than one strain of HIV—a condition known as HIV superinfection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883664",
"title": "Post-exposure prophylaxis",
"section": "Section::::HIV.:Risk evaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Risk factors for developing HIV includes exposure of mucous membranes (vagina, rectum, eye, mouth, broken skin or under the skin) of an HIV-negative person to bodily fluids (blood, semen, rectal secretions, vaginal secretions, breast milk) of a person known to be HIV positive. For example, having unprotected sex with HIV positive partner is considered risky, but sharing sex toys, spitting and biting considered to be negligible risks for initiating post-exposure prophylaxis. The highest non-sexual risk is blood transfusion and the highest sexual contact risk is receptive anal intercourse. The timing of exposure does not affect the risk of developing HIV, but it does alter whether post-exposure prophylaxis will be recommended. Exposures that occurred 72 hours or less to beginning treatment are eligible for post-exposure prophylaxis. If the exposure occurred over 73 hours prior to treatment initiation, post-exposure prophylaxis is not indicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203312",
"title": "Management of HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV postexposure prophylaxis (PEP).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1375,
"text": "When people are exposed to HIV-positive infectious bodily fluids either through blood puncture, contact with mucous membranes or contact with damaged skin, they are at risk for acquiring HIV. Pooled estimates give a risk of transmission with puncture exposures of 0.3% and mucous membrane exposures 0.63%. United States guidelines state that \"feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, and vomitus are not considered potentially infectious unless they are visibly bloody.\" Given the rare nature of these events, rigorous study of the protective abilities of antiretrovirals are limited but do suggest that taking antiretrovirals afterwards can prevent transmission. It is unknown if three medications are better than two. The sooner after exposure that ART is started the better, but after what period they become ineffective is unknown, with the US Public Health Service Guidelines recommending starting prophylaxis up to a week after exposure. They also recommend treating for a duration of four weeks based on animal studies. Their recommended regimen is emtricitabine + tenofovir + raltegravir (an INSTI). The rationale for this regimen is that it is \"tolerable, potent, and conveniently administered, and it has been associated with minimal drug interactions.\" People who are exposed to HIV should have follow up HIV testing at six, 12, and 24 weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409549",
"title": "Talaromyces marneffei",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "One HIV-positive physician is known to have been infected while attending a course on tropical microbiology. He did not handle the organism, though students in the same laboratory did. It is presumed he contracted the infection by inhaling aerosol containing \"P. marneffei\" conidia. This shows that airborne infections are possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6o0xcl
|
if california's housing market is already incredibly overpriced, why does it keep rising?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the economy is still very strong, particularly in the Bay Area, people keep moving there. Home prices will drop once people stop wanting to move to California",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The core places that have growing home prices (commute-ready homes in San Francisco, fashionable areas of LA, beach property) are limited in their supply and have a continuously growing number of wealthy people wanting to buy them.\n\nAs an example, lets look at San Francisco: The city has a fixed size because of the land it's on, and only a certain number of homes are within a reasonable commute time of the downtown core. S.F. also has very restrictive zoning laws, meaning new high rises are very difficult to build. With that, only a certain number of people can live within a comfortable commuting distance of their jobs.\n\nS.F. is also a hotbed of technology, a very high growth and lucrative field to be in. People are able to make a lot of money at it, and more people want to move to the area to join in on that business.\n\nMore money floods into the area, but there aren't homes for them. So, the people with money get into a bidding war driving up overall home cost.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Uneven distribution of income... there are a selection of the population doing very well, making high incomes, seeing their stocks/options appreciate in value. And high earners tend to marry other high earners, doubling down on their buying power. And they are willing and able to bid up prices for housing in the most in-demand areas. This has a snowball effect, as prices rise in SF and LA then it impacts everything further and cheaper as people have to move further away to afford anything. The issue is that there is still way less supply than there is demand so there are more buyers (or potential buyers) than there are homes being built. Thus people are often spending more than budget guidelines suggest one should spend on housing, cutting spending elsewhere or taking on additional debt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supply and demand. More people want to live there than there are places to live. \n\nThe two obvious next questions are \"Why is the supply so low?\" and \"Why is the demand so high?\". \n\n**Why is the Supply so low?**\n\nShort answer: Few people actually want it to rise. \n\nThe current homeowners don't, because their home price keeps going up with less competition. A lot of the \"original\" residents don't, because they want the city to retain it's quaint, artistic charm and not be dominated by skyscrapers. The will of these people is expressed in restrictive regulations, and because of them, the only new housing that makes money is luxury housing. (Because if a place is expensive to build, it will be expensive to rent.) People rebel against this, dragging it out in court for years or just torching the construction sites, so the supply is not keeping up with the demand. The root cause is frankly that a lot of people there don't understand or believe basic economics. There's actually no such thing as a \"luxury house\". (You can buy a mansion in Detroit for $1.) It's all just supply and demand, and by preventing new housing from being built, _every_ house is turning into a \"luxury house.\" A normal-looking 1 bedroom, 900sqft single-family home in the city recently sold for $3 million.\n\n**Why is the Demand so high?**\n\nThe tech industry and foreign investors. \n\nTech pays big bucks and is still booming. The average starting salary is $90k and I personally know a guy who took a $400k pay CUT in order to work in a cooler part of the industry. People there are loaded. \n\nForeign investors have also jumped in, raising the demand even more. They see the problems with the supply of housing, so it's a no-brainer to invest. \n\nSo there's tons of demand and the supply can't keep up. This makes prices ridiculous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Prop 13 also has distorted the market significantly. You can find dozens of articles about it, but it effectively freezes property taxes to time of purchase as opposed to annual assessment. This incentivizes home owners to not sell because a house bought many years ago is a huge tax shelter. This also causes shenanigans like creating shell companies so that no more than one party \"owns\" more than 50% of a property to keep the property tax bill low. \n\nMalcolm Gladwell gives a fun example of this regarding LA golf courses. They pay a tiny fraction of the taxes normally owed on the value of their property. Revisionist History - A Good Walk Spoiled: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60226432",
"title": "California Senate Bill 35",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The state’s high rent prices have translated into increased homelessness, more households spending half their income on housing, and an exodus of low and middle income households leaving to states with lower cost of living. The housing shortage negatively impacts the Economy of California. A 2016 McKinsey & Company report on California’s housing market notes, “California loses more than $140 billion per year in output due to the housing shortage.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41258426",
"title": "Rent regulation",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:California.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "A survey conducted in 2018 by the \"Los Angeles Times\" and the University of Southern California found that 28% of eligible California voters believed that the lack of rent control was the main contributing factor to California's housing affordability crisis. 24% of respondents believed that the most significant cause of the housing crisis was insufficient funding of low-income housing; only 13% believed it was insufficient new housing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60226432",
"title": "California Senate Bill 35",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "California has been suffering from a housing shortage since 1970 and ranks 49th among 50 states for housing units per capita. The problem has worsened following the Great Recession as housing development fell to 40,000 units in 2009 and has not reached pre-recession levels. California needs approximately 180,000 units per year to match current growth. Slow housing development combined with high housing demand has increased housing costs in every city in California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55688941",
"title": "California housing shortage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Since about 1970, California has been experiencing an extended and increasing housing shortage, such that by 2018, California had the 49th lowest ratio of housing units per resident. The shortage has been estimated at 3-4 million housing units (20-30% of California's housing stock, 14 million as of 2017). Experts say that California needs to double its current rate of housing production (85,000 units per year) just to keep up with expected population growth and prevent prices from further increasing, and needs to quadruple the current rate of housing production over the next 7 years in order for prices and rents to decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55688941",
"title": "California housing shortage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "The shortage is taking its toll on Californians in multiple ways: less than a third can afford a median priced home (whereas nationally, slightly more than half can), more than 20% of residents are in poverty (6% more than would be with lower housing costs), homelessness per capita is now the third highest in the nation, California's economy is suppressed by $150 - $400 billion annually (5-14%) (because of lost construction activity, and money that residents must spend on housing cannot be spent on other consumer goods), and the displacement and suburban sprawl caused by high housing costs in the urban centers (where jobs are located) has resulted in several of California's cities being home to the largest share of super commuters in the nation, as well as hindering California's ability to meet its CO2 emissions goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55688941",
"title": "California housing shortage",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "A McKinsey Global Institute report estimates that the housing shortage is costing the California economy between 143 and 233 billion dollars per year, from lost construction activity (at least $85 billion annually), lower consumption of consumer goods because of high housing costs (at least $53 billion annually) and the costs of providing services to the increased number of homeless persons (at least $5 billion per year).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55688941",
"title": "California housing shortage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1652,
"text": "The cause is the imbalance between supply and demand; a result of strong economic growth creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs (which increases demand for housing) and the insufficient construction of new housing units to provide enough supply to meet the demand. The imbalance is such that in last half-decade, in the Bay Area, seven times as many jobs were created as housing units, while statewide, for every five new residents only one new housing unit was constructed. This has driven home prices and rents to extremely high levels, such that by 2017, the median price of a home across California was more than 2.5 times the median in the U.S. as a whole, and in California's coastal urban areas, (where the majority of job growth has occurred since the Great Recession), the shortages are even more dramatic. Several factors have together caused severe constraints on the construction of new housing: community involvement in the permitting process allows current residents who oppose new construction (often referred to as NIMBYs) to lobby their city council to deny new development; environmental laws are often abused by local residents and others to block or gain concessions from new development (making it more costly or too expensive to be profitable); greater local tax revenues from hotels, commercial, and retail development vs. residential incentivize cities to permit less residential; density restrictions (eg. single-family zoning) and high land cost conspire to keep land and housing prices high; and construction costs are greater because of high impact fees, and often developments are only approved if union labor is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7gmxo7
|
When a person loses their vision in one eye, is their loss of depth-perception permanent or does the brain find a way to adapt?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are many monocular cues to depth such as parallax, relative size, atmospheric perspective, etc. you can find a list [here](_URL_3_). Some of these are both relative cues (something is farther away than something else) and some are absolute (something is this far away). If you close one of your eyes, the world doesn't suddenly seem totally flat. However, binocular cues like binocular disparity can lead to some special sensations of depth like [stereopsis](_URL_1_). Consider the difference, for example, between looking at the objects on the table in front of you and the experience of seeing them at different distances vs. looking at a photograph of the same table in which you can tell which objects are nearer and farther away, but it lacks the same sense of depth. Or, if you've ever been to a 3D movie, the difference between that and a 2D movie. The sensation of something coming off of the screen toward you is caused by stereopsis from binocular disparity, which occurs when light from objects falls on different relative positions of your retinas. This is the same principle behind the [stereoscope](_URL_0_). However, even with a single eye you can approximate this by moving a picture side-to-side quickly so that it falls on different positions of the same eye. This is sometimes called [wiggle steroscopy](_URL_2_). \n\nSee [this](_URL_4_) recent post on the same topic. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9598046",
"title": "Parallax scanning",
"section": "Section::::Psycho-physical Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "It is known that the act of visual perception is a cognitive exercise and not merely a stimulus response. In other words, perception is a learned ability which we develop in infancy. Kenneth Ogle of the Mayo Clinic, reported 1967 that left and right-eye information can be presented alternatively to the left and right eyes, resulting in depth perception as long as the time interval does not exceed 100 ms. Visual researcher David Marr has suggested that perceptual fusion of binocular information occurs in a short-term memory buffer by means of some sort of visual depth mapping. In 1984, Edwin Jones of the University of South Carolina reported that the human brain can accept and process parallax information without regard to the direction of the parallax, i.e. horizontal, diagonal or vertical. A. P. McLaurin of the University of South Carolina, has stated that if visual information is in fact compared in a temporary memory and does not have to be received simultaneously, there is no reason why stereoscopic information that is appropriately sequenced at the proper rate cannot be observed by the single eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2793861",
"title": "Aphakia",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Without the focusing power of the lens, the eye becomes very farsighted. Also, since the lens is responsible for adjusting the focus of vision to different lengths, patients with aphakia have a total loss of accommodation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5730335",
"title": "Monocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Vision has been known to play an important role in balance and postural control in humans, along with proprioception and vestibular function. Monocular vision affects how the brain perceives its surroundings by decreasing the available visual field, impairing peripheral vision on one side of the body, and compromising depth perception, all three of which are major contributors to the role of vision in balance. Studies comparing monocular vision to binocular (two eyes) vision in cataract patients (pre and post surgery), glaucoma patients (compared with healthy age matched controls), and in healthy adults and children (in both binocular and monocular conditions) have all shown to negatively impact balance and postural control than when both eyes are available. Each of the studied populations still displayed better balance when having only one eye compared to having both eyes closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35970915",
"title": "Colavita visual dominance effect",
"section": "Section::::No Colavita effect in people with one eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1490,
"text": "Previous research has shown that people with one eye have enhanced spatial vision, implying that vision in the remaining working eye compensates for the loss of the simultaneous use of both eyes. Furthermore, individuals who have lost the ability to use one sensory system develop an enhanced ability in the use of the remaining senses. It is thought that intact sensory systems may adapt and compensate for the loss of one of the senses. However, little is known about cross-sensory adaption in cases of developmental partial sensory deprivation, such as monocular enucleation, where individuals have one eye surgically removed early in life. In an experiment, Moro and Steeves tested whether participants with one eye showed the Colavita visual dominance effect, and compared their performance to binocular viewers (use of both eyes) and monocular (eye-patched) control participants. In their experiment, Moro and Steeves used a stimulus detection and discrimination task, which had three conditions: unimodal visual targets, unimodal auditory targets, and bimodal (visual and auditory presented together) targets. The binocular and monocular participants both displayed the Colavita visual dominance effect; however the monocular enucleation group did not. Moro and Steeves demonstrated that people with one eye show equivalent auditory and visual processing, compared with binocular and monocular viewing controls, when asked to discriminate between audio, visual, and bimodal stimuli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12774778",
"title": "Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus), eyes that do not look in the same direction (strabismus), and vision loss due to deterioration (atrophy) of the optic nerve are characteristic of infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy. Hearing loss may also develop. Children with this disorder experience progressive deterioration of cognitive functions (dementia), and eventually lose awareness of their surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436825",
"title": "Geriatrics",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Geriatric giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Impaired vision and hearing loss are common chronic problems among older people. Hearing problems can lead to social isolation, depression, and dependence as the person can no longer talk to other people, receive information over the telephone, or engage in simple transactions, such as talking to a person at a bank or store. Vision problems lead to falls from tripping over unseen objects, medicine being taken incorrectly because the written instructions could not be read, and finances being mismanaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "766202",
"title": "Anisometropia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "In certain types of anisometropia, the visual cortex of the brain will not use both eyes together (binocular vision), and will instead suppress the central vision of one of the eyes. If this occurs often enough during the first 10 years of life while the visual cortex is developing, it can result in amblyopia, a condition where even when correcting the refractive error properly, the person's vision in the affected eye is still not correctable to 20/20.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cry92
|
When / why did it become a custom to put your hand on your heart for patriotic moments (specifically US pledge of allegiance and national anthem)
|
[
{
"answer": "The hand over one's heart is a civilian salute. It is for use by civilians (people who are not in a nation's armed forces) at moments that would be appropriate for a military salute.\n\nSome countries (the US, Italy, etc.) use the hand over the heart as a civilian salute, some (Latin American countries for example) have different civilian salutes - like the hand across the chest with the palm facing down - while others (UK, Canada) have no official civilian salute.\n\nIn the US, prior to 1942, the Bellamy Salute (similar to the Roman/Nazi salute) was the official civilian salute.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The civilian pledge of allegiance used to be accompanied by the 'Bellamy salute' which was based on the 'Roman salute' (NB - there's no hard evidence of this ever having been used in this way in Ancient Rome, but it was part of popular historical myth, much like the thumbs up/thumbs down gestures) This Bellamy suit involves pointing a fully stretched out arm, with the palm facing downwards and the finger touching, toward a flag or other symbol. In 1942 congress chose to make the Bellamy pledge the official national pledge, however some recognised how uncomfortably close the gesture was to the Nazi salute and the hand on heart alternative arose. This is often attributed directly to Roosevelt but again there's scant hard evidence of this. It was also referred to as 'The Lincoln Salute' and attributed to the saluting style of Abe, but again, this seems to be popular mythology rather than solid historical fact. \n\nThere were a few possible non-American sources, the Albanian military salute is the same and dates from the 1920/30s and the gesture is found in traditional greetings in some Arab societies. \n\nThe next major change came in 1953/4 when Senator Homer Ferguson sponsored a successful bill to add the words 'under God' to the Pledge.Something Bellamy's granddaughter said he would have opposed. \nNote that the flag code states that for civilians the hand 'should' go on the heart, the use of 'should' rather than 'shall' means that it is not compulsory and no legal sanctions may be applied for not performing this gesture. \n\n\n\nThis blog entry has photos from the Library of Congress of Children performing the old Bellamy style salute as late as 1942. \n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "84950",
"title": "Francis Bellamy",
"section": "Section::::The Pledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The recital was accompanied with a salute to the flag known as the Bellamy salute, described in detail by Bellamy. During World War II, the salute was replaced with a hand-over-heart gesture because the original form involved stretching the arm out towards the flag in a manner that resembled the later Nazi salute. (\"For a history of the pledge, see Pledge of Allegiance\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39625581",
"title": "Pope John Senior High School and Minor Seminary",
"section": "Section::::History.:School anthem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Early in the first decade of the twenty-first century, the monument of the Sacred Heart was dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus under the chaplaincy of Rev. Fr. Justine Mensah and Master Emmanuel Obeng Codjoe (now a Catholic priest). The need for a song to the Sacred Heart arose and this was the ode chosen to pay respect to Jesus Christ. History however indicates that it was composed and used as an anthem by the school long before the introduction of \"O Great Pojomma Arise and Shine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12676385",
"title": "Heart in Hand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The Heart in Hand or Heart-in-Hand is a symbol of a heart in an open palm, and is symbolic of charity, given from the heart. It is an easily recognizable symbol in the Northeastern United States and used by the Shakers as a pictoral reminder of the words of Mother Ann Lee, the founder of the Shaker sect, who promoted a simple life of hard work and spirituality, \"Put your hands to work, and your hearts to God.\" The image is typical of the Shaker attitude, and also implies a loving welcome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772726",
"title": "Nazi salute",
"section": "Section::::Origins and adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The Bellamy salute, adopted in 1892 to accompany the American Pledge of Allegiance, bore a resemblance to the Nazi Salute. For this reason, President Franklin D. Roosevelt instituted the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the United States, instead of the Bellamy salute. This was done when Congress officially adopted the \"Flag Code\" on 22 June 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18134296",
"title": "History of North American fraternities and sororities",
"section": "Section::::History and development.:Phi Beta Kappa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Later, in May 1777, two new signs of recognition were designed: \"a salutation of the clasp of the hands, together with an immediate stroke across the mouth with the back of the same hand, and a return with the hand used by the saluted\"; these new gestures were for the purposes of distinguishing Phi Beta Kappa members \"in any foreign country or place.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59581",
"title": "Pledge of Allegiance",
"section": "Section::::Salute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301(b)(1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340471",
"title": "Roman salute",
"section": "Section::::19th–20th centuries United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "On October 12, 1892, the Bellamy salute was demonstrated as the hand gesture to accompany the Pledge of Allegiance in the United States. The inventor of the saluting gesture was James B. Upham, junior partner and editor of \"The Youth's Companion\". Bellamy recalled Upham, upon reading the pledge, came into the posture of the salute, snapped his heels together, and said \"Now up there is the flag; I come to salute; as I say 'I pledge allegiance to my flag,' I stretch out my right hand and keep it raised while I say the stirring words that follow.\" There exists evidence suggesting that the gesture had been used previous to Upham in the secret rituals of the Knights of Labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9k69qk
|
I know why the inter-war Germany was called 'Weimar Republic', but who started using that term? And when? And did it have a positive/negative connotation?
|
[
{
"answer": "The name \"Weimar Republic\" was not really used much during the existence of the Republic. The Republic used \"Deutsches Reich\" as the official name, and \"Republik\" in various compounds, but Weimar was an informal title at best. Some Anglophone publications used Weimar Republic yet this was typically a minor naming convention. The actual town of Weimar had a rather strained relationship with the Republic. It was the site of the Republic's constitutional convention, chosen mostly because it was away from the chaos of Berlin, and the was the center for Gropius's Bauhaus movement. Yet the largely conservative Weimar population had little love for the Republic and many locals resented the Bauhaus for bringing in foreigners and Jews into Goethe's birthplace. Hitler and the NSDAP though were the ones who popularized the name Weimar Republic, and he and other NSDAP propagandists used it as a slur. The name stuck after 1933 and filtered into opponents of the regime as well as outside of Germany. This [google Ngram](_URL_1_) for English shows the post-1930 pickup, as does this [Ngram](_URL_0_) for \"Weimarer Republik.\" As both Ngrams indicate, the Weimar Republic clearly became the \"Weimar Republic\" after 1945. \n\nThe fact that historians and other writers use Weimar Republic when the actual government in question did not is not terribly unusual. There are other examples of Anglophone names that are anachronistic or inaccurate. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is one, as is the Byzantine Empire. One notable example that sometimes strikes pedants is the use of Tsar after Peter I. Peter I accepted the title All-Russian Imperator in 1721 and it became the first title used by subsequent Romanovs. This was part of Peter I's efforts at building up his prestige and self-styling as a modern European monarch who had no peers. The tsar title implied he was still Muscovite, but imperator is a more ambitious. Subsequent Romanovs would use the imperial title as their main title, and tsar became relegated to various monarchical appendages that signified areas over which the tsar had suzerainty, such as the Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Siberia, etc. The title Tsar also entered into the vernacular as a shorthand for the Russian ruler in the non-Russian world, but subsequent emperors after Peter I sometimes preferred Tsar over Emperor, such as the archconservative Alexander III.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "291222",
"title": "German Reich",
"section": "Section::::Nazi perspective on the Weimar Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The 1918–1933 republic, which was also called German Reich, was ignored and denounced by the Nazis as a historical aberration. The name \"Weimar Republic\" was first used in 1929 after Hitler referred to the period as the \"\"Republik von Weimar\"\" (Republic of Weimar) at a rally in Munich with the term later becoming mainstream during the 1930s both within and outside Germany. The Nazis also contemptuously referred to it as \"the System\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33685",
"title": "Weimar Republic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 660,
"text": "The Weimar Republic ( ), also known as 'Weimar Germany,' is an unofficial historical designation for the German state from 1918 to 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place. The official name of the republic remained \"Deutsches Reich\" unchanged from 1871, because of the German tradition of substates. Although commonly translated as \"German Empire\", the word \"Reich\" here better translates as \"realm\", in that the term does not have monarchical connotations in itself. The \"Reich\" was changed from a constitutional monarchy into a republic. In English, the country was usually known simply as Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33685",
"title": "Weimar Republic",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1413,
"text": "The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany, from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. Between 1919 and 1933 there was no single name for the new state that gained widespread acceptance, which is precisely why the old name remained even though hardly anyone used it during the Weimar period. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model and cringed to see the honour of the traditional word \"Reich\" associated with it. The Catholic Centre party, favoured the term (\"German People's State\") while on the moderate left the Chancellor's SPD preferred (\"German Republic\"). By 1925, was used by most Germans, but for the anti-democratic right the word was, along with the relocation of the seat of power to Weimar, a painful reminder of a government structure that had been imposed by foreign statesmen, along with the expulsion of Kaiser Wilhelm in the wake of massive national humiliation. The first recorded mention of the term (\"Republic of Weimar\") came during a speech delivered by Adolf Hitler at a National Socialist German Worker's Party rally in Munich on 24 February 1929—it was a few weeks later that the term was first used (again by Hitler) in a newspaper article. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22798493",
"title": "States of the Weimar Republic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The States of the Weimar Republic were the first-level administrative divisions and constituent states of Germany during the Weimar Republic era. The states were established in 1918 following the German Revolution upon the conclusion of World War I, and based on the 21 constituent states of the German Empire that abolished their local monarchies. The new states continued as republics alongside the three pre-existing city-states within the new Weimar Republic, adopting the titles \"Freistaat\" (\"Free State\") or \"Volksstaat\" (\"People's State\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4738979",
"title": "Names of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Etymological history.:German Empire and Weimar Republic of Germany, 1871–1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 215,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 215,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "After the forced abdication of the Emperor in 1918, and the republic was declared, Germany was informally called the \"Deutsche Republik\". The official name of the state remained the same. The term Weimar Republic, after the city where the National Assembly gathered, came up in the 1920s, but was not commonly used until the 1950s. It became necessary to find an appropriate term for the Germany between 1871 and 1919: \"Kaiserliches Deutschland\" (Imperial Germany) or \"(Deutsches) Kaiserreich\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47198",
"title": "Weimar",
"section": "Section::::History.:Weimar Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The period in German history from 1919 to 1933 is commonly referred to as the Weimar Republic, as the Republic's constitution was drafted here. Berlin as the capital was considered too dangerous for the National Assembly to use as a meeting place, because of its street rioting after the 1918 German Revolution. The calm and centrally-located Weimar had a suitable place of assembly (the theatre), hotels and infrastructure, so it was chosen as the capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33687",
"title": "Weimar culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Weimar culture was the emergence of the arts and sciences that happened in Germany during the Weimar Republic, the latter during that part of the interwar period between Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918 and Hitler's rise to power in 1933. 1920s Berlin was at the hectic center of the Weimar culture. Although not part of the Weimar Republic, some authors also include the German-speaking Austria, and particularly Vienna, as part of Weimar culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36w0xr
|
Who were the most influential figures in the Bolshevik Party who weren't executed during the purges? Why did Stalin spare them?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think most influential is pretty subjective and the range of purges meant pretty much everyone who -was- overly influential and famous got purged. And the remainder of the Communist party in the aftermath of Stalin's purges was absolutely subordinated to him (with the possible exception of Beria)\n\nThe closest I can think of would be someone like Anastas Mikoyan. If you look at Soviet Politburo membership list basically everyone on it from 1917-mid 1930s who wasn't firmly on Stalin's side all the way through got shot.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "137840",
"title": "Great Purge",
"section": "Section::::The wider purge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Eventually almost all of the Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the Russian Revolution of 1917, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original Politburo during the 1917 October Revolution who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed. The fifth, Leon Trotsky, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent Ramón Mercader in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (Tomsky) committed suicide and two (Molotov and Kalinin) lived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28621",
"title": "Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::Stalinist policies.:Class-based violence, purges and deportations.:Purges and executions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "137840",
"title": "Great Purge",
"section": "Section::::The wider purge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "However, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders, while being the most visible part, were only a minor part of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by Vladimir Bukovsky demonstrate that there were quotas for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134142",
"title": "History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Purge of the Old Bolsheviks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 242,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 242,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The Great Purge saw the removal of 850,000 members from the Party, or 36% of its membership, between 1936 and 1938. Many of these individuals were executed or perished in prison camps. \"Old Bolsheviks\" who had been members of the Party in 1917 were especially targeted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465971",
"title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"section": "Section::::The Great Purges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "As this process unfolded, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power by destroying the potential opposition. In 1936-38 about three quarters of a million Soviets were executed, and more than a million others were sentenced to lengthy terms in very harsh labour camps. Stalin's Great Terror ravaged the ranks of factory directors and engineers, and removed most of the senior officers in the Army. The pretext was the 1934 assassination of Sergey Kirov (which many suspect Stalin of having planned, although there is no evidence for this). Nearly all the old pre-1918 Bolsheviks were purged. Trotsky was expelled from the party in 1927, exiled to Kazakhstan in 1928, expelled from the USSR in 1929, and assassinated in 1940. Stalin used the purges to politically and physically destroy his other formal rivals (and former allies) accusing Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev of being behind Kirov's assassination and planning to overthrow Stalin. Ultimately, the people arrested were tortured and forced to confess to being spies and saboteurs, and quickly convicted and executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134142",
"title": "History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Purge of the Old Bolsheviks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 235,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 235,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "In the 1930s other senior Communists, many of whom had been Stalin's allies were removed and many of them were executed or died in mysterious circumstances, including Lev Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev and Nikolai Bukharin. Joseph Stalin instigated a series of purges against senior members of the party, culminating in the Great Purge of 1935 to 1938, with the key processes known as Moscow Trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46941733",
"title": "Government of Vladimir Lenin",
"section": "Section::::Consolidating revolution.:Lenin's Declining Health and the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Between June and August 1922, a trial of the SR leaders was held in which they were found guilty of conspiring against the government. Lenin urged for their execution, although other Bolsheviks cautioned against this, suggesting that they be kept imprisoned indefinitely under the threat of execution if any further SR attempts against the government were made. This attitude prevailed, and the SR leaders were kept in prison until later being killed during the Great Purges of Stalin's leadership. The Bolsheviks continued to oppose the Mensheviks and their calls for a more democratic basis to socialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vk0mt
|
French Colonies Gone Wrong
|
[
{
"answer": "It is hardly just France, The Belgian Congo and Portuguese Angola are hardly examples of successful states. For every successful colonial state you can point towards another that has been unsuccessful. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vietnam is doing pretty well. Probably would have been doing better if it wasn't for that whole business with the Americans. French Arab Africa isn't doing too poorly, could be doing better, but could certainly be doing better.\n\nProblem is that most of France's colonies were in Western Africa, which regardless of whose colony they are, they are doing pretty terribly.\n\nSome Colonies also saw more development/ settlement than others, the ones that were more settled and developed are doing better than the ones that were just exploited to its fullest extent possible. In this category I would also put the colonies that were already more settled and civilized when they Europeans came like in India and Asia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cote d'Ivoire was doing pretty good for a while.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Canada's pretty sweet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On Africa:\n\nThere are no simple answers to this type of question; there are only complex, contentious, and often outright speculative ones. \n\nFirst, don't think the French were particularly inept or that their empire was uniquely pernicious. That isn't a case you can make with intellectual honesty. You may hear \"Anglophone\" countries are doing \"better\" than \"Francophone\" countries, though to my mind that's a bit like saying the Milky Way is doing \"better\" than Andromeda: it makes no sense.\n\nIn actuality, there are myriad reasons why things are the way they are. The CFA (currency in the region), resource availability, ethnic strife, and population demographics all play a part. Geography is more important than former colonial overlords.\n\nNow, some would argue that France's continued close ties to its former African colonies - its meddling, if you will - have worked against African business and governance, but again, this is a very contentious idea.\n\nEdit: I wrote this response on my phone in the middle of the night, so I just went back through and corrected a couple of things.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may be because the French, when creating colonies, were not aiming to create a separate identity, but rather to almost literally transplant feudal/pre-Revolution France into the colonies. This included their culture, language, and most importantly, their caste system. The church on top, followed by government, followed by the wealthy landowners, followed by peasants. This was both inflexible and archaic, and was doubtlessly an economic and social issue for the colonies. Furthermore the embedding of the French culture created very pro-France atmosphere, so there was no real desire or need for the colonies to grow or become self-sufficient ( For example, the U.S managed to develop an identity separate from that of Britain in only a few decades, whereas many people in present-day Quebec still consider themselves French. Furthermore, they only received independence from France at the barrel of English guns) \n\nAnother possible factor may be that the Catholic Church forbade giving firearms to people who were not white. This caused some serious issues because the French could not supply sympathetic natives with firearms to support them (The demise of Huronia is a good example). This likely did not work in the favour of France when fighting or even forming allies with the natives, harming the colonies as a whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "England went pretty well.\n\n(this is a joke)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not buying into the premise, tbh. \n\nFor example, take the 10 countries with lowest GDP/capita:\n\n1. Congo, formerly Belgian.\n2. Liberia, no colonial past.\n3. Zimbabwe, formerly British.\n4. Burundi, formerly Belgian.\n5. Eritrea, formerly Italian.\n6. CAR, formerly French.\n7. Niger, formerly French.\n8. Sierra Leone, formerly British.\n9. Malawi, formerly British.\n10. Togo, formerly German and French.\n\nThat's not a particularly French-dominated list. More of a list of random places in Africa, where the French happened to have a lot of colonies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will only talk about France's colonies here, but let me answer your question in separate steps. \n\nFirst, let's examine the French Colonial Empire. Here are the regions ruled over by the French: Maghreb, Sahara, much of West Africa, 70% of the continental US, Madagascar, French Guyana, Vietnam, half of India, French polynesia, Nouvelle Caledonie, Syria, Quebec, and many other small islands.\n\nI absolutely disagree with your statement that \"the former French colonies are significantly more screwed up than the other former colonies of major European powers\". I don't really know how you can say that England's colonies are \"much better off\". Regarding the bulk of the French colonial Empire (Africa), I think the problems there are caused by factors on the ground (that European powers may certainly have had a role in implanting), but I can't see a harmful thing that was unique to France. Regarding what people have said might have been the \"French Ideology\" in colonies, I think you'd have to be much more specific on the time period. Yes, the French wanted to implant their ideology and way of life in their colonies, but they realized later that it wasn't going to work. As a result, they turned to a more \"productive\" relationship with their colonies, especially in the 20th century. Algeria was a special case, because it wasn't considered a colony but a region of France itself. \n\nThere is nothing harmful that the French have done to their colonies that the other powers didn't do. In areas where the French influence has been significant, it's fair to say France has kept a serious relationship with those regions, and are willing to help them to a certain extent. I want to come back to Africa to end this, because it's the most prominent francophone region. While french colonization has had terrible effects on the local population (but they are *not* solely found in French colonies), you have to recognize what the French government brought to those countries. They educated the populations, eradicated deadly diseases, set up a sizable Health-care infrastructure, and built roads, railroads, etc...\nAll of this while *the African colonies are estimated not to have brought any money for France itself*. While they supplied manpower and raw resources, they have not directly made France richer (just wanted to point that out). \n\nSo, to come back to your question, it's unfair and wrong to say the French \"damaged\" their colonies. They took care of them, and were is some regards fairer than other powers (Belgium in the Congo). I think the main problems that stemmed from colonization was the rather dysfunctional system of government the countries inherited (corruption, etc...) and the fact that the borders of countries today do not follow ethnic patterns. Algeria is a category appart, and it is the only region where it is fair to say the French have had a big negative influence (largely due to the War). Other than that, **you cannot say that the French have screwed up their colonies**.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24541689",
"title": "Capture of Senegal",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The French were unhappy about the loss of this valuable colony, and planned to regain them in any future conflict with Britain. In 1764, the French launched incursions against the coast of Senegal from Gorée angering the British cabinet. In 1779 during the American War of Independence a French force landed and seized Saint-Louis, and Senegal was ceded to them by Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris that ended the war in 1783. However French control remained sporadic until the mid-nineteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45154359",
"title": "Anglo-French War (1778–1783)",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "A major British success of the 1756-1763 Seven Years' War was the capture of New France in 1760, though British politicians recognised the potential problems. Many accurately predicted removing the French threat would make the Thirteen Colonies less willing to pay for their defence and suggested keeping the French sugar-island of Guadeloupe instead. While its loss was confirmed by the 1763 Treaty of Paris, the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 provided an opening for France to regain lost ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58936955",
"title": "Interwar France",
"section": "Section::::Overseas empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "A hallmark of the French colonial project from the late 19th century to the post-World War Two era was the civilising mission (\"mission civilisatrice\"). The principle was that it was France's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12343",
"title": "Guadeloupe",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th-19th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "During the Seven Years' War the English occupied Guadeloupe from the time of 1759 British Invasion of Guadeloupe until the 1763 Treaty of Paris. During this time Pointe-à-Pitre became a major harbour, and markets in Britain's North American colonies were opened to Guadeloupean sugar which was traded for cheap food and lumber. The economy expanded quickly, creating vast wealth for the European colonists. During this time about 18,000 slaves were imported to Guadeloupe. So prosperous was Guadeloupe at the time that under the 1763 Treaty of Paris France forfeited its Canadian colonies in exchange for Guadeloupe. Coffee planting began in 1770, also worked by slaves, and by 1775 cocoa had also become a major export product. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188528",
"title": "Rassemblement Démocratique Africain",
"section": "Section::::Political context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "With the end of World War II, the French colonial empire set about a significant reorganization of the relationship between France and the colonies. Before the establishment of the French Fourth Republic, the only colony in French West Africa or French Equatorial Africa with any elections for political authorities was Senegal. The rest of the colonies had few Africans who were considered citizens of France, no elections, and suppression of most political movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12343",
"title": "Guadeloupe",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th-19th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The 1789 French Revolution brought chaos to Guadeloupe. Under new revolutionary law free people of colour were entitled to equal rights. Taking advantage of the anarchic political situation, Britain invaded Guadeloupe in 1794, to which the French responded by sending in soldiers led by Victor Hugues, who retook the lands and abolished slavery. In the Reign of Terror that followed more than 1,000 colonists were killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39208411",
"title": "Card money in New France",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The growth of French colonization, which began about the middle of the 17th century, was accompanied by continual difficulty in finding sufficient currency for the needs of settlers, merchants and government establishments. The government of France, involved in almost continuous financial difficulties on its own account, was extremely hard pressed to finance the support and development of its outposts in New France (Bank of Canada, 1966, p. 6). In 1685, the colonial authorities in New France found themselves particularly insolvent. A military expedition against the Iroquois, allies of the English, had gone badly and tax revenues were up owing to the curtailment of the beaver trade because of illegal trading with the English (Powel, 2005, p. 4).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e7wo35
|
when two tvs in tvs same house are run through the same cable service, why does one seem to always lag behind the other?
|
[
{
"answer": "A modern TV contains electronics which decode the digital HDMI signal and then turn it back into a picture and sound. Unfortunately these usually introduce a delay, and on some models it can be a notable fraction of a second, and it's not a standardized amount.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1751628",
"title": "Late night television in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cable television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "In the 1980s, it was more common to split one cable television feed into two separate channels – one that aired during the daytime and the other at night; this method was used in particular by cable systems to account for headend infrastructures that limited the number of channels that could be carried on a single system at the time (prior to upgrades that led to the advent of digital cable in the 1990s); however in those cases, providers switched between continuously-running channel feeds between dayparts. Prior to the launch of Nick at Nite, Nickelodeon carried The Movie Channel (from 1979 to 1981), BET (from 1980 to 1981), the Alpha Repertory Television Service (ARTS) (from 1981 to 1984) and ARTS' successor A&E (from 1984 to 1985) over its channel space; each one (except for ARTS, which merged with The Entertainment Channel to form A&E) eventually became its own separate channel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3485890",
"title": "Television system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Television systems should not be confused with twinsticks, although some individual stations might be part of both types of operations simultaneously. Moreover, a single originating station serving multiple markets within the same province or region is neither a network nor a system; it is merely a station (although it might still be described as a system by its owner, as was the case with Toronto multicultural station CFMT during the 1990s, prior to the formation of Omni Television). For example, independent station CHCH-DT in Hamilton has rebroadcasters in various parts of Ontario but broadcasts the same newscasts, entertainment programming and advertising, which target Hamilton and surrounding areas in the Golden Horseshoe region, across all of these transmitters province-wide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29840",
"title": "Television channel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Preventing interference between terrestrial channels in the same area is accomplished by skipping at least one channel between two analog stations' frequency allocations. Where channel numbers are sequential, frequencies are not contiguous, such as channel 6 to 7 skip from VHF low to high band, and channel 13 to 14 jump to UHF. On cable TV, it is possible to use adjacent channels only because they are all at the same power, something which could only be done terrestrially if the two stations were transmitted at the same power and height from the same location. For DTT, selectivity is inherently better, therefore channels adjacent (either to analog or digital stations) can be used even in the same area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41234",
"title": "Heterodyne",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Up and down converters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "For example, a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency, so they don't interfere with one another. At the cable source or headend, electronic upconverters convert each incoming television channel to a new, higher frequency. They do this by mixing the television signal frequency, \"f\" with a local oscillator at a much higher frequency , creating a heterodyne at the sum , which is added to the cable. At the consumer's home, the cable set top box has a downconverter that mixes the incoming signal at frequency with the same local oscillator frequency creating the difference heterodyne frequency, converting the television channel back to its original frequency: . Each channel is moved to a different higher frequency. The original lower basic frequency of the signal is called the baseband, while the higher channel it is moved to is called the passband.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519148",
"title": "Television in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Cable television is largely, but not entirely, unregulated. Cable providers must include local over-the-air stations in their offerings on each system (stations can opt to gain carriage by seeking a must-carry option) and give them low channel numbers, unless the stations decide to demand compensation of any sort (through retransmission consent). The systems cannot carry broadcast network affiliates from other parts of the country (this regulation has largely been openly ignored in recent years during carriage disputes), however cable systems can carry stations from nearby markets if there are no local stations affiliated with one of the major networks (though this is becoming far less common with the shift, particularly since 2006, towards over-the-air stations carrying one network affiliation on their main channel and an affiliation with another network on a digital subchannel, thus allowing these network-affiliated digital subchannels to be carried at least via digital cable).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7587",
"title": "Cable television",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1477,
"text": "In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the cable company's local distribution facility, called the \"headend\". Many channels can be transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency \"slot\" on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber's residence the company's service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At each television, the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29840",
"title": "Television channel",
"section": "Section::::Other meanings.:Non-terrestrial television channels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Because some regions have had difficulty picking up terrestrial television signals (particularly in mountainous areas), alternative means of distribution such as direct-to-home satellite and cable television have been introduced. Television channels specifically built to run on cable or satellite blur the line between TV station and TV network. That fact led some early cable channels to call themselves superstations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ohc49
|
What actually is going on as electrons move through a circuit?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best way to think of it is that the electrons in a wire are moving because of the electric field in the wire. The electric field is established in the wire when you connect it to the battery terminals, and the speed at which it propagates through the wire is the speed of light in that wire (or circuit). \n\nYou're basically right about the resistor; the propagation of electrons is impeded in that they scatter off impurities and such, causing the electrons to lose energy and the resistor material to gain thermal energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Or is it that they are repelling the free electrons in the material, who in turn repel more electrons, creating a sort of ripple effect?\n\nBingo. The electrons themselves travel very slowly through the wire, but the propagation wave of 'repulsion' travels near c (around 0.5c in copper).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "200919",
"title": "Drift velocity",
"section": "Section::::Numerical example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Therefore, in this wire the electrons are flowing at the rate of . At 60 Hz alternating current, this means that within half a cycle the electrons drift less than 0.2 μm. In other words, electrons flowing across the contact point in a switch will never actually leave the switch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19912212",
"title": "Poole–Frenkel effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Electrons can move (slowly) through an insulator by the following method. The electrons are generally trapped in localized states (loosely speaking, they are \"stuck\" to a single atom, and not free to move around the crystal). Occasionally, random thermal fluctuations will give that electron enough energy to get out of its localized state, and move to the conduction band. Once there, the electron can move through the crystal, for a brief amount of time, before relaxing into another localized state (in other words, \"sticking\" to a different atom). The Poole–Frenkel effect describes how, in a large electric field, the electron doesn't need as much thermal energy to get into the conduction band (because part of this energy comes from being pulled by the electric field), so it does not need as large a thermal fluctuation and will be able to move more frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22712749",
"title": "Gaseous detection device",
"section": "Section::::Electron and ion induction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1734,
"text": "At the point in time when the charge arrives at the electrode, there is no current flowing in the circuit since υ=0, only when the charge is in motion between the electrodes do we have a signal current. This is important in the case, for example, when a new electron-ion pair is generated at any point in the space between anode-cathode, say at x distance from the anode. Then, only a fraction ex/d of charge is induced by the electron during its transit to the anode, whilst the remainder fraction of e(d–x)/d charge is induced by the ion during its transit to the cathode. Addition of those two fractions gives a charge equal to the charge of one electron. Thus by counting the electrons arriving at the anode or the ions at the cathode we derive the same figure in current measurement. However, since the electrons have a drift velocity about three orders of magnitude greater (in nanosecond range) than the ions, the induced signal may be separated in two components of different significance when the ion transit time may become greater than the pixel time on the scanned image. The GDD has thus two inherent time-constants, a very short one due to the electrons and a longer one due to the ions. When the ion transit time is greater than the pixel dwell time, the useful signal intensity decreases together with an increase of signal background noise or smearing of image edges due to the ions lagging behind. As a consequence, the above derivations, which include the total electron and ion contributions must be modified accordingly with new equations for the case of fast scanning rates. The electrode geometry can be altered with a view to decrease the ion transit time as can be done with a needle or cylindrical geometry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14307",
"title": "Hall effect",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In classical electromagnetism electrons move in the opposite direction of the current (by convention \"current\" describes a theoretical \"hole flow\"). In some semiconductors it \"appears\" \"holes\" are actually flowing because the direction of the voltage is opposite to the derivation below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20861",
"title": "Cavity magnetron",
"section": "Section::::Construction and operation.:Split-anode magnetron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "At any given instant, the electron will naturally be pushed towards the lower-voltage side of the tube. The electron will then oscillate back and forth as the voltage changes. At the same time, a strong magnetic field is applied, stronger than the critical value in the original design. This would normally cause the electron to circle back to the cathode, but due to the oscillating electrical field, the electron instead follows a looping path that continues toward the anodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8151109",
"title": "Polywell",
"section": "Section::::Other behavior.:Single-electron motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "As an electron enters a magnetic field, it feels a Lorentz force and corkscrews. The radius of this motion is the gyroradius. As it moves it loses some energy as x-rays, every time it changes speed. The electron spins faster and tighter in denser fields, as it enters the MaGrid. Inside the MaGrid, single electrons travel straight through the null point, due to their infinite gyroradius in regions of no magnetic field. Next, they head towards the edges of the MaGrid field and corkscrew tighter along the denser magnetic field lines. This is typical electron cyclotron resonance motion. Their gyroradius shrinks and when they hit a dense magnetic field they can be reflected using the magnetic mirror effect. Electron trapping has been measured in polywells with Langmuir probes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2621261",
"title": "Birkeland current",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Electrons moving along a Birkeland current may be accelerated by a plasma double layer. If the resulting electrons approach the speed of light, they may subsequently produce a Bennett pinch, which in a magnetic field causes the electrons to spiral and emit synchrotron radiation that may include radio, visible light, x-rays, and gamma rays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mqh35
|
why can't leaded engines use unleaded petrol?
|
[
{
"answer": "Neither of those is correct. The leaded gasoline vapor can be compressed more than unleaded without spontaneously exploding due to the temperature increase. The compression ratio is determined by engine geometry, so an engine designed for leaded gas will compress unleaded gas to the point where it spontaneously ignites, throwing off the cycle and damaging the engine.\n\nEDIT: I didn't explain why they would design for such a high compression ratio. A higher compression ratio generally allows you to be more efficient and cleaner. However, most governments have decided that these benefits do not outweigh the negatives of putting a ridiculous amount of lead in the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neither of those is correct. The leaded gasoline vapor can be compressed more than unleaded without spontaneously exploding due to the temperature increase. The compression ratio is determined by engine geometry, so an engine designed for leaded gas will compress unleaded gas to the point where it spontaneously ignites, throwing off the cycle and damaging the engine.\n\nEDIT: I didn't explain why they would design for such a high compression ratio. A higher compression ratio generally allows you to be more efficient and cleaner. However, most governments have decided that these benefits do not outweigh the negatives of putting a ridiculous amount of lead in the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::Additives.:Antiknock additives.:Lead replacement petrol (gasoline).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Lead replacement petrol (LRP) was developed for vehicles designed to run on leaded fuels and incompatible with unleaded fuels. Rather than tetraethyllead it contains other metals such as potassium compounds or methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT); these are purported to buffer soft exhaust valves and seats so that they do not suffer recession due to the use of unleaded fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8700260",
"title": "Antiknock agent",
"section": "Section::::Typical agents.:Tetraethyllead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "A side effect of the lead additives was protection of the valve seats from erosion. Many classic cars' engines have needed modification to use lead-free fuels since leaded fuels became unavailable. However, \"Lead substitute\" products are also produced and can sometimes be found at auto parts stores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "116035",
"title": "Tetraethyllead",
"section": "Section::::In motor fuel.:Phaseout and ban.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Vehicles designed and built to run on leaded fuel may require modification to run on unleaded gasoline or autogas. These modifications fall into two categories: those required for physical compatibility with unleaded fuel, and those performed to compensate for the relatively low octane of early unleaded fuels. Physical compatibility requires the installation of hardened exhaust valves and seats. Compatibility with reduced octane was addressed by reducing compression, generally by installing thicker cylinder head gaskets and/or rebuilding the engine with compression-reducing pistons. The availability of high-octane unleaded gasoline (or LPG) has reduced or eliminated the need to decrease compression ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14855318",
"title": "Criticism of NASCAR",
"section": "Section::::Environmental effects.:Emissions and pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "In the United States, the commercial use of leaded fuel has been phased out since the early 1970s, when catalytic converters were required to be installed on new cars, making unleaded fuel a requirement (leaded fuel will destroy a catalytic converter). The sale of leaded fuel has been mostly banned in the US since 1996, but exemptions exist for auto racing, aircraft, farm and marine equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::Additives.:Antiknock additives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Almost all countries in the world have phased out automotive leaded fuel. In 2011, six countries were still using leaded gasoline: Afghanistan, Myanmar, North Korea, Algeria, Iraq and Yemen. It was expected that by the end of 2013 those countries, too, would ban leaded gasoline, but this target was not met. Algeria replaced leaded with unleaded automotive fuel only in 2015. Different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). For technical reasons, the use of leaded additives is still permitted worldwide for the formulation of some grades of aviation gasoline such as 100LL, because the required octane rating would be technically infeasible to reach without the use of leaded additives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8700260",
"title": "Antiknock agent",
"section": "Section::::Typical agents.:Tetraethyllead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "In the U.S., where tetraethyllead had been blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973. In 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2,000 tons of lead per year. From January 1, 1996, the Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the United States. Possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum US$10,000 fine in the United States. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines. The ban on leaded gasoline led to thousands fewer tons of lead being released into the air by automobiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50012982",
"title": "Campaign for Lead Free Air",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Tetraethyl lead was first added to gasoline in the 1920s as an “anti-knock” agent, which is a cheap method of boosting the octane rating. It is not possible to use catalytic converters with leaded fuel as the lead coats the platinum and renders the catalyst ineffective. Lead free gasoline was therefore introduced into Japan in the late sixties, and into the US in the mid seventies in order to enable the use of catalytic converters and thus mitigate photochemical pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j9msq
|
From where do we measure distances between celestial bodies? (center-to-center? surface-to-surface?)
|
[
{
"answer": "It varies. Most celestial bodies aren't \"measured\", their distances are estimated using a variety of techniques.\n\nThe Moon for example can be measured by firing a laser at a small reflector on its surface (left by the Apollo mission) and measuring the time that the laser light takes to make the round trip. So, in this specific case the distance to the Moon is measured to a few inches above it's surface. You could then add it's radius (and the few inches) to find the distance to it's centre.\n\nThe distance to the planets can be calculated using observations of their orbits (Copernicus did this), in this case the accuracy is based on the accuracy of the observations. I don't know how accurate these are these days but I suspect that the error bars are now within the diameters of (at least) the largest planets meaning that a calculation could be made to either centre or surface as required.\n\nRelatively close stars (or other bodies) are measured using parallax, this means that observations are made of how they move relative to background stars and then trigonometric calculations made. It this case the stars are considered \"point sources\" and the distance from their surface to their centre is considered zero. The estimated distances are therefore \"to the star\" with no specification of surface or centre.\n\nParallax has a limited range however, so even further from earth methods such as comparing the brightness of celestial events such as supernova are used. Type 1a supernova occur at the same brightness, so when these are observed the relative brightness can be use to calculate (estimate) distance. The Andromeda galaxy for example is 2.5 million light years away, but again, due to the accuracy of the measurements using this method will have an relatively large error bar.\n\nThere are other techniques.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the answers provided so far can be fairly misleading. \n\nThe real answer is, the order of magnitude between celestial bodies is SIGNIFICANTLY greater than the size of the bodies. \n\nAnalogy: Lets say you're measuring the distance between two marbles that are 100 feet away from each other. Then you ask - is my distance measurement from center to center or is it from surface to surface? Well, the difference offers you 0.5 inches in precision, but you really can't measure distance to that precision anyway, so you say '100 feet' or '101 feet'. But you don't have it down to the 0.1 inch scale that you can say 'surface to surface distance' or vice versa. \n\njswhitten's response is a good example. He says the moon is 400,000 km away - actually it's 384,000 km away. The rounding error is 16,000 km, which is greater than the diameter of earth! So we're not that precise. Especially when we're talking about the distance to farther planets, because their orbits are elliptical, which results in big error bars in your distances anyway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It varies. Most celestial bodies aren't \"measured\", their distances are estimated using a variety of techniques.\n\nThe Moon for example can be measured by firing a laser at a small reflector on its surface (left by the Apollo mission) and measuring the time that the laser light takes to make the round trip. So, in this specific case the distance to the Moon is measured to a few inches above it's surface. You could then add it's radius (and the few inches) to find the distance to it's centre.\n\nThe distance to the planets can be calculated using observations of their orbits (Copernicus did this), in this case the accuracy is based on the accuracy of the observations. I don't know how accurate these are these days but I suspect that the error bars are now within the diameters of (at least) the largest planets meaning that a calculation could be made to either centre or surface as required.\n\nRelatively close stars (or other bodies) are measured using parallax, this means that observations are made of how they move relative to background stars and then trigonometric calculations made. It this case the stars are considered \"point sources\" and the distance from their surface to their centre is considered zero. The estimated distances are therefore \"to the star\" with no specification of surface or centre.\n\nParallax has a limited range however, so even further from earth methods such as comparing the brightness of celestial events such as supernova are used. Type 1a supernova occur at the same brightness, so when these are observed the relative brightness can be use to calculate (estimate) distance. The Andromeda galaxy for example is 2.5 million light years away, but again, due to the accuracy of the measurements using this method will have an relatively large error bar.\n\nThere are other techniques.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the answers provided so far can be fairly misleading. \n\nThe real answer is, the order of magnitude between celestial bodies is SIGNIFICANTLY greater than the size of the bodies. \n\nAnalogy: Lets say you're measuring the distance between two marbles that are 100 feet away from each other. Then you ask - is my distance measurement from center to center or is it from surface to surface? Well, the difference offers you 0.5 inches in precision, but you really can't measure distance to that precision anyway, so you say '100 feet' or '101 feet'. But you don't have it down to the 0.1 inch scale that you can say 'surface to surface distance' or vice versa. \n\njswhitten's response is a good example. He says the moon is 400,000 km away - actually it's 384,000 km away. The rounding error is 16,000 km, which is greater than the diameter of earth! So we're not that precise. Especially when we're talking about the distance to farther planets, because their orbits are elliptical, which results in big error bars in your distances anyway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "491847",
"title": "Position circle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "When a horizontal angle measurement is made between two known points on land, the observer will be located at the apex of a triangle, with the other two corners of this triangle consisting of the landmark pair. The observer will also be sitting on a set of points that fall along a large circle. The diameter of the circle will be dependent upon the distance between the landmark pair and the range of the observer to the landmark pair. At each point along this circle, the angular separation between the landmark pairs will be the same. Two such circles exist, one in front of the landmark pair, and one on the backside. It is usually straightforward to tell which circle is relevant. After the observation is made, the angular reading can be transferred onto a nautical chart (or map) by means of a protractor instrument. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196",
"title": "Angle",
"section": "Section::::Angles in geography and astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "In astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several \"astronomical coordinate systems\", where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the \"angular separation\" of two stars by imagining two lines through the centre of the Earth, each intersecting one of the stars. The angle between those lines can be measured, and is the angular separation between the two stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39378",
"title": "Distance",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics.:Distances between sets and between a point and a set.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Various distance definitions are possible between objects. For example, between celestial bodies one should not confuse the surface-to-surface distance and the center-to-center distance. If the former is much less than the latter, as for a low earth orbit, the first tends to be quoted (altitude), otherwise, e.g. for the Earth–Moon distance, the latter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "To measure large distances, such as the distance of a planet or a star from Earth, astronomers use the principle of parallax. Here, the term \"parallax\" is the semi-angle of inclination between two sight-lines to the star, as observed when Earth is on opposite sides of the Sun in its orbit. These distances form the lowest rung of what is called \"the cosmic distance ladder\", the first in a succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects, serving as a basis for other distance measurements in astronomy forming the higher rungs of the ladder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471487",
"title": "Cosmic distance ladder",
"section": "Section::::Direct measurement.:Parallax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The most important fundamental distance measurements come from trigonometric parallax. As the Earth orbits the Sun, the position of nearby stars will appear to shift slightly against the more distant background. These shifts are angles in an isosceles triangle, with 2 AU (the distance between the extreme positions of Earth's orbit around the Sun) making the base leg of the triangle and the distance to the star being the long equal length legs. The amount of shift is quite small, measuring 1 arcsecond for an object at 1 parsec's distance (3.26 light-years) of the nearest stars, and thereafter decreasing in angular amount as the distance increases. Astronomers usually express distances in units of parsecs (parallax arcseconds); light-years are used in popular media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23335",
"title": "Parsec",
"section": "Section::::History and derivation.:Calculating the value of a parsec.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "In the diagram above (not to scale), S represents the Sun, and E the Earth at one point in its orbit. Thus the distance ES is one astronomical unit (au). The angle SDE is one arcsecond ( of a degree) so by definition D is a point in space at a distance of one parsec from the Sun. Through trigonometry, the distance SD is calculated as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12608",
"title": "Geodesy",
"section": "Section::::Coordinate systems in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, \"X\", \"Y\" and \"Z\". Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the \"Z\"-axis is aligned with Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8vxu8d
|
why does our heartbeat and blood pressure lower in our sleep and why is it important for our body to do so?
|
[
{
"answer": "* You are lying down. It takes more effort for your heart to pump blood straight up to your brain than it takes to pump when your whole body is horizontal\n\n* Your muscles aren't moving during sleep so they requires less blood\n\n* Your brain uses just as much blood/oxygen when sleeping as when awake",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21167095",
"title": "Nap",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Cardiovascular benefits of napping, siesta or daytime sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1146,
"text": "Zaregarizi and his team have concluded that the acute time of falling asleep was where beneficial cardiovascular changes take place. This study has indicated that a large decline in blood pressure occurs during the daytime sleep-onset period only when sleep is expected; however, when subjects rest in a supine position, the same reduction in blood pressure is not observed. This blood pressure reduction may be associated with the lower coronary mortality rates seen in the Mediterranean and Latin American populations where siestas are common. Zaregarizi assessed cardiovascular function (blood pressure, heart rate, and measurements of blood vessel dilation) while nine healthy volunteers, 34 years of age on average, spent an hour standing quietly; reclining at rest but not sleeping; or reclining to nap. All participants were restricted to 4 hours of sleep on the night prior to each of the sleep laboratory tests. During three daytime naps, he noted significant reductions in blood pressure and heart rate. By contrast, the team did not observe changes in cardiovascular function while the participants were standing or reclining at rest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167184",
"title": "Rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Sleep function.:Endocrine function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Because hormones play a major role in energy balance and metabolism, and sleep plays a critical role in the timing and amplitude of their secretion, sleep has a sizable effect on metabolism. This could explain some of the early theories of sleep function that predicted that sleep has a metabolic regulation role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1584059",
"title": "Craniosynostosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.:Obstructive sleep apnea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Certain cells in the brain respond specifically to an increase of CO2 in the blood. The response involves vasodilatation of the cranial vault blood vessels, increasing the volume of one of the elements in the Monro-Kellie doctrine. The increase of CO2 concentration in the blood is a consequence of impaired breathing, especially seen when the child suffering from OSA is sleeping. It is well documented that the highest spikes in intracranial pressure often occur during sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27118911",
"title": "Central sleep apnea",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "In a healthy person during sleep, breathing is regular so oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant: After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the body (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the larynx (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it. In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5370998",
"title": "Hypopnea",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The direct consequence of hypopnea (as well as apnea) is that the in the blood increases and the oxygen level in the patient's blood decrease is proportionate to the severity of the airway obstruction. This disruptive pattern of breathing generates disruptive sleep patterns, the consequences of which being that those individuals may exhibit increased fatigability, lethargy, decreased ability to concentrate, increased irritability, and morning headaches. Basically, those individuals are extremely tired due to their inability to get a good night's sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529870",
"title": "Control of ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Determinants of ventilatory rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Drugs can greatly influence the rate of respiration. Opioids and anesthetics tend to depress ventilation, by decreasing the normal response to raised carbon dioxide levels in the arterial blood. Stimulants such as amphetamines can cause hyperventilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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