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us460
|
How did the religious class view Benjamin Franklin's scientific experimentations during his retirement?
|
[
{
"answer": "Great question. Franklin was (along with Jefferson) a really fascinating man. I hope someone has a good answer for this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd suggest that that documentary was probably lying, or at least misrepresenting things. People have offered naturalistic explanations of lightning for as long as people have been writing about lightning, and I don't think they would have created a dichotomy between \"God did it\" and \"lightning is a result of X natural process,\" that's more of a modern hang-up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3986",
"title": "Benjamin Franklin",
"section": "Section::::Public life.:Early steps in Pennsylvania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56122774",
"title": "Marcus Jernegan",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "He was part of a pioneering effort to map colonial churches. He wrote about slavery and conversion to Christianity in the United States. He also wrote about the veracity of Benjamin Franklin's supposed experiments with a kite to demonstrate electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13414036",
"title": "The History and Present State of Electricity",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The focus on Franklin's experiments influenced the reception of his work in Europe. Priestley's famous text supported the distribution of Franklin's research, which helped it becoming one of the most important works on electricity in the late 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49297790",
"title": "Jacques de Romas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Unlike many intellectuals of his era, the amateur physicist didn't travel much out of his home region. When he was made a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1764 to honor his electrical kite experiments, he went to Paris. For that purpose, he had to prove that his experiments were conducted without knowledge of the similar breakthroughs of Franklin in the English colonies. The commission acknowledged this after studying his reports and letters to different fellow scientists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220050",
"title": "Philanthropy",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe's \"An Essay upon Projects\" (1697) and Cotton Mather's \"Bonifacius: an essay upon the good.\" (1710). Franklin attempted to motivate his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city: examples included the Library Company of Philadelphia (the first American subscription library), the fire department, the police force, street lighting and a hospital. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751) – which became the University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743) to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47243902",
"title": "Franklin's electrostatic machine",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Franklin distributed copies of the electrostatic machine to many of his close associates to encourage them to study electricity. Between 1747 and 1750, Franklin sent many letters to his friend Collinson in London about his experiments with the electrostatic machine and the Leyden jar, including his observations and theories on the principles of electricity. These letters were collected and published in 1751 in a book entitled \"Experiments and Observations on Electricity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1880338",
"title": "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Part Three.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Now the \"Autobiography\" discusses \"the Rise and Progress of [Franklin's] Philosophical Reputation.\" He starts experiments with electricity and writes letters about them that are published in England as a book. Franklin's description of his experiments is translated into French, and Abbé Nollet, who is offended because this work calls into question his own theory of electricity, publishes his own book of letters attacking Franklin. Declining to respond on the grounds that anyone could duplicate and thus verify his experiments, Franklin sees another French author refute Nollet, and as Franklin's book is translated into other languages, its views are gradually accepted and Nollet's are discarded. Franklin is also voted an honorary member of the Royal Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6f71b8
|
Why do we build larger particle colliders with bigger diameters instead smaller diameters traveled multiple times?
|
[
{
"answer": "To go to higher energies at a fixed bending radius, you need stronger bending magnets. The momentum per unit charge of a particle along the central orbit inside a bending element is called its *magnetic rigidty*: Bρ = p/q.\n\nB is the magnetic field strength of the bending magnet, ρ is the bending radius of the central orbit, p is the momentum of the test particle, and q is the charge of the test particle.\n\nIf you want to increase p while leaving ρ fixed, you need to increase the magnetic field strength proportionally to p (or in terms of energy, sqrt[E^(2) - m^(2)]).\n\nWe can only make our bending magnets so strong, and it ends up being better just to increase the bending radius. That means that if you need a larger diameter accelerator.\n\nOr you could sidestep the need to bend the beam entirely by using a linear accelerator. But then you lose the ability to put the beam particles on target (or collide them with another beam) more than once.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another thing is [synchrotron radiation](_URL_0_). If you accelerate (such as curve around a circle) a charged particle, it will lose energy from the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The smaller the radius of curvature means a larger the acceleration. More energy will be lost and therefore the more energy you need to pump in to maintain the orbit.\n\nThe power that is lost goes as 1/m^4 so a lighter particle like an electron will emit much much more (10^13 times) synchrotron radiation than a proton. This is why we don't see circular electron accelerators. The power lost also goes as 1/r^2 so even if bending magnets could be made stronger, eventually the input power requirements could be limiting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "596353",
"title": "Large Electron–Positron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Collider background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The shape of the collider is also important. High energy physics colliders collect particles into bunches, and then collide the bunches together. However, only a very tiny fraction of particles in each bunch actually collide. In circular colliders, these bunches travel around a roughly circular shape in opposite directions and therefore can be collided over and over. This enables a high rate of collisions and facilitates collection of a large amount of data, which is important for precision measurements or for observing very rare decays. However, the energy of the bunches is limited due to losses from synchrotron radiation. In linear colliders, particles move in a straight line and therefore do not suffer from synchrotron radiation, but bunches cannot be re-used and it is therefore more challenging to collect large amounts of data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5346",
"title": "Colloid",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1144,
"text": "Because the size of the dispersed phase may be difficult to measure, and because colloids have the appearance of solutions, colloids are sometimes identified and characterized by their physico-chemical and transport properties. For example, if a colloid consists of a solid phase dispersed in a liquid, the solid particles will not diffuse through a membrane, whereas with a true solution the dissolved ions or molecules will diffuse through a membrane. Because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the lower the concentration of the dispersed colloidal particles remaining in the ultrafiltered liquid. The measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, or organic matter complexing these species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18589032",
"title": "Particle accelerator",
"section": "Section::::Targets and detectors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "A variation commonly used for particle physics research is a collider, also called a \"storage ring collider\". Two circular synchrotrons are built in close proximityusually on top of each other and using the same magnets (which are then of more complicated design to accommodate both beam tubes). Bunches of particles travel in opposite directions around the two accelerators and collide at intersections between them. This can increase the energy enormously; whereas in a fixed-target experiment the energy available to produce new particles is proportional to the square root of the beam energy, in a collider the available energy is linear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168651",
"title": "High-performance liquid chromatography",
"section": "Section::::Parameters.:Particle size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "This means that changing to particles that are half as big, keeping the size of the column the same, will double the performance, but increase the required pressure by a factor of four. Larger particles are used in preparative HPLC (column diameters 5 cm up to 30 cm) and for non-HPLC applications such as solid-phase extraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48840652",
"title": "Streaming instability",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Collisions at velocities that would result in the fragmentation of equal sized particles can instead result in growth via mass transfer from the small to the larger particle. This process requires an initial population of 'lucky' particles that have grown larger than the majority of particles. These particles may form if collision velocities have a wide distribution, with a small fraction occurring at velocities that allow objects beyond the bouncing barrier to stick. However, the growth via mass transfer is slow relative to radial drift timescales, although it may occur locally if radial drift is halted locally at a pressure bump allowing the formation of planetesimals in 10^5 yrs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596405",
"title": "Collider",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Colliders are used as a research tool in particle physics by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact other particles. Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world and the laws of nature governing it. These may become apparent only at high energies and for tiny periods of time, and therefore may be hard or impossible to study in other ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14005026",
"title": "Diffusiophoresis and diffusioosmosis",
"section": "Section::::Relationship between difusiophoresis/diffusioosmosis, and thermophoresis, multicomponent diffusion and the Marangoni effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "It is the very large difference in size between the colloidal particle, which may be 1μm across, and the size of the ions or molecules, which are less than 1 nm across, that makes diffusiophoresis closely related to diffusioosomosis at a flat surface. In both cases the forces that drive the motion are largely localised to the interfacial region, which is a few molecules across and so typically of order a nanometer across. Over distances of order a nanometer, there is little difference between the surface of a colloidal particle 1 μm across, and a flat surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gamp9
|
why do people tap the top of their soda cans before opening them?
|
[
{
"answer": "If bubbles have formed on the side of the can, tapping the can may dislodge them and cause them to pop at the surface. Since the can is usually somewhat pressurized, any gas in the can will expand when you open it. If the gas expands under liquid (the bubbles stuck to the side of the can), the gas might carry the liquid with it, making a foamy mess. If the gas is all at the top, then it will hiss out as you open it, but there won't be any liquid coming with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Try tapping the top of a clear bottle and you'll see it does nothing other than agitate the contents. Total myth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Filling cans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the drink flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Opening mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Early metal drink cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second (smaller) one to admit air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507190",
"title": "Steel and tin cans",
"section": "Section::::Opening cans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Some cans, such as those used for sardines, have a specially scored lid so that the user can break out the metal by the leverage of winding it around a slotted church key. Until the mid-20th century, some sardine tins had solder-attached lids, and the winding key worked by forcing the solder joint apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838101",
"title": "Soda jerk",
"section": "Section::::Origin of term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The term \"soda jerk\" was a pun on \"soda clerk\", the formal job title of the drugstore assistants who operated soda fountains. It was inspired by the \"jerking\" action the server would use to swing the soda fountain handle back and forth when adding the soda water. The soda fountain spigot itself typically was a sturdy, shiny fixture on the end of a pipe or other similar structure protruding above the counter, curving towards where the glasses would be filled. All of the drinks were made with unflavored carbonated water. Consequently, the tap handle was large, as the soda jerker would use it frequently. This made the mixing of drinks a center of activity at the soda fountain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77528",
"title": "Jolt Cola",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "In 2005, Jolt Cola revamped its product line. Jolt Cola changed its logo, and came in \"battery bottles\" (that resemble the shape of a AA battery) which make a loud popping sound when opened. The cans are resealable aluminum bottles; the body of the bottle was similar to that of a standard aluminum can, but the top had a twist-off aluminum cap with a plastic gasket liner, and in smaller \"Quick Fix\" cans ( single-use pull-tab aluminum cans, similar to those used for Red Bull) and \"battery\" cans ( resealable aluminum cans with the same twist-off top as the battery bottles). The Jolt Cola website claimed that the \"Quick Fix\" sizes were available at establishments that serve \"adult beverages,\" for use as a mixer. The flavors of Jolt offered were also changed. Flavors offered were Cola, Blue Raspberry, Cherry Bomb (cherry cola), Silver (lemon-lime), Wild Grape, Orange Blast, Passionfruit (featuring a yellow can) and Ultra (a diet drink with Splenda as its artificial sweetener alongside guarana, ginseng, taurine, and vitamin B complex).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Canned drinks were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a \"church key\", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34839220",
"title": "Tip jar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The tip jar has become a source of controversy. Customers may feel discouraged from patronizing establishments using them. They may also feel that tip jars are inappropriate at certain types of establishments such as movie-theater concession counters, dry cleaners, take-out restaurants, gym locker rooms or grocery bagger's work stations. Many feel social pressure to use them, or that they are paying too high a total price when purchasing a simple item.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1u7mlo
|
Why can't we make a camera that captures images that look the same as how we see them?
|
[
{
"answer": "What you should be asking is, \"why can't we make a camera that captures images exactly how we see them and reproduce them in a medium which is visually indistinguishable from the original scene?\"\n\nDesigning a camera that captures information identical to the photoreceptor layer of your retina is simply a matter of engineering four sensors with the same sensitivity vs wavelength functions as your photoreceptors. This isn't perfectly accurate due to temporal effects, but suffices as a first approximation. Difficulty of engineering aside, this is perfectly feasible from a theoretical standpoint.\n\nReproduction, on the other hand, is a much more daunting task. Current display or printing methods rely on representing different perceptual hues, which are the result of activation levels for each of three different cones, as the weighted sum of three or more components, each of which has its own distinct spectral characteristics. Disregarding rods for the moment due to their relative absence in the fovea, the implication of this is that each has a single, 3-dimensional response vector which represents the activation of your different photoreceptors to that particular component. You might think that any three components with linearly independent response vectors would suffice to produce the full gamut of colors that we can observe, but this fails due to the fact that we cannot have negative coefficients when mixing. Because of the overlap of the wavelength response curves for different cones, it is very difficult to choose a limited number of components that can reproduce any photoreceptor response. For example, violet is impossible to reproduce in the RGB color space. Two solutions to this would be to either to design a technology capable of reproducing exact spectra in the visible range, or to use direct stimulation of photoreceptors, which would in effect give you the component bases [1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], and [0, 0, 1].",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main reason why most cameras do not have the ability to capture images that look the same as what we see is that [the human eye has a roughly logarithmic response function](_URL_3_). This means that something that is 10 times brighter than a reference object might only *look* ~ 2 times brighter to our eyes. This means that the human eye has a very wide [\"dynamic range\"](_URL_2_)\n\nConversely, CMOS and CCD sensors have a much more [linear response](_URL_0_), meaning that something 10 times brighter will have 10 times the number of image \"counts\". If there was no limit to the number of image counts, then this would not be a problem: you could simply convolve your image with the response curve of the human eye and reproduce what the human eye sees. But in reality, most sensors are 16-bit, meaning there is an upper limit of 2^16 = 65536 counts per pixel. This may sound like a lot, but you also have the fact that the noise goes as the square root of the number of counts. This means that in practice you actually don't have very much dynamic range to work with, so you have to compromise by either taking a long exposure to bring out the faint part of a scene, or a short exposure to avoid saturating the bright part of a scene.\n\nA way around this is to take both a short exposure and a long exposure, and combine them later, which is known as [high-dynamic range imaging](_URL_1_). You can achieve some fairly stunning images this way, but it must be done *after* the images have been taken. A lot of newer cameras have features that allow you to \"take\" an HDR image automatically. \n\nTL;DR: The human eye sees logarithmically. Camera sensors are more linear. This means that you usually have to choose whether to pick out the bright part of a scene or the dark part. HDR imaging is a technique to circumvent this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because \"the way things look\" is a matter of mental perception, much more than optics. What you are really asking for is more like the Star Trek holo-deck, a full reality simulator. Anything less is just a flat photo, and our existing cameras are already quite excellent.\n\nOur perception includes many subtle cues that allow us to tell that we are in a real situation, not merely looking at an image. For example, 3D goggles like the [Oculus Rift](_URL_0_) need to go to great lengths to even just to track head movements, in order to shift what is displayed to your eyes very fluidly and without delay, because otherwise you feel very strongly that you are not \"looking\" at things around you. Any perceptible lag breaks the feeling of \"immersion\". The issues go far beyond optics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "176351",
"title": "Normal lens",
"section": "Section::::The problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Photographic technology employs different physical methods than the human eye in order to capture images. Thus, manufacturing optics which produce images that appear natural to human vision is problematic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32645",
"title": "Voyeurism",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Certain image capturing devices are capable of producing images through materials that are opaque to visible light, including clothing. These devices form images by using electromagnetic radiation outside the visible range. Infrared and terahertz-wave cameras are capable of creating images through clothing, though these images differ from what would be created with visible light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1620814",
"title": "Axial cut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Alternatively, a multiple-camera setup can be used, with the cameras showing the subject at different sizes. The footage from both cameras is then edited together to create the effect. As the cameras cannot occupy the same space, there will always be a slight deviation from the axis. Moving the cameras further away from the subject and using telephoto lenses can reduce the deviation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7477839",
"title": "Forensic photography",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Digital photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "For capturing a moving object, photographers must use a high shutter speed. However, the image can be very dark. Low shutter speed must be used when capturing a clear image or object under the harsh condition, but it is hard to capture the moving objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004947",
"title": "Digital camera back",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "While dedicated digital cameras suitable for advanced use are available, there are advantages in being able to use a film camera to take digital photographs. A single camera can be used for both film and digital photography. Cameras with features not available on digital cameras (e.g., view cameras) can be used to make digital images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218498",
"title": "Photo instrumentation",
"section": "Section::::Instrumentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Cameras range from conventional single picture cameras to 'movie cameras' that take over 2 million pictures per second. Specialized optics, illuminations, and films are used to record images of things that the eye cannot see such as movement of air, surface temperature of objects, and stress patterns. Cameras can be used in environments where humans cannot go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143115",
"title": "Astrophotography",
"section": "Section::::Amateur astrophotography.:Media.:Post-processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Both digital camera images and scanned film images are usually adjusted in image processing software to improve the image in some way. Images can be brightened and manipulated in a computer to adjust color and increase the contrast. More sophisticated techniques involve capturing multiple images (sometimes thousands) to composite together in an additive process to sharpen images to overcome atmospheric seeing, negating tracking issues, bringing out faint objects with a poor signal-to-noise ratio, and filtering out light pollution. Digital camera images may also need further processing to reduce the image noise from long exposures, including subtracting a “dark frame” and a processing called \"image stacking\" or \"\"Shift-and-add\"\". There are several commercial, freeware and free software packages available specifically for astronomical photographic image manipulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13ud45
|
I have a question about Pavlovian conditioning.
|
[
{
"answer": "It could get generalized to either of the two responses. It is more likely that it will not bring forth any response, though that may depend on how the middle C functioned during the conditioning process. If there was no stimulous matched with it then there would be no reason for the dog to expect anything.\n\nI dont know how sound is percieved by dogs, but for humans we can hear multiple distinct sounds at once. So what would be interesting is to sound both high and low Cs at once and see how the dog reacts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that a big indicator to how the dog would respond would be which tone was played BEFORE you give them the middle \"C\" tone. It may be the case that a dog can, with great accuracy, distinguish the three tones as separate stimuli. However, it also may be the case that the dog is responding to \"higher tone than before\". If you were to play the low tone and give them the middle tone, they may salivate because the tone is higher in reference to the low tone. Only one way to find out...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Neural basis of learning and memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Pavlov proposed that conditioning involved a connection between brain centers for conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. His physiological account of conditioning has been abandoned, but classical conditioning continues to be to study the neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory. Forms of classical conditioning that are used for this purpose include, among others, fear conditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of \"Hermissenda crassicornis\", a sea-slug. Both fear and eyeblink conditioning involve a neutral stimulus, frequently a tone, becoming paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In the case of eyeblink conditioning, the US is an air-puff, while in fear conditioning the US is threatening or aversive such as a foot shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52487",
"title": "Ivan Pavlov",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, the idea of \"conditioning\" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology that underlay it, behaviorism. Pavlov's work with classical conditioning was of huge influence to how humans perceive themselves, their behavior and learning processes and his studies of classical conditioning continue to be central to modern behavior therapy. The British philosopher Bertrand Russell observed that \"[w]hether Pavlov's method's can be made to cover the whole of human behaviour is open to question, but at any rate they cover a very large field and within this field they have shown how to apply scientific methods with quantitative exactitude\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52487",
"title": "Ivan Pavlov",
"section": "Section::::Pavlov on education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The basics of Pavlov's classical conditioning serve as a historical backdrop for current learning theories. However, the Russian physiologist's initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during one of his experiments on digestion in dogs. Considering that Pavlov worked closely with animals throughout many of his experiments, his early contributions were primarily about animal learning. However, the fundamentals of classical conditioning have been examined across many different organisms, including humans. The basic underlying principles of Pavlov's classical conditioning have extended to a variety of settings, such as classrooms and learning environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4560856",
"title": "Allan R. Wagner",
"section": "Section::::Selected publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rescorla, R.A., & Wagner, A.R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A.H. Black & W.F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current theory and research (pp. 64–99). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Usually the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyze the consequences of this signal. Robert A. Rescorla provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article \"Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is\". Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1221571",
"title": "Rescorla–Wagner model",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rescorla, R.A. & Wagner, A.R. (1972) \"A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement\", Classical Conditioning II, A.H. Black & W.F. Prokasy, Eds., pp. 64–99. Appleton-Century-Crofts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4560856",
"title": "Allan R. Wagner",
"section": "Section::::Selected publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wagner, A.R., & Brandon, S.E., (2001) A componential theory of Pavlovian Conditioning. In R.R. Mowrer and S.B. Klien (Eds.) Handbook of Contemporary Learning Theories (pp. 23–64) Mahwah, NJ. Erlbaum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o88x7
|
Parsley can cause a miscarriage?
|
[
{
"answer": "[There is some evidence that parsley might be partially effective in inducing abortion, but it doesn't appear to be very safe.](_URL_0_)\n\nThat \"infographic\" is at least ill-advised and possibly dangerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That amount of Vitamin C is pretty high, although its not going to kill you or anything so I suppose its probably fine. Recommended upper limit dosage for Vitamin C is 2000mg per day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "144147",
"title": "Miscarriage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the natural death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently. Some use the cutoff of 20 weeks of gestation, after which fetal death is known as a stillbirth. The most common symptom of a miscarriage is vaginal bleeding with or without pain. Sadness, anxiety and guilt often occur afterwards. Tissue and clot-like material may leave the uterus and pass through and out of the vagina. When a woman keeps having miscarriages, infertility is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55223808",
"title": "Miscarriage and grief",
"section": "Section::::Psychological impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Miscarriage has an emotional effect and can also lead to psychological disorders. One discorder that can develop is primary maternal preoccupation. This is defined as a \" ...'special psychiatric condition' in which the pregnant woman identifies with her baby, highlights the crisis a woman faces when the baby with whom she is preoccupied and identified dies...\" Grieving manifests itself differently for each woman after miscarriage. It may often go unrecognized. The grief that follows a miscarriage resembles, but is not the same as, the grief experienced after the loss of a family member. Disbelief, depression, anger, and yearning, are described as being a part of the normal grieving process. These reactions remain from three to nine months after the loss. Forty-one percent of parents experience a normal, expected decline in grief in the first two years while 59% were delayed in the resolution of their grief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55223808",
"title": "Miscarriage and grief",
"section": "Section::::Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Physical recovery from miscarriage can have an effect on emotional disturbances. The body has to recover from the sudden pregnancy loss. In some instances fatigue is present. Insomnia can be a problem. The miscarriage is very upsetting to the family and can generate very strong emotions. Some women may feel that the miscarriage occurred because they somehow had caused it. Others may blame the father or partner for the miscarriage. Coping with a miscarriage can very greatly between women and families. Some find it difficult to talk about the miscarriage. The narratives of women tend to coincide with quantified and measurable effects. Some women engage in activities that are believed to aid in recovery such as therapy, religion and art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144147",
"title": "Miscarriage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Risk factors for miscarriage include an older parent, previous miscarriage, exposure to tobacco smoke, obesity, diabetes, thyroid problems, and drug or alcohol use. About 80% of miscarriages occur in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (the first trimester). The underlying cause in about half of cases involves chromosomal abnormalities. Diagnosis of a miscarriage may involve checking to see if the cervix is open or closed, testing blood levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and an ultrasound. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include an ectopic pregnancy and implantation bleeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1166093",
"title": "Recurrent miscarriage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Recurrent miscarriage is two or more consecutive pregnancy losses. Infertility differs because it is the inability to conceive. In many cases the cause of RPL is unknown. After three or more losses, a thorough evaluation is recommended by American Society of Reproductive Medicine. About 1% of couples trying to have children are affected by recurrent miscarriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55223808",
"title": "Miscarriage and grief",
"section": "Section::::Psychological impact.:Trauma.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Women experiencing miscarriage are at risk for grief reactions, anxiety or depression. Obsessiveness regarding the miscarriage can develop. Primary maternal preoccupation is also considered a consequence of miscarriage. This condition can occur if a woman who develops a close bond \"with her baby\" experiences the loss of the pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41981888",
"title": "Early pregnancy bleeding",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "BULLET::::- Abortion (spontaneous), also referred to as miscarriage. One study came to the result that the risk of miscarriage during the course of the pregnancy with just spotting during the first trimester was 9%, and with light bleeding 12%, compared to 12% in pregnancies without any first trimester bleeding. However, heavy first trimester bleeding was estimated to have a miscarriage risk of 24%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uykwh
|
why can't i just hit the "off" button on my computer rather than "shut down"
|
[
{
"answer": "+ Pressing shut down\n\nWill terminate all system and user processes normally. Exiting processes have time to write logs and results in the primary memory. Some of it can be important, but 95% of the time you won't notice a difference, if you are a casual home user and not involved in servers or programing projects etc. \n\nIt will also do what I describe in the next section\n\n+ Pressing down the power button\n\nGives enough time for the mechanical parts of your computer (HDD mostly) to power down safely. \n\n+ Just pulling the plug\n\nWill cause the mechanical parts of your PC to lose power while still working, possibly damaging them or wearing them down (if they power down at an active position. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An oversimplified but ELI5-quality analogy would be the difference between passing out and falling asleep in humans. One is normal, expected, and healthy. The other, while seemingly harmless, can lead to memory loss, and decreased function over time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why don't pc makers incorporate the shut down function into the off button?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shut Down literally means the same thing as Turn Off. \n\nYou can change the behavior of the power button on the computer so that it hibernates, suspends, sleeps, or shuts down[off] in every version of Windows. Here's the Windows 7 instructions: \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because its like lulling someone to sleep by severing their spinal cord.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you can. Just it hit and let go real quick like a regular button. It will go through the shut down process. Just don't push and hold the button.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Macbook Pro retinas do this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17699830",
"title": "Shutdown (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Implementations.:Apple macOS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In Apple macOS the computer can be shut down by choosing \"Shut Down…\" from the Apple Menu or by pressing the power key to bring up the power management dialog box and selecting button \"Shut down\". An administrator may also use the Unix codice_1 command as well. It can also be shut down by pressing [Alt]+[Command]+[Eject optical disc on optical drive] but this will not prompt the user anything at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312998",
"title": "Reset button",
"section": "Section::::Personal computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The reset button could be an actual button or concept. The reset button would typically kick off a soft boot, instructing the computer to go through the process of shutting down, which would clear memory and reset devices to their initialized state. Contrary to the 'Power Button', which would simply remove power immediately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312998",
"title": "Reset button",
"section": "Section::::Personal computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Many newer computers have no separate button for resetting the computer; it is integrated with the power button. On most newer operating systems, the user can customize what happens when they press the power button. For example, they may set it to 'Do nothing', 'restart', 'shutdown', or 'stand by'. This is only for pressing the button once; on most computers the power button can remove power immediately if held down for a few seconds. When the OS hangs, the reset button is no longer \"integrated with the power button\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312998",
"title": "Reset button",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "In electronics and technology, a reset button is a button that can reset a device. On video game consoles, the reset button restarts the game, losing the player's unsaved progress. On personal computers, the reset button clears the memory and reboots the machine forcibly. Reset buttons are found on circuit breakers to reset the circuit. This button can cause data corruption so this button often doesn't exist on many machines. Usually, in computers and other electronic devices, it is present as a small button, possibly recessed into the case or only accessible by a pin or similar thin object, to prevent it being pressed accidentally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17325181",
"title": "HTC Touch Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The screen turns itself off when a person is on a call. This is to prevent the screen accepting unwanted inputs from the user's face when they are making a call, but it also requires the user to turn the screen back on if they want to use the screen. Removing the stylus when in a phone call both turns on the screen and starts up the notes application (if so selected as an option by the user).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28637",
"title": "Scroll Lock",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Console scrolling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Pressing the key in the Linux console while text is scrolling through the screen freezes the console output (but not input) during which no further text is sent to the screen, while the program continues running as usual. When is pressed again, the screen is unfrozen and all text generated during the freeze is displayed at once. This allows the user to pause the display and read long messages that scroll through the screen too quickly to read, such as for example when the system is booting up (provided the keyboard driver has already been loaded). If not configured otherwise, and can be used instead of Scroll Lock in any terminal in Linux to freeze and unfreeze the terminal output respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57587117",
"title": "IOS 12",
"section": "Section::::System features.:App Switcher.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "For devices with gesture navigation and no home button (iPhone X and later), users can now force quit applications by swiping up from the bottom of the screen (without having to press and hold on them when in the app switcher).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6u157j
|
Could a planet be 'locked' in orbit between two stars?
|
[
{
"answer": "~~Yes but~~ no because it would be unstable meaning if there were any gravitational fluctuations at all from anything it would perturb the system pulling the planet towards one of the Stars slightly more than towards the other which would increase the Gravity from the one-star and decrease it from the other until the planet was engulfed. Worse yet is it would be impossible for a planet like this to form because when it was attempting to coalesce one of his particles would be closer to one star and one of them would be closer to the other and the two would never meet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19161641",
"title": "HD 34790",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The two stars orbit each other with a period of only 2.15 days and an eccentricity of zero, indicating their orbit is close to circular. They are orbiting sufficiently close to each other that their rotation periods have most likely become tidally locked—meaning they always maintain the same face toward each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
"section": "Section::::Alternative star systems.:Binary systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "The separation between stars in a binary may range from less than one astronomical unit (AU, the average Earth–Sun distance) to several hundred. In latter instances, the gravitational effects will be negligible on a planet orbiting an otherwise suitable star and habitability potential will not be disrupted unless the orbit is highly eccentric (see Nemesis, for example). However, where the separation is significantly less, a stable orbit may be impossible. If a planet's distance to its primary exceeds about one fifth of the closest approach of the other star, orbital stability is not guaranteed. Whether planets might form in binaries at all had long been unclear, given that gravitational forces might interfere with planet formation. Theoretical work by Alan Boss at the Carnegie Institution has shown that gas giants can form around stars in binary systems much as they do around solitary stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60162",
"title": "Tidal locking",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Close binary stars throughout the universe are expected to be tidally locked with each other, and extrasolar planets that have been found to orbit their primaries extremely closely are also thought to be tidally locked to them. An unusual example, confirmed by MOST, may be Tau Boötis, a star that is probably tidally locked by its planet Tau Boötis b. If so, the tidal locking is almost certainly mutual. However, since stars are gaseous bodies that can rotate with a different rate at different latitudes, the tidal lock is with Tau Boötis's magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311217",
"title": "Physics and Star Wars",
"section": "Section::::Tatooine's twin stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Another scenario would be two stars that would be closer to one another at a distance of only a few million miles. A planet orbiting far enough away would be affected by their gravitational fields almost as if there were one. If the distance between the two stars was a small fraction of the distance between them and the planet, it would be stable for the planet. Dawn and dusk would occur on such a planet as they would on Tatooine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273679",
"title": "Astronomical spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Motion in the universe.:Binary stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some binary stars are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be resolved. These two stars, when viewed through a spectrometer, will show a composite spectrum: the spectrum of each star will be added together. This composite spectrum becomes easier to detect when the stars are of similar luminosity and of different spectral class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240963",
"title": "Star system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A star system of two stars is known as a \"binary star\", \"binary star system\" or \"physical double star\". If there are no tidal effects, no perturbation from other forces, and no transfer of mass from one star to the other, such a system is stable, and both stars will trace out an elliptic orbit around the barycenter of the system indefinitely. \"(See Two-body problem)\". Examples of binary systems are Sirius, Procyon and Cygnus X-1, the last of which probably consists of a star and a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014936",
"title": "Solar analog",
"section": "Section::::By potential habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Terrestrial planets in multiple star systems, those containing three or more stars, are not likely to have stable orbits in the long term. Stable orbits in binary systems take one of two forms: S-Type (satellite or circumstellar) orbits around one of the stars, and P-Type (planetary or circumbinary) orbits around the entire binary pair. Eccentric Jupiters may also disrupt the orbits of planets in habitable zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
325zwf
|
Why is history's calendar based off a religion that not everybody follows?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well it has been the tradition, and from a long history of western colonial dominance it has become (generally) the worldwide norm, the same way that western dress and the English language have become dominant in governments worldwide. Some countries, (Saudi Arabia is the best example) don't use the Gregorian calendar, and have their own variants, often based on the local majority religion.\n\nThat's not to say there haven't been major attempts to change the calendar and use a secular one. After the French Revolution, as part of a massive Enlightenment effort to secularize and rationalize the state, a secular calendar was created that lasted until 1805. (Another, much more successful product of this effort was the metric system.) The calendar featured a ten day work week, and had days and months named after the natural world at that time of year. Year one in the calendar was 1792, the year the French Republic was declared. It's pretty interesting, and the wikipedia article is pretty good: _URL_0_.\n\nThe calendar was brought in mainly for, as you mentioned, a desire for a secular calendar not based on Christianity. The main problem was that the calendar was poorly designed, and unpopular. It featured a longer working week and was relatively awkward to use, so many people opposed it.\n\nWhile we basically use a Christian calendar because it's what's easy and no one really wants to undertake a massive effort to change it for no major benefits, it's not outside the realm of possibility that had a more popular universal calendar been adopted in the French revolution, we might all be using a secular calendar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In fairness, most historians now use CE and BCE instead of AD and BC. I suspect that's as much change as we're likely to see. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6088",
"title": "Common Era",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.:Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "434080",
"title": "Positivist calendar",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "BULLET::::- Christian, Islamic and Jewish leaders are historically opposed to the calendar, as their tradition of worshiping every seventh day would result in either the day of the week of worship changing from year to year, or eight days passing when \"The Festival of All the Dead” or “The Festival of Holy Women\" occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33835",
"title": "World Calendar",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Religious objections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The main opponents of The World Calendar in the 20th century were leaders of religions that worship according to a seven-day cycle. For Jews, Christians and Muslims, particular days of worship are ancient and fundamental elements of their faith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23698",
"title": "International Fixed Calendar",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "BULLET::::- Christian, Islamic and Jewish leaders are historically opposed to the calendar, as their tradition of worshiping every seventh day would result in either the day of the week of worship changing from year to year, or eight days passing when Year Day or Leap Day occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33092244",
"title": "Tranquility Calendar",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- Christian, Islamic and Jewish leaders are historically opposed to the calendar, as their tradition of worshiping every seventh day would result in either the day of the week of worship changing from year to year, or eight days passing when Armstrong Day or Aldrin Day occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55931",
"title": "Chronology",
"section": "Section::::Calendar and era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The familiar terms \"calendar\" and \"era\" (within the meaning of a coherent system of numbered calendar years) concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. For example, during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the Christian era, which era was taken in use in the 8th century by Bede, was the Julian calendar, but after the year 1582 it was the Gregorian calendar. Dionysius Exiguus (about the year 500) was the founder of that era, which is nowadays the most widespread dating system on earth. An epoch is the date (year usually) when an era begins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10186",
"title": "Eastern Orthodox Church",
"section": "Section::::Present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 277,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 277,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The calendar question reflects the dispute between those who wish to use a calendar which is reformed yet not Gregorian (effectively gaining the perceived benefits of the Gregorian calendar without disregarding the three anathemas issued against it in the sixteenth century), something which opponents consider unnecessary and damaging to continuity, and those who wish to maintain the traditional ecclesiastical calendar (which happens to be based on the Julian calendar), arguing that such a modern change goes against 1900 years of church tradition and was in fact perpetrated without an ecumenical council, which would surely have rejected the idea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x3t6l
|
What causes logs to turn white while burning, and why do moving black patches appear?
|
[
{
"answer": "The white product of wood combustion is ash.\n\nI'm not certain about the moving black patches though. Another reaction? Heat disturbing the layer of ash? I have wondered about that myself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ash that is produced is composed of several products. Some of of it is incompletely combusted carbon which tends to be black. Other components are due to other elements in the wood such as magnesium which forms white magnesium oxide when burned. The colour fluctuations you see while it is burning is due to blackbody radiation. When a surface doesn't emit light of its own (luminescence) it is considered black. When heated, the body starts to emit radiation at low frequency first (infrared, which we feel as heat). As it gets hotter, the frequency of the radiation increases to red, orange, and then white. The hotter the object the higher the frequency of radiation emitted. The temperature in the fire fluctuates due to convection currents causing areas of the wood to change temperature resulting in the colour of the blackbody radiation to change as well. When it's very hot it appears white, if it cools off it appears black again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1133677",
"title": "Log house",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Green logs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Logs that are cut from the butt forest, brought to a mill or to a log-house construction yard, have their bark removed and are used to build a log-house shell (handcrafted log houses), or sent through profiling machines (manufactured logs) are usually referred to as \"green\" logs if they have not been air- or kiln-dried. \"Green\" does not refer to color, but to moisture content (MC). The actual moisture content of \"green\" logs varies considerably with tree species (cedar, fir, spruce, pine etc.), the season in which it was cut, and whether sapwood or heartwood is being measured. Green logs may have a moisture content ranging from about 20% to 90% (the oven-dry method of measuring MC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876688",
"title": "Particulates",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The composition of particulate matter that generally causes visual effects such as smog consists of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, organic matter, and elemental carbon also known as black carbon or soot. The particles are hygroscopic due to the presence of sulfur, and SO is converted to sulfate when high humidity and low temperatures are present. This causes the reduced visibility and yellow color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5030851",
"title": "Whitedamp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Whitedamp is a noxious mixture of gases formed by the combustion of coal, usually in an enclosed environment such as a coal mine. The most toxic constituents are carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide. Coal frequently starts to burn slowly in mines when it is exposed to the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076007",
"title": "Pottery of ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Clay.:Manufacture.:Firing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "The black color effect was achieved by means of changing the amount of oxygen present during firing. This was done in a process known as three-phase firing and was likely accomplished with multiple firings of the pottery. First, the kiln was heated to around 920–950 °C, with all vents open bringing oxygen into the firing chamber and turning both pot and slip a reddish-brown (oxidising conditions) due to the formation of hematite (FeO) in both the paint and the clay body. Then the vent was closed and green wood introduced, creating carbon monoxide which turns the red hematite to black magnetite (FeO); at this stage the temperature decreases due to incomplete combustion. In a final reoxidizing phase (at about 800–850 °C) the kiln was opened and oxygen reintroduced causing the unslipped reserved clay to go back to orange-red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40991492",
"title": "Ammonia fuming",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The darkening of the colour relies on the ammonia reacting with tannins in the wood. The process is usually applied to white oak, as this wood has a high tannin content. Red oak may turn greenish rather than deep brown. Other species may not darken as noticeably as white oak, depending on the tannin content. The effect of fuming can be enhanced in non-tannic woods by applying a coat of tannic acid to the surface before fuming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1078820",
"title": "Vog",
"section": "Section::::Comparing vog and smog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "When smog levels are high, the sky appears yellowish-grey because nitrogen oxides are yellow. In contrast, sulfur oxides are colorless and vog looks grey. Once the vog layer dissipates, grey spots of vog in the sky may, for a time, remain trapped in the inversion layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14196188",
"title": "Spalting",
"section": "Section::::Types.:White rot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The mottled white pockets and bleaching effect seen in spalted wood is due to white rot fungi. Primarily found on hardwoods, these fungi \"bleach\" by consuming lignin, which is the slightly pigmented area of a wood cell wall. Some white rotting can also be caused by an effect similar to pigmentation, in which the white hyphae of a fungus, such as \"Trametes versicolor\" (Fr.) Pil., is so concentrated in an area that a visual effect is created. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2oldpx
|
why right before you go to sleep do you feel heightened emotions that you normally don't feel during the day? either motivation for making a life change, fear for a test, regret for a decision etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm no expert on the subject, but my understanding is that as you are going to sleep, your brain is saving information from the day. Throughout the day, you are storing memory in short term storage, as you are winding down for the night and ultimately going to sleep, your brain is reviewing all the information and deciding to either delete it or save it for later. \n\n\nWhile your brain is reviewing information, you don't have anything else going on. You have more time to actually focus on the data, which can cause your brain to over-analyze the information and causes the feelings of stress, regret, etc for whatever information it's reviewing. \n\n\n\nSide note, this is why it's also recommended to study before bed. Things you learn right before you fall asleep are more likely to be retained long-term. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fatigue impacts our emotional state. \n\nThroughout the day, we are occupying ourselves in our day to day lives and we are more distracted. \n\nAs you try to sleep and your mind is not distracted by activity; you have more time to overthink your decisions, thoughts, and ideas. \n\nCombined with the effects of fatigue on our emotional state; the things we are perseverating on mentally can seem more important. \n\nedit* spelling\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh man I'm glad you asked this. Had a dream a couple days ago I had a kid with this girl I know. I'm 25 and single. Anyways woke up with a mess of emotions, it was like hitting puberty all over again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always think I feel more motivated right before sleeping because I know I don't have to deal with any of it until later if at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't speak for everyone else, but in my case it's because of the stuff I take for insomnia. It's really strong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ugh sometimes this makes it so hard to make a decision. You wake up in the morning and decide to do one thing, and before going to bed you can completely change your mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You don't feel those emotions during the day because you always have something to distract you. When you lay down at night, that is one of the few times in this always on, always connected world we live in that you are left alone with your thoughts.\n\nFeels are a normal thing. You don't have to wait for bedtime. Just be alone with your thoughts and resist the urge to pull out your phone whenever you feel alone/anxious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doing some form of meditation for just 10 minutes before going to bed helps alleviate this problem and allows you to fall asleep faster and sleep better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your tired brain is like a drunk brain. It's not firing at 100% and you have lowered inhibitions basically because of so. \n\nYou pretty much see things as an end goal, not all the issues and work going with it. For example, I'll definitely go to the gym tomorrow. You see the end of looking good and getting healthy, but you're not like that's a ton of work. You associate reward with the goal and that's why it seems so good\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do some meditation and you'll see that this doesn't have to happen only at night. The sad fact is that people are scared to be alone with themselves and their thoughts. We find distractions to fill our minds every minute of every day. Have you ever seen the running joke on reddit that people HAVE to take something to the bathroom with them to read, even resorting to reading shampoo bottles if there is nothing else. We have to be distracted even when taking a poop.\n\nIt happens when you are about to sleep because that is the first time in the whole day that you are just alone in the quiet and can think about important stuff without distraction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Try meditating. You will feel these changes and anxiety earlier in the day when you actually have time to deal with them.\n\nThe rest of the time we're distracting ourselves from our own thoughts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because you aren't busy with other things. \n\nas unemployed person with lots of time on hand, I get this feeling in middle of day....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During the day we \"freeze\" certain emotions in our body so we don't have to feel them, either because they are unpleasant, inappropriate or we don't have time for them. The way we freeze these emotions is through chronic tensions held mostly in the muscles. \n\nImagine watching a scary movie. Notice as your fear increases so does muscular tensions in parts of your body (the belly for instance) and your breathing becomes shallower. Then when a scary scene ends you take a deep breath, let out a sigh of relief and your body relaxes again. Basically what you're doing is forcing your body to freeze the fear so it isn't felt. This is a primitive but somewhat effective short-term way of managing feelings. \n\nAs you start to pay attention to this process you will notice how you freeze feelings in place so they aren't felt during the day, and when you relax your body in bed at night the feelings are felt once again. And because you've spent the day trying not to feel your feelings they seem extra strong when you finally relax your defenses at night.\n\nThe fact that this is happening shows that you are resisting your feelings to a large degree during the day. The more you allow your feelings to flow during the day the less you will experience this effect of the \"floodgates opening\" when you relax at night. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is it that I sometimes have a violent shake right before I fall asleep, waking myself up for a moment, then slowly drift back to sleep. Is my body resisting sleep or something? Does anyone else experience this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just like \"sleep is the cousin of death\", the end of the day is the cousin of the end of your life. This is also analogous to seasons, which are also associated with life periods, with Spring being the early stages of life, and Winter being the late stages. At the end of a day, you subconsciously sense an ending, and if things aren't right, then your mind starts to race. A new day with sunlight washing over erases all of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's simply the fact that you stop doing anything and are left alone with your thoughts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because as soon as you are not tucked up in bed with a glorious time period ahead of you were you get to do basically nothing (except maybe have a wank), you are especially beaten up by life and all it's hardships that drive motivation out of you like a bully beating up a child so it can take it's lolly pop. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What the fuck. I thought this was just me that felt that. Whenever I'm going to bed, i always tell myself I need to get out of this rut that i'm in and find a better job and do this and that...and then I wake up and do the same old shit. \n\nIt's like what the fuck happened to the motivation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like many said, it's probably the first time in the day you actually stopped and calmed down and thought about stuff without distractions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It sounds like you're not living your days to the fullest. After a hard and productive day you just fall asleep. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As someone who studies neuroscience my answer is a bit different:\n\nYour brain is always being acted upon by a complex mix of chemical drugs, two of these hormones : serotonin (which mediates emotions ) and melatonin (which mediates your sleep/wake cycle) seem to be responsible for your \"heightened emotions\" since you need one to make the other. \n\nIt seems ( it's not fully understood yet), that when you start closing your eyes at night, there's a lot of serotonin made available (which makes you emotional) that will then be used to make melatonin which in turn keeps you asleep. \n\nSo your heightened emotions fuel your dreams :) there.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lowering of defenses. We arm ourselves to go through our days then disarm to go to bed. This also follows a hormone flow : the sleep hormone, melatonine is inducive of a meditative and receptive mental and emotional state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree with the being alone with your thoughts thing, but I also think it has to do with the fact that at the moment you're falling asleep you don't have to follow through on anything. At least I think that's what it is for me.\n\nA similar thing happens in therapy in which patients tend to not talk about anything terribly important until they have a minute left in the session.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I cant tell you how many times I have had a motivational life changing plan while going to sleep. It's almost sad looking back. As a very overweight guy, I have had many moments where i just want to get back out of bed and go for a run or go work out. Then morning comes and it turns more into.... yeah ill do that later. Sigh",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After I took LSD (one time - really turned out to be a great personal decision) I absolutely loved being alone for a few weeks afterwards... It was so beautiful to lay in bed for a few hours and just lose track of everything that was happening. Just be in your own thoughts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting question, it's a good thing to feel all the emotions you had throughout the day. Hearing yourself think and speak is critical in everyday life.. Your concise is that very thing that creeps up on you in those times of the night when you lay down. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's majorly because our mind is idle. Our mind is not occupied and this gives us time to retrospect. We have no distractions whatsoever. So whatever we think about - We are paying full attention to it - And this makes the whole sense or emotion heightened. I have had sleepless nights because of such incidents when I ponder over my relationships - It really drains your energy. Its very much possible this can happen in daytime as well - Its just that the world around is not as stagnant as it is during the night time. When you go to sleep - Its just you and your thoughts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your behavior can be explained by the Ainslie-Rachlin model of self-control. At an earlier point in time (in your case at night) smaller and larger rewards are both at an equal distance (you're about to go to sleep, so the possiblity of watching tv or joining a club are both about 8 hours away) and at this time the larger later reward (like exercising or joining a club) is preferred over the smaller sooner reward (like watching tv). So you make these big plans, but once you wake up and the smaller sooner reward is more imminent, easier to attain, and more instantly gratifying your time goes to that and your motivation towards other goals decreases. \n\nThere is more to it than that, like curve distributions, but that's the gist. It is all an issue of self control. Larger goals can seem overwhelming especially when their are additional factors in your day that aren't immediately present when you're falling asleep and thinking about future plans. \n\nIn order to develop and maintain your nightly mentality you can split your larger goals into subgoals. Completing subgoals is more immediate and less overwhelming than a larger goal and each completion will make you feel better and will act as a reinforcer and you'll be more likely to continue on doing the proceeding behaviors until you finally complete the larger goal. Each subgoal also needs to be precise. Without preciseness, the goal can become overwhelming again (for instance, promise to study biology for 20 minutes at 6:00 pm instead of being more general and stating you'll study that night). You can also create a commitment response. This is where an action is carried out an earlier point in time that serves to either eliminate or reduce the value of the upcoming temptation. So if you want to exercise, give your roommate (or parent, friend, etc.) $40 and tell them that if you don't get up and run for a half an hour in the morning then they get to keep the money. Over time these larger goals will just become a habit and you won't have to keep giving your roommate money to hold yourself accountable. There is a multitude of self-reinforcers and self-punishers you can do in order to maintain self control and increase success in your larger goals, you just have to find something that fits you.\n\n\n\n**Credit goes to:[u/lexxxx](_URL_0_)**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you go to sleep parts of your brain starts going to sleep before the part of you brain where you \"consciousness\" resides. \n\nBut not the Brains worry center, it stays awake all night in case it needs to wake you up to run from those sneaking sabertooth tigers.\n\nSo what you are experiencing is your conscious mind dealing directly with your worry center, with few other parts of your brain awake to steal its attention.\n\nIn other words your problem solving mind is now giving your worry center it's full and undivided attention. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The technical explanation is that your prefrontal cortex (responsible for logical thought) is less active when tired, making your thoughts fueled more by emotions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very simple: You are (nearly) completely alone with yourself, in a different spatial position than you normally are during the day, in darkness, and doing nearly nothing physical. In other words, you are very nearly in your mom's womb. \n\nThat is when the gravity of life hits you the most without any external interruptions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are talking about meditation and all these other things to get used to being in such deep thought. I feel like I am in deep in thought all the time. Which compounds with my shyness, and awkwardness to lead to lots of weird interactions. \n\nOne thing that broke the cycle of deep thought for me was getting really into a team based game. I still sucked but I was able to dial down my deep thinking. It was honestly extremely freeing and am realizing now I miss it a little.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is why I'm a huge fan of midday naps. If it's good for small children to take naps in the middle of the day, why isn't still beneficial to adults. You will experience the same anxiety/motivation/stress, but you still have 1/2 a day to do something about it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you don't have to do it at that point.\n\nYou COULD go out and finish that project.. But right now it's sleepy time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your body and mind are at their most relaxed as you go to sleep, allowing \"repressed\" thoughts/emotions to surface more easily, when they're not being pushed down by other thoughts. This is why some panic disorder sufferers have their attacks in bed. SOURCE: My psychiatrist. I am not a doctor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a person with cronical depression I perfectly know what is that. It's like when the night comes, your brain start to think stuff he normally does not, either because you have some distractions at morning, the light, or God knows why, but it is true that at night normally oneself think about the worst thoughts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The top responses given in this thread are why the sleep sciences are still considered academic suicide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17476149",
"title": "Emotional self-regulation",
"section": "Section::::Strategies.:Response modulation.:Sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Sleep plays a role in emotion regulation, although stress and worry can also interfere with sleep. Studies have shown that sleep, specifically REM sleep, down-regulates reactivity of the amygdala, a brain structure known to be involved in the processing of emotions, in response to previous emotional experiences. On the flip side, sleep deprivation is associated with greater emotional reactivity or overreaction to negative and stressful stimuli. This is a result of both increased amygdala activity and a disconnect between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, which regulates the amygdala through inhibition, together resulting in an overactive emotional brain. Due to the subsequent lack of emotional control, sleep deprivation may be associated with depression, impulsivity, and mood swings. Additionally, there is some evidence that sleep deprivation may reduce emotional reactivity to positive stimuli and events and impair emotion recognition in others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265936",
"title": "Sleep and emotions",
"section": "Section::::Circadian Rhythm and Emotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The circadian rhythm provides a person with a signal for when to sleep and when to wake up. If circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle are misaligned, this might lead to negative affect and emotional instability. It has been found that emotions vary depending on the circadian rhythm and the duration of how long one was awake. Circadian sleep-rhythm disorders like shift-work disorder or Jetlag-disorder have been found to similarly contribute to the Dysregulation of affect, with symptoms like irritability, anxiety, apathy and dysphoria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170803",
"title": "Mood (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Lack of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Sleep has a complex, and as of yet not fully elucidated, relationship with mood. Most commonly if a person is sleep deprived he/she will become more irritable, angry, more prone to stress, and less energized throughout the day. \"Studies have shown that even partial sleep deprivation has a significant effect on mood. University of Pennsylvania researchers found that subjects who were limited to only 4.5 hours of sleep a night for one week reported feeling more stressed, angry, sad, and mentally exhausted. When the subjects resumed normal sleep, they reported a dramatic improvement in mood.\" Generally, evening oriented people, as compared to morning ones, show decreased energy and pleasantness and heightened tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265936",
"title": "Sleep and emotions",
"section": "Section::::Models of sleep loss and emotional reactivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Scientists offer two explanations for the effects of sleep loss on emotions. One explanation is that sleep loss causes disinhibition of emotional brain regions, leading to an overall increase in emotional intensity (also referred to as Dysregulation Model). The other explanation describes how sleep loss causes an increase in fatigue and sleepiness, coupled with an overall decrease in energy and arousal, leading to an overall decrease in emotional intensity (also referred to as Fatigue Model).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31595228",
"title": "Psychological stress",
"section": "Section::::Physiological impacts of stress.:Quality of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in response to stress which can disrupt sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5064345",
"title": "Metaplasticity",
"section": "Section::::Synaptic homeostasis.:What else may be involved.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant amount of melatonin causes a \"dramatic decrease\" in learning and memory formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24044309",
"title": "Sleep induction",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Sex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Sexual intercourse, and specifically orgasm, may have an effect on the ability to fall asleep for some people. The period after orgasm (known as a refractory period) is often a time of increased relaxation, attributed to the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vo4fa
|
how to christians justify strict adherence to one part of the bible (e.g. homosexuals not allowed to marry) and complete disregard for another (e.g. bible says you cannot get a divorce, etc.)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because people tend to not follow rules/laws they don't want to follow. Every religion has the rules that only the most devout people follow because those rules are inconvenient. And you'd have trouble finding someone who doesn't J-walk even though it's against the law, because it's an inconvenient law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually. You can get a divorce for specific reasons, such as your partner committing adultery. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's about who said what. God's Commandments and if you're Christian, Christ's Words are paramount. Leviticus and Saul of Tarsus/Paul do not have the same authority. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One reason is that the Bible also offers justification (inequally yoked) for divorce, and that divorce is thought of by some as an individual action, which can be repented, unlike actively being in a same-sex marriage, which one continues to do, whether or not one has repented. \n\nThe main reason is that a person can always find an excuse for what he/she does, but what someone else does is unforgivably immoral.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's something like 2 billion christians in the world, and many of them hold different beliefs, so there is no single answer to your question. I believe it's still strict catholic doctrine that divorce is unacceptable, and I'm sure there are many who continue hold to that.\n\nI will give you one justification though. I don't remember it ever specifically being used concerning divorce, but it's more of a general mindset for interpreting the bible. Also, it's doubtful this is some generally agreed upon principle for all Christians, it's just the one I remember while growing up.\n\nIt basically goes like this. The bible was written to have a meaning in the time period it was written to the people it was written to. There is also a greater meaning that still resonates with people today. But the actions described in the bible need to be looked at through the lens of the people living in that day, as people have to live within the societies of their day. So when the bible says \"slaves obey your masters\" it's not saying slavery is something God wants, or is good, it's saying that slavery is a part of the governmental and social system you live in, and it's bad to break the law. \n\nThis is justified with verses such as Romans 14:14-18\n\n > 14 I am convinced, being fully persuaded in the Lord Jesus, that nothing is unclean in itself. But if anyone regards something as unclean, then for that person it is unclean. 15 If your brother or sister is distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting in love. Do not by your eating destroy someone for whom Christ died. \n\nMy recollection is that this is regarding things like whether or not you are allowed to eat meat that was sacrificed to idols. Not something that is particularly relevant today. But the meaning seems to be that you in your heart know right from wrong for you, but you shouldn't do things that your society deems unacceptable because you could cause others to lose faith or sin. Apply this to divorce and it means divorce isn't good, but it may be acceptable as long as it's acceptable to your church.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some Christians you could say ignore the Old Testament but some claim they don't really ignore it at all. Just much of what was in the OT was very specifically only for to the Israelites in the first place.\n\nBut as for homosexuality and divorce both are clearly banned in the NT as well except for when one partner commits adultery.\n\nMany Christians just pretend it doesn't say that and go on to get divorced anyway even if there was no adultery but many times someone is cheating along with all the other things that lead to divorce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My church very specifically encourages gay couples to seek marriage blessings. Marriage is considered a good thing, and we don't want gay couples to avoid it in the mistaken belief that they aren't welcome.\n\nWhy some ideas found in the bible are considered still relevant while others aren't - well, it depends on the passage in question, and on who you ask. Christianity is a huge and widely varied religion, the reasoning used to interpret scripture by a Roman Catholic theologian is going to be different from that used by a Baptist.\n\nAmong other things, many protestants have the doctrine of *sola scriptura* - the belief that the bible alone is the supreme authority in all matters of doctrine and practice. Roman Catholicism, Methodism, the Eastern Orthodox church, and the Anglican churches have the doctrine of *prima scriptura* - scripture is the primary authority, but tradition, reason, and experience can also be valid guides for what one should believe and how one should live.\n\nRegarding divorce for reasons other than adultery, one of the big reasons many churches don't forbid it is that marriage as we know it is very different from marriage as it was known to various biblical authors. Marriage in their world was a business contract between two men, transferring custody of a woman from her father to her husband for the purpose of procreation. Most women had no means of providing for themselves independently, making her utterly dependent on the men who had custody of her. It's not an accident that \"widows and orphans\" are so often paired together in calls for charity to the poor - a woman without a husband was seen as as helpless as a child without parents. \n\nTo divorce a woman was to throw her away like garbage. She was unmarriagable, because the paternity of any future child she had would always be in question. If her family was unable or unwilling to support her, she would likely end up a beggar or prostitute. Any future children she had would be *mamzer* - children of uncertain parentage. Not \"bastards\" exactly, but since the identity of their father was questionable there was a chance their father might not be Israelite, and therefor the children were not full Israelites either. They were a cast similar to untouchables - they couldn't hold most jobs, couldn't enter the Temple, could only marry other mamzers, and their children would be mamzers too. It was a miserable and degraded life on the edge of society.\n\nTo do this to a woman without a very good reason would be inhumanly cruel. It would destroy at least one life, possibly many.\n\nMarriage doesn't work like that here and now. It has changed from a contract transferring custody of a dependent woman, to a voluntary union between independent adults. Divorce has changed from throwing a helpless person away to die in the gutter, to the dissolution of that voluntary union. Divorce may still be tragic, but it's not the same animal as it once was.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Every denomination has at least one framework through which they view the Bible (e.g. Roman Catholic Church does not accept divorce still), some have more than one, and individual Christians have their own sometimes too. \n\nSome people will say that the New Testament overrides the Old Testament, and then some people will say that Jesus trumps Paul (or vice versa), some people will say there's so much cultural in there we need to live according to the Greatest Law (love God, love your neighbor), some will say we are under grace not law, so laws are guidelines not mandatory. Some will say it's too hard to burden new converts with a lot of rules so here are some basic ones that are important (see Acts 15). There are a number of ways to do it really. Churches develop these ways of interpreting the Bible alongside their own ecclesiastical traditions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your question is very well stated and legitimate. I will try my best not to be offensive with my response.\n\nI know things can get super \"referency\" when talking about religious matters so I will refrain as much as possible from referencing scripture outright as some may not view the Bible as an absolute authority. Also, I realize that Christians have their own dialect, I will try my best not to invoke it.\n\nOn the point of divorce let me say I am a Christian who has watched 3 friends go through a divorce. It was sad to see. Truly. It's a tough position to be in. Especially, in hindsight, when the position could have been avoided. Ultimately, without taking sides, a Christian is called to be \"Like-Christ.\" It is a thing that is completely different then being the way you want to be, naturally. We want to be happy. We want to be loved. We want to be admired. Jesus was \"a man of sorrows.\" Jesus was Crucified. Jesus is hated. When we repent from our sins, believe that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead and is the Lord God, we enter into a relationship with him and receive forgiveness. Forgiveness for all of our sin. What happens after we are forgiven? We change, slowly. We start to become obedient to Christ out of love. We still sin, but now we are heartbroken when we do. We are not perfect. But we are perfectible. Without this change we would have to raise some \"red flags\" to whether the initial repentance were genuine. Maintaining a desire to break our covenant with God/Christ, marriage, while also professing to be in a relationship with Him, is our own evil desires attempting to justify what we are doing as \"good\". A cursory reading of the Bible tells us, in no uncertain terms, that we have no idea what good really is because we taint everything with our sin. In fact, from a Biblical perspective, God has to intervene in a Christians life, through the Holy Spirit, for us to do anything truly good (Also, why we say the Bible is \"God Breathed\").\n\nIf anyone is inclined, I think this answer from Ravi Zacharias, about specifically homosexuality, is pretty sound as far as what the Bible teaches about practicing homosexuality and what I believe as well. _URL_0_ \n\nTL;DR - Humans will justify anything so that they are right and good. The Hero of their own narrative. The Bible teaches that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree with the other commentors that mention we all try to justify our own issues and have a problem with those of others. However, there is a distinction in many cases. Most people that have a problem with cheating, drinking, lying whatever it may be recognize it at a problem. Homosexuality is celebrated. I'm actually not opposed to gay marriage(marriage is by and large a civil not religious matter IMO). But I do have a problem with the celebration of something the Bible says is wrong (like gay pride parades). Gays shouldn't be marginalized or denied rights any more than divorced people or anyone else should be. But they are both wrong. Everyone has their own struggles and those struggles are between them and God. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will speak for myself in answer to your question, since I am a Christian. I don't necessarily speak for all of Christianity.\n\nFor me, I focus on Christ's response when asked, \"What is the most important commandment?\" He responded, \"Love the Lord your God with all your heart, and all your soul, and all your mind, and all your strength. And the second is like it: love your neighbor as yourself.\"\n\nAll questions of what is right and good must go through the filter of the greatest commandment. I take the Mr. Rogers definition of \"love\" here (\"To love someone is to accept that person exactly the way he or she is, right here and now - and go on caring through joyful times and through times that may bring us pain.\"). When in doubt, if the action taken is honoring God and acting with love toward neighbors, it is acceptable.\n\nAs far as I am concerned, those two commandments will stand through any changes in society and culture. So where the Bible gets into specifics, I put any of those commandments through that filter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "177428",
"title": "Wife",
"section": "Section::::Wife in Abrahamic religions.:Wife in \"biblical\" Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1400,
"text": "Christian marriage is to be between one woman (adult female) and one man (adult male) and that God Himself joined them and that no human is to separate them, according to Christ (Matthew 19:4-6). The Holy New Testament states that an unmarried Christian woman is to celibate or is to become the Christian wife of one Christian husband to avoid sexual immorality and for sexual passion (1 Cor 7:1-2 & 8-9). Holy New Testament permits divorce of a Christian wife by a Christian husband only if she has committed adultery (Matthew 5:32). The Holy New Testament allows a Christian widow to (re)marry any Christian man she chooses (1 Cor 7:39) but forbids a divorced Christian woman to (re)marry a Christian man because she would be committing adultery if she did (Matthew 5:32), she is to remain unmarried and celibate or be reconciled with her Christian husband (1 Cor 7:1-2 & 8-9 and 1 Cor 7:10-11). A Christian wife can divorce a non-Christian husband if he wants a divorce (1 Cor 7:12-16). Christian husbands are to love their Christian wives as Christ loved the Church (Ephesians 5:25) and as he loves himself (Ephesian 5:33). The Christian wife is to respect her Christian husband (Ephesians 5:33). Christian husbands are to not be harsh with their Christian wives (Colossians 3:19) and to treat them as a delicate vessel and with honor (1 Peter 3:7). Females are equal to males (Galatians 3:28). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292208",
"title": "Homosexuality and the Anglican Communion",
"section": "Section::::Summary of issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1271,
"text": "BULLET::::- The bishops of the Anglican Communion in 1998 upheld the traditional Christian teaching that marriage is between a man and a woman and that those who are not called to marriage so defined should remain celibate. A resolution was passed stating that \"homosexual acts\" are \"incompatible with Scripture\" by a vote of 526–70; however, it also contained a statement which \"calls on all our people to minister pastorally and sensitively to all irrespective of sexual orientation and to condemn irrational fear of homosexuals, violence within marriage and any trivialisation and commercialisation of sex,\" and noted importantly: \"We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons and we wish to assure them that they are loved by God and that all baptised, believing and faithful persons, regardless of sexual orientation, are full members of the Body of Christ.\" The Lambeth Conference is \"not an executive which imposes doctrine or discipline but it is a forum where the mind of the Communion can be expressed on matters of controversy\". Over 100 bishops, including some who voted in favour of the resolution, immediately repudiated it and signed a letter of apology to gay and lesbian Anglicans. However over 80% of the bishops did not do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12350555",
"title": "Catholic theology of sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Teachings on specific subjects.:Adultery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that two partners commit adultery when they have sexual relations, even transient ones, while at least one of them is married to another party. There, adultery is defined as an injustice because it is an injury of the covenant of the marriage bond, a transgression of the other spouse, an undermining of the institution of marriage and a compromising of the welfare of children who need their parents' stable union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38304",
"title": "Sexual abstinence",
"section": "Section::::Abstinence in religions.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Most Christians teach that sexual intercourse should occur exclusively within marriage, and that sexual abstinence is the norm outside of that. Sex between people not married to each other is either fornication or adultery. But for married couples, Paul of Tarsus wrote that they should not deprive each other, except for a short time for devotion to prayer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6210711",
"title": "Methodist Church of Southern Africa",
"section": "Section::::Gender and Sexuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "In a case concerning a married lesbian pastor, the Western Cape High Court determined that \"the Methodist church did not have a rule prohibiting its ministers from marrying someone of the same sex\". Additionally, another court determined that the denomination \"even accepts same-sex relationships (as long as such relationships are not solemnised by marriage), which means it is not at the core of the Church’s beliefs\". At the Constitutional Court, the Church said that \"it tolerates homosexual relationships but requires its ministers not to enter into same-sex marriages.\" Regarding a specific case involving a lesbian minister, the MCSA \"allowed her to be in a homosexual relationship whilst being a minister, and allowed her to stay in the Church’s manse with her partner, but drew the line at recognising her same-sex marriage.\" In 2016, the Rev Londiwe Zulu, an openly lesbian Methodist pastor, participated in a panel on human sexuality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43243",
"title": "Religion and sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic faiths.:Christianity.:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "On various occasions LDS church leaders have taught that members should not masturbate as part of obedience to the LDS law of chastity. The LDS church believes that sex outside of opposite-sex marriage is sinful and that any same-sex sexual activity is a serious sin. God is believed to be in a heterosexual marriage with Heavenly Mother and Mormons believe that opposite-sex marriage what God wants for all his children. Top LDS church leaders used to teach that attractions to those of the same sex were a sin or disease that could be changed or fixed, but now have no stance on the etiology of homosexuality, and teach that therapy focused on changing sexual orientation is unethical. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual members are, thus, left with the option of attempting to change their sexual orientation, entering a mixed-orientation opposite-sex marriage, or living a celibate lifestyle without any sexual expression (including masturbation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13248822",
"title": "Homosexuality and Methodism",
"section": "Section::::Methodist Church of Southern Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "In 2013, the Western Cape High Court found that \"the Methodist Church did not have a rule prohibiting its ministers from marrying someone of the same sex\". Additionally, in 2015, another court determined that the denomination \"even accepts same-sex relationships (as long as such relationships are not solemnised by marriage), which means it is not at the core of the Church’s beliefs\". At the Constitutional Court, the church stated that the church \"tolerates homosexual relationships but requires its ministers not to enter into same-sex marriages.\" The Church allowed [gay ministers] to be in a homosexual relationship whilst being a minister, and allowed [a gay minister] to stay in the Church’s manse with [a] partner, but drew the line at recognising her same-sex marriage.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1i81ad
|
What speed and distance units were used to measure speed before cars?
|
[
{
"answer": "Speed limits for horses were often expressed in terms of the horse's gait: walking only, no trotting or running, etc. Certainly by 1905, towns were posting speed limits for autos in mph.\n\nBut miles per hour were certainly well known for trains, and speeds for ships were similarly measured in knots. It's just that steam engines didn't commonly have speedometers, so an engineer interested in his speed had to count telegraph poles or mileposts passed in a certain amount of time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25676",
"title": "Radar",
"section": "Section::::Radar signal processing.:Speed measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. At one time the memory consisted of a user making grease pencil marks on the radar screen and then calculating the speed using a slide rule. Modern radar systems perform the equivalent operation faster and more accurately using computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636702",
"title": "Metrication in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current use.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Another common unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), used especially for lifts and cable cars. Odometers are permitted to record miles or kilometers, but must be clearly labeled as to which unit they record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576681",
"title": "Speedometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "A speedometer or a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards. Speedometers for other vehicles have specific names and use other means of sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636702",
"title": "Metrication in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current use.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 101, which governs vehicle controls and displays, permits speedometers to display miles per hour (MPH) or both MPH and km/h. In practice, most U.S.-market vehicles have mile odometers and dual-labeled speedometers with miles-per-hour as the primary calibration. Some 2000s era Buicks have a single speed gauge with a button on the instrument panel to switch the scale between MPH and km/h. Other vehicles have digital speedometers which can be set to read out speeds in either MPH or km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263175",
"title": "Metrication in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Metrication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Distance signs had displayed kilometres since the 1970s but road speed limits were in miles per hour until January 2005, when they were finally changed to kilometres per hour. Since 2005 all new cars sold in Ireland have speedometers that display only kilometres per hour; odometers generally became metric as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2831127",
"title": "Traffic flow",
"section": "Section::::Traffic stream properties.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Time mean speed\" is measured at a reference point on the roadway over a period of time. In practice, it is measured by the use of loop detectors. Loop detectors, when spread over a reference area, can identify each vehicle and can track its speed. However, average speed measurements obtained from this method are not accurate because instantaneous speeds averaged over several vehicles do not account for the difference in travel time for the vehicles that are traveling at different speeds over the same distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154199",
"title": "Jabbeke",
"section": "Section::::Speed records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "In the 1940s and 1950s it was renowned for the number of speed records set on a measured kilometer of highway. Not just absolute speed records, manufacturers wanted each model's maximum speed measured and certified by the Royal Automobile Club of Belgium. For example, the Healey Elliott with 110.65 mph in 1946, at the time the 'fastest car in the world in series production', the Jaguar XK120 achieved an officially timed ; the \"Jabbeke Speed Record\" Triumph TR2 (124.889 mph) car was driven by Ken Richardson; André Pilette set a Belgian record in the 2 litre class in the Veritas RS ; in 1952 the Rover JET 1 turbine driven by Spen King set the first speed record for gas turbine cars at over the flying kilometre; and the exotic Pegaso Z-102 clocked to make it the 'fastest production car in the world'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
241s3t
|
what does a light scratch hurt more than a deep cut?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because most of the pain receptors are found near the surface of your skin, , so a wide superficial cut will trigger a lot more pain receptors than a small but deep puncture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/gemmabeta is correct, but to add to him, deep sharp cuts typically cut the cells apart while smaller blunt cuts rip the cells apart, causing them to release more passion chemicals. (Although I don't know if what I said is apply able to your case)\n\nEdit: I forgot about adrenaline, deeper cuts may cause you to release nor adrenaline, numbing the pain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Severity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Low levels of damaging forces produce small bruises and generally cause the individual to feel minor pain straight away. Repeated impacts worsen bruises, increasing the harm level. Normally, light bruises heal nearly completely within two weeks, although duration is affected by variation in severity and individual healing processes; generally, more severe or deeper bruises take somewhat longer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1600140",
"title": "Conch piercing",
"section": "Section::::Aftercare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "For those with a dermal punch in the area, the \"piercing\" is so large that it isn't strictly necessary to wear jewelry. The wound will in fact heal faster without jewelry, but one runs the risk of uneven healing, making for a less-than-circular hole and possibly leading to ill-fitting jewelry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Bruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as \"black and blue\") in the days following the injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1269707",
"title": "Eye injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Physical or chemical injuries of the eye can be a serious threat to vision if not treated appropriately and in a timely fashion. The most obvious presentation of ocular (eye) injuries is redness and pain of the affected eyes. This is not, however, universally true, as tiny metallic projectiles may cause neither symptom. Tiny metallic projectiles should be suspected when a patient reports \"metal on metal\" contact, such as with hammering a metal surface. Intraocular foreign bodies do not cause pain because of the lack of nerve endings in the vitreous humour and retina that can transmit pain sensations. As such, general or emergency department doctors should refer cases involving the posterior segment of the eye or intraocular foreign bodies to an ophthalmologist. Ideally, ointment would not be used when referring to an ophthalmologist, since it diminishes the ability to carry out a thorough eye examination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5945747",
"title": "Kevin Long (skateboarder)",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The very worst part was, after that surgery they had to take all my bandages off in this place called the whirlpool room. That was pure hell because it felt like they were just ripping my skin off. The pain wasn’t like anything I’ve ever felt. It’s so different from anything that I’ve ever felt happen to me on a skateboard. It felt like it was constantly burning, like I was still on fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11747471",
"title": "Group C nerve fiber",
"section": "Section::::Role in neuropathic pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Activation of nociceptors is not necessary to cause the sensation of pain. Damage or injury to nerve fibers that normally respond to innocuous stimuli like light touch may lower their activation threshold needed to respond; this change causes the organism to feel intense pain from the lightest of touch. Neuropathic pain syndromes are caused by lesions or diseases of the parts of the nervous system that normally signal pain. There are four main classes: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5951839",
"title": "Chilean recluse spider",
"section": "Section::::Medical significance.:Spectrum of disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Cutaneous loxoscelism results from serious bites causing a necrotising skin ulcer in about 50% of bites with destruction of soft tissue and may take months, and rarely years to heal, leaving deep scars. The damaged tissue will become gangrenous black and eventually slough away. Initially there may be no pain from a bite, but over time the wound may grow to as large as 10 inches (25 cm) in extreme cases. Bites are felt initially but may take up to seven hours to cause visible damage; more serious systemic effects may occur before this time, as venom of any kind spreads throughout the body in minutes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
thdfx
|
I have an AP US History exam tomorrow, what is one bit of US History you feel is important for me to know?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alexander Hamilton shows up all the time. On every practice exam I took, he was on it. So I'd know who he is and why he's important (and why he's the most awesome founding father ever, but that's just me.)\n\nThe other guy who will show up all the time is Henry Clay. That dude lived for a long time.",
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{
"answer": "If you're taking the apush test tomorrow then you should be good if you've studied and payed attention but if you haven't then be prepares for a bad time because no one piece of information can save you.",
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{
"answer": "Alright it's been 4 years since I've taken the AP test but from what I remember:\n\n-night-hawks is correct in saying Alexander Hamilton. You should also know about Thomas Jefferson as well.... and why those mothafuckas didn't get along \n\n-William Jennings Bryan. Very prominent figure in politics from the 1890's to the 1920's (too bad he blew it with the Scopes trial)\n\n-The Gilded Age of Politics, I had a tough time with this because many of the Presidents had very similar qualities of laissez-faire politics. Know who it started with and who it ended with. Know who Boss Tweed and Thomas Nast are as well.\n\n-Know about the two prominent times of the Industrial Revolution in the 1800's \n\n-Know about the various Great Awakening Periods in the United States \n\n\nI think the biggest way to approach to test is to try and study the things that would be important in the time period. Obviously wars like WWI and the War of 1812 are big deals. But in the periods between huge events like these, focus on what was important, scandalous, culturally significant, etc and you'll be golden. \n\nI did all this and I got a 5 so you can too!\n\nEDIT: cause I'm drunk and made errors\n",
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"answer": "Not really any advice here, just a fellow test taker. My problem is that I did not actually take a history class this year, and last year I only took honors history..only reason I'm taking this exam is because my school has a program where they'll pay for your 4th exam, and I was already taking 3.\n\nLast year's DBQ was over Nixon and the free response was comparing Civil Rights from 1920's to 1960's, so focus on other topics.\n\nedit: fixed DBQ/free response mix up",
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"answer": "Tea Pot Dome Scandal was big on the test when I took it, and the Alien and Sedition Acts.",
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},
{
"answer": "There was a crappy question about pop-art on mine. Caught me by surprise.",
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},
{
"answer": "James K. Polk. Elected in 1844. Completed his four goals in one term. 1) got the southwest from mexico. 2)Settled the Oregon boundary dispute. 3)Lowered the tariff and 4) re established the independent treasury system. ",
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},
{
"answer": "My AP US teacher told us to really look over our notes on William Jennings Bryan, the Populists, and the progressive movements in the late 1800s. The APUSH testers just really love the Populists. I'm pretty sure the DBQ the year I took it was on the Populists, too! ",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4973111",
"title": "AP United States History",
"section": "Section::::Exam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "The AP U.S. History exam lasts 3 hours and 15 minutes and consists of two sections; additionally, each section is divided into two parts. Section I, part A includes 55 multiple choice questions with each question containing four choices. The multiple choice questions cover American History from just before European contact with Native Americans to the present day. Moreover, section I, part B includes three short-answer questions. The first two questions are required, but students choose between the third and fourth questions. In total, students are given 95 minutes (55 for the multiple choice section and 40 for three short-answer questions) to complete section I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11515287",
"title": "SAT Subject Test in United States History",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The College Board suggests as preparation for the test a year-long course in United States History at the college preparatory level. The test requires understanding of historical data and concepts, cause and effect relationships, geography, and the ability to effectively synthesize and interpret data from charts, maps, and other visual media. However, most questions from this test are derived from/similar to the AP US History Multiple Choice questions from 2014 and earlier (the 2015 exam has been revised). By taking an AP class, IB History of the Americas, or a class with similar rigor, the chances at doing well on this test are much improved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2429669",
"title": "Townsend Harris High School",
"section": "Section::::Academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In the 2008-2009 school year, Townsend Harris is offering the following Advanced Placement (AP) classes: World History, United States History, United States Government, Environmental Science, Psychology, Calculus AB/BC, Computer Science, Japanese Language and Culture, , Statistics, French Language, Art History, and Spanish Language, Spanish Literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4973111",
"title": "AP United States History",
"section": "Section::::The Course.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The AP U.S. History course is designed to provide the same level of content and instruction that students would face in a freshman-level college survey class. AP U.S. History classes generally use a college-level textbook as the foundation for the course.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948804",
"title": "SAT Subject Test in World History",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The College Board recommends a one-year preparatory course in World History, as well as independent reading on material related to historical content. However, the questions are very similar to the AP World History Exam, and it is recommended a student do significant outside study by reading and working questions from a commercially available SAT World History, an AP World History preparation book, various online test preparation resources, or an AP Textbook if that student has not taken an AP course in World History.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20084005",
"title": "Philipsburg-Osceola School District",
"section": "Section::::Academic achievement.:Senior high school.:AP courses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "For the 2010-11 academic year, the District offered five advanced placement (AP) courses. For 2011 the administration plans to provide 11 courses. These courses will include: U.S. history, U.S. government, world history, chemistry, physics, biology, English III, English IV, Spanish, statistics, and calculus AB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4972634",
"title": "AP Art History",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- The College Board, AP® Art History Course and Exam Description, Effective Fall 2015, November 20, 2015; revised and corrected edition April 21, 2017. Includes sample tests and curricula, with appendices on 250 required works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
328bkt
|
what is the difference between an emoji and an emoticon?
|
[
{
"answer": "An emoji is a little picture, while an emoticon is a collection of letters and symbols which look like a little picture (;-)",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38944479",
"title": "Emoticons (Unicode block)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Emoticons is a Unicode block containing graphic representations of faces, which are often associated with classic emoticons. They exist largely for compatibility with Japanese telephone carriers' implementations of Shift JIS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9739",
"title": "Emoticon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "An emoticon (, , rarely pronounced ), short for \"emotion icon\", also known simply as an emote, is a pictorial representation of a facial expression using characters—usually punctuation marks, numbers, and letters—to express a person's feelings or mood, or as a time-saving method. The first ASCII emoticons, codice_1 and codice_2, were written by Scott Fahlman in 1982, but emoticons actually originated on the PLATO IV computer system in 1972.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "19964135",
"title": "Social software in education",
"section": "Section::::Current state of the art.:Social feedback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Emoticons may be used to express a wider range of responses, usually expressed by non-verbal communication: for example to soften negative statements, or to express enthusiastic approval or humour (Bell & Zaitseva, 2005) . On the other hand, emoticons may be perceived as childish, or not appropriate in formal education. Emoticons are routinely available in chat rooms and forums in the public domain, but are not currently embedded in every VLE. For example, Moodle has emoticons but they are not available in current versions of Blackboard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46232939",
"title": "Colloquial Cantonese in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Internet Conversation.:Martian Language.:Self-created emoticons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "One of the most popular emoticon used by Hongkongers. It was originated from the emoji input code (a crown emoji will shown automatically after typing these characters) in the Hong Kong Golden Forum. This is an ironic emoticon as the central meaning of this emoji is to deride a person who did something stupid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64105",
"title": "Typeface",
"section": "Section::::Non-character typefaces.:Emoji.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Emoji are pictograms that can be used and displayed inline with text. They are similar to previous symbol typefaces, but with a much larger range of characters, such as symbols for common objects, animals, food types, weather and emotions. Originally developed in Japan, they are now commonly installed on many computer and smartphone operating systems. Following standardisation and inclusion in the Unicode standard, allowing them to be used internationally, the number of Emoji characters has rapidly increased to meet the demands of an expanded range of cultures using them; unlike many previous symbol typefaces, they are interchangeable with the ability to display the pictures of the same meaning in a range of fonts on different operating systems. The popularity of emoji has meant that characters have sometimes gained culture-specific meanings not inherent to the design. Both colour and monochrome emoji typefaces exist, as well as at least one animated design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30833401",
"title": "IConji",
"section": "Section::::Precedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Also of note is Emoji, based on a vocabulary of 722 emoticons, and popular in electronic communications throughout Japan. Emoji icons are heavily slanted toward conveying emotional \"punctuation,\" and more useful in augmenting SMS than in communicating complete stand-alone messages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32131559",
"title": "List of common false etymologies of English words",
"section": "Section::::Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- Emoji: These pictographic characters are often mistakenly believed to be a simplified form of the word emoticon, itself a portmanteau of \"emotional icon\". However, \"emoji\" is a Japanese term composed from \"e\" (image) and \"moji\" (character).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22gjpr
|
why is there always construction being done on roads that had nothing wrong with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, that happens. But preventative maintenance is still a thing.\n\nAlso, sometimes they have to work on something under the road (sewer/gas line, etc) and there's nothing to be done but to tear up the road to do it.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1733475",
"title": "A151 road",
"section": "Section::::The Terrain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "When roads are built by engineers with capital to support their work, they are successfully able to build roads across difficult soils. Modern road builders have less need to seek out easy geological conditions. When roads were made not by civil engineers but by people walking on the ground, the road followed the soils which were found to be easiest under foot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "37783642",
"title": "Road ecology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The design, construction and management of roads, parking and other related facilities as well as the design and regulation of vehicles can change their effect. Roads are known to cause significant damage to forests, prairies, streams and wetlands. Besides the direct habitat loss due to the road itself, and the roadkill of animal species, roads alter water-flow patterns, increase noise, water, and air pollution, create disturbance that alters the species composition of nearby vegetation thereby reducing habitat for local native animals, and act as barriers to animal movements. Roads are a form of linear infrastructure intrusion that has some effects similar to infrastructure such as railroads, power lines, and canals, particularly in tropical forests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10554624",
"title": "Dubie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Roads are in poor shape, reducing the opportunity to sell goods and increasing costs of purchases, but a project by the Concern charity achieved improvements in 2008. of roads and 54 small bridges were rehabilitated using local labor, which helped feed money into the local economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "766544",
"title": "Construction site safety",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:Road construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 created over 12,600 road construction projects, over 10,000 of which were in progress as of 2010. Workers in highway work zones are exposed to a variety of hazards and face risk of injury and death from construction equipment as well as passing motor vehicles. Workers on foot are exposed to passing traffic, often at high speeds, while workers who operate construction vehicles are at risk of injury due to overturn, collision, or being caught in running equipment. Regardless of the task assigned, construction workers work in conditions in poor lighting, poor visibility, inclement weather, congested work areas, high volume traffic and speeds. In 2011, there were a total of 119 fatal occupation fatalities in road construction sites. In 2010 there were 37,476 injuries in work zones; about 20,000 of those were to construction workers. Causes of road work site injuries included being struck by objects, trucks or mobile equipment (35%), falls or slips (20%), overexertion (15%), transportation incidents (12%), and exposure to harmful substances or environments (5%). Causes of fatalities included getting hit by trucks (58%), mobile machinery (22%), and automobiles (13%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8742719",
"title": "Saskatchewan Highway 44",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The road has been in poor condition for years. Travel for most of 2015 proved quite difficult for many motorist who did not have large vehicles such as farm equipment or a truck. As of May 2016 the road decay and hazards have become more numerous. Within this time, repair work of patching and removal of asphalt has created additional hazards as the patching lasted only about week before falling apart and has been done poorly enough to create an even greater uneven surface. Many motorists may be forced to slow to in many areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4458634",
"title": "Placemaking",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Bernard Hunt, of HTA Architects noted that: \"We have theories, specialisms, regulations, exhortations, demonstration projects. We have planners. We have highway engineers. We have mixed use, mixed tenure, architecture, community architecture, urban design, neighbourhood strategy. But what seems to have happened is that we have simply lost the art of placemaking; or, put another way, we have lost the simple art of placemaking. We are good at putting up buildings but we are bad at making places.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3788418",
"title": "Roads in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Although some roads have much older origins, the network was subject to major development from the 1950s to the mid-1990s. From then, construction of roads has become increasingly controversial with direct action campaigns by environmentalists in opposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20wufa
|
What is the history of coal and coal mining?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, I can't give an in depth review of the importance of coal, but I can say this-\n\n\n1: Coal was important because it was commonly found in Europe and abroad, but where as something like oil took a fair amount of processing to take from initial substance to a workable product (mining might seem expensive, but so was tracking a whale on the other side of the globe, or traveling to the icy waters of the north to hunt seals, and if you wanted to use it for something other than heating and lighting, you needed to refine whatever you gathered. The infrastructure simply wasn't there to make much of oil and oil products till the start of the 20th century) coal was fairly simple. There was such a thing as poor quality coal though. Forget what they called it- brown coal or lignite or peat coal or something- but basically it didn't burn as well and was a lot messier. \n\n\n2: Coal was important because it could attain, and hold very high temperatures. The development of pre-industrial steel owes a lot to coal. The wider industrial revolution was entirely dependent on coal, especially high quality coal. One of the reasons that Britain was a major player in the Industrial Revolution was because of it's ability to gather large amounts of it. Coal was a primary indicator of a nation's wealth throughout the Industrial Revolution.\n\n\n3: Coal isn't a rock. And while it's purely conjecture, I'm sure someone who had seen mined coal, and had ever worked a fire would have looked at the embers after a fire, looked at coal, and drawn the connection. Regardless, the answer for the earliest usage of coal is lost to history. We have reason to believe the Chinese were mining it up as early as 1000 BCE to smelt copper. We've found trace amounts of coal used in bronze age funeral pyres in the British Isles, which was probably harvested from outcroppings. The Romans extracted coal from Germany (Rhineland, specifically) for use in iron smelting. \n\n\n\nCoal is important because its *easy* to work with. Compared to other common heat sources you simply didn't get much simpler than the usage of coal from initial harvesting to final product without giving something up. Wood might have been replenish-able and (arguably) easier to get, but it didn't burn as hot. Oil may have been able to burn hotter and / or longer, but was also far more involved to harvest. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1454146",
"title": "History of coal mining",
"section": "",
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"text": "The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years. It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today. Compared to wood fuels, coal yields a higher amount of energy per mass and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially in smelting and alloy production as well as electricity generation. Large-scale coal mining developed during the Industrial Revolution, and coal provided the main source of primary energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s. Coal remains an important energy source because of its low cost and abundance compared to other fuels, particularly for electricity generation. Coal is also mined today on a large scale by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward, with further progress being driven by 19th century and early 20th century progress. However, oil and gas were increasingly used as alternatives from the 1860s onward.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "24905379",
"title": "Industry and the Eglinton Castle estate",
"section": "Section::::Coal mining.:Early coal exploration in the area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The earliest form of coal mining was at what was called adits or in Scotland, 'ingaun e'es' (ingoing eyes), in which exposed coal was mined through the coal seam itself. These were typically in places such as valleys where erosion had exposed the coal veins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "4402289",
"title": "Neunkirchen, Saarland",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "There are traces of surface coal mining that reach back as far as 700BC. Later on, coal was mined underground until 1968. In 1593, the first ironworks were constructed in the Blies valley. The iron ore used was from local origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9033213",
"title": "Rhondda Heritage Park",
"section": "Section::::History of the Lewis Merthyr Colliery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Although coal was mined as early as the seventeenth century in the Rhondda for domestic purposes, the earliest recorded date that a safe coal level was opened and mined was 1790 by Dr Richard Griffiths who was also responsible for bringing the first tram road into the Rhondda. Subsequently, Walter Coffin opened and sunk the first pits paving the way for the discovery of rich and prosperous steam coal seams with many more lines to follow. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15900084",
"title": "La Machine",
"section": "Section::::Mining city.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Mining marked its history. Coal was extracted beginning in the fifteenth century. The hamlet took the name of \"La Machine\" in reference to a machine which was used to extract the coal. Production stopped in 1974.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1212099",
"title": "Hindley, Greater Manchester",
"section": "Section::::History.:Industrial Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The first recorded coal mine was in 1528 and by the end of the 19th century there were over 20 collieries in the area. Ladies Lane Colliery belonging to the Wigan Coal and Iron Company employed 282 underground and 40 surface workers in 1896. At the start of the 20th century profitable coal seams were nearly exhausted and concerns were raised regarding the need to diversify industry and further develop the cotton mills. Peak production of coal was achieved just before the First World War. The period between the First and Second world wars was marked by the closure of most collieries and mills including Hindley Field and Swan Lane collieries in 1927, Hindley Green Colliery in 1928; Lowe Hall Colliery in 1931; Lowe Mill closing in 1934 and Worthington Mill was demolished. During the post war period the Hindley workings became part of the large colliery complexes developed at Bickershaw, Parsonage and Golborne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50041574",
"title": "Coal industry in Wales",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the earth's crust and has a long history of being exploited. Archaeological evidence shows that it was burned in funeral pyres in Wales during the Bronze Age and cinders have been found in Roman settlements in Britain. Originally the coal would have come from outcropping coal seams, and from lumps of sea coal gathered from the foreshore. By the seventeenth century, coal was being dug from shallow deposits for local use and by the beginning of the eighteenth century, a trade in coal was developing along the coast from such areas as Pembrokeshire, Llanelli and Swansea Bay. As surface deposits were exhausted by opencast mining, shallow pits were dug, and later bell pits, with more coal being extracted from short galleries. Soon, horizontal shafts were being dug into the hillsides and barrows manoeuvred along wooden tracks.\n",
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] | null |
5zcarf
|
if looked at under an extremely powerful microscope, what would sub-atomic particles look like? what would the space between them look like?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of the problem with you question is that \"looking\" is something that is not independent of size. \n\nVisible light has a wavelength from 390 to 700 nm (3.9 to 4 x 10^−7 m) while atoms have a radius of 30 to 300 pm (3 to 30 x10^-11 m).\n\nSo seeing is not really applicable here visible light does not work at this scale.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem there is that visible light has wavelengths way longer than the thing you are trying to observe. In our everyday macroscopic world it makes sense to think of light as rays that bounce off solid objects. But at the subatomic scale (or even just the atomic or molecular scale really) everything is interacting in terms of wave optics. So anything that is pictured from that scale in simulations or scanning tunneling microscopy is inherently an interpretation of data for the benefit of humans. But not \"how things really look like\".\n\nIt's a bit like trying to figure out how a frog sitting in a pond looks like by only making waves in the pond and observing the returning waves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All comments so far have correctly discussed the problem of wavelengths of visible light, but allow me to pose as the OP for a moment and ask hypothetically, what if this weren't the case? Lets say that humans could view electromagnetic radiation at the far left end of the spectrum, deep into the realm of gamma rays. Assuming the radiation source emitting sufficient gamma rays did not disrupt the sub-atomic particle being observed, what might we expect to see when viewing such a particle under appropriate magnification? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30778041",
"title": "Particle",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual properties.:Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Because of their extremely small size, the study of microscopic and subatomic particles fall in the realm of quantum mechanics. They will exhibit phenomena demonstrated in the particle in a box model, including wave–particle duality, and whether particles can be considered distinct or identical is an important question in many situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Shape and size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26901564",
"title": "DNA nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Materials and methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Nucleic acid structures can be directly imaged by atomic force microscopy, which is well suited to extended two-dimensional structures, but less useful for discrete three-dimensional structures because of the microscope tip's interaction with the fragile nucleic acid structure; transmission electron microscopy and cryo-electron microscopy are often used in this case. Extended three-dimensional lattices are analyzed by X-ray crystallography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4927505",
"title": "Molecular graphics",
"section": "Section::::Art, science and technology in molecular graphics.:Space-filling models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Fig. 4 is a \"space-filling\" representation of formic acid, where atoms are drawn as solid spheres to suggest the space they occupy. This and all space-filling models are necessarily icons or abstractions: atoms are nuclei with electron \"clouds\" of varying density surrounding them, and as such have no actual surfaces. For many years the size of atoms has been approximated by physical models (CPK) in which the volumes of plastic balls describe where much of the electron density is to be found (often sized to van der Waals radii). That is, the surface of these models is meant to represent a specific \"level of density\" of the electron cloud, not any putative physical surface of the atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206",
"title": "Atomic orbital",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "With J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles. The newly discovered structure within atoms tempted many to imagine how the atom's constituent parts might interact with each other. Thomson theorized that multiple electrons revolved in orbit-like rings within a positively charged jelly-like substance, and between the electron's discovery and 1909, this \"plum pudding model\" was the most widely accepted explanation of atomic structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555255",
"title": "History of subatomic physics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Increasingly small particles have been discovered and researched: they include molecules, which are constructed of atoms, that in turn consist of subatomic particles, namely atomic nuclei and electrons. Many more types of subatomic particles have been found. Most such particles (but not electrons) were eventually found to be composed of even smaller particles such as quarks. Particle physics studies these smallest particles and their behaviour under high energies, whereas nuclear physics studies atomic nuclei and their (immediate) constituents: protons and neutrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34151",
"title": "X-ray crystallography",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Data analysis.:Model building and phase refinement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "It may not be possible to observe every atom in the asymmetric unit. In many cases, Crystallographic disorder smears the electron density map. Weakly scattering atoms such as hydrogen are routinely invisible. It is also possible for a single atom to appear multiple times in an electron density map, e.g., if a protein sidechain has multiple (4) allowed conformations. In still other cases, the crystallographer may detect that the covalent structure deduced for the molecule was incorrect, or changed. For example, proteins may be cleaved or undergo post-translational modifications that were not detected prior to the crystallization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5uw8kk
|
why jeremy johnson is being jailed for contempt of court after invoking his 5th amendment rights?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the article:\n\n > After being sworn in and refusing to answer basic questions, the judge found Johnson in contempt.\n\nYour 5th Amendment rights don't apply to basic questioning, only to questions asked that could incriminate you while you are in custody.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9119240",
"title": "United States Bill of Rights",
"section": "Section::::Application and text.:Fifth Amendment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self-incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court's decision in \"Miranda v. Arizona\" (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self-incrimination prior to interrogation by police.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32547073",
"title": "NAACP v. Button",
"section": "Section::::Ruling.:Majority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Relying on the authoritative construction of the acts by the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals, Brennan noted that merely telling another individual that their rights have been violated and referring that person to an attorney or group of attorneys became a crime under the five statutes. This chilled the lawyers' and individual's First Amendment rights, and made the individual's ability to enforce its Fourteenth Amendment rights difficult, both of which were unconstitutional: \"There thus inheres in the statute the gravest danger of smothering all discussion looking to the eventual institution of litigation on behalf of the rights of members of an unpopular minority.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1577336",
"title": "Adamson v. California",
"section": "Section::::Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In the majority opinion written by Justice Stanley Forman Reed, the Supreme Court found that while Adamson's rights may have been violated had the case been tried in federal court, the rights guaranteed under the Fifth Amendment did not extend to state courts based on the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1287559",
"title": "Privacy laws of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional basis for right to privacy.:Federal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States ensures that \"the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.\" The Fourth Amendment as the Framers' attempt to protect each citizen's spiritual and intellectual integrity. A government that violates the Fourth Amendment in order to use evidence against a citizen is also violating the Fifth Amendment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1001983",
"title": "Yaser Esam Hamdi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Critics of his imprisonment claimed his civil rights were violated and that he was denied due process of law under the U.S. Constitution. They said his imprisonment without formal charges and denial of right to counsel was illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31460021",
"title": "Mancusi v. DeForte",
"section": "Section::::Decision.:Majority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Harlan reiterated that the Court's opinion was based purely on the Fourth Amendment claim DeForte had made, the only one before them. There was no need to decide a Fifth Amendment question, nor whether Fourth Amendment rights were primarily personal, or whether he could have asserted them on the union's behalf as well as his own. The Court considered only whether DeForte had standing to challenge the search, and if so, whether it had been illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14141359",
"title": "Criminal defense lawyer",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1325,
"text": "A considerable aspect of this work requires the US criminal defense lawyer to have a clear understanding of the United States Constitution. Specifically, the Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures, while the Fifth and Sixth Amendments govern the right to remain silent so one does not become a witness against himself. All of the Amendments to the United States Constitution are guaranteed to the criminal accused against the states via the Fourteenth Amendment. Thus, a criminal defense lawyer must understand each of these rights. Initial work on any criminal case involves review of the charges and the claimed facts, and analysis of constitutional violations, the \"prima facie\" burden of the prosecution, defenses, and affirmative defenses; as well as potential sentence and sentencing issues. Early stages of a criminal case may involve a grand jury or preliminary hearing to determine if there exists probable cause for the case to continue. A violation of the Fourth or Fifth Amendment, or other illegally obtained evidence could result in evidence being inadmissible at trial. Accordingly, a criminal defense lawyer often spends a considerable amount of time reviewing all documentation to determine if the case can be won on constitutional grounds due to illegal conduct by the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rrdro
|
do the wings on my paper/plastic/model airplane work like the wings on a real airplane? if not, how does it fly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, they work just like normal airplane wings. They use an angle of attack to push down on the air they're passing through, and thus lift themselves up as a resultant force from that push. Just like a normal wing would. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Model airplanes, yes. They use a specially shaped wing to produce lift (see: airfoil). A paper airplane, however, is acting more like a parachute, using the large surface area to slow its descent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you've ever seen the movie \"Flight of the Phoenix\" they make the exact point. The engineer that designs the new plane made from the wreckage of the original plane is actually a model airplane designer. He explains that the formulas work regardless of scale.\n\nGreat movie, BTW. The Jimmy Stewart original, I mean, not the Dennis Quaid remake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24369243",
"title": "Wingbox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The wing box of an airplane is the structural component from which the wings extend. It is usually limited to the section of the fuselage between the wing roots, although on some aircraft designs, such as the Boeing 787, it may be considered to extend further.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18028093",
"title": "Wing configuration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "\"Note on terminology:\" Most fixed-wing aircraft have left hand and right hand wings in a symmetrical arrangement. Strictly, such a pair of wings is called a wing plane or just plane. However, in certain situations it is common to refer to a plane as a wing, as in \"a biplane has two wings\", or to refer to the whole thing as a wing, as in \"a biplane wing has two planes\". Where the meaning is clear, this article follows common usage, only being more precise where needed to avoid real ambiguity or incorrectness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Wings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings, which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a bird's wing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191711",
"title": "Flying wing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "A flying wing is a tailless fixed-wing aircraft that has no definite fuselage. The crew, payload, fuel, and equipment are typically housed inside the main wing structure, although a flying wing may have various small protuberances such as pods, nacelles, blisters, booms, or vertical stabilizers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160891",
"title": "Fuselage",
"section": "Section::::Wing integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129697",
"title": "Paper plane",
"section": "Section::::Aerodynamics.:General aerodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Altogether, the aerodynamic forces co-interact, creating turbulence that amplifies small changes in the surface of the paper aircraft. Modifications can be made to most paper airplanes by bending, curving or making small cuts in the trailing edges of wings and in the airplane's tail, if it has one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Wings.:Wing structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their shape and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j72fl
|
How do pebbles on the beach get those tiny holes through them?
|
[
{
"answer": "The stones aren't the same stuff through and through. Sometimes there's an inclusion or patch or bit of other mineral that's more soluble or less resilient than the surrounding mineral, leaving a gap, hole, or pit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The stones aren't the same stuff through and through. Sometimes there's an inclusion or patch or bit of other mineral that's more soluble or less resilient than the surrounding mineral, leaving a gap, hole, or pit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "314610",
"title": "Pebble",
"section": "Section::::Location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Pebbles are found in two locations – on the beaches of various oceans and seas, and inland where ancient seas used to cover the land. When then the seas retreated, the rocks became landlocked. They can also be found in lakes and ponds. Pebbles can also form in rivers, and travel into estuaries where the smoothing continues in the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314610",
"title": "Pebble",
"section": "Section::::Human use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Beach pebbles and river pebbles are used for a variety of purposes, both outdoors and indoors. They can be sorted by colour and size, and they can also be polished to improve the texture and colour. Outdoors, beach pebbles are often used for landscaping, construction and as decorative elements. Beach pebbles are often used to cover walkways and driveways, around pools, in and around plant containers, on patios and decks. Beach and river pebbles are also used to create water-smart gardens in areas where water is scarce. Small pebbles are also used to create living spaces and gardens on the rooftops of buildings. Indoors, pebbles can be used as bookends and paperweights. Large pebbles are also used to create \"pet rocks\" for children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314610",
"title": "Pebble",
"section": "Section::::Location.:Beach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Beach pebbles form gradually over time as the ocean water washes over loose rock particles. The result is a smooth, rounded appearance. The typical size range is from 2 mm to 50 mm. The colors range from translucent white to black, and include shades of yellow, brown, red and green. Some of the more plentiful pebble beaches are found along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, beginning in the United States and extending down to the tip of South America in Argentina. Other pebble beaches are found in northern Europe (particularly on the beaches of the Norwegian Sea), along the coast of the U.K. and Ireland, on the shores of Australia, and around the islands of Indonesia and Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314610",
"title": "Pebble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Pebbles come in various colors and textures and can have streaks, known as veins, of quartz or other minerals. Pebbles are mostly smooth but, dependent on how frequently they come in contact with the sea, they can have marks of contact with other rocks or other pebbles. Pebbles left above the high water mark may have growths of organisms such as lichen on them, signifying the lack of contact with seawater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3085195",
"title": "Roughcast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Pebbles were dredged from the seabed to provide the building materials needed, although most modern pebbledash is actually not pebbles at all, but small and sharp flint chips, and should correctly be called Spar dash or spa dash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3226812",
"title": "Pink Pippos of Portland",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "A particular feature of the beach is the unusual natural phenomenon, pertaining to the carefully graded size of the pebbles from which it is composed. These pebbles are no bigger than shingle at the West Bay end, and gradually increase in size to that of a baked-potato, at its Southernmost end, on the Isle of Portland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147190",
"title": "Ground stone",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Holes could be ground out of stones with the use of sharp pointed stones or hardened sticks. By spinning the ground stone with one's hands and applying substantial pressure to the sharp point into the ground stone, a hole could be drilled into the stone with a large amount of time and effort. Sand would be used to help quicken the process by putting it in the partially formed hole as the sharp point was being pressed. The sand would help grind more of the stone away. To put a hole all the way through a piece of stone, it would be first drilled half way in one direction and be finished on the opposite side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21idya
|
does keeping someone "awake", keep them from dying like in movies?
|
[
{
"answer": "You want them to \"stay with you\" so that you know they are responsive and not slipping away further into death. It's a way of making sure that bodily functions are still working.\n\nI used to have a roommate that would have panic attacks often. So I would tell him to do things like move his hands, fingers, legs, ect. so that I knew when and when not to take him to the infirmary.\n\nEdit: wrong word",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You want to keep someone in shock from going unconscious. One way to do this is to keep their brain active by introducing stimuli. If they fall unconscious their blood pressure can crash resulting in more problems, essentially starting a feedback loop eventually resulting in death due to hypoxia essentially. \n\nMy ex explained it better so maybe someone else can add on. Medically it has to do with chemicals in the central nervous system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > You know that thing they do in movies where people are like: \"Hey, stay with me?\" as if they're trying to keep someone from falling asleep? Does that actually prevent someone from passing away?\n\nIt does not. It is used to determine the patients ability to stay conscious. If it doesn't work anymore, the situation has gotten worse. As a side note, this method only tests their response to verbal stimuli. Another method is testing their response to painful stimuli, such as pinching the trapezius muscle or sternal rubs. These allow medics to place a patient on the AVPU scale of alert, responds to verbal, responds to pain, unresponsive.\n\nSource: 5 years as a paramedic",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are talking about sudden injury like being shot/stabbed/blown up; \n\nYou want your heart-rate to stay high to keep blood pumping to the critical parts like your brain.\n\nWhen you are critically injured and bleed out, it feels like you are getting really tired. Your pulse drops. Adrenaline levels drop. You don't feel the pain anymore. \n\nYou know that feeling when you watch a movie late at night, you kinda want to keep watching but you notice you start missing parts? That, but a lot stronger.\n\nEverything in your body tells you to just chill for a moment. People might be screaming in your face to stay awake, but all you can think of is:\n\n\"Yeah, yeah, I will...just give me a moment to catch my breath. I just need to close my eyes for 5 seconds and i'll be fine again.\"\n\nYou drift off in a dream-like state, and the voice in your head screaming to open your fucking eyes fades further away with every passing moment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a good idea to keep someone who has overdosed on CNS-depressants awake. Going into deep sleep slows down breathing even further.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not in the cases of most deaths no, although it may be helpful in dealing with people who are bleeding to death and losing conciousness. I think this is more something that is said, rather then an actual assist. Someone who is bleeding out will feel as though they are drifting off to sleep, and although keeping them awake may give you an indication of their mental state, it doesn't actually save their life. If they are too far gone, they will die anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "u/MRTXM3 sums up the responsiveness scale perfectly. As for the logic behind \"stay with me bro!\" etc etc it's to keep someone from going into shock and mentally shutting down, usually in a combat/disaster situation. If someone is losing blood and they think they're going to die, shock starts to set in and they get caught in the opposite loop. Instead of calmly fading out they get so jacked up that they are making their injuries worse; i.e. with a lost a limb, going into shock pumps the blood out faster so they're bleeding out faster. So while you're applying a Combat Application Tourniquet, you need to try to calm them down and get them focused on providing buddy aid/self aid and returning fire. If you can get them to calm the fugg down and return fire you can focus on saving the leg or whatever \n\n(source: combat medic) \n\n(Edit: rogue period. Additionally, in that situation you would be trying to get them to stop focusing on what is going on internally and give them an external stimuli to focus on so they're brain will stop sending adrenaline dumps and shocks to the nervous system. Then the body's natural reactions can take over to start re-routing blood to the vital organs and restoring blood pressure; once they've calmed down and you've stabilized the bleeding that is) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "depends. Do you live on Elm street?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, but it's a lot harder for medics to diagnose your situation if you are unconscious. It's also a bad sign.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you keep someone awake they will not be dead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Don't fucking die on me man!\"\n\n\"Oh shit, is that what I was about to do?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keeping them awake doesn't keep them alive. Otherwise, every medic in the world would work on their conversational skills first, medicine second. It just doesn't work this way.\n\nIt looks good, but ultimately these people slip into unconsciousness. If you've ever seen someone pass out, it's a lot like that. Talking them through it doesn't help them.\n\nThat being said, every single patient that I've talked to that has gone unconscious, or even flatlined, has said that they found that people talking to them gave them incredible comfort. They were frequently upset when people around them were losing it, but I tend to not allow that kind of behavior around my patients.\n\nSource: 22+ years of emergency medicine",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, you can't be awake and dead at the same time..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15799229",
"title": "The Dead Sleep Easy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The Dead Sleep Easy is a 2007 Canadian drama film, a co-production of Odessa Filmworks and Zed Filmworks produced on location in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Its tagline is \"When you're this far south, sometimes it's better to be dead than alive.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- Waking sleepwalkers does not harm them. While it is true that a person may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, this does not cause them further harm. In contrast, sleepwalkers may injure themselves if they trip over objects or lose their balance while sleepwalking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2738691",
"title": "Karl Binding",
"section": "Section::::Ideas.:Definition of euthanasia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- 3 The people belonging to the middle group, were “mentally healthy” people, which having suffered a serious injury are now unconscious. If they ever awake, they \"will awake to a nameless suffering\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4499062",
"title": "Let Sleeping Corpses Lie (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Let Sleeping Corpses Lie (, \"Do Not Profane the Sleep of the Dead\"; , \"Do Not Profane the Sleep of the Dead\"), also known as The Living Dead at the Manchester Morgue and Don't Open the Window, is a 1974 Spanish-Italian science fiction zombie horror film written and directed by Jorge Grau and starring Ray Lovelock, Arthur Kennedy and Cristina Galbó. The film focuses on two protagonists who are harassed by a local police investigator in the English countryside and are implicated in murders committed by zombies who have been brought to life by a farming tool designed to kill insects via ultra-sonic radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2081776",
"title": "Guru Dutt",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Dutt's son, Arun Dutt, considered the death to be an accident. Dutt had scheduled appointments for the next day with actress Mala Sinha and actor Raj Kapoor for his movie \"Baharen Phir Bhi Aayengi\", to discuss the making of colour films. According to him, \"My father had sleeping disorders and popped sleeping pills like any other person. That day he was drunk and had taken an overdose of pills, which culminated in his death. It was a lethal combination of excessive liquor and sleeping pills.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75912",
"title": "Time Lord",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "It is also worth noting that Time Lords appear to have the ability to stay conscious for moments after events that would outright kill other lifeforms instantly, giving them the opportunity to regenerate. In \"Logopolis\", the Fourth Doctor falls hundreds of feet to the ground, yet is still conscious and able to talk to his companions when they find him minutes later before he regenerates. In \"The Caves of Androzani\", the Fifth Doctor remains conscious throughout the entire course of his (eventually fatal) spectrox toxaemia, while his human companion Peri loses consciousness as the disease worsens. In \"The Stolen Earth\", the Tenth Doctor is shot by a Dalek's energy weapon, which has almost always been shown to instantly kill any other lifeform, yet is still conscious and able to return, with some assistance, to the TARDIS in order to regenerate. However, he was skimmed by the energy shot, while all others were shot in the middle of the back or in the chest, closer to vital organs. The Eleventh Doctor is also shot squarely by a weakened Dalek in \"The Big Bang\" and severely injured, but he manages to execute his plan to restart the universe nonetheless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4639498",
"title": "24 Hours (album)",
"section": "Section::::Track listing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 214,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 214,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"I'm starting to think that I'm dead. | Doesn't it make sense that death too would be wrapped in dream? That after death, your conscious life would continue in what might be called a dream body? It would be the same dream body you experience in your everyday dream life. Except that in the post-mortal state, you could never again wake up.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mld26
|
where does the idea that jews run the world come from? and when something happens, immediately point to isreal and us?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the middle ages, the church ruled that Christians could not charge interest lending money to other Christians. Which made a Christian-run bank a rather unsustainable business. But people still wanted banks, so money-lending became one of the few well-paying professions available to Jews living in Europe at the time. And so now access to money is being controlled by Jewish bankers, who were part of a group that the Church had been telling everyone were untrustworthy backstabbers responsible for Jesus's death. That combination led to the \"Jews really running the world\" conspiracies, which has stuck around for quite some time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea that Jews runs the world dates back to the early imperial age and the rise of the middle class. Often times merchant ventures needed loans to get started, and since Catholics weren't allowed to charge interest on loans, invariably that meant going to a Jew. Now, being in a position to even approach someone about a loan is a rare social feat, and having merchant ventures be possible is a separate thing entirely, but for some, it felt like the Jews decided who would succeed in business and who would fail.\n\nAs the imperial age progressed, banking continued to evolve, particularly under a Jewish family called the Rothschilds, a banking family who were really the first super-rich non-nobles. Being as they weren't nobles, many cried foul.\n\nToday, modern banks who use the Rothschild's techniques on loans to make money control the economy in a serious way, but very few of them are actually run by Jews. It's true that in the middle ages, Jewish people played a niche role in the economy that gave them a lot of power (though not nearly enough to counter how much of a hassle it was, believe me they had it rough). Today, there is no such advantage. But racist old myths die hard. The Rockefellers were another major banking family, and they weren't Jews (though conspiracy theorists will say they were neo-pagans of some description).\n\nIn truth, people hate being poor. When plates are empty, foreigners and subcultures are targeted. The Jews have historically always been that subculture in Europe, really until the 1950s. This hate will take any actual or perceived slight it can as justification. In the middle ages it was the ability of Jews to choose which boats would sail. In the Imperial Age where many could finance ships and the Dutch were crowdsourcing ships, it was the predatory practices of banks that were somehow the fault of an entire race. Today, with predatory banking a universal practice, it's geopolitical cash transfers that are considered to blame.\n\nNow, don't get me wrong - Banks were predatory, and Israel's lobby in America is disproportionately powerful. But that isn't the fault of a whole race of people. What crosses from reasonable criticism to bigotry is when you treat the actions of one person like they belong to a group - whether that's blaming Palestinians for throwing rocks, Israelis for AIPAC's strong presence in US politics, Jews for predatory loans, or any group of people for anything done by someone else you associate with them.\n\nAnti-Semites will try to use any bad thing done by any Jew against the whole race. Islamophobes will try to use any bad thing done by any Muslim against the whole religion. It's the same thing, really. And it needs to be stopped.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A major source is a piece of propoganda called _URL_0_\n\nPut out around 1900 possibly by the czarist secret police, partially plagiarized of an anti Napoleon III screed that didn't mention Jews, this peice of trash is still popular despite being proven as a forgery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "840055",
"title": "Apocalypticism",
"section": "Section::::Religions.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "According to some ancient Hebrew worldviews, reality unfolds along a linear path (or rather, a spiral path, with cyclical components that nonetheless have a linear trajectory); the world began with God and is ultimately headed toward God's final goal for creation, the world to come. The main textual source for the belief in the end of days and accompanying events is the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. The roots of Jewish eschatology are to be found in the pre-exile Prophets, including Isaiah and Jeremiah, and the exile-prophets Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah. The main tenets of Jewish eschatology are the following, in no particular order, elaborated in the Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "649665",
"title": "Religious Zionism",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1623,
"text": "Religious Zionists believe that \"Eretz Yisrael\" (the Land of Israel) was promised to the ancient Israelites by God, and the right of the Jews to the land is permanent and inalienable. To generations of diaspora Jews, Jerusalem has been a symbol of the Holy Land and of their return to it, as promised by God in numerous Biblical prophecies. Despite this, many Jews did not embrace Zionism before the 1930s, and certain religious groups opposed it then, as some groups still do now, on the grounds that an attempt to re-establish Jewish rule in Israel by human agency was blasphemous. Hastening salvation and the coming of the Messiah was considered religiously forbidden, and Zionism was seen as a sign of disbelief in God's power, and therefore, a rebellion against God. Rabbi Kook developed a theological answer to that claim, which gave Zionism a religious legitimation: \"Zionism was not merely a political movement by secular Jews. It was actually a tool of God to promote His divine scheme, and to initiate the return of the Jews to their homeland – the land He promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God wants the children of Israel to return to their home in order to establish a Jewish sovereign state in which Jews could live according to the laws of Torah and Halakha, and commit the Mitzvot of Eretz Israel (these are religious commandments which can be performed only in the Land of Israel). Moreover, to cultivate the Land of Israel was a Mitzvah by itself, and it should be carried out. Therefore, settling Israel is an obligation of the religious Jews, and helping Zionism is actually following God's will.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52978",
"title": "Jewish principles of faith",
"section": "Section::::Conception of God.:God is the creator of the universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Jews believe that God is creator of the universe. However, some Orthodox Jews do not believe in a literal interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative, and according to that view, Judaism is not in contradiction to the scientific model that states that the age of the universe is around 13.77 billion years old. Norbert M. Samuelson writes the \"question of dating the universe has never been a problem of Jewish philosophy, ultimately because that philosophy has never taken the literal meaning of the Bible to be its revealed, true meaning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10113",
"title": "Egalitarianism",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Religious and spiritual egalitarianism.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "Judaism is a universalist religion due to the belief that one God created the entire universe. A further distinction has to be made however. Judaism teaches that Jews (defined as either the biological descendants of Jacob \"Israel\", the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham or someone who converted) have a specific covenant with God as a chosen people (Deutoronomy 7:6 \"chosen as God's treasured people\") to serve as an example of God's light to the rest of the world. The oral Torah and Rabbinic literature codified in the Talmud makes key distinctions in religious and legal contexts between Jews and the gentiles (meaning literally \"the nations\"). However, Judaism teaches that all people are the creations of God and are commanded in the seven universal moral laws known as the Seven Laws of Noah. In this aspect, Judaism is universalist in its divine message, but not in its religious obligations. In reform and conservative Judaism, egalitarian refers to nullification of religious gender separations. Synagogues that identify as egalitarian allow mixed seating (i.e. no mechitza) and allow women to lead services with men in attendance as well as read publicly from the Torah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5241423",
"title": "Yetzer hara",
"section": "Section::::The evil inclination in Jewish tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Central to Jewish belief is the idea that every man—Jew and gentile alike—is born with two opposing inclinations that pull him to act either in a bad way or a good way, but that, in the final analysis, it is man who decides how he is to act. This notion is succinctly worded in the Babylonian Talmud: \"Everything is determined by heaven, except one's fear of heaven,\" meaning, everything in man's life is predetermined by God—except that man's choice to be either righteous or wicked, which is left to his free will.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31902",
"title": "Universalism",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Judaism teaches that God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique covenant with God, and one of their beliefs is that Jewish people were charged by the Torah with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah to other nations. This view does not preclude a belief that God also has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism holds that God had entered into a covenant with all humanity as Noachides, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God, as well as being universal in the sense that it is open to all mankind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2400008",
"title": "Sam Harris",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Criticism of Abrahamic religions.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Regarding Israel and Judaism, Harris has said, \"I don't think Israel should exist as a Jewish state. I think it is obscene, irrational and unjustifiable to have a state organized around a religion. So I don't celebrate the idea that there's a Jewish homeland in the Middle East. I certainly don't support any Jewish claims to real estate based on the Bible. Though I just said that I don't think Israel should exist as a Jewish state, the justification for such a state is rather easy to find. We need look no further than the fact that the rest of the world has shown itself eager to murder the Jews at almost every opportunity. So, if there were going to be a state organized around protecting members of a single religion, it certainly should be a Jewish state. Now, friends of Israel might consider this a rather tepid defense, but it's the strongest one I've got. I think the idea of a religious state is ultimately untenable.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7tkeub
|
How does my brain instantly calculate that I can toss an object into a small area from several feet away while walking?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's an interesting question; do you mean for something you are doing for the first time, something you have practiced, or something you do often without thinking too much about?\n\nThe same question could be asked about how people are able to react in sports to balls, for example. How does a tennis player know exactly how and when to hit a ball, how do they calculate in real-time, the exact direction and path of an incoming ball etc. \n\nIs the answer simply trial and error? Are our brains simply advanced enough to calculate spatial awareness, coupled with intuitive movements that we know we are capable of? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "997328",
"title": "Magnocellular cell",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Cells in the M pathway have the ability to detect high temporal frequencies and can thus detect quick changes in the position of an object. This is the basis for detecting motion. The information sent to the Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS) of the posterior parietal cortex allows the M pathway to direct attention and guide saccadic eye movements to follow important moving objects in the visual field. In addition to following objects with the eyes, the IPS sends information to parts of the frontal lobe that allows the hands and arms to adjust their movements to correctly grasp objects based on their size, position, and location. This ability has led some neuroscientists to hypothesize that the purpose of the M pathway is not to detect spatial locations, but to guide actions related to the position and motion of objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826256",
"title": "Sense of direction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "We get our sense of direction when we match up spatial maps we have stored in the hippocampus, to the pattern of firing neurons when we are trying to find our way back or trying to find our car in the parking lot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37196",
"title": "Causality",
"section": "Section::::Fields.:Science.:Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Some researchers such as Anjan Chatterjee at the University of Pennsylvania and Jonathan Fugelsang at the University of Waterloo are using neuroscience techniques to investigate the neural and psychological underpinnings of causal launching events in which one object causes another object to move. Both temporal and spatial factors can be manipulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3151702",
"title": "Smooth pursuit",
"section": "Section::::Smooth pursuit in the absence of a visual target.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "If you know which way a target will move, or know the target trajectory (because it is periodic for instance), you can initiate pursuit before the target motion actually starts, especially if you know exactly when the motion will start.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40196540",
"title": "Histogram of oriented displacements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "HOD records for each moving point: how much it moves in each range of directions. HOD has a clear physical interpretation. It proposes that, a simple way to describe the motion of an object, is to indicate how much distance it moves in each direction. If the movement in all directions are saved accurately, the movement can be repeated from the initial position to the final destination regardless of the displacements order. However, the temporal information will be lost, as the order of movements is not stored-this is what we solve by applying the temporal pyramid, as shown in section \\ref{sec:temp-pyramid}. If the angles quantization range is small, classifiers that use the descriptor will overfit. Generalization needs some slack in directions-which can be done by increasing the quantization range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35663418",
"title": "Bayesian inference in motor learning",
"section": "Section::::Reaching.:Integrating a prior with current sensory information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "This form of adaptation holds true only when the shift is small compared to the distance the person has to reach to hit the target. A person reaching for a target 15 cm away would adapt to a 2 cm shift of the cursor in a Bayesian way. However, if the target were only 5 cm away, a 2 cm shift cursor position (visual information) would be recognized and the person would realize the visual information does not accurately show hand position. Instead, the person would rely on proprioception and prior knowledge to move the hand to the target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7310685",
"title": "Six Thinking Hats",
"section": "Section::::Underlying principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The premise of the method is that the human brain thinks in a number of distinct ways which can be deliberately challenged, and hence planned for use in a structured way allowing one to develop tactics for thinking about particular issues. De Bono identifies six distinct directions in which the brain can be challenged. In each of these directions the brain will identify and bring into conscious thought certain aspects of issues being considered (e.g. gut instinct, pessimistic judgement, neutral facts). None of these directions is a completely natural way of thinking, but rather how some of us already represent the results of our thinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e2mg1u
|
Footage of people being knocked out by a 'sucker punch' usually shows their legs instantly going rigid. Why is this?
|
[
{
"answer": "The nerves for conscious motor control originate in the \"top\" of the brain at the cortex and make up the corticospinal tract, but there are also subconscious reflex arcs that help you maintain your balance in the vestibulospinal tract.\n\nThese reflex arcs originate much lower in the brainstem and often even in the spinal cord itself. Their main way of maintaining posture is to extend the contralateral muscles when you lean too far to one side. This is why people sway side to side when standing with their eyes closed.\n\nWhen the brain is traumatized to the point of unconsciousness, the corticospinal tract is overwhelmed by the vestibulospinal tract and the \"extend\" messages are the only messages the legs receive. Stiff legs are an indicator of damage to parts of the brain closer to the top of the head.\n\nSource: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2318806",
"title": "Lonely Heart (Angel)",
"section": "Section::::Production details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "David Boreanaz's stunt double, Mike Massa, says the scene in which he is tossed across the room upside down is his favorite stunt of this season. To get the effect, he was shot across the room using an air ram. \"The reason I like it so much is because it really knocked the heck out of me,\" he says. \"It was 900 pounds of thrust on the air-ram. I had to hit the corner just right. If I was off, if I hit dead center of the corner with my shoulders spread it could have broken a collarbone. I had to hit it sideways, my back flat to the wall and kind of skip into it, but it just pile drove me right to the ground.\" Director Jim Contner \"was jumping up and down... He thought that was the best stunt he'd ever seen.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12789289",
"title": "1988 Los Angeles Dodgers season",
"section": "Section::::Offseason.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "-Finally, the Dodgers used to play a game called \"flinch\", where a person would fake throwing a punch at another and, if the other person flinched, the one who faked the blow would get to punch the other in the chest. Orel Hershiser tried this with Gibson, and Gibson responded by shoving Hershiser with his forearm (\"forearm shiver\") and telling him sternly, \"I don't play 'Flinch'!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "710181",
"title": "Wacaday",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Later on in \"Wacaday\"'s run, Mallett's infamous routine of hitting people over the head with his giant foam mallet was changed slightly, particularly in the \"Mallett's Mallet\" game, where he would instead hit large buttons on a machine to keep score, as the producers feared that young viewers at home might try and copy the routine by hitting people over the head with heavy objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19377820",
"title": "Stampede",
"section": "Section::::Human stampedes and crushes.:Crushes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Among causes of fatal crushes, sometimes described as \"crazes\", is when a large crowd is trying to get \"toward\" something; typically occurring when members at the back of a large crowd continue pushing forward not knowing that those at the front are being crushed, or because of something that forces them to move.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3586686",
"title": "Spinal lock",
"section": "Section::::Neck crank.:Twister.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1599,
"text": "The twister (a similar move in wrestling is known as a guillotine) is a sideways body bend and neck crank, which involves forcing the head towards the shoulder while controlling the body, hence causing lateral hyperflexion of the cervical spine. The technique involves tension in several body parts, and depending on the flexibility of the recipient, can also involve pain in the knees, abdominals and torso. The twister is often confused as being a spine crank since it involves a degree of lateral non-cervical spinal flexion. The main pressure is however on the cervical spine, hence making it a neck crank. It is performed from a back mount single vine ride position, where the top man has one \"hook\" threaded through the bottom man's legs and secured behind the ankle. The top man then pulls the bottom man's opposite arm behind his own head and grabs hold of his opponent's head, pulling it down to his shoulder. Popularized by Eddie Bravo and the 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu system. On March 26, 2011 Chan Sung Jung finished Leonard Garcia at in round 2 of their fight using a twister, the first, and as of 2019, the only twister finish in UFC history. Prior to this, Shuichiro Katsumura defeated Hiroyuki Yamashiro with a twister in ZST 20 on May 24, 2009. On December 31, 2014, Shinya Aoki scored a first-round twister win over Yuki Yamamoto at Inoki Genome Federation's \"Inoki Bom-Ba-Ye 2014\". At the 2015 ADCC tournament in São Paulo, Vinny Magalhaes submitted Rodrigo Artilheiro in the quarterfinals using a twister. Angela Lee defeated Natalie Hills by a Twister at One FC : Pride of Lions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35376659",
"title": "Hamateur Night",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "BULLET::::- The aforementioned hippopotamus driving most of the other patrons out of the theater by various means, including sitting on the feet of the person behind him (bending the feet into a 90-degree angle), smacking a spectator hard enough to squash his entire upper body into his hat, and elbowing an entire row hard enough to push them out through the theater wall\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4438718",
"title": "JM Productions",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "In 2005, JM released \"Donkey Punch\", which features actresses receiving a donkey punch. Actress Alex Divine reportedly posted on ExtremeGirlForum.com that \"\"Donkey Punch\" was the most brutal, depressing, scary scene that I have ever done.\" Although she initially agreed to be hit on the head during the scene, she claimed to have misunderstood exactly how physical the scene would be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ngj4f
|
what does western society have against the female nipple? (serious responses only)
|
[
{
"answer": "Look into \"the modesty of most other countries\" and you might be surprised to find that the US is pretty middle of the road. From TV commercials to magazine ads to beachwear.. For every Western European country that thinks we're all ignorant, Christian prudes, therse a middle eastern or Asian country that looks aghast at our women walking around without enough bra padding to shield erect nipples through T shirts on a breezy day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe it has to do with simply drawing the line somewhere. In western societies, a woman's breast is seen as a sexual organ, and has been forbidden to show in most public settings for hundreds of years. This has relaxed quite a bit over the last few decades, but still exists. We've gotten to the point that you can show most of the female breast other than the areola and nipple. Probably because it can be clearly stated (usually) where it begins and ends. That would be difficult to do otherwise, unless one was to ban exposing any part of the female breast at all, which of course is done in some cultures. \n \nGive it a few more decades and it might change. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not so much that society is *against* the female nipple. It's more that society is against public sexuality. A fully nude man is, broadly speaking, no more acceptable in public than a fully nude woman. But female nudity has become so fetishised that the default assumption is that bare skin on a woman is sexual in nature.\n\nThe result is that bare chests on men are not seen as *automatically* sexual, but bare chests on women are. So bare nipples in public are commonly more accepted on men than they are on women.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Western society used to be against female ankles. The thought was that ankles suggest legs, and leg suggest leg going all the way up. Some people think women should cover their heads all the time, some people think women topless is just fine all the time. It is all just a bunch of made up rules at the time by the people at the time.\n\nHonesty if more people walked around naked, more would feel the gift of shame and we might have fewer fat people in the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "150389",
"title": "Nipple",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The culture tendency to hide the female nipple under clothing has existed in Western culture since the 1800s. As female nipples are often perceived an intimate part, covering them might originate as a Victorian taboo just as was riding side saddle. Exposing the entire breast and nipple is a form of protest for some and a crime for others. The exposure of nipples is usually considered immodest and in some instances is viewed as lewd or indecent behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7105280",
"title": "Handbra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Social conventions requiring females to cover their breasts in public have been widespread throughout history and across cultures. Contemporary Western cultures usually regard the exposure of the nipples and areolae as immodest and sometimes prosecute it as indecent exposure. However, the covering of the nipples and areolae in some manner is regarded as sufficient to maintain modesty and decency, at least within the letter if not the spirit of the censors' guidelines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243208",
"title": "Toplessness",
"section": "Section::::In Western culture.:Social attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Some cultures have even begun to expand social prohibitions on female toplessness to prepubescent and even infant girls. This trend toward covering the female nipple from infancy onward is particularly noticeable in the United States, Eastern Asia and the Middle East, but is much less common in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106121",
"title": "Modesty",
"section": "Section::::In dress.:Generally accepted Western norms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "In many cultures it is not acceptable to bare the buttocks in public; deliberately doing so is sometimes intended as an insult. In public, Western standards of decency expect people to cover their genitalia, and women to cover their breasts. In the early twenty-first century, public breastfeeding has become increasingly acceptable, sometimes protected by law. President Barack Obama's health care bill from 2010 provides additional support to nursing mothers, requiring employers to provide a private and shielded space for employees to use in order to nurse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243208",
"title": "Toplessness",
"section": "Section::::In Western culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "In much of contemporary Western society, it is not culturally acceptable for women to expose their nipples and areola in public. In most Western societies, once girls enter adolescence, it is the social norm for them to behave modestly and cover their breasts in public. Until recent times, women who went topless were cited for indecent exposure or lewdness. Women and the law in most western countries generally do not regard breasts as indecent. However, wearing a top in public is a social norm and most women are reluctant to go against it. The strictness of the etiquette varies depending on the social context. For example, at specific cultural events the norm may be relaxed, such as at Fantasy Fest, at Mardi Gras in New Orleans and at the Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro. The same may also apply at designated topless beaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4489",
"title": "Breast",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Many cultures, including Western cultures in North America, associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts as immodest or indecent. In some cultures, like the Himba in northern Namibia, bare-breasted women are normal. In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualised and never exposed in public, but breast exposure is not taboo. In a few Western countries and regions female toplessness at a beach is acceptable, although it may not be acceptable in the town center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150389",
"title": "Nipple",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The legality around the exposure of nipples are inconsistently regulated throughout the US. Some states do not allow the visualization of any part of the breast. Other jurisdictions prohibit any female chest anatomy by banning anatomical structures that lie below the top of the areola or nipple. Such is the case in West Virginia and Massachusetts. West Virginia's regulation is very specific and is not likely to be misinterpreted, stating: \"[The] display of 'any portion of the cleavage of the human female breast exhibited by a dress, blouse, skirt, leotard, bathing suit, or other wearing apparel [is permitted] provided the areola is not exposed, in whole or in part.'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7fsr6w
|
Does an increase in energy also increases the amount of entropy in a system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Generally speaking, yes. When increasing the internal energy of a system increases its entropy, that system is said to be at positive (absolute) temperature.\n\nCertain systems can be arranged in a way that increasing their energy decreases their entropy. Then it would have a negative temperature.\n\nSo any system with positive temperature behaves as you described.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14369709",
"title": "Schottky anomaly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system. At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied, entropy is zero, and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level. As the temperature increases, there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up. As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature. At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly, so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature, and thus a lower specific heat capacity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7728392",
"title": "Entropy (order and disorder)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The common argument used to explain this is that, locally, entropy can be lowered by external action, e.g. solar heating action, and that this applies to machines, such as a refrigerator, where the entropy in the cold chamber is being reduced, to growing crystals, and to living organisms. This local increase in order is, however, only possible at the expense of an entropy increase in the surroundings; here more disorder must be created. The conditioner of this statement suffices that living systems are open systems in which both heat, mass, and or work may transfer into or out of the system. Unlike temperature, the putative entropy of a living system would drastically change if the organism were thermodynamically isolated. If an organism was in this type of “isolated” situation, its entropy would increase markedly as the once-living components of the organism decayed to an unrecognizable mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases over time. Such systems spontaneously evolve towards thermodynamic equilibrium, the state with maximum entropy. Non-isolated systems may lose entropy, provided their environment's entropy increases by at least that amount so that the total entropy increases. Entropy is a function of the state of the system, so the change in entropy of a system is determined by its initial and final states. In the idealization that a process is reversible, the entropy does not change, while irreversible processes always increase the total entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:The fundamental thermodynamic relation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The entropy of a system depends on its internal energy and its external parameters, such as its volume. In the thermodynamic limit, this fact leads to an equation relating the change in the internal energy \"U\" to changes in the entropy and the external parameters. This relation is known as the \"fundamental thermodynamic relation\". If external pressure \"p\" bears on the volume \"V\" as the only external parameter, this relation is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1413965",
"title": "Energy transformation",
"section": "Section::::Limitations in the conversion of thermal energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "Thermal energy in equilibrium at a given temperature already represents the maximal evening-out of energy between all possible states. because it is not entirely convertible a \"useful\" form, i.e. one that can do more than just affect temperature. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a closed system can never decrease. For this reason, thermal energy in a system may be converted to other kinds of energy with efficiencies approaching 100% only if the entropy of the universe is increased by other means, in order to compensate for the decrease in entropy associated with the disappearance of the thermal energy and its entropy content. Otherwise, only a part of that thermal energy may be converted to other kinds of energy (and thus useful work). This is because the remainder of the heat must be reserved to be transferred to a thermal reservoir at a lower temperature. The increase in entropy for this process is greater than the decrease in entropy associated with the transformation of the rest of the heat into other types of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "133017",
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease over time. The total entropy of a system and its surroundings can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, or is undergoing a (fictive) reversible process. In all processes that occur, including spontaneous processes, the total entropy of the system and its surroundings increases and the process is irreversible in the thermodynamic sense. The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333170",
"title": "Fluctuation theorem",
"section": "Section::::Statement of the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "This means that as the time or system size increases (since formula_4 is extensive), the probability of observing an entropy production opposite to that dictated by the second law of thermodynamics decreases exponentially. The FT is one of the few expressions in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics that is valid far from equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2apl20
|
do authors get money only when a person buys their book, or when the bookstore buys it in bulk?
|
[
{
"answer": "I worked in publishing for a year after college (I was an assistant editor for a publishing company that published various fiction books). It all depends on the contract. MOST authors who aren't really well known will get either a one-time pay (say 60k-160k), or a smaller one like 30k-50k and a very very small percentage per book sold. Then if you're Dean Koontz or Stephen King, you're getting a HUGE one-time pay and a decent percentage per book sold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their royalty comes when the store sells the copy *at retail.* Bookstores can send back books that they don't sell. This usually happens when a book just flat out tanks, or with hardcover books when the paperback version is about the be released. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think this answer needs a little background. Via the traditional publishing route:\n\nAuthor writes a book. \nAuthor sends book to agent, who reads the book and figures out what publishing editors to pitch it to.\nAgent pitches the book to editors at various publishing houses. It could be a high-powered agent with good connections in big-name publishing houses, or it could be a more common agent who does a lot of work with mid-range or small presses. \nSometimes an editor wants to buy the book outright, and offers the agent/author, let's say, a 50k advance (this is a fairly big advance, especially if the author is debut or works in a less popular genre)\nSometimes multiple editors at multiple houses want the book, and they'll get into a bidding war. Usually agents manage the auction, and will normally accept the highest bidder. Sometimes the agent will sell the book to a lower bidder, if the benefits are better.\n\nEither way, let's say the editor buys the book for a 50k advance and 15% royalties. Though the numbers vary a lot from book to book and editor to editor and author to author, let's use them as an example.\n\nUpon signing a contract with the editor, the author usually gets one third of the 50k advance right away. Some of that goes to the agent. \n\nThen the editor suggest changes that ought to be made to the book, and the author and editor essentially negotiate how much to change the book, what to leave in, what to leave out. Eventually they (ideally) come to an agreement, and the author makes the required changes. If the editor likes it, the book goes to copyedits, where all of the typos are fixed, things like that.\n\nThen the author gets the second third of his/her 50k advance. \n\nThen the publishing house worries about formatting, covers, jackets, publicity, blurbs, promotions, all that good stuff. Eventually, the book goes to print. Then, the author gets the final third of his/her 50k advance. \n\nThen the book hits the shelves.\n\nWhat happens after that, in terms of author compensation, is a bit tricky. Using our previous numbers, the author basically earns 15% of every single book sold, BUT the first 50k of what he earns in royalties goes back to the publishing house. That 50k they gave him? It was basically just lending him the first 50k from his royalties, interest-free.\n\nTime goes on. Either the book sells, or it doesn't.\n\nIf it sells decently, the author will eventually pay back that whole 50k, at which point he's actually able to collect royalties for himself, with some of it going back to his agent.\n\nIf it sells poorly, in all likelihood that publishing house simply won't buy from that author in the future. From what I can tell, he doesn't normally have to pay back the 50k, but it can vary from contract to contract. \n\nTo address your question more directly: Larger publishing houses usually print larger runs of books they think will sell well. The books are distributed to various vendors across the country. If some vendors can't sell the books, they will try to ship them back to the publishers. The author's mostly concerned about the books that actually get into the hands of the reader, because that's when he/she gets the royalty. \n\n\nTLDR: Big publishing houses usually have larger print runs, especially if they expect the book to do well. Smaller publishing houses have smaller print runs, and either house will order another print run if the book sells well. Unloved books might be destroyed or sold on discount/overstock. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wrote a book and was given a modest advance then was paid per copy of the book sold. Payment per book was dependent on hardcover or soft then on how much the book actually sold for. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a professional writer, so here's how payment usually works.\n\nA writer gets an advance, which is delivered upon completion of the book (though usually, it's broken into smaller portions for various steps of the writing process, i.e. delivery of manuscript, completion of editing, and upon publication of book.\n\nThe advance is just that, an advance payment for royalties earned. Royalties are for books sold to customers, not to distribution centers. So, no, sales to bookstores don't usually count. It's only when a book is bought by a customer that it is usually considered sold. In fact, bookstores can usually return any books they don't sell without any real penalty.\n\nEarning out an advance is very important for an author's continued career. I'd much rather take a smaller advance that I can earn rather than a large one that I can't meet because, from a publisher's perspective, I haven't met my promised number of sales. Ideally, once you exceed your advance, you continue to earn royalties, hopefully for a while.\n\nHaving published ten novels at this point, I can say that some still continue to earn my royalties while others have fizzled out and are less reliable.\n\nHope that clears things up some.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've heard that Stephen King's deal is that he takes no advance, then he and the publisher split sales revenue 50/50.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This thread ended up being even more educational than I originally thought it would. Cool to see those in the industry or with know-how getting in here and breaking it down for all of us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55273435",
"title": "Language Science Press",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "“Writing books, reviewing books for publishers, and copying them afterwards takes a lot of time. This time is usually paid for by state institutions or funding agencies. The publishers do not pay for it. On the contrary, some even require money from the authors to keep the book prices low (...). When libraries buy our books, the state pays a second time.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23873702",
"title": "Self-publishing",
"section": "Section::::Traditional versus self-publishing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Analyses have been made suggesting that self-published authors' earnings have been comparing favorably to earnings from established publishers, and this may be a factor causing established authors to switch to the self-publishing approach. While a self-published author can typically keep 70% of the sales price, a typical contract with a publisher will be payment of an advance sum such as $5000 to $10,000, plus receiving 25% of digital sales and 7% to 12% of the list price for bound books, which the author will receive after the publisher recoups the money paid for the advance to the author.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494069",
"title": "Author mill",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Typically an author mill does the cheapest possible job of production; it sets high cover prices and prints its books \"on demand.\" The books are listed with on-line booksellers such as amazon.com and bn.com, and on the publisher's website. Any marketing, promotion, or physical bookstore placement is up to the authors themselves. While authors are not \"required\" to buy any of their own books, authors who wish to find readers discover that they need to buy their own books for resale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23873702",
"title": "Self-publishing",
"section": "Section::::Traditional versus self-publishing.:Disadvantages of self-publishing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hard to get into bookstores. Big bookstores rarely take self-published books, and if they do, they want 50% of the sales price. Publishers have established distribution channels to make this easy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988802",
"title": "Out-of-print book",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "A reader who wishes to purchase an out-of-print book must either find a bookseller that still has a copy, wait for another print run, or find someone who will sell their own copy as a used book. The advent of the Internet has made this process much easier, as many websites sell used books offered by bookstores and individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68761",
"title": "Publishing",
"section": "Section::::Publishing as a business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "There is a common misconception that publishing houses make large profits and that authors are the lowest paid in the publishing chain. However, most publishers make little profit from individual titles, with 75% of books not breaking even. Approximately 80% of the cost of a book is taken up by the expenses of preparing, distributing, and printing (with printing being one of the lowest costs of all). On successful titles, publishing companies will usually make around 10% profit, with the author(s) receiving 8–15% of the retail price. However, given that authors are usually individuals, are often paid advances irrespective of whether the book turns a profit and do not normally have to split profits with others, it makes them the highest paid individuals in the publishing process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23873702",
"title": "Self-publishing",
"section": "Section::::Traditional versus self-publishing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Still, it is likely that when a self-published author creates a bestseller, that he or she will accept an offer from a major publisher. Some traditional publishers troll the lists of bestselling self-published titles to look for new books to sell. Smashwords president Mark Coker predicted that it will become more difficult for traditional publishers to entice the best self-published authors, simply because traditional publishers don't pay as much. Successful self-published authors have been courted by literary agents and publishers offering substantial sums of money. It's getting harder for established publishers to woo away successful self-published authors since the royalty structure they offer may not match the profits to be made from publishing on their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6wbym6
|
video aspect ratios
|
[
{
"answer": "It adds dramatic quality to the video. Epic and dramatic scenes and movies will be filmed in a wider aspect ratio than say a comedy or something. There are many movies where aspect ratios change dynamically throughout more intense/epic scenes and you wouldn’t even notice unless you were told. You would notice the scene was more intense but you wouldn’t even be able to notice the black bars changing size, making you feel that way.\n\nIt also can just makes things feel more expensive or of a higher quality.\n\nEdit: added a thing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In short, modern TVs use a 16:9 as a compromise between the 4:3 aspect ratio used for standard definition programming, and theatre wide aspects. Without one looking comically small or the other being too wide to see. \n\nPrior to the 1950s, most movies were shot in the Academy Ratio, which losely approximates 4:3. Which is why that ratio was used for television. When TV first came about, cinema ticket sales too a huge hit. So film companies began using wider ratios to give moviegoers an experience they couldn't get at home. When home theatre came about in the 90s, the upcoming HDTVs needed to be adapted so they could display both with acceptable results, without wasting too much horizontal or vertical space on the screen. \n\nHere's a video explaining in more detail the history of cinema aspect ratios and why specific ones were chosen.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1021",
"title": "Aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Notations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the \"display\" aspect ratio (the image as displayed) and the \"storage\" aspect ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57709305",
"title": "Ultrawide formats",
"section": "Section::::Modern displays.:Ultrawide Cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The 64:27 aspect ratio is the logical extension of the existing video aspect ratios 32:27, 4:3 and 16:9. It is twice the pixel width of 32:27, and third power of 4:3, where as 16:9 of widescreen HDTV is 4:3 squared. This allows electronic scalers and optical anamorphic lenses to use an easily implementable 4:3 (1.3:1) scaling factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32441",
"title": "Video",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of video streams.:Aspect ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Aspect ratio describes the proportional relationship between the width and height of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectangular, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height. The ratio width to height for a traditional television screen is 4:3, or about 1.33:1. High definition televisions use an aspect ratio of 16:9, or about 1.78:1. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack (also known as the Academy ratio) is 1.375:1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24029605",
"title": "21:9 aspect ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The 64:27 aspect ratio is an extension of the existing video aspect ratios 4:3 and 16:9, as it is the third power of 4:3, where 16:9 of traditional HDTV is 4:3 squared. This allows electronic scalers and optical anamorphic lenses to use an easily implementable 4:3 (1.3:1) scaling factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5550368",
"title": "Pixel aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Confusion with display aspect ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Pixel aspect ratio is often confused with different types of image aspect ratios; the ratio of the image width and height. Due to non-squareness of pixels in Standard-definition TV, there are two types of such aspect ratios: \"storage aspect ratio\" (\"SAR\") and \"display aspect ratio\" (abbreviated \"DAR\", also known as \"image aspect ratio\" and \"picture aspect ratio\"). Note the reuse of the abbreviation \"PAR\". This article uses only the terms pixel aspect ratio and display aspect ratio to avoid ambiguity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5550368",
"title": "Pixel aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Issues of non-square pixels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Pixel aspect ratio must be taken into consideration by video editing software products that edit video files with non-square pixels, especially when mixing video clips with different pixel aspect ratios. This would be the case when creating a video montage from various cameras employing different video standards (a relatively rare situation). Special effects software products must also take the pixel aspect ratio into consideration, since some special effects require calculation of the distances from a certain point so that they look visually correct. An example of such effects would be radial blur, motion blur, or even a simple image rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5550368",
"title": "Pixel aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Use of pixel aspect ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Pixel aspect ratio value is used mainly in digital video software, where motion pictures must be converted or reconditioned to use video systems other than the original. The video player software may use pixel aspect ratio to properly render digital video on screen. Video editing software uses pixel aspect ratio to properly scale and render a video into a new format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nqixo
|
why do our tongues get stuck on poles.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because your tongue is wet, and metal is extremely heat-conductive. So, the metal cools your saliva faster than your tongue can warm it up. At low enough temperatures, the saliva freezes to both the pole and tongue, so you're stuck.\n\nThe only safe option for releasing the frozen saliva is to heat up the pole above freezing, usually by pouring hot water on it at the point where the tongue is stuck; just pulling will tear off the tip of the tongue where it is frozen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25100731",
"title": "Oculolinctus",
"section": "Section::::Risks of licking an eyeball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The practice is associated with significant health risks, as tongues are coated with a film of microorganisms, which may cause infections in the eye, such as conjunctivitis, herpes and chlamydia. It also carries the risk of corneal abrasion and corneal ulcers. Oral bacteria on the tongue can potentially enter corneal scratches caused by licking the eye, which then lead to infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4811617",
"title": "Taunting",
"section": "Section::::Gestures.:Tongue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Often sticking one's tongue out at another is seen as mocking the other. A variation of this is also known as blowing a raspberry. It can also be wagged in a manner suggesting cunnilingus which is usually seen as highly vulgar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3181180",
"title": "Geographic tongue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1365,
"text": "The cause is unknown. Geographic tongue does not usually cause any symptoms, and in those cases where there are symptoms, an oral parafunctional habit may be a contributory factor. Persons with parafunctional habits related to the tongue may show scalloping on the sides of the tongue (crenated tongue). Some suggest that hormonal factors may be involved, because one reported case in a female appeared to vary in severity in correlation with oral contraceptive use. People with geographic tongue frequently claim that their condition worsens during periods of psychologic stress. Geographic tongue is inversely associated with smoking and tobacco use. Sometimes geographic tongue is said to run in families, and it is reported to be associated with several different genes, though studies show family association may also be caused by similar diets. Some have reported links with various human leukocyte antigens, such as increased incidence of HLA-DR5, HLA-DRW6 and HLA-Cw6 and decreased incidence in HLA-B51. Vitamin B2 deficiency (ariboflavinosis) can cause several signs in the mouth, possibly including geographic tongue, although other sources state that geographic tongue is not related to nutritional deficiency. Fissured tongue often occurs simultaneously with geographic tongue, and some consider fissured tongue to be an end stage of geographic tongue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55999",
"title": "Tongue",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Gestures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Sticking one's tongue out at someone is considered a childish gesture of rudeness and/or defiance in many countries; the act may also have sexual connotations, depending on the way in which it is done. However, in Tibet it is considered a greeting. In 2009, a farmer from Fabriano, Italy was convicted and fined by the country's highest court for sticking his tongue out at a neighbor with whom he had been arguing. Proof of the affront had been captured with a cell phone camera. Blowing a raspberry can also be meant as a gesture of derision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3730538",
"title": "Fissured tongue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Fissured tongue is a benign condition characterized by deep grooves (fissures) in the dorsum of the tongue. Although these grooves may look unsettling, the condition is usually painless. Some individuals may complain of an associated burning sensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664745",
"title": "Codex Gigas",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Illustration of the Devil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "This doubling of tongues evokes negative associations with serpents, which have forked tongues, a metaphoric reference to dishonest human beings. The expression 'forked tongues' is an ancient one and is found in the Bible (Nordenfalk 1975, n. 15).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51981150",
"title": "Tip of My Tongue (Lynsey de Paul song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "\"Tip of My Tongue\" is a song written by Lynsey de Paul and Barry Blue (originally registered as \"On the Tip of My Tongue\"). It was first released as the fifth single by Brotherly Love (a Liverpool-based group composed of three brothers, Mike, Ronnie and Lee Carroll, who are brothers of impressionist Faith Brown) with the song \"I Love Everything About You\" as the flip side on CBS Records in 1973 and was produced by Phil Wainman. The group performed the song on the Granada TV programme \"Lift Off With Ayshea\" on 22 June 1973. The song received positive reviews from the British music press, and the brothers were interviewed about the single but it did not reach the UK Singles Chart. Barry Blue was credited as \"Barry Green\" on this release. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cltorj
|
musical chord progressions.
|
[
{
"answer": "Your question is pretty vague but I'll give it a shot!\n\nA chord progression is essentially a sequence of chords, often repeating multiple times throughout the duration of a song, that have been selected and placed in a specific order due to their relationship to one another.\n\nTo break it down further; a chord itself is a collection of multiple notes (often 3 or 4) which are played together. Chords are usually built from a sequence of notes known as a \"scale\" as those particular notes sound pleasant (harmonious) when played together, as opposed to unpleasant (dissonant). \n\nIn a chord progression, different chords have different roles, also known as harmonic functions, which gives the progression its feeling. For instance, the second to last chord in the progression may be \"unresolved\", which gives a feeling of incompleteness that is then satisfied by the final chord in the sequence. The exact same chord can have different roles in different progression depending upon where it is placed in relation to other chords, as well as what the other chords are.\n\nIn practice, an example of a common chord progression is C-G-Am-F (in the key of C). This means that the instrumentalist in question will play a C Major chord (i.e. the notes C, E and G) followed by a G Major, then an A Minor and finally an F Major. This progression is extremely widespread in popular music due to it's harmonious quality when repeated.\n\nHope that makes sense!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26587",
"title": "Rhythm guitar",
"section": "Section::::Rock and pop.:Rock and pop harmony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Harmonically, in rock music, the most common way to construct chord progressions is to play major and minor \"triads\", each comprising a root, third and fifth note of a given scale. An example of a major triad is C major, which contains the notes C, E and G. An example of a minor triad is the A minor chord, which includes the notes A, C and E. Interspersed are some four-note chords, which include the root, third and fifth, as well as a sixth, seventh or ninth note of the scale. The most common chord with four different notes is the dominant seventh chord, which include a root, a major third above the root, a perfect fifth above the root and a flattened seventh. In the key of C major, the dominant seventh chord is a G7, which consists of the notes G, B, D and F. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183431",
"title": "Chord progression",
"section": "Section::::Common progressions.:Three-chord progressions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Three-chord progression are more common since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords (as shown below), in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, but then two of the four chords are the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1577801",
"title": "Guitar chord",
"section": "Section::::Musical fundamentals.:Chords in music theory.:Triads.:Major.:Progressions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Major-chord progressions are constructed in the harmonization of major scales in triads. For example, stacking the C-major scale with thirds creates a chord progression, which is traditionally enumerated with the Roman numerals I, ii, iii, IV, V, vi, vii; its sub-progression C-F-G (I-IV-V) is used in popular music, as already discussed. Further chords are constructed by stacking additional thirds. Stacking the dominant major-triad with a minor third creates the dominant seventh chord, which shall be discussed after minor chords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183431",
"title": "Chord progression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In a musical composition, a chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition from the common practice era of Classical music to the 21st century. Chord progressions are the foundation of Western popular music styles (e.g., pop music, rock music) and traditional music (e.g., blues and jazz). In these genres, chord progressions are the defining feature on which melody and rhythm are built.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648960",
"title": "Borrowed chord",
"section": "Section::::Common borrowed chords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Chord progressions may be constructed with borrowed chords, including two progressions common in rock music, I–VII–VI–VII, common everywhere, and I–VI–IV (), used by bands like Genesis, Yes, and Nirvana. VII is from Mixolydian and VI is found in both Aeolian and Phrygian. The VII–I cadence with VII substituting for V is common, as well as II–I, III–I, and VI–I. In popular music, the major triad on the lowered third scale degree (III), the major triad on the lowered sixth scale degree (VI) and the major triad on the lowered seventh scale degree, or \"flat seven\" (VII) are common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183431",
"title": "Chord progression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "In tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality, the technical name for what is commonly understood as the \"key\" of a song or piece. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals in Classical music theory. For example, the common chord progression I–vi–ii–V. In many styles of popular and traditional music, chord progressions are expressed using the name and \"quality\" of the chords. For example, the previously mentioned chord progression, in the key of C major, would be written as C major–A minor–D minor–G major in a fake book or lead sheet. In the first chord, C major, the \"C\" indicates that the chord is built on the root note \"C\" and the word \"major\" indicates that a major chord is built on this \"C\" note. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3352",
"title": "Blues",
"section": "Section::::Form.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, marking the transition to the beginning of the next progression. The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the 11th bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3snpa2
|
why does america have such a higher report of children with autism and adhd compared to other countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is so many things that play a role, it is hard to name them all.\n\n- Overall, the USA does have a very high quality medical system compared to certain countries. Doctors are available here and know what Autism/ADHD is. You can't say the same about certain other countries. Sometimes they do not have doctors, of when they do, they either have bigger fish to fry than autism/ADHD or they might not have the knowledge to diagnose it.\n\n- In the USA, there is less stigma regarding these diagnoses than in other countries. People are more willing to admit that they or their children have this disorder, whereas in certain other places, that sort of information is kept secret.\n\n- Higher maternal and paternal age increases the risk of kids ending up with these kind of disorders. In the USA, many people are having kids later in life. That might be something that fits better into the culture, but you cannot deny that it also has effects on the quality of the eggs/sperm production.\n\n- And yes, there is also some over-diagnosis going on (among certain groups, other groups are under-diagnosed).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40751843",
"title": "Diagnostic substitution",
"section": "Section::::Autism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1596,
"text": "The best-known example is that of the increasing rates of autism in developed countries such as the United States, which some studies suggest is at least partly a result of people substituting diagnoses of autism for mental retardation and learning disabilities. While a pilot study by the MIND Institute published in 2002 concluded that \"There is no evidence that loosening in diagnostic criteria contributed to an increase in the number of children with autism,\" this study used data from the California Department of Developmental Services database, which, according to a study by Paul Shattuck, is unreliable because \"...the administrative prevalence figures for most states are well below epidemiological estimates.\" With regard to the role of diagnostic substitution in the increase in reported cases of autism, Dorothy Bishop has said, \"This could be in part because of new conceptualisations of autism, but may also be fuelled by strategic considerations: resources for children with ASD tend to be much better than those for children with other related conditions, such as language impairment or intellectual handicaps, so this diagnosis may be preferred.\" Bishop has herself published a small study concluding that people who would now be diagnosed as autistic would, in the past, have been diagnosed with developmental language disorder. Emily Willingham has noted that at the time autism was first reported by Leo Kanner in 1943, while autistic people existed before that time, they had historically been referred to as insane, schizophrenic, mentally retarded, or language impaired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4753359",
"title": "Epidemiology of autism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "ASDs continue to be over 4 times more common among boys (1 in 37) than among girls (1 in 151), and they are reported in all racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Studies have been conducted in several continents (Asia, Europe and North America) that report a prevalence rate of approximately 1 percent. A 2011 study reported a 2.6 percent prevalence of autism in South Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4753359",
"title": "Epidemiology of autism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "ASD averages a 4.3:1 male-to-female ratio. The number of children known to have autism has increased dramatically since the 1980s, at least partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; it is unclear whether prevalence has actually increased; and as-yet-unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The Centers for Disease Control’s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network reports that in 2014, approximately 1 in 59 children in the United States (1 in 37 boys, and 1 in 151 girls), has been identified with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This estimate is a 15% increase from the 1 in 68 rate in 2010, 86% increase from the 1 in 110 rate in 2006 and 154% increase from the 1 in 150 rate in 2000. Diagnostic criteria of ASD has changed significantly since 1980s; for example, U.S. special education autism classification was introduced in 1994. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25",
"title": "Autism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It occurs four-to-five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice. The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40135180",
"title": "Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East - however, this may be due to differing methods of diagnosis used in different areas of the world. If the same diagnostic methods are used rates are more or less the same between countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1765594",
"title": "MIND Institute",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1200,
"text": "In October 2002, the institute released a study appearing to confirm that the prevalence of autism has risen steeply. The study was led by Robert Byrd, whose team gathered information on 684 children with developmental disabilities from California's Department of Developmental Services regional centers. Byrd's team's reported autism was on the rise in California, and that some of the increase was real and could not be explained by artificial factors such as misclassification and diagnostic criteria changes, nor by migration of children into California. However, a 2006 analysis found that special education data poorly measured prevalence because so many cases were undiagnosed, and that the 1994–2003 U.S. increase was associated with declines in other diagnostic categories, indicating that diagnostic substitution had occurred in the U.S. overall (though not in California in particular). The current consensus is that the rise in the number of autism cases is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though as-yet-unidentified contributing environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25",
"title": "Autism",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD, and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008; because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wfmkb
|
How did Harald Hardrada escape from Constantinople?
|
[
{
"answer": " > The same night King Harald and his men went to the house where Maria slept and carried her away by force. Then they went down to where the galleys of the Varings lay, took two of them and rowed out into Sjavid sound. When they came to the place where the iron chain is drawn across the sound, Harald told his men to stretch out at their oars in both galleys; but the men who were not rowing to run all to the stern of the galley, each with his luggage in his hand. The galleys thus ran up and lay on the iron chain. As soon as they stood fast on it, and would advance no farther, Harald ordered all the men to run forward into the bow. Then the galley, in which Harald was, balanced forwards and swung down over the chain; but the other, which remained fast athwart the chain, split in two, by which many men were lost; but some were taken up out of the sound. Thus Harald escaped out of Constantinople and sailed thence into the Black Sea...\n\n\n\nFrom \"Heimskringla; Or, The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway\" by Snorri Sturluson (~1230) _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They rowed as hard as they could at the chain, while everyone who wasn't rowing ran to the back of the longship, basically popping a wheelie, raising the prow of the ship. When the front passed over the chain they all ran to the fore of the ship and the chain slid along under the keel. Whether or not this actually happened . . .\n[Norwegian viking site explaining the maneuver](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "144434",
"title": "Baldwin I of Jerusalem",
"section": "Section::::First Crusade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The crusaders reached Constantinople on 23December 1096. The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos demanded an oath of allegiance from their leaders and imposed a blockade on their camp to enforce it. Baldwin made raids against the suburbs, compelling Alexios to lift the blockade. The Emperor also agreed to hand over his son and heir, John, as a hostage, who was entrusted to Baldwin's care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652643",
"title": "Empire of Trebizond",
"section": "Section::::History.:Up to the civil wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "Vasiliev points out that the brothers occupied Trebizond too early to have done so in response to the Crusaders capturing Constantinople; Alexios and David began their march on Trebizond before news of the sack of Constantinople on 13 April 1204 could reach either Trebizond or Georgia. According to Vasiliev, however, their original intention was not to seize a base from which they could recover the capital of the Byzantine Empire, but rather to carve out of the Byzantine Empire a buffer state to protect Georgia from the Seljuk Turks. Kuršanskis, while agreeing with Vasiliev that Tamar was motivated by revenge for Alexios Angelos's insult, proposed a more obvious motivation for the brother's return to Byzantine territory: they had decided to raise the banner of revolt, depose Alexios Angelos, and return the imperial throne to the Komnenos dynasty. However, not long after they had gained control of Trebizond and the neighboring territories, news of the Latin conquest of Constantinople reached them, and the brothers entered the competition for recovery of the imperial city against Theodore I Laskaris in western Anatolia (ruler of the \"Empire of Nicaea\") and Michael Komnenos Doukas in mainland Greece (ruler of the \"Despotate of Epirus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1870446",
"title": "Alexios I of Trebizond",
"section": "Section::::Return from Georgia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "Vasiliev points out that the brothers occupied Trebizond too early to have done so in response to the Crusaders capturing Constantinople; Alexios and David began their march on Trebizond before news of the sack of Constantinople on 13 April 1204 could reach either Trebizond or Georgia. According to Vasiliev, however, their original intention was not to seize a base from which they could recover the capital of the Byzantine Empire, but rather to carve out of the Byzantine Empire a buffer state to protect Georgia from the Seljuk Turks. Kuršanskis, while agreeing with Vasiliev that Tamar was motivated by revenge for Alexios Angelos's insult, proposed a more obvious motivation for the brother's return to Byzantine territory: they had decided to raise the banner of revolt, depose Alexios Angelos, and return the imperial throne to the Komnenos dynasty. However, not long after they had gained control of Trebizond and the neighboring territories, news of the Latin conquest of Constantinople reached them, and the brothers entered the competition for recovery of the imperial city against Theodore I Laskaris in western Anatolia (ruler of the \"Empire of Nicaea\") and Michael Komnenos Doukas in mainland Greece (ruler of the \"Despotate of Epirus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53789453",
"title": "Siege of Smyrna",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The Siege of Smyrna (December 1402) was fought between the Knights of Rhodes, who held the harbour and sea-castle of Smyrna (now İzmir) in western Anatolia, and the army of the Turco-Mongol emir Timur. The Turco-Mongols blockaded the harbour and attacked the fortifications with stone-throwing siege engines, while the defenders, numbering only about 200 knights, countered with arrows and incendiary projectiles. After two weeks of strong resistance against a far superior adversary, the outer wall was destroyed by mining and breached. Some of the garrison managed to escape by sea, but the inhabitants and the city itself were destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66054",
"title": "Harald Hardrada",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Harald's unorthodox departure from Constantinople is featured in music by the Finnish folk metal band Turisas in the song \"The Great Escape\"; in addition, he is followed loosely throughout the story of the albums \"The Varangian Way\" (2007) and \"Stand Up and Fight\" (2011).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102674",
"title": "Fall of Constantinople",
"section": "Section::::Preparations.:Role of the Christian schism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the Golden Horn, Emperor Constantine XI ordered that a defensive chain be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help. This strategy was enforced because in 1204 the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defences by breaching the Golden Horn Wall. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall (Theodosian Walls). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the Blachernae district's wall was the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications comprised a wide moat fronting inner and outer crenellated walls studded with towers every 45–55 metres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66054",
"title": "Harald Hardrada",
"section": "Section::::Exile in the East.:In Byzantine service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1663,
"text": "After a few years in Kievan Rus', Harald and his force of around 500 men moved on south to Constantinople (\"Miklagard\"), the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire), probably in 1033 or 1034, where they joined the Varangian Guard. Although the \"Flateyjarbók\" maintains that Harald at first sought to keep his royal identity a secret, most sources agree that Harald and his men's reputation was well known in the east at the time. While the Varangian Guard was primarily meant to function as the emperor's bodyguard, Harald was found fighting on \"nearly every frontier\" of the empire. He first saw action in campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean Sea, and then in inland towns in Asia Minor / Anatolia that had supported the pirates. By this time, he had according to Snorri Sturluson become the \"leader over all the Varangians\". By 1035, the Byzantines had pushed the Arabs out of Asia Minor to the east and southeast, and Harald took part in campaigns that went as far east as the Tigris River and Euphrates River in Mesopotamia, where according to his skald (poet) Þjóðólfr Arnórsson (recounted in the sagas) he participated in the capture of eighty Arab strongholds, a number which historians Sigfus Blöndal and Benedikt Benedikz see no particular reason to question. Although not holding independent command of an army as the sagas imply, it is not unlikely that King Harald and the Varangians at times could have been sent off to capture a castle or town. During the first four years of the reign of Byzantine Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian, Harald probably also fought in campaigns against the Pechenegs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l67iq
|
Can all life be explained by chemical reactions/processes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Although we can't recreate all elements of it (ie throw a bunch of components together and have it work as a eukaryotic cell) science and physics adequately explains every component of the life of a cell and all of the functions of life",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is nothing that we have found in life that cannot eventually be understood in using the tools of chemistry and physics. Biological systems are incredibly complex networks of very complex molecules. A lot of the systems in our cells are controlled by relatively huge and intricately folded proteins, but even if we cannot easily recreate that kind of complexity on the lab bench we can still understand the processes that happen to turn A into B or to signal X to do Y.\n\nI'm not meaning to say we have everything figured out right now. Just look at drug discovery. If we knew the mechanisms behind every disease or condition and the molecules that went with them then we should be able to design awesome drugs to fix almost anything. However, the systems are so complicated and not yet fully understood that we have a lot of very expensive trial and error to get any useful drug all the way to the market.\n\nFor your followup question, that is generally correct. You could make eggs from cake by feeding the cake to the chicken. Some of the same molecules from the original egg would end up in the new egg. In the strictest sense that does not meant that any of the reactions that turned the egg into the cake into the egg were reversible (with the chemical definition), but you could get all the way back to where you started on in a way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "metabolism is just chemistry, at the molecular level chemistry and physics aren't quite as distinct as people tend to think, but yeah life runs on chemistry as for irreversible reactions at the macro level such as cake the example holds, but as far as true reactions everything can be reversed it just takes more energy in most cases, some being stupidly high amounts such as breaking/saturating benzene, where it take a minor input to make a benzene ring in a lab to actually break or saturate that same ring you need to heat it quite a lot due to it's stability, because stable is good.\n_URL_0_\ngives an idea about it. \n\nmy explaining skills aren't so hot right now ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11092324",
"title": "The central science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In the same way, biology cannot be fully reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules. For instance, the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of genetic base pairs in the DNA of an organism. However, chemistry cannot fully describe the process since it does not contain concepts such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution. Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides a methodology for studying and understanding the molecules that compose cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Origins of life on Earth.:Independent emergence on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Research on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self-replication, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external cell membranes, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances. Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go, since theoretical and empirical approaches are only beginning to make contact with each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55573246",
"title": "Systems chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Molecular networks & equilibrium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "A fundamental difference exists between chemistry as it is performed in most laboratories and chemistry as it occurs in life. Laboratory processes are mostly designed such that the (closed) system goes thermodynamically downhill; i.e. the product state is of lower Gibbs free energy, yielding stable molecules that can be isolated and stored. Yet the chemistry of life operates in a very different way: Most molecules from which living systems are constituted are turned over continuously and are not necessarily thermodynamically stable. Nevertheless, living systems can be stable, but in a homeostatic sense. Such homeostatic (open) systems are far-from-equilibrium and are dissipative: they need energy to maintain themselves. In dissipative controlled systems the continuous supply of energy allows a continuous transition between different supramolecular states, where systems with unexpected properties may be discovered. One of the grand challenges of Systems Chemistry is to unveil complex reactions networks, where molecules continuously consume energy to perform specific functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history of life.:Origin of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27171930",
"title": "Echoes of Life",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Chapter two entitled \"Looking to the Rocks: Molecular Clues to the Origin of Life\" looks at the findings of Sir Robert Robinson and Melvin Calvin discoveries of organic compounds in petrol and the conversion of CO to organic molecules during photosynthesis. Early experiments had shown that organic compounds can form spontaneously under conditions similar to the pre-biotic era of earth. These findings led to speculation on the possible discovery on the origins of life. The chapter ends with the authors saying as a precursor to the next chapter\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252532",
"title": "Yuan T. Lee",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Road to Nobel prize.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Scientists during the 19th century stated macroscopic chemical processes consist of many elementary chemical reactions that are themselves simply a series of encounters between atomic or molecular species. In order to understand the time dependence of chemical reactions, chemical kineticists have traditionally focused on sorting out all of the elementary chemical reactions involved in a macroscopic chemical process and determining\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Hadean and Archean Eons.:Origin of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "The first step in the emergence of life may have been chemical reactions that produced many of the simpler organic compounds, including nucleobases and amino acids, that are the building blocks of life. An experiment in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey showed that such molecules could form in an atmosphere of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen with the aid of sparks to mimic the effect of lightning. Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules. Computer simulations show that extraterrestrial organic molecules could have formed in the protoplanetary disk before the formation of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jvz9l
|
what does it mean for a watch to be waterproof up to "200ft"?
|
[
{
"answer": "After that the water pressure is great enough to break whatever seal was protecting the goods",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24362213",
"title": "L'impermeable",
"section": "Section::::Definition of epoxy waterproofing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "In horology, the waterproofness of a watch is defined by its resistance under pressure. The manufacturers indicate mostly the degree of waterproofness in metres (m), feet (ft) or atmospheres (atm). Watches with the \"waterproof\" name, with or without indication of overpressure, have to be complied and have to undergo successfully the tests planned in the standard ISO-2281. These watches are intended for a current daily use and have to resist to the water during exercises such as the short-term swimming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3126254",
"title": "Water Resistant mark",
"section": "Section::::ISO 2281 water-resistant watches standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The International Organization for Standardization issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term \"waterproof\" to be used with watches, which many countries have adopted. This standard was introduced in 1990 as the ISO 2281:1990 and only designed for watches intended for ordinary daily use and are resistant to water during exercises such as swimming for a short period. They may be used under conditions where water pressure and temperature vary; German Industrial Norm DIN 8310 is an equivalent standard. However, whether they bear an additional indication of overpressure or not, they are not intended for submarine diving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8933776",
"title": "Diving watch",
"section": "Section::::Water resistance.:Watches designed for extreme water resistance.:Air filled watches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Normal surface air filled watch cases and crystals designed for extreme depths must be dimensionally large to cope with the encountered water pressure. To obtain its water resistance the CX Swiss Military Watch 20'000 FEET solid titanium watch case has a diameter of 46.0 mm, thickness of 28.5 mm (domed crystal thickness 10 mm) and the case and bracelet weigh 265 g.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3126254",
"title": "Water Resistant mark",
"section": "Section::::Water resistance classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Watches are often classified by watch manufacturers by their degree of water resistance which, due to the absence of official classification standards, roughly translates to the following (1 metre ≈ 3.29 feet). These vagueries have since been superseded by ISO 22810:2010, in which \"any watch on the market sold as water-resistant must satisfy ISO 22810 – regardless of the brand.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3126254",
"title": "Water Resistant mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Water Resistant is a common mark stamped on the back of wrist watches to indicate how well a watch is sealed against the ingress of water. It is usually accompanied by an indication of the static test pressure that a sample of newly manufactured watches were exposed to in a leakage test. The test pressure can be indicated either directly in units of pressure such as bar, atmospheres, or (more commonly) as an equivalent water depth in metres (in the United States sometimes also in feet).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8933776",
"title": "Diving watch",
"section": "Section::::Water resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200 m rating will be water resistant if it is stationary and under 250 m of static water. The testing of the water resistance is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch has to be fully tested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60883",
"title": "Watch",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Scuba diving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-metre rating will be water resistant if it is stationary and under 250 metres of static water. The testing of the water resistance is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch has to be fully tested. Besides water resistance standards to a minimum of 100-metre depth rating ISO 6425 also provides eight minimum requirements for mechanical diver's watches for scuba diving (quartz and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements). For diver's watches for mixed-gas saturation diving two additional requirements have to be met.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4by2um
|
In his time was Shakespere's writings difficult to understand?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, FYI there have been some earlier posts asking this question\n\n* [When Shakespeare's plays were first performed, was the average theater goer able to sufficiently understand the dialog to be able to follow the plot and understand the character's motivations?](_URL_0_) - featuring /u/texpeare \n\n* [Did people actually talk how Shakespeare wrote?](_URL_1_) \n\n* [Could the average person in the Globe Theatre during the Elizabethan era literally understand Shakespeare?](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48520596",
"title": "William Adolphus Wheeler",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Besides the publications cited above, he revised and edited Charles Hole's \"Brief Biographical Dictionary\" (1866), and the \"Dickens Dictionary\" (1873), and began a \"Cyclopædia of Shakespearian Literature\". He edited \"Mother Goose Melodies\" (with antiquarian and philological notes, 1869). He left unfinished an index to the principal works of ancient and modern literature, to be entitled \"Who Wrote It?\" This was completed by C. G. Wheeler, and published in 1881. He edited \"Familiar Allusions\" (1882).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36825114",
"title": "The Spirit of the Age",
"section": "Section::::Essays.:Mr. Gifford.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The following year, after the second edition of Hazlitt's \"Characters of Shakespear's Plays\" had just been published, Gifford followed it with a review that resulted in the near drying-up of the sales of that book. This was followed in 1819 by an attack on \"Lectures on the English Poets\" and finally on Hazlitt's \"Political Essays\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17407698",
"title": "Daniel Speer",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "As a writer he wrote a musical treatise, political tracts, and fiction. In 1687 he published a treatise on music that is considered useful in understanding Middle Baroque music. His writing on music would influence German Baroque trombone works for over a century. In non-musical writing his political tracts led to his being imprisoned for a year and a half. In literature he is known for three or four autobiographical novels that give a feel of the musical scene of his era and make use of humor. In them the narrator is referred to as Daniel Simplex. His novels had largely become obscure until rediscovery in the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48807474",
"title": "Luis de Sandoval Zapata",
"section": "Section::::Works and style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "Most of his work has been lost. However, some of it has been recovered, and because of them it is known that he wrote baroque style prose about literature and philosophical topics. His most famous writing was a sonnet to Virgen de Guadalupe, published by father Florencia and later reproduced by Antonio Mendoza in 1725. He also wrote \"Panegírico a la paciencia\", published in 1645, and a few comedies. Alfonso Plancarte discovered 29 sonnets written by him. His works were edited in 1986 by José Pascual Buxó, and reflect the creole thinking and intellectuality that are aware of the European style and events. There are some Sandoval's works that were dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, that were awarded in a Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico contest. He also has sonnets, octaves and a romance entitled \"Relación fúnebre a la infeliz, trágica muerte de dos caballeros...\" (\"Funeral relation to the unhappy, tragic death of two gentlemen...\"), in which he describes the Martín Cortés' (son of Hernán Cortés) and brothers Ávila's conspiration, both creoles sons of conquistadors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20417671",
"title": "John Shebbeare",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "His most elaborately written work was \"The History of the Excellence and Decline of the Institutions, Religion, Laws, Manners, and Genius of the Sumatrans, and of the Restoration thereof in the reign of Amurath the Third\", 2 vols. 1763. It is a skilful exposure of the weak points in whig policy and administration, followed by a panegyric on George III and his ministers. In style it is a colourable imitation of Bolingbroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2505081",
"title": "Fernão Lopes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "His way of writing was based on oral discourse, and, on every page, it revealed his roots among the common people. He is one of the fathers of the European historiography, or a precursor of the scientific historiography, basing his works always on the documental proof, and, as he said, on his pages \"one cannot find the beauty of words but the nudity of the truth.\" He was an autodidact. By the time of his death, a new kind of knowledge was arising, a Latinized scholasticism that involved imitations of the classics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48261",
"title": "Ben Jonson",
"section": "Section::::His work.:Poetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1235,
"text": "\"Epigrams\" (published in the 1616 folio) is an entry in a genre that was popular among late-Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences, although Jonson was perhaps the only poet of his time to work in its full classical range. The epigrams explore various attitudes, most from the satiric stock of the day: complaints against women, courtiers and spies abound. The condemnatory poems are short and anonymous; Jonson’s epigrams of praise, including a famous poem to Camden and lines to Lucy Harington, are longer and are mostly addressed to specific individuals. Although it is included among the epigrams, \"On My First Sonne\" is neither satirical nor very short; the poem, intensely personal and deeply felt, typifies a genre that would come to be called \"lyric poetry.\" It is possible that the spelling of 'son' as 'Sonne' is meant to allude to the sonnet form, with which it shares some features. A few other so-called epigrams share this quality. Jonson's poems of \"The Forest\" also appeared in the first folio. Most of the fifteen poems are addressed to Jonson's aristocratic supporters, but the most famous are his country-house poem “To Penshurst” and the poem “To Celia” (\"Come, my Celia, let us prove\") that appears also in \"Volpone\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ikydo
|
If we were to discover tomorrow that a huge asteroid is going to hit Earth, could we do something about it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on how long it's going to take to reach us, as well as the size of the asteroid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the orbit, how long until it hits and the size of the asteroid.\n\nIf it's thousand kilometers in diameter and it hits the Earth in 30 years, I don't think there would be much we could do. If it would be just few kilometers in diameter it might be redirected, maybe with huge efforts. \n\nIf the timescale is is bigger, like thousands of years, much smaller nudge might divert it's course. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there have been a lot of theories of how we would be able to deter an asteroid, most people first think to blow it up but if it's too close to earth then that isn't going to do us much good. The best plan that I've seen (works only if there's enough time before it gets to earth) is to land a vehicle on the asteroid and, once it's secured onto the surface, it uses it's rockets to over time nudge the asteroid's orbit path just far enough away from earth that we're safe",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Get all the people who study impacts ready to go to the likely location to watch and study a fresh impact. Personally I wouldn't mind some samples either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia actually has a [great article](_URL_0_) on this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd advise you to check out Phil Plait's book \"Death from the Skies\" he has an entire chapter dedicated to what could or should be done.\n\nThere are so many factors that come into what we could do about it. How fast the object is moving, the angle it is coming towards the Earth, what it's made of, how far away it is, how long the notice is until impact, and of course - how freakin' big it is!\n\nWe could definitely *do* something. It would be a monumental effort and we wouldn't be allowed many or possibly any mistakes. It would be a shame though if we spent so much time arguing over who'd launch and lead the mission until it was too late.\n\nHumans are pretty good at figuring out stuff like that. They aren't so good at convincing others, or other people don't like changing their minds or being subordinate to someone. Human nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In 2016, a NASA scientist warned that the Earth is unprepared for such an event. In April 2018, the B612 Foundation reported \"It's 100 per cent certain we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent sure when.\" Also in 2018, physicist Stephen Hawking, in his final book \"Brief Answers to the Big Questions\", considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet. Several ways of avoiding an asteroid impact have been described. Nonetheless, in March 2019, scientists reported that asteroids may be much more difficult to destroy than thought earlier. In addition, an asteroid may reassemble itself due to gravity after being disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38623877",
"title": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Sub-150m impacting asteroids would not cause global damage but are still locally catastrophic. They can, by contrast to larger ones, only be detected when they come very close to the Earth, which in most cases only happens during their final approach. Those impacts therefore will always need a constant watch and typically cannot be identified earlier than a few weeks in advance, far too late for interception. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would presently require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Meeting the asteroid and deflecting it by least the diameter of the Earth after its interception would then needs several additional years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017976",
"title": "Asteroid impact prediction",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "In April 2018, the B612 Foundation stated \"It's 100 per cent certain we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent sure when.\" Also in 2018, physicist Stephen Hawking, in his final book \"Brief Answers to the Big Questions\", considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet. In June 2018, the US National Science and Technology Council warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the \"\"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\"\" to better prepare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18272728",
"title": "Gravity tractor",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "A number of considerations arise concerning means for avoiding a devastating collision with an asteroidal object, should one be discovered on a trajectory that were determined to lead to Earth impact at some future date. One of the main challenges is how to transmit the impulse required (possibly quite large), to an asteroid of unknown mass, composition, and mechanical strength, without shattering it into fragments, some of which might be themselves dangerous to Earth if left in a collision orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38623877",
"title": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Future impacts are bound to occur, with much higher odds for smaller regionally damaging asteroids than for larger globally damaging ones. The 2018 final book of physicist Stephen Hawking, \"Brief Answers to the Big Questions\", considers a large asteroid collision the biggest threat to our planet. In April 2018, the B612 Foundation reported \"It's a 100 per cent certainty we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent sure when.\" In June 2018, the US National Science and Technology Council warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the \"\"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\"\" to better prepare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56115455",
"title": "2019 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:July.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 200,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 200,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "BULLET::::- 17 July – Astronomers rule out the chances of ~ asteroid 's hitting Earth in September 2019 by eliminating the possibility of its passing through an area where it would have to be if it were on an impacting orbit. Prior to this, the asteroid had been given a one-in-7,000 chance of hitting Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59547861",
"title": "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth in 2019",
"section": "Section::::Virtual Impactors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Cumulatively among the asteroids listed below, there is a roughly 1 in 16,500 chance that any of the asteroids will impact Earth in 2019. Most of this comes from asteroid which has a 1 in 20,000 chance of impact on 9 September 2019. An impact from this asteroid is highly unlikely as there is only a 0.4% chance that the observations made of it in 2006 would fit to the 'impacting' orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yp2em
|
what is a "principal component analysis"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hard to explain without using images.\n\nSee:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2161429",
"title": "Eigenvalues and eigenvectors",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Principal component analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 212,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 212,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Principal component analysis is used to study large data sets, such as those encountered in bioinformatics, data mining, chemical research, psychology, and in marketing. PCA is also popular in psychology, especially within the field of psychometrics. In Q methodology, the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix determine the Q-methodologist's judgment of \"practical\" significance (which differs from the statistical significance of hypothesis testing; cf. criteria for determining the number of factors). More generally, principal component analysis can be used as a method of factor analysis in structural equation modeling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76340",
"title": "Principal component analysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Principal component analysis (PCA) is a statistical procedure that uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables (entities each of which takes on various numerical values) into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first principal component has the largest possible variance (that is, accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component in turn has the highest variance possible under the constraint that it is orthogonal to the preceding components. The resulting vectors (each being a linear combination of the variables and containing \"n\" observations) are an uncorrelated orthogonal basis set. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50336055",
"title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 274,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 274,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "BULLET::::- Principal component analysis – (PCA), is a statistical procedure that uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables (entities each of which takes on various numerical values) into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first principal component has the largest possible variance (that is, accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component, in turn, has the highest variance possible under the constraint that it is orthogonal to the preceding components. The resulting vectors (each being a linear combination of the variables and containing \"n\" observations) are an uncorrelated orthogonal basis set. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11684",
"title": "Fundamental analysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Fundamental analysis, in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business's financial statements (usually to analyze the business's assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; and competitors and markets. It also considers the overall state of the economy and factors including interest rates, production, earnings, employment, GDP, housing, manufacturing and management. There are two basic approaches that can be used: bottom up analysis and top down analysis. These terms are used to distinguish such analysis from other types of investment analysis, such as quantitative and technical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45580833",
"title": "Geometric morphometrics in anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Statistical analysis.:Principal components analysis (PCA).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1457,
"text": "In general, principal components analysis is used to construct overarching variables that take the place of multiple correlated variables in order to reveal the underlying structure of the dataset. This is helpful in geometric morphometrics where a large set of landmarks can create correlated relationships that might be difficult to differentiate without reducing them in order to look at the overall variability in the data. Reducing the number of variables is also necessary because the number of variables being observed and analyzed should not exceed sample size. Principal component scores are computed through an eigendecomposition of a sample’s covariance matrix and rotates the data to preserve procrustes distances. In other words, a principal components analysis preserves the shape variables that were scaled, rotated, and translated during the generalize procrustes analysis. The resulting principal component scores project the shape variables onto low-dimensional space based on eigenvectors. The scores can be plotted various ways to look at the shape variables, such as scatterplots. It is important to explore what shape variables are being observed to make sure the principal components being analyzed are pertinent to the questions being asked. Although the components might show shape variables not relevant to the question at hand, it is perfectly acceptable to leave those components out any further analysis for a specific project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38870173",
"title": "Feature learning",
"section": "Section::::Unsupervised.:Principal component analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Principal component analysis (PCA) is often used for dimension reduction. Given an unlabeled set of \"n\" input data vectors, PCA generates \"p\" (which is much smaller than the dimension of the input data) right singular vectors corresponding to the \"p\" largest singular values of the data matrix, where the \"k\"th row of the data matrix is the \"k\"th input data vector shifted by the sample mean of the input (i.e., subtracting the sample mean from the data vector). Equivalently, these singular vectors are the eigenvectors corresponding to the \"p\" largest eigenvalues of the sample covariance matrix of the input vectors. These \"p\" singular vectors are the feature vectors learned from the input data, and they represent directions along which the data has the largest variations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14960344",
"title": "R&D intensity",
"section": "Section::::Definition and aim of metric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "R&D expenditure and R&D intensity are two of the key indicators used to monitor resources devoted to science and technology worldwide. R&D intensity has been defined as \"the ratio of expenditures by a firm on research and development to the firm's sales.\" William Leonard has described research intensity as \"measured usually by ratios of scientific personnel to total employment or by R&D expenditures/sales\" to gains in such variables as productivity, profits, sales, and asset status. R&D intensity is therefore a measure of a company's R&D spending toward activities aimed at expanding sector and product knowledge, manufacturing, and technology, and so aimed at spurring innovation in and through basic and applied research. Furthermore, it is aimed at increasing \"factor productivity and salable output\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62lrw6
|
Did nativism play a significant role in the American prohibition movement?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was indeed a great deal of overlap between the nativist and prohibitionist movements. The Anti-Saloon League, the most vocal prohibitionist organization in the country, was led mainly by Protestant ministers, most of whom were concerned that the religious and moral character of the United States was in peril.\n\nIt was not only the pernicious effects of alcohol that concerned them, but also that alcohol was of central importance to the social life of the millions of Catholic immigrants who had come to the country since the mid-19th century. The urban saloon was not merely a retailers of beer or rum – it was a place for the working man to socialize, and an arena where immigrants could organize themselves politically.\n\nIn particular, the tavern was associated with Democratic urban political machines such as Tammany Hall. The advocates of prohibition, meanwhile, tended to find their home within the Republican Party, and viewed the cause of temperance as being inextricably tied together with attempts to clean up corruption in urban politics – which was in turn caused by the clannish tendencies of immigrants and the degrading effects of drinking.\n\nOnce the Volstead Act was introduced, furthermore, it highlighted the status of immigrants as law-breakers while also infusing nativism with an added moral dimension. Various immigrant organizations had opposed Prohibition – notably the National German American Alliance, which represented German-American brewers (and which was tarred with the brush of disloyalty because of World War I) – and Catholics and Jews were disproportionately involved in rum-running and clandestine sales of alcohol.\n\nGiven the difficulties of enforcing the Volstead Act, many of its supporters turned to vigilante action, which was typically directed toward immigrants. The Ku Klux Klan was revived as a fraternal organization in the 1920s, choosing Catholics and Jews as its main targets. This reborn Klan was strongest in areas where Prohibition had the greatest support – not merely in the South, but also in the West and Midwest.\n\nThe Klan supported both immigration restrictions – culminating in the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924, which effectively put an end to the period of mass migration that had begun in the 1880s – and tighter enforcement of Prohibition regulations. Chicago Lawyer Clarence Darrow told the Baltimore Sun in 1924 that the “father and mother of the Ku Klux is the Anti-Saloon League. I would not say every Anti-Saloon Leaguer is a Ku Kluxer, but every Ku Kluxer is an Anti-Saloon Leaguer.”\n\nGovernor Al Smith of New York came to a similar conclusion about the Democratic Party convention of 1924: “the Klan and the anti-saloon forces in the convention were practically identical.”\n\nNot all supporters of Prohibition were necessarily nativists, but given their ideological similarities they made natural allies.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22418955",
"title": "Prohibition in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development of the prohibition movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In a backlash to the emerging reality of a changing American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of nativism, in which they endorsed the notion that America was made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This belief fostered resentments towards urban immigrant communities, who typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition. Additionally, nativist sentiments were part of a larger process of Americanization taking place during the same time period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5940274",
"title": "History of Denver",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:The Progressive Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1401,
"text": "Many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of the cities of America with their large immigrant populations. In a backlash to the new emerging realities of the American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of \"nativism\" in which they endorsed the notion that America was made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This fostered xenophobic sentiments towards urban immigrant communities who typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition. These sentiments led many in Denver to join the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) both because it opposed foreign immigration and because it defended prohibition. Roman Catholic immigrants, particularly of Irish, Italian, and Polish descent, and Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe were often the target of KKK discrimination. These communities gradually became Americanized, and the KKK quickly lost influence especially during KKK member Clarence Morley's term as governor from 1925-1927. As Prohibition lingered on many citizens saw the negative effects: toxic bootleg liquor, corruption, bribery, and binge drinking. Colorado voters suspended the state's Prohibition laws on July 1, 1933, and while racism and discrimination against a new wave of Mexican immigrants and African-American migrants persisted, the KKK was never again a significant force in Colorado politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369155",
"title": "Roaring Twenties",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Prohibition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 1542,
"text": "During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Progressive movement gradually caused local communities in many parts of Western Europe and North America to tighten restrictions of vice activities, particularly gambling, alcohol, and narcotics (though splinters of this same movement were also involved in racial segregation in the U.S.). This movement gained its strongest traction in the U.S. and its crowning achievement was the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the associated Volstead Act which made illegal the manufacture, import and sale of beer, wine and hard liquor (though drinking was technically not illegal). The laws were specifically promoted by evangelical Protestant churches and the Anti-Saloon League to reduce drunkenness, petty crime, wife abuse, corrupt saloon-politics, and (in 1918), Germanic influences. The KKK was an active supporter in rural areas, but cities generally left enforcement to a small number of federal officials. The various restrictions on alcohol and gambling were widely unpopular leading to rampant and flagrant violations of the law, and consequently to a rapid rise of organized crime around the nation (as typified by Chicago's Al Capone). In Canada, prohibition ended much earlier than in the U.S., and barely took effect at all in the province of Quebec, which led to Montreal's becoming a tourist destination for legal alcohol consumption. The continuation of legal alcohol production in Canada soon led to a new industry in smuggling liquor into the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24856",
"title": "Prohibition",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In the Western world, one of the great moral issues of the nineteenth century was slavery, but once that battle was won, social moralists turned to their next targets, one of which was prohibition. In the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Prohibition movements in the West coincided with the advent of women's suffrage, with newly empowered women as part of the political process strongly supporting policies that curbed alcohol consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24856",
"title": "Prohibition",
"section": "Section::::Oceania.:New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It assumed that individual virtue was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one, but it never achieved its goal of national prohibition. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing labor movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369155",
"title": "Roaring Twenties",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Organized crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "During the 19th century vices such as gambling, alcohol, and narcotics had been popular throughout the United States in spite of not always being technically legal. Enforcement against these vices had always been spotty. Indeed, most major cities established red-light districts to regulate gambling and prostitution despite the fact that these vices were typically illegal. However, with the rise of the Progressive Movement in the early 20th century, laws gradually became tighter with most gambling, alcohol, and narcotics outlawed by the 1920s. Because of widespread public opposition to these prohibitions, especially alcohol, a great economic opportunity was created for criminal enterprises. Organized crime blossomed during this era, particularly the American Mafia. So lucrative were these vices that some entire cities in the U.S. became illegal gaming centers with vice actually supported by the local governments. Notable examples include Miami, Florida, and Galveston, Texas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38613852",
"title": "Temperance movement in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Third Wave Temperance: 1893–1933.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The last wave of temperance in the United States saw the rise of the Anti-Saloon League (ASL), which successfully pushed for National Prohibition from its enactment in 1920 to its repeal in 1933. This heavily prohibitionist wave attracted a diverse coalition: doctors, pastors, and eugenicists; Klansmen and liberal internationalists; business leaders and labor radicals; conservative evangelicals and liberal theologians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32ph98
|
why do "800 service" call me every day but nobody is ever on the line?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you let it go to voice mail, they'll play a prerecorded message. But they know that trying to play a prerecorded message when there's a human on the other end doesn't work, so the computer making the call is programmed to hang up if someone answers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are probably getting a call center. They call lots of numbers at once so they don't waste time with a busy signal. They answer the first one that pics up and the rest get dropped.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably someone actually looking for your wife....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could be due to the automatic dialer they use. Typically in call centers, there's a system that just dials number after number after number waiting for some type of response. If it's a busy signal or disconnect notice, it will just end the call and move on to the next number. If the call is actually answered (either by a person or voicemail/answering machine) it will then forward the call to the next available cell center rep. Sometimes that transfer can take a few seconds. So in that few seconds it takes to transfer the call to a live rep you're sitting there going, \"Hello?...Hello?\". In a lot of cases, you've already hung up by the time the connection is made.\n\n\nNext time this happens, hang on the line for an extra second or two and you'll probably get a real person. Not that you'd really want that from an 800# call. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably a telemarketer. Add your number to the [Do Not Call Registry](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4032542",
"title": "AT&T U-verse",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Home Phone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "AT&T Phone (formerly AT&T U-verse Voice) is a voice communication service delivered over AT&T's IP network (VoIP). This phone service is digital and provides a voicemail service accessed by *98 from the home number. Customers who subscribe to both AT&T Phone and U-verse TV get features such as call history on channel 9900, which displays the last 100 missed and answered calls on the customer's TV, and \"Click to Call\" from the TV history. AT&T Phone includes Caller ID, Call Blocking, Anonymous Call Blocker, and many other calling features. AT&T Phone was first available in Detroit, on January 22, 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15806975",
"title": "Pat Fleet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Widely recognized for the tens of thousands of recordings she has made for US telephone companies such as AT&T, Verizon, Qwest, the former Bell System companies, and others since 1981, she is still most recognized as the person who says \"AT&T\" in the company's sound trademark played prior to any operator assisted or credit card paid call, and on answer when calling AT&T customer service numbers. She is also the voice for most \"star\" services (e.g. last-call return, call blocking, etc.) for AT&T local telephone companies, and the voice heard when making AT&T handled calls through 1-800-CALL-ATT (225-5288) and through international AT&T access numbers such as USADirect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6021943",
"title": "Tellme Networks",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "At the onset of service, as a way to gain more users, they offered a free long distance call feature. Callers would call Tellme and were given 1 free minute of long distance call time to their desired phone number. That service was later stopped while other services persisted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28696938",
"title": "LucyPhone",
"section": "Section::::Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In order for LucyPhone to function successfully, it needs the assistance of customer service agents. The reason is that when the agents answer a call, LucyPhone's recorded message asks them to press 1 to receive a call from the anticipating customers. The call center agents sometimes hang up on LucyPhone's request because they are used to interacting solely with humans. The company reported that fewer than 10% of the calls are terminated by customer service agents. Government agencies such as the IRS, are instructed not to accept Lucyphone calls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406698",
"title": "Collect call",
"section": "Section::::Services.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "There is not a simple way to call a 1-800 number in the USA or make a reverse charge call for free in India. In early 2019 a private tech company launched services to enable a person to make an overseas reverse charge call. AT&T also provides a number to make collect calls from India to the United States. The number is 000-117.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3602032",
"title": "Area code 700",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In 1992, AT&T introduced a 700-number service branded as \"AT&T EasyReach 700\". It provided a service for subscribers to forward calls placed to a personal 700-number to any domestic telephone number. Either the caller or the subscriber could be set up to pay for the incoming calls. If the call originated from a telephone not pre-subscribed to AT&T as its interexchange carrier, the caller was required to dial 10-ATT prior to dialing the 700-number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17366018",
"title": "National conventions for writing telephone numbers",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Domestically, there are also a number of special service numbers such as 100 for the operator, 123 for the speaking clock and 155 for the international operator, as well as 118 AAA for various directory enquiry services, and 116 AAA for various helplines. For some services, the number you call will depend on which operator you use to connect the call. 112 and 999 work for calling the emergency services. These numbers cannot be called from abroad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4w9it6
|
so how does the body 'die'? also what does it feel like just before a person is about to die?
|
[
{
"answer": "Shutting down functions that aren't as necessary as others, until there's nothing left for the body to survive on. The battery empties. You slip away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer the former, 'death' is typically recognised as the cessation of brain stem function. That is, a functional disconnect between the control centre (brain) an the body.\n\nCessation of function in any human tissue, including the brain, is primarily caused by a lack of oxygen and glucose. Distribution of these are maintained by the circulatory system, comprised of the heart and blood vessels.\n\nThere are many many reasons why the circulatory system may cease to provide the brain with its fuel, but ultimately all precipitating causes lead to cardiac arrest, and the brain subsequently being starved of oxygen and glucose.\n\nA remaining grey area is that of life support. Modern medicine can artificially circulate blood, oxygen, glucose and other nutrients that can be administered by health professionals. In this state, your body can successfully be sustained for long periods of time. However, the question arises as to if this is really 'being alive'. Therefore ICU doctors will assess brain stem function to gauge how much 'living' a person can do without being fully artificially supported.\n\nEDIT: To answer the latter, I have no idea what it feels like before someone dies, but it is not uncommon for patients to correctly and accurately determine that they are literally *about* to die. I also believe it is generally accepted that the last of or senses to cease is hearing.\n\nAnother interesting consideration is that when adenosine is administered to treat arrhythmias, it temporarily blocks the hearts electrical conduction causing asystole (flatline). This is often described as 'falling' or the 'drop of a rollercoaster'.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former ICU nurse (current CRNA) here. Your comment about people recognizing they're about to die before a change in vital signs is interesting to read. I saw this all the time in the ICU, where patients would ask if they're dead, or say they were afraid of dying, and it seemed to me they'd pass away very soon after. Like they had a premonition. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) podcast is an interview with a hospice nurse that gives a really good detail of the dying experience.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neuroscience PhD here.\n\nWe have learned a lot from near-death experiences (NDEs). The body dies from the outside in.\n\nFor most people, your heart is the first to stop. It just gets tired and worn out having been in use continually for 80+ years. Because blood is your body's way of heating the whole system, you start to cool down. This means your nerves send and receive signals more slowly. Your extremities are sending signals a long distance and so you notice the delay a lot more. This is perceived as a numbness by your brain.\n\nAs your brain gets deprived of oxygen-rich blood you slowly lose consciousness. Its like going to sleep, or under anaesthetic. Some people are still aware of the next changes that happen. \n\nThe first thing is your inner ear system turns off. With no feedback coming in about the direction of gravity, your body interprets this to mean you're airborne (hence the \"floating\" feeling some NDE survivors describe). \n\nThen your eyes stop sending signals. Many people don't know this, but nerves in your eye send signals only when there is dark. This is economical for an animal which is active during the day as it saves resources. So as your eyes stop sending signals, your brain interprets this as white light which grows in size as the nerves continue to die.\n\nThe next thing to die are inhibitory interneurons. This then permits the spontaneous activation of thousands of excitatory neurons, including the ones which encode your long-term memories. The \"seeing my life flash before my eyes\" is likely due to this.\n\nInhibitory interneurons also regulate the release of neurotransmitters involved in the reward pathway. So you get a huge rush of dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin. This is related to the \"feeling of euphoria\" that NDE survivors sometimes report.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15475369",
"title": "Philosophy of healthcare",
"section": "Section::::Birth and death.:Death and dying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "In a certain philosophical context, death can be seen as the ultimate existential moment in one's life. Death is the deepest cause of a primordial anxiety (\"Die Anfechtung\") in a person's life. In this emotional state of anxiety, \"the Nothing\" is revealed to the person. According to twentieth-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger, And thus, for Heidegger, humans finds themselves in a very precarious and fragile situation (constantly hanging over the abyss) in this world. This concept can be simplified to the point where at bottom, all that a person has in this world is his or her Being. Regardless of how individuals proceed in life, their existence will always be marked by finitude and solitude. When considering near-death experiences, humans feels this primordial anxiety overcome them. Therefore, it is important for healthcare providers to recognize the onset of this entrenched despair in patients who are nearing their respective deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2384297",
"title": "The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Death is not supposed to happen in the open, along highways and in sight of others. Everything is in the process of dying all around us, though we keep it hidden from our sight and minds. Death is part of the cycle and we need to understand we are part of a larger process. The process of dying is necessary for the birth of the new and we will all experience it together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8120627",
"title": "Tetrapharmakos",
"section": "Section::::The four-part cure.:Don't worry about death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "As D. S. Hutchinson wrote concerning this line, \"While you are alive, you don't have to deal with being dead, but when you are dead you don't have to deal with it either, because you aren't there to deal with it.\" In Epicurus' own words in his Letter to Menoeceus, \"Death means nothing to us...when we exist, death is not yet present, and when death is present, then we do not exist,\" for there is no afterlife. Death, says Epicurus, is the greatest anxiety of all, in length and intensity. This anxiety about death impedes the quality and happiness of one's life by the theory of afterlife: the worrying about whether or not one's deeds and actions in life will translate well into the region of the gods, the wondering whether one will be assigned to an eternity of pain or to an eternity of pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8157637",
"title": "The Book Thief",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Death is presented in a manner that is less distant and threatening. Because Death narrates and explains the reasons behind each character's destruction, as well as explains how he feels that he must take the life of each character, Death is given a sense of care rather than fear. At one point, Death states \"even death has a heart,\" which reaffirms that there is a care present in the concept of death and dying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8221",
"title": "Death",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Problems of definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of something. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning. As it pertains to human life, death is an irreversible process where someone loses their existence as a person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8221",
"title": "Death",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Death – particularly the death of humans – has commonly been considered a sad or unpleasant occasion, due to the affection for the being that has died and the termination of social and familial bonds with the deceased. Other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional pain, depression, sympathy, compassion, solitude, or saudade. Many cultures and religions have the idea of an afterlife, and also hold the idea of reward or judgement and punishment for past sin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51022863",
"title": "Death midwife",
"section": "Section::::Responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Death is a situation that no one can completely prepare for. Additionally, many people don't have much experience with people close to them dying. Because of this, when it comes to the time to deal with dying there are a lot of questions and uncertainty. Pain management is only one part of end of life care; another part, of equal or greater importance at the end of their life, is the psychological aspects,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41zvuc
|
do blind people need to close their eyes to go to sleep if so why? if they already see pitch black?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because eyes need moisture and the only way to do that it to close your eyes so that your tears can cover the entire surface of your eye.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Of course.If you would be placed in a completely dark room, you would still need to close your eyes so that your muscles would relax.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most blind people are not \"completely blind\". They usually can distinguish light. As well as what others have said about muscle relaxation and retaining eye moisture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are blind and thus they don't see pitch black, nor they see pink or yellow. They simply don't see. To understand what they see, try describing what can you see with your right foot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Their eyes will dry out. And blind people, people who actually CANNOT SEE anything, don't see black. They don't see anything at all. Imagine trying to see out of your elbow, or the tip of your finger. What do you see? Nothing. It's difficult for a person with vision to imagine nothingness but that's what nothing is. Some blind people can detect light and dark, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need to close your eyes to sleep even in a pitch black room, blind people are no different.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007171",
"title": "Nightlight",
"section": "Section::::Potential health issues and benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Another study has indicated that sleeping with the light on may protect the eyes of diabetics from retinopathy, a condition that can lead to blindness. However, the initial study is still inconclusive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7378933",
"title": "Vitamin A deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Night blindness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Night blindness is the difficulty for the eyes to adjust to dim light. Affected individuals are unable to distinguish images in low levels of illumination. People with night blindness have poor vision in the darkness, but see normally when adequate light is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416874",
"title": "Sense",
"section": "Section::::Five \"traditional\" senses.:Sight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "People who are blind from degradation or damage to the visual cortex, but still have functional eyes, are actually capable of some level of vision and reaction to visual stimuli but not a conscious perception; this is known as blindsight. People with blindsight are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and instead just unconsciously adapt their behavior to the stimulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3933",
"title": "Braille",
"section": "Section::::Literacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Children who are blind not only have the educational disadvantage of not being able to see – they also miss out on fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not provided with the necessary tools. Children who are blind or visually impaired can begin learning pre-braille skills from a very young age to become fluent braille readers as they get older.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15559385",
"title": "Tactile discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Blindness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2305,
"text": "When a person has become blind, in order to “see” the world, their other senses become heightened. An important sense for the blind is their sense of touch, which becomes more frequently used to help them perceive the world. People that are blind have displayed that their visual cortices become more responsive to auditory and tactile stimulation. Braille allows the blind to be able to use their sense of touch to feel the roughness, and distance of various patterns to be used as a form of language. Within the brain, the activation of the occipital cortex is functionally relevant for tactile braille reading, as well as the somatosensory cortex. These various parts of the brain function in their own way, in which they each contribute to the effectiveness of how braille is read by the blind. People that are blind also rely heavily on Tactile Gnosis, Spatial discrimination, Graphesthesia, and Two-point discrimination. Essentially, the occipital cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the distance of braille patterns, which is related to spatial discrimination. Meanwhile, the somatosensory cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the roughness of braille patterns, which is related to two-point discrimination. The various visual areas in the brain are very essential for a blind person to read braille, just as much as it is for a person that has sight. Essentially, whether one is blind or not, the perception of objects that involves tactile discrimination is not impaired if one cannot see. When comparing people that are blind to people that have sight, the amount of activity within the their somatosensory and visual areas of the brain do differ. The activity in the somatosensory and visual areas are not as high in tactile gnosis for people that are not blind, and are more-so active for more visual related stimuli that does not involve touch. Nonetheless, there is a difference in these various areas within the brain when comparing the blind to the sighted, which is that shape discrimination causes a difference in brain activity, as well as tactile gnosis. The visual cortices of blind individuals are active during various vision related tasks including tactile discrimination, and the function of the cortices resemble the activity of adults with sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176997",
"title": "Blindsight",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Case studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1790,
"text": "In another case study, a girl had brought her grandfather in to see a neuropsychologist. The girl's grandfather, Mr. J., had had a stroke which had left him completely blind apart from a tiny spot in the middle of his visual field. The neuropsychologist, Dr. M., performed an exercise with him. The doctor helped Mr. J. to a chair, had him sit down, and then asked to borrow his cane. The doctor then asked, \"Mr. J., please look straight ahead. Keep looking that way, and don't move your eyes or turn your head. I know that you can see a little bit straight ahead of you, and I don't want you to use that piece of vision for what I'm going to ask you to do. Fine. Now, I'd like you to reach out with your right hand [and] point to what I'm holding.\" Mr. J. then replied, \"But I don't see anything—I'm blind!\" The doctor then said, \"I know, but please try, anyway.\" Mr. J then shrugged and pointed, and was surprised when his finger encountered the end of the cane which the doctor was pointing toward him. After this, Mr. J. said that \"it was just luck\". The doctor then turned the cane around so that the handle side was pointing towards Mr. J. He then asked for Mr. J. to grab hold of the cane. Mr. J. reached out with an open hand and grabbed hold of the cane. After this, the doctor said, \"Good. Now put your hand down, please.\" The doctor then rotated the cane 90 degrees, so that the handle was oriented vertically. The doctor then asked Mr. J. to reach for the cane again. Mr. J. did this, and he turned his wrist so that his hand matched the orientation of the handle. This case study shows that—although (on a conscious level) Mr. J. was completely unaware of any visual abilities that he may have had—he was able to orient his grabbing motions as if he had no visual impairments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176997",
"title": "Blindsight",
"section": "Section::::Describing blindsight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Patients with blindsight have damage to the visual system that allows perception (the visual cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than the system that controls eye movements. This phenomenon shows how, after the more complex visual system is damaged, people can use the latter visual system of their brains to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to \"see\" objects that they are unconscious of suggests that consciousness is not a general property of all parts of the brain; yet it suggests that only certain parts of the brain play a special role in consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ew268
|
what do the numbers mean in reference to eyesight? eg. 20/20
|
[
{
"answer": "According to below, 20/20 essentially means the person can see an image 20 ft in front of them the same way someone with 'normal' vision would see the image. if they had 30/20 vision for example, this person would see an image 30 ft away the same way someone with 'normal' vision would see the same image from 20 ft away. \nMore explanations below.\n\nsource : _URL_0_",
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},
{
"answer": "20/20 is sort of like a ratio of what you see vs what other people see. If you have 20/20 vision that means you see at 20 feet what the average person sees at 20 ft. If you have 25/20 vision then you can see what the average person sees at 20 ft from 25 ft away",
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},
{
"answer": "They are a comparison to the average population. 20/20 means you can see at 20 feet what the average person can see at 20 feet. So 20/20 vision isn't perfect, it's literally average.\n\n20/10 vision would mean you could see at 20 feet what the average person could only see at 10 feet - ie you have better than average vision.\n\n10/20 vision would mean you could only see at 10 feet what the average person could see at 20 - ie you have worse than average vision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1099280",
"title": "Eye examination",
"section": "Section::::Basic examination.:Visual acuity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "The standard definition of normal visual acuity (20/20 or 6/6 vision) is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc. The terms 20/20 and 6/6 are derived from standardized sized objects that can be seen by a \"person of normal vision\" at the specified distance. For example, if one can see at a distance of 20 ft an object that normally can be seen at 20 ft, then one has 20/20 vision. If one can see at 20 ft what a normal person can see at 40 ft, then one has 20/40 vision. Put another way, suppose you have trouble seeing objects at a distance and you can only see out to 20 ft what a person with normal vision can see out to 200 feet, then you have 20/200 vision. The 6/6 terminology is more commonly used in Europe and Australia, and represents the distance in metres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208259",
"title": "20 (number)",
"section": "Section::::In science.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BULLET::::- In some countries, the number 20 is used as an index in measuring visual acuity. 20/20 indicates normal vision at 20 feet, although it is commonly used to mean \"perfect vision\". (Note that this applies only to countries using the Imperial system. The metric equivalent is 6/6.) When someone is able to see only after an event how things turned out, that person is often said to have had \"20/20 hindsight\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "747279",
"title": "Snellen chart",
"section": "Section::::\"6/6\"(m) or \"20/20\"(ft) vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "where formula_2 is the optotype height or width (which are the same due to the optotype being on a square grid), formula_3 is the distance from eye to chart, and formula_4 is the angle subtended by the optotype, which is 5 arcminutes as specified by Snellen. Another calculation for United States clinics using 20-foot chart distances (slightly more than 6 m), and using a 17 mm model eye for calculations, and a letter which subtends 5 minutes of arc, gives a vertical height of the 20/20 letter to be 8.75 mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168244",
"title": "F-number",
"section": "Section::::Human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The f-number of the human eye varies from about 8.3 in a very brightly lit place to about 2.1 in the dark. Note that computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye are taken into account. Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in a different focal length, thus yielding an incorrect f-number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "747279",
"title": "Snellen chart",
"section": "Section::::\"6/6\"(m) or \"20/20\"(ft) vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "At exactly 6 metres' distance from the patient, the letters on the 6/6 line shall subtend 5 minutes of arc (such that the individual limbs of the letters subtend 1 minute of arc), which means that the chart should be sized such that these letters are 8.73 mm tall and the topmost (6/60) \"E\" should be 87.3 mm tall. Putting it another way, the eye should be at a distance 68.76 times the height of the top (6/60) letter. The formula is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24990312",
"title": "Optics and vision",
"section": "Section::::Visual perception.:Visual acuity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Visual acuity is a quantitative measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized distance as the size of the symbols is varied. It is the most common clinical measurement of visual function. In the term \"20/20 vision\" the numerator refers to the distance in feet from which a person can reliably distinguish a pair of objects. The denominator is the distance from which an 'average' person would be able to distinguish —the distance at which their separation angle is 1 arc minute. The metric equivalent is 6/6 vision where the distance is 6 meters. The 20/\"x\" number does not directly relate to the eyeglass prescription required to correct vision; rather an eye exam seeks to find the prescription that will provide at least 20/20 vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513128",
"title": "Airy disk",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:The human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The fastest f-number for the human eye is about 2.1, corresponding to a diffraction-limited point spread function with approximately 1 μm diameter. However, at this f-number, spherical aberration limits visual acuity, while a 3 mm pupil diameter (f/5.7) approximates the resolution achieved by the human eye. The maximum density of cones in the human fovea is approximately 170,000 per square millimeter, which implies that the cone spacing in the human eye is about 2.5 μm, approximately the diameter of the point spread function at f/5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eejqv
|
the college admissions process.
|
[
{
"answer": "For the colleges in my region, in order to get accepted into a state university you had to have a RAI of 245 or higher. Which is found by using the ACT or SAT test score, high school rank, high school cumulative grade-point average, and the number of completed high school core courses. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Let me give a broader version than the other comments:\n\n*Applications/Colleges and Admission in General*\n\nCollege X has enough space/professors/resources to educate 500 freshmen next year. However, 5000 students apply to College X. At first, you'd think it was easy: just admit the best 500 students and enroll them. However, College X is competing with Colleges A, B, C, and D for the best students. If each college just accepted the top 500 students and ended up splitting them, each school would end up with only 125 freshmen.\n\nThis is where priority applications and waitlists come into play. If Student 1 really loves College X, Student 1 can apply \"priority\" or \"early decision.\" This means that Student 1 promises to go to College X if they are admitted, and in return College X gives them a higher chance of acceptance. This is a win-win: College X has one less variable in trying to get 500 students, and Student 1 has a better chance of getting into College X. \n\nWaitlist is the flip-side of this balance: College X calculates that accepting 750 students will *probably* give them 500 freshmen. However, they instead give 700 students acceptances, and another 100 waitlists. That way they can just admit \"extras\" from the waitlist to fill up their 500 numbers. This is great for College X (since it makes it easier to get the right number) but sucks for students, who don't get a straight answer from College X.\n\n\n*Perspective of the Admissions Committee*\n\nIn order to do all this number/student-manipulating, College X has to decide who are the best students to admit, given that they can only admit a certain number of students. Most universities have some kind of formula for sorting students: RAI from the lower comment is a good example. Some schools say \"any student with an SAT below 1600 is automatically rejected,\" some schools do complicated calculations, etc. In general, they try to assess how well a student does on a bunch of metrics:\n\n* GPA from High School\n* Test scores like ACT/SAT\n* Extracurriculars\n* Application Essays\n* Recommendations\n* (Optional) Interview\n\nThere are a lot of different ways to analyze this, but basically the university is trying to figure out how close you are to their image of a perfect student, so that they can admit the right amount of the right students.\n\nUsually what happens is a temp college student is handed a stack of applications and told to auto-reject any that fall below their minimum requirements. Then the ones that seem okay are forwarded to an admissions officer/committee, who pick out the best ones and recommend them for admission.\n\n*What YOU Need to Do*\n\nApplying to college is a series of decisions:\n\n1) Pick colleges you want to apply to. This is a bigger question than I can address as part of this post, but it's an important step. Rule of thumb, apply to ~6 schools, 2 schools that you're overqualified for, 2 schools that are about right, and 2 schools that you're slightly underqualified for. This depends entirely on you though, and is a good conversation to have with your college counselor at your high school.\n\n2) Decide how you want to apply. Is there one you love love love enough to promise you'll attend? If so, make sure you're applying priority/early to that school. If you're not 100% convinced (or if you haven't toured the school) do NOT apply early. \n\n3) Try and excel at those bullet points for admission. Try and get good grades. Prepare for and take the SAT and ACT (I personally recommend taking both if possible). Participate in extracurriculars (volunteering, sports, etc.). Get to know (and do well in classes with) teachers who will write your recommendation letters. There isn't really a magic bullet for getting into college, but if you are *missing* any of these, it will reflect very badly on you.\n\n4) When it comes time for applications (usually early fall senior year is when you should be writing them), fill them out carefully and focus on writing essays. Essays are how you stand out to the admissions committee. This is also beyond the scope of this post, but college essays are very important, it is your only chance to stand out and be unique in a sea of GPAs and SAT scores.\n\n5) Mail in your application (plus transcripts and test scores) and wait. When you get your answers, *TOUR THE SCHOOLS* before you make a decision, and pick the place that you think you will succeed, and not necessarily the one that's \"best.\" \n\n\nIf you have more specific questions, just ask :) my mom has been on admissions committees for years and many of my friends have worked as admissions office interns.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3665312",
"title": "College admissions in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "College admissions in the United States refers to the process of applying for entrance to institutions of higher education for undergraduate study at one of the nation's colleges or universities. For people intending to go immediately into college after high school, the college search usually begins in the eleventh grade of high school with most activity taking place during the twelfth grade, although students at top high schools often begin the process during their tenth grade or earlier. In addition, there are considerable numbers of students who transfer from one college to another, as well as adults older than high school age who apply to college. In 2019, there were allegations of a bribery situation which over 50 people were charged for a cheating scheme that appears by the U.S. government to have been in operation for 8 years straight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1102367",
"title": "Early decision",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 602,
"text": "Early decision or early acceptance is a common policy used in college admissions in the United States for admitting freshmen to undergraduate programs. It is used to indicate to the university or college that the candidate considers that institution to be his or her top choice. Candidates applying early decision typically submit their applications by the end of October of their senior year of high school and receive a decision in mid-December. In contrast, students applying \"regular decision\" typically must submit their applications by January 1 and receive their admissions decision by April 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8132659",
"title": "New York University Stern School of Business",
"section": "Section::::Admissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Admissions decisions are handled by the school's parent institution, New York University, and are made on a holistic basis that considers academic record, standardized test scores, accomplishments outside of the classroom, recommendations, essays, and diversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24879414",
"title": "College tour",
"section": "Section::::Campus visit.:Information session.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "An admissions information session provides prospective students with knowledge about the college they are applying to. These sessions usually last thirty minutes to an hour and include information about admissions requirements, financial aid, and academic requirements for acceptance to that particular institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7105277",
"title": "St. John's College, Agra",
"section": "Section::::Admission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The college has its own selection process. the college has an online application process( https://sjcportal.in ) where prospective applicants are expected to fill in their interests and academic achievements. the colleges releases a list for students selected to an interview.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524959",
"title": "University and college admission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "University admission or college admission is the process through which students enter tertiary education at universities and colleges. Systems vary widely from country to country, and sometimes from institution to institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346628",
"title": "Graduate school",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Admission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "At most institutions, decisions regarding admission are not made by the institution itself but the department to which the student is applying. Some departments may require interviews before making a decision to accept an applicant. Most universities adhere to the Council of Graduate Schools' Resolution Regarding Graduate Scholars, Fellows, Trainees, and Assistants, which gives applicants until April 15 to accept or reject offers that contain financial support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5quw20
|
how does kelvin work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Kelvin is a temperature scale that start with absolute zero and has uses the same degrees as Celsius.\n\nCelsius has water freeze at 0° and boil at 100° absolute zero is at -273.16° C.\n\nSo in Kelvin absolute Zero is a 0 K, water freezes at 273.16 K and boils at 373.16 K\n\nThere is a corresponding temperature scale that also starts at absolute zero but uses Farenheit degrees called Rankine, but it is rarely used.\n\nHere is a chart:\n\nCelsius | Kelvin | Fahrenheit | Rankine\n---:|---:|----:|----:\n-273.16°C | 0 K | −459.67 °F | 0 °R\n-40°C| 233.15 K| -40 °F | 419.67 °R\n-17.78°C| 255.37 K | 0 °F| 459.67 °R \n0 °C | 273.15 K| 32 °F |491.67 °R\n100 °C | 373.15 K| 212 °F | 671.67 °R\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6000460",
"title": "Kelvin transform",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The Kelvin transform is a device used in classical potential theory to extend the concept of a harmonic function, by allowing the definition of a function which is 'harmonic at infinity'. This technique is also used in the study of subharmonic and superharmonic functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593121",
"title": "Kelvin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The kelvin is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol K. It is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6217045",
"title": "Kelvin equation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The Kelvin equation describes the change in vapour pressure due to a curved liquid–vapor interface, such as the surface of a droplet. The vapor pressure at a convex curved surface is higher than that at a flat surface. The Kelvin equation is dependent upon thermodynamic principles and does not allude to special properties of materials. It is also used for determination of pore size distribution of a porous medium using adsorption porosimetry. The equation is named in honor of William Thomson, also known as Lord Kelvin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593121",
"title": "Kelvin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Kelvin is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant to be 1.380 649×10 when expressed in the unit J⋅K, which is equal to kg⋅m⋅s⋅K, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of the Planck constant(\")\", speed of light\"(\"\")\" and caesium-133 ground-state hyperfine transition duration() respectively. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11056409",
"title": "Kelvin functions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "While the Kelvin functions are defined as the real and imaginary parts of Bessel functions with \"x\" taken to be real, the functions can be analytically continued for complex arguments With the exception of Ber(\"x\") and Bei(\"x\") for integral \"n\", the Kelvin functions have a branch point at \"x\" = 0.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30291341",
"title": "2019 redefinition of the SI base units",
"section": "Section::::Impact on base unit definitions.:Kelvin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The definition of the kelvin underwent a fundamental change. Rather than using the triple point of water to fix the temperature scale, the new definition uses the energy equivalent as given by Boltzmann's equation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387440",
"title": "Physical oceanography",
"section": "Section::::Circulation.:Planetary waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "A Kelvin wave is any progressive wave that is channeled between two boundaries or opposing forces (usually between the Coriolis force and a coastline or the equator). There are two types, coastal and equatorial. Kelvin waves are gravity driven and non-dispersive. This means that Kelvin waves can retain their shape and direction over long periods of time. They are usually created by a sudden shift in the wind, such as the change of the trade winds at the beginning of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8mq9a0
|
why commercial airplanes are usually white while military airplanes are usually grey?
|
[
{
"answer": "3 main reasons :\n\n1. Minimizing visual signature . Aircraft operating over sea can be camouflaged by painting them blue\\-grey. \n\n\n2. Blending of aircraft with the tarmac. Parked aircraft outlines are harder to see if the aircraft color doesn't provide sharp contrast with the surface they are on. \n\n\n3. Modern military aircraft are painted with radar absorbent paint . The paint is most effective with darker colors and a matte finish. Hence, grey aircraft. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the commercial side, it's entirely a brand consideration. Spirit Air paints all of their planes bright yellow, for example. UPS paints the back half of their planes dark brown. Southwest uses a purply blue color.\n\nAs for why white is the most prominent, it's historical, and I'd assume related to white being associated with cleanliness, polish and professionalism (on account of white providing a good contrast to see dirt and damage).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airliners *want* to be seen by other planes, military planes *want* to hide from other planes.\n\nWhite is easier to see in the sky than grey. White is a simple base color on which you can easily put other colors of paint or decals. White reflects the sun, which can help keep the plane cooler (and more comfortable for passengers) on hot sunny days. This cooling effect can also help some (non-metal) parts of the plane last longer, as thermal cycling can wear plastic and composite parts out more quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact: \n\n\nBlack airplanes are faster than white airplanes, at least in sunlight they are.\n\nThat is, all other things being equal, the weight and texture \\(drag\\) of the paint being the same, the black airplane has an advantage.\n\nThe reason is, if you were the size of a molecule and you looked around, you'd think you were in the middle of a mountain range. No matter how much we polish, at a molecular level, the paint has a lot of texture. \n\n\nSo, there are molecules, down in the valleys, that gets 'dragged' with the plane, between the air that gets dragged with the plane and the 'relative wind' \\(i.e the air going by\\), there is the interface layer. The black airplane will heat the interface layer, making it less dense and reducing friction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "363254",
"title": "Hellenic Air Force",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft markings and camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Originally, many aircraft in service retained the basic color scheme they were acquired in. Prior to World War II, combat aircraft were given a green and brown top scheme with white or sky blue underside, similar to the Royal Air Force. After the war, jet fighter aircraft such as the Sabre and Starfighter would serve in a polished metal scheme. Later, most aircraft received green and brown camouflage again, consistent with the United States Air Force's South East Asia scheme, referred to as Vietnam camouflage in Greece. A-7 Corsair IIs would be some of the last aircraft to fly with this scheme, retaining it until their retirement, long after all-over grey schemes had become the normal application for Greek aircraft. C-130 Hercules transports which used South East Asia early in their careers were repainted in an overall grey theme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186113",
"title": "Aggressor squadron",
"section": "Section::::Aggressor aircraft used in the United States.:Aggressor performances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Aggressor aircraft in the United States are typically painted in colorful camouflage schemes, matching the colors of many Soviet aircraft and contrasting with the gray colors used in most operational US combat aircraft. Camouflage schemes that consist of many shades of blue (similar to those used in Sukhoi fighters) or of green and mostly-light brown (similar to the colors used in many Middle Eastern countries' combat aircraft) are most common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24930220",
"title": "Aircraft camouflage",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Air camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Camouflage for an airborne aircraft may attempt to provide concealment with colors resembling the background. For example, until 1941, Royal Air Force fighters were painted in ground colors (dark green and brown) above, and sky colors below. However, aircraft were being lost, and pilots reported that the colors used made their fighters conspicuously darker than the sky. The Air Fighting Development Unit at Duxford studied the problem, and in the summer of 1941 replaced the dark brown with a paler color, \"ocean grey\"; the sky blue on the underside was similarly replaced by a paler \"sea grey\" to reduce visibility against the bright sky. Similar adjustments were made by the Luftwaffe. Towards the end of the war, allied air superiority made visible light camouflage less important, and some American aircraft were flown in unpainted (silver colored) metal to save weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24930220",
"title": "Aircraft camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "Aircraft camouflage is the use of camouflage on military aircraft to make them more difficult to see, whether on the ground or in the air. Given the possible backgrounds and lighting conditions, no single scheme works in every situation. A common approach has been a form of countershading, the aircraft being painted in a disruptive pattern of ground colors such as green and brown above, sky colors below. For faster and higher-flying aircraft, sky colors have sometimes been used all over, while helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft used close to the ground are often painted entirely in ground camouflage. Aircraft flying by night have often been painted black, but this actually made them appear darker than the night sky, leading to paler night camouflage schemes. There are trade-offs between camouflage and aircraft recognition markings, and between camouflage and weight. Accordingly, visible light camouflage has been dispensed with when air superiority was not threatened or when no significant aerial opposition was anticipated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21757059",
"title": "Dive Bomber (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "During filming, as war preparations ramped up, the U.S. Navy ordered a new grey color camouflage for all its sea-based aircraft, with the associate producer Robert Lord scrambling to have a concession made where a few aircraft in each squadron would retain their colorful schemes in order to match previously shot footage. The film ultimately uses footage that includes aircraft in this new uniform light-grey color scheme especially in the carrier sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42676685",
"title": "Indonesian Presidential Aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Livery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "After the aircraft was unveiled, its livery and color scheme attracted criticism. Some deemed it \"unattractive\", while others noted the similarity of sky blue color scheme to the United States Air Force One, and others suspected a political connotation. Minister of State Secretary Sudi Silalahi, responded that the sky blue color was chosen for safety and security reasons, as a sky-colored camouflage. The color is also widely used as the uniform of the Indonesian Air Force personnel who operate the aircraft. It was also chosen as a unique identity, since there are no Indonesian commercial aircraft using this color in their livery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12296627",
"title": "Aircraft livery",
"section": "Section::::Non airline liveries.:Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Air transports of heads of state and government are often painted in unique color schemes. The US President's aircraft, Air Force One, uses a light-blue and sky-blue color scheme, with the Seal of the President of the United States just above the front gear and the flag of the United States on the tailfin. The livery was designed by French-American industrial designer Raymond Loewy at the instigation, and with the help of, then-First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4w303y
|
how do websites, particularly like instagram and tumblr, deal with constant additions in content? is their storage virtually unlimited?
|
[
{
"answer": "those are so tiny compared to youtube.\n\nyoutube adds storage space at the rate of petabytes a day. there's a module in a shipping container that house storage for 12petabytes. drop one of those in, you're good for another couple of days\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I could write it out, or copy and paste it, but these guys at Backblaze (a cloud based backup company) explain it best: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49296743",
"title": "Progressive web applications",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Web Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Web Storage is a W3C standard API that enables key-value storage in modern browsers. The API consists of two objects, sessionStorage (that enables session-only storage that gets wiped upon browser session end) and localStorage (that enables storage that persists across sessions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566407",
"title": "News server operation",
"section": "Section::::Spools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "BULLET::::- One file per article is the oldest storage scheme, still in common use on smaller servers and replicated in many clients. Its performance capability is a direct function of the underlying operating system's ability to create, remove and locate files within a directory, and often this scheme is insufficient to keep up with modern Usenet traffic. It does, however, allow for the greatest flexibility in managing the amount and location of storage used by the server. Nearly all current software using this scheme stores articles using the B News 2.10 layout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58708106",
"title": "Google One",
"section": "Section::::Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Storage purchases renew automatically at the end of the subscription period. Users can upgrade their storage plan anytime, with the new storage tier taking effect immediately. Storage can also be shared with up to 5 family members, with each person getting the default 15 gigabytes. Files count towards the default storage before counting towards shared storage. Many items do not take up any space. These include Google Docs, Sheets, Slides, Forms and Sites. Shared files or files in \"Shared with me\" only use up the owner's quota. Photos and videos using the \"High Quality\" setting do not take up any space, but may be in a lower quality than the original version. Google Pixel phones allow users to backup an unlimited number of videos and photos without counting towards the quota. Users of the Google One service also see an addition to their account's avatar icon of a four-color circular surround made up of the company's blue-red-yellow-green color scheme to denote their status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693035",
"title": "File hosting service",
"section": "Section::::Storage charges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Some online file storage services offer space on a per-gigabyte basis, and sometimes include a bandwidth cost component as well. Usually these will be charged monthly or yearly. Some companies offer the service for free, relying on advertising revenue. Some hosting services do not place any limit on how much space the user's account can consume. Some services require a software download which makes files only available on computers which have that software installed, others allow users to retrieve files through any web browser. With the increased inbox space offered by webmail services, many users have started using their webmail service as an online drive. Some sites offer free unlimited file storage but have a limit on the file size. Some sites offer additional online storage capacity in exchange for new customer referrals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1713552",
"title": "Adobe Flash Player",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Because local storage can be used to save information on a computer that is later retrieved by the same site, a site can use it to gather user statistics, similar to how HTTP cookies and Web Storage can be used. With such technologies, the possibility of building a profile based on user statistics is considered by some a potential privacy concern. Users can disable or restrict use of local storage in Flash Player through a \"Settings Manager\" page. These settings can be accessed from the Adobe website or by right-clicking on Flash-based content and selecting \"Global Settings\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19682521",
"title": "Comparison of file hosting services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "This is a comparison of file hosting services which are currently active. File hosting services are a particular kind of online file storage; however, various products that are designed for online file storage may not have features or characteristics that others designed for sharing files have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36627336",
"title": "Megaupload legal case",
"section": "Section::::Basis of indictment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "BULLET::::1. In practice, the \"vast majority\" of users do not have any significant long term private storage capability. Continued storage is dependent upon regular downloads of the file occurring. Files not downloaded are rapidly removed in most cases, whereas popular downloaded files are retained. (items 7 – 8)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eyyti5
|
why do home appliances all hum at the same tone frequency?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your electrical power is alternating current - switching back and forth 60 times per second. You will hear that 60 Hz tone, as well as overtones of 60 Hz (such as 120, 180, 240 Hz).\n\nedit: typo in overtone frequencies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the hum of the appliances isn't being caused by the appliance itself. You've probably heard about how the electricity in our houses is of a type called alternating current. Without really going into the specifics of why we use it, what this actually means is that the direction of the electricity in your home and coming through your power outlets reverses direction many of times a second, usually 50 or 60, depending on your country. We refer to as 50 or 60 hertz, hertz is abbreviated as Hz which is just a unit meaning times something occurs per second. As a result, many appliances have components in them which will also operate at this same frequency. They may produce a small sound at a certain point during every cycle of the current, think of the sound a tiny switch would make, and so all of those small sounds add up to produce a constant tone at the same frequency of the electricity running through them. Depending on your country this will either cause the device to produce a G note if the power grid is operating at 50 hertz, or an A sharp/B flat if the device is operating at 60Hz.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most appliances use AC induction motors. These operate at the power grid AC frequency which is usually either 60 or 50 Hz. (There are advantages and disadvantages to either 60 or 50Hz AC.)\n\nUnder the A4-440 logarithmic temper system, the note G corresponds to 49, 98, 196, 392, 784, or 1568 Hz. One thing you'll notice is that these are all multiples of 2 of each other. G2-98 is one octave higher than G1-49. G1 is the first G on a grand piano. There are some neat physics reasons why octaves are defined this way.\n\n*You'll notice that G1-49 is pretty close to 50 Hz. So I'm guessing your area uses 50Hz in the power grid.* \n\nWith AC motors, they will tend to rotate either 360 or 180 degrees during each AC cycle, depending on the orientation of the windings in the motor. This will be responsible for much of the hum from any appliances that use electric motors.\n\nAnother common source of electrical hum is an interesting effect called \"Magnetostriction.\" This is where an object shrinks or grows slightly in length when exposed to a magnetic field. This is a property that occurs n many metals. Small earphones often make use of this effect because it requires no moving parts. A small piece of a material with a strong Magnetorestrictive is wound with a fine copper wire. Most modern electronics use a power transformer to convert or \"step down\" 120V to something like 3.3 V. The transformer is composed of a looped iron core with a series of windings or coils around it. This generates a magnetic field through the core 50 times every second causing it to vibrate slightly due to Magnetostriction. This is a source of noise in appliances which has actually proven tricky to eliminate. The best way is to mount the iron core on rubber bumpers to absorb some of the sound.\n\nThere are advantages and disadvantages to either 60 or 50Hz AC.\n\nMost sources of municipal power don't tend to be pure sine waves of a single frequency. rather, they will contain moderate voltage fluctuations at higher frequencies. In other words, \"dirty\" power. The most common contamination is the third harmonic. that is: 50\\*3=150 Hz. This is between D3 and D3#.\n\nYou may be able to hear this frequency coming from large distribution transformers. This is not just becsue their large size makes the magnetorestriction effect larger. In fact, most distribution networks use 3-phase power. That is, they have 3 conductors instead of two, and the AC waveform in each line is separated by 6.6 milliseconds or 1/3 of a cycle. [it looks like this.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105247",
"title": "Alarm clock",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Digital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Digital alarm clocks can make other noises. Simple battery-powered alarm clocks make a loud buzzing or beeping sound to wake a sleeper, while novelty alarm clocks can speak, laugh, sing, or play sounds from nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3759879",
"title": "Off-hook tone",
"section": "Section::::North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Some central office switches in the United States, notably older GTD-5 EAX systems, utilize a single frequency tone, 480 Hz, known as \"High Tone\" for this purpose. In either case, the tone is substantially louder than any other signal transmitted over a copper POTS circuit; loud enough to be heard across a room from an unused off-hook telephone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488815",
"title": "Utility frequency",
"section": "Section::::Audible noise and interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "AC-powered appliances can give off a characteristic hum, often called \"mains hum\", at the multiples of the frequencies of AC power that they use (see Magnetostriction). It is usually produced by motor and transformer core laminations vibrating in time with the magnetic field. This hum can also appear in audio systems, where the power supply filter or signal shielding of an amplifier is not adequate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1255407",
"title": "Induction cooking",
"section": "Section::::Cooking properties.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "A small amount of noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Audible electromagnetic noise (a hum or buzz) may be produced by cookware exposed to high magnetic fields, especially at high power if the cookware has loose parts; cookware with welded-in cladding layers and solid riveting is less likely to produce this type of noise. Some users may detect a whistling or whining sound from the cookware or from the powered electronic devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17717",
"title": "Locomotive",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to multiple units.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "BULLET::::- Noise : A single source of tractive power (i.e., motors in one place), is quieter than multiple operational power units, where one or more motors are located under every carriage. The noise problem is particularly noticeable in diesel multiple units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2227992",
"title": "Mains hum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Mains hum, electric hum, or power line hum is a sound associated with alternating current at the frequency of the mains electricity. The fundamental frequency of this sound is usually double of fundamental 50 Hz or 60 Hz, 100 Hz or 120 Hz depending on the local power-line frequency. The sound often has heavy harmonic content above 50–60 Hz. Because of the presence of mains current in mains-powered audio equipment as well as ubiquitous AC electromagnetic fields from nearby appliances and wiring, 50/60 Hz electrical noise can get into audio systems, and is heard as mains hum from their speakers. Mains hum may also be heard coming from powerful electric power grid equipment such as utility transformers, caused by mechanical vibrations induced by magnetostriction in magnetic core. Onboard aircraft (or spacecraft) the frequency heard is often higher pitched, due to the use of 400 Hz AC power in these settings because 400 Hz transformers are much smaller and lighter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41002",
"title": "Weighting filter",
"section": "Section::::Audio applications.:Environmental noise measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A-weighted SPL measurements of noise level are increasingly to be found on sales literature for domestic appliances such as refrigerators and freezers, and computer fans. Although the threshold of hearing is typically around 0 dB SPL, this is in fact very quiet indeed, and appliances are more likely to have noise levels of 30 to 40 dB SPL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6cy93m
|
how can there be so much opiate prescription drug abuse when, in theory, the number of manufactured pills and the number of prescriptions are known? isn't it obvious the pills are being abused?
|
[
{
"answer": "Very nearly all of the prescription opioids used in the US are almost certainly obtained with prescriptions and then used or sold. The issue is that those prescriptions are not necessary or obtained by patients faking pain (which is remarkably easy to do and difficult for someone else to prove you're doing it). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because pharma companies pay doctors off to prescribe more of their pills so they can make more money. They don't give a shit, its all about the Benjamins.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This assumes that the hundreds of labs manufacturing this substance worldwide are in close communication with the tens of thousands of individual pharmacies that fill these prescriptions. It also assumes that either of them have some financial motivation (it's a business, there aren't many other motivations) to keep track of this. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Prescribing opioids for pain is a murky business. You're treating something that's not objectively measurable, with something people can rapidly become tolerant to, so dosing is substantially based on what patients say. There are no tests which can establish that patient A's pain is controlled on 200 mg/day of hydrocodone but not 150.\n\nThe most common immediate source of pills is from friends or family, but indeed, those pills had to either come from a pharmacy or be smuggled across the border. Heroin and synthetic opioids continue to come in illegally, but pills usually come from legitimate makers. So, how does the supply get as big as it is?\n\n* Prescribing too long. It's quite common to prescribe anything in intervals of a month, for no real reason besides habit and tradition. A notorious example is a 30-day supply of opioids after wisdom tooth removal, which often requires no more than a few days' worth, or can even be controlled without opioids. The rest of the 30-day supply may linger in a cabinet until someone else wants it. \n\n* Prescribing too much. Let's say patient A gets OK pain control on 100 mg/day of hydrocodone. They could accurately report that... but they're unemployed, and worried about making ends meet... so they say it takes 200, and sell half their supply. \"Pill mills\" may simply not care.\n\n* Doctor shopping. While state databases have helped reduce this problem, a dedicated person may still be able to obtain multiple prescriptions from different providers.\n\n----\nEDIT: To clarify, doses here are purposely on the ridiculous end to prove a point about the ample supply of opioids. That said, highly tolerant users and abusers absolutely do go well into the hundreds of morphine equivalents per day. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Should also add the big pharma is the biggest lobby in Washington. That should tell you something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've heard that insurance companies are actively starting to run audits to try and see this kind of thing via claims. It's a fascinating approach to the issue. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Yea it has a lot to do with big pharma pushing opiate pain relievers. They're cash cows for those companies that produce them. A couple decades ago opiate pain relievers were reserved for extreme circumstances and pain. But big pharma began pushing for their use with more common ailments. \nThere are plenty of numbers on the the amounts of pills being shipped to each state but practices to stop overprescription is difficult. I've even read that Purdue the maker of OxyContin has a database of doctors they are watching as possible \"pill mill\" doctors but don't share it with the DEA saying it's not their job to police prescribers. It's really all about the money. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Canadian pharmacist here.\n\nGetting opioid medications is a 2-step process: the physician needs to OK it, and the pharmacist needs to OK it. Both of these checkpoints are failing.\n\nFrom the physician's side:\n\nImagine you're a physician and a patient presents to you saying they are in pain (or has a bad cough.) Pain is very subjective so it's difficult to judge if they're lying or how much pain they are in. These people also tend to be very clingy and would refuse to leave your office until they get something. What do you do? You give them something hoping the pharmacist would stop them.\n\nThere are also other perspective the physician can take. They could consider it as harm-reduction (at least they're not using xxx.) They could be an irresponsible practionner (money is involved.) They could be working in a area with a high addict population; suddenly opioids become the norm and it's hard to judge what is abuse and what is common place.\n\nFrom the pharmacist's side:\n\nA patient arrives to the pharmacy. You have your doubts that the patient needs it, but the prescription is valid. Like the physician, the pharmacist really also don't want to deal with this BS: You want to get on with your day and move onto other patients; You want to make that patient leave ASAP; You want to make money; You consider it as a harm reduction approach. If you're a busy pharmacy processing 300 prescriptions a day, you don't have time to deal with this. if you're a slow pharmacy processing 50 prescriptions a day, you really need the money.\n\nIf you don't fill their prescription: They might attack you or threaten to be outside for you when you leave); They might rob you (robberies for narcotics are VERY common); They might sue you for discrimination; The physician might also get mad that you for not trusting them. One other common tactics that pharmacists use is to lie that they don't carry it. In this case, the prescription is handed back to them which only pushes the problem onto other pharmacists; they can easily find someone else to fill it for them.\n\nWhat doesn't have much repercussions is actually filling the medication. The prescriber has already OKed it and the adverse effects are well know. If the patient is abusing it or is harmed, everyone expected it so pharmacist doesn't really take the blame. Both the prescriber and the pharmacist know that they're only responsible for the medication itself. No one will take responsibility for addiction.\n\nIllegitimate ways to obtain prescription narcotics are actually very limited. Addicts would much rather illegal drugs over prescription drugs that are more difficult and expensive to obtain. Common strategies these people use are \"Double Doctoring\" - going to multiple prescribers to get multiple narcotic prescription; or \"Prescription Forgeries\" - faking/copying/editing a prescription. Physicians and pharmacists who get involved in this get into a lot of shit, so they are very careful and aren't afraid to call the patient out on it with strict laws behind them.\n\n**EDIT**:\n\nThere are a few questions concerning how we know a prescription is forged. There are a few safety measures/red flags:\n\n- Many pharmacies are equipped to automatically and instantly upload prescriptions online\n\n- Some pharmacies have a procedure to confirm with the prescriber for each one\n\n- Insurance companies instantly know if it has been filled\n\n- Some prescriptions require special paper for the prescription to be written on\n\nRed flags include:\n\n- The patient has never been to this pharmacy\n\n- The prescriber has never been documented at this pharmacy (they might be a legit prescriber, but far away; why would the patient travel so far)\n\n- The patient looks anxious/is lying/not cooperating with the pharmacist's questions/counselling\n\n- The hand written prescription is legible.\n\n**EDIT**: \n\nFirstly, I am an Albertan Canadian pharmacist. I have no ideas of the roles/laws outside of the province, let alone the US or other countries. Just to list off a few things Albertan pharmacists can do: independently prescribe any medication (except narcotics), independently adapt the strength, dose, formulation, regimen, type of drug, ect. for any medication, independently renew prescriptions, prescribe in an emergency, dispense for animals, administer vaccines, administer injections, develop care plans, order lab tests, refuse prescriptions. And we get paid for all of them. Yes, even the refusal. When a pharmacist make any change, they are a sole responsible prescriber. No, family physicians aren't happy.\n\nNow just because we CAN, doesn't mean we should/will. A responsible pharmacist will know when they are not competent enough and refer to someone else. This is like how although dentists are allowed to prescribe anything, they should stay within their scope. Pharmacists know the medications very well, but we're not the best at diagnosis, so we will still be referring to physicians for most ailments. Most pharmacist aren't comfortable with prescribing and will refer for most things. However, we are getting more comfortable with prescribing for minor ailments. Also, many pharmacists are also getting specializations for a specific field (eg. diabetes.)\n\nSecond, I am getting a lot of comments about it's not the pharmacist's business how to manage patient's prescription. This is absolutely false as this is literally our job description, especially in Canada and the US. When something goes wrong, both the pharmacist and the prescriber are equally responsible. ~~For many countries in the world, \"pharmacist\" are people straight of out high school with no higher education. In these cases, their role is very limited.~~ Looks like I'm completely wrong on this. Canadian and US pharmacists have a ~3-4 years of university professional degree, and for various reasons, we're paid literally 2-4 times more than pharmacists from most European countries (yes even the developed ones).\n\nOur job description: We make sure that your medications are indicated, effective, safe, and manageable. Indicated means that it's the right medication for the right condition for the right patient. Effective means that the dose/strength of medication is appropriate. Safe means that the benefits outweigh the potential harm. Manageable means that you can actually take the medication by the prescribe regimen - this includes addiction concerns.\n\nIf we do see a problem, we can either take care of it independently (and be the sole responsible prescriber) or contact the original prescriber to give a second opinion (this is why your prescriptions take so long, because we're always on ~~the phone~~ hold with the receptionist.) The prescriber can change the prescription and fax us a new one or cancel it completely. Nevertheless, we will contact everyone involved about the actions we took. No matter what happens, best practice states that the pharmacist must refer the patient to someone to can help them.\n\nExample 1:\nA family physician gave a patient a narcotic prescription. The pharmacist caught that the patient was double doctoring. The pharmacist refuses to fill. After the patient leaves, the pharmacist notifies all prescribers involved and all pharmacies involved to cancel the prescriptions.\n\nExample 2:\nA dentist gave an antibiotic prescription for a urinary tract infection. Although dentists are legally allowed to prescribe anything they want, this is not within their scope of practice. The pharmacist deems the dentist incompetent in the field and refuse the fill the prescription. The pharmacist refers the patient to a walk-in-clinic. The pharmacist then notifies the dentist.' NOTE: just because it's outside of their scope doesn't mean that we have to refuse. The dentist could be fully competent and assessed the patient appropriately, plus pharmacists also can assess the patient and confirm the dentist's prescription.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pharma makes more profit if there is extensive abuse, hence why we have the intensive abuse problems we have in America.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are interested in this situation the book \"[Dreamland](_URL_0_)\" is excellent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't see what you're getting at. Is it that \"someone\" in government would notice that more pills are being produced than prescribed (is that even true?) and then they would start fighting really hard to... what, limit the number of pills produced?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know how much value this will add to the numbers portion of your question but here in the U.S., people going to the emergency room for \"pain\" add to the problem. How big or small the contribution, I couldn't say. Due to emergency rooms and hospitals in general being graded from patient care surveys, doctors are more likely to prescribe a painkiller for someone in pain but no actual proof. They also take up important attention that nurses and doctors could have given to someone with real problems instead of having to fetch ice, blankets etc for said pill seeker. From the experiences of family members who work between several ER's and EMS services, it's sounds like doctors are stuck between a rock and hard place because the patient satisfaction determines some sort of payout that the hospital receives from insurance. They drain important resources that could be saving someone else's life so its like having to make a judgement call on which factor means more, especially when nurses are understaffed any way. Perhaps someone else here who deals with it on a first hand basis can explain in better detail than me, but I am of the opinion that it plays a factor in enabling drug seekers with addiction problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also important to note that Medicare reimbursement is now tied in part to patient satisfaction, and it's planned to increase that portion of it over the years. \n\nTake everything that everyone mentioned here, and add to it the fact that a doctor will stand to possibly lose money by not giving in to a patient's demands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are other ways to get those pills rather than just through the health system. It’s a drug. Generics are made in other countries. China especially. They find their way over here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former pharmacy tech here.\n\nFor C-II (C2s, which opiates are) we would always look at the prescription and get the person's birth date and phone number (if it wasn't already on there, if it was, we verified it). Then we would take it to the pharmacist who can log into a system and use the information on the prescription to see if this person had a C2 filled anywhere else recently. So if you gave me a prescription for 90 Vicodin but we see that you just had 90 Vicodin filled at a different pharmacy 3 days ago, we're not filling it. We also know who the shady doctors are and won't fill the prescriptions they write.\n\nWe only get a certain amount of controlled substances per month and can't order any more than that. Part of the abuse comes from doctors that don't care and pharmacies that don't care. The 2 pharmacies I worked for were pretty strict about their C2 prescriptions. \n\nHowever; if your pharmacy is filling an unusual amount of C2s, the DEA can drop by at any time and check these kinds of things out. \n\nTL;DNR: in the pharmacy we can find out how many C2s you've had filled and won't fill it if it looks suspicious. But there are pharmacies that don't care and will do it anyway.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[It is pretty obvious when you look at the data. The will to do anything about it is missing.](_URL_0_)\n\n > In six years, drug wholesalers showered the state with 780 million hydrocodone and oxycodone pills, while 1,728 West Virginians fatally overdosed on those two painkillers, a Sunday Gazette-Mail investigation found.\n\n > The unfettered shipments amount to 433 pain pills for every man, woman and child in West Virginia.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[Pain used to be massively under-treated](_URL_0_).\n\nUntil recently people in severe long term pain were just being fucked by the system because \"drugs are bad mkay\" attitude.\n\nThis is only slowly changing, and that means a lot more pain killers are prescribed now. It's a very good change, as it leaves fewer people in severe long term pain.\n\nIn terms of numbers, the whole abuse story is just a minor unfortunate sideshow.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "My great grandma's doctor would prescribe her opioids. The problem was, she was demented and he would steal them and no one would believe she wasn't abusing the drugs. \n\nSo a lot of the abuse is done via fraud or people selling their prescription.\n\nIt doesn't help that that doctor, when he was caught stealing from patients was simply moved to a different medical facility and continues to be a practicing doctor, despite having substance abuse problems. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Big pharma is well aware of the abuse and the gigantic black market where powerful pain pills are sold for ridiculous prices. Upwards of $100 a pill in certain areas, if not more.\n\n\nTake the drug Opana for instance (oxymorphone). A synthetic opiate that is extremely strong when taken intranasally (snorted) but very weak when swallowed. The bioavailability (how much of the drug is actually absorbed into your body) is 43% with intranasal but only 10% when swallowed. It's over four times stronger when snorted. Why would they even make a pill form of opana when there are other drugs that have a very high bioavailability percentage when taken orally? (Such as oxycodone which is also regularly abused)\n\nThe answer is they are making a shit pile of money off these drugs, they are in insanely high demand by opiate addicts. This lack of concern from the drug companies has created a black market of what is essentially heroin like drugs in pill form. Many people shoot these drugs intravenously, which they are obviously not designed for, and that can cause massive amounts of harm for addicts.\n\nWhile I stress that nobody ever wakes up one day and decides they want to become a opiate addict, ultimately these people are responsible for their own actions. Opiates are necessary in the medical world, but they are being over prescribed at an absolutely alarming rate. They are not currently being issued in responsible or acceptable levels, and it's leading to a massive amount of good hearted people having every single ounce of joy and happiness sucked away from them. The desperation and misery of an opiate addict is something I wouldn't wish on my worst enemy. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a previous life, and prior to the manufacturing and prescribing restrictions on opiates (back in the late 2000s), I worked at a small pharmacy in Florida. There were pain clinics specifically interested in giving out prescriptions for opiates. We'd have folks coming into the pharmacy with Rxs for 360 pills of opiates and 360 pills of benzodiazepines (always Xanax) at a time, 3 month supply. I don't know how the healthcare databases worked in 2008, but heroin addicts would come in with their dealers to pick up the prescriptions- not sure if they could fill a Rx in Georgia in the same month (would be profitable). I have no idea how it is currently, I live in Canada now and I don't work in pharmacies because the experience in the states turned me off of it. What I can say is that it was not regulated very much prior to 2009. Now docs are more careful, but getting hooked on opiates has a very well-known cure: finding your local heroin dealer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two points:\n\n1, No one can get rich by stopping it.\n\n2, Many people are getting rich by allowing it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's harder to get them if you're legit, seriously. Addicts will lie and do just about anything to get them. I don't know how this answers your question however.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm in Vietnam at the moment. I can walk outside my building and get Codeine and other opiate meds from one of the several pharmacies on my street for $2 without a prescription. So theres that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where I live they \"solved\" the opiate problem by severely restricting prescriptions to opiate pain killers to the point that they would only prescribe me ibuprofen when I tore a mussel in my back and was in absolute agony. So now a ton of people just switched to heroine as their drug of choice to abuse. Way better off having folks pop a pill to get high than sticking a needle in their arm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "massachusetts has a big problem in this very area\n\nthey cracked down on dr. feelgoods a few years ago and politicians are still promoting the crackdown as a huge success.\n\nnot only did they watch prescriptions but they would limit the number of pills you could buy at one time. this way you could only buy a 7 day supply for example instead of a 3 month supply -- which of course made copays much higher\n\nwell, yes it was somewhat successful ... at driving up heroin usage. heroin is relatively cheap and widely available in massachusetts",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My mother-in-law was prescribed 240 methadones a month for pain caused by neuropathy. She could get by on about half that. She would sell the other half to a guy who would have done heroin if he had not got the pills from her. She used the money to supplement her Social Security. \n\nTo answer OP's question: no it was not obvious they were being 'abused.' I would say it was more like they were being misused. Never felt great about it but never felt it was bad enough to report. Now she's gone and we choose to remember better stuff about her. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of all the media hysteria there's a lot of people with genuine need who can't get relief. Doctors are scared to death to prescribe pain meds now. If you wind up like my elderly mother you are in a world of hurt. Just to make sure the bad guys don't abuse it. Not cool. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People love money, this is the most basic reason for all ethical breaches you can imagine in nearly any situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am just going to make a plug here. In Utah where I practice pharmacy they made a change to allow a pharmacist to give you naloxone (think antidote for opioid overdose, much like an epipen is for an allergic reaction) without a prescription. Many other states are allowing this too. If for any reason, legal prescription or otherwise, you or someone you know might benefit from having naloxone available, please talk to your pharmacist, we want to help! And if your pharmacist is an asshole and wants to see proof why you need it, go find a new one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was perscribed 120 pills of Oxycodone for my knee surgery\n\n15 I took for pain\n\n105 I took for pleasure\n\nThe abuse comes in how often they are perscribed and how easily they are perscribed. Its really up to the doctor to say how many pills a person needs because each person IS different and some need a ton of pills ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at it this way, you have addicts that want opiates. That gives you supply and demand. So let's say you go too the doctor with a legit complaint. He gives you a 30 day supply of opiates and you go home. 3 days later your better and the pills sit in the cabinet. Then someone down the road either asks if they can borrow some or because you need/want money you sell your excess for cash. Now you have people who are very good at convincing doctors they are in extreme pain and the doctor prescribes 90 to 120 pain pills. This person has no pain at all, but they are playing the system and selling off the entire prescription for a lot of money. Those are the 2 ways pills hit the street legally. Now in some states they are cracking down, so if you need long term treatment with opiates you go to a Pain Management specialist and they do random drug tests and pill counts to combat the con artists. In other places you have very little oversight. The problem is we never developed a nationwide monitoring and protocol system for opiates. It's being done slowly on some state levels but if one does nothing then it can generate a huge supply. Big enough to ship to states that have cracked down. One day the dea and fda might become useful and help create a nationwide monitoring system, and develop procedures for how the pills are prescribed under certain conditions. This would considerably alter the supply. However we must also realize that prescription opiates aren't the only ones being talked about in the reports that get cited on the news. Street drugs are included in most reports about the opiate problem including heroin, which depending on where you are is cheaper than the prescription pain pills. \n\nTL;DNR 2 streams of legal prescriptions, people with excess that give away or sell excess pills and con artists who fake out the docs and sell their entire scrip. Coupled with no national monitoring or prescribing protocol, and a huge dash of politics and lobbying. Hope that helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are pill mills in every small town in Mississippi.. literally hand the receptionist $100 and tell the dr what you want.. I work in our family owned pharmacy and there is a website you can go to and check a patients recent \"transactions\" and we decide from there if we fill the prescription or not.. some people like cancer patients really need it, but the ones that have had like 240 pills in the past month from 4 different prescribers filled at 4 different pharmacies are not getting any medicine.. a lot of time it depends on the day and how busy we are also.. most of them have no insurance so they pay with cash and on a large prescription (120 Percocet) you can profit like $65-$70 after the cost of pills.. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch Prescription Thugs on Netflix. All will be explained. There's another good one by the same guy about sports and steroids if you wanted to learn about that too. Clarifies much of both problems in a very entertaining way",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is anecdotal but a doc in my town was prescribing them to patients and buying them for his own use. I'm not sure how they caught him but I imagine that it's tougher to see it happening when all the paperwork looks legitimate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Opioids are still the Gold standard for pain relief. They have the greatest effect with minimal damage compared to other pain relief drugs. People think pain is temporary but it is not. Imagine having the worst toothache you have ever experienced forever, every day forever. Some go through that daily and the only thing they have to rely on for relief is opioids. Should they be punished for the illicit use. Yet they are, even considering that only 3-5% of chronic pain sufferers ever become addicted to their medication. Every chronic pain sufferer would give their first born if there was a non-narcotic that handled their pain as opioids do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who get the prescription sell a portion or all of pills on the street. If they've been on pills for a long time they usually will be getting a higher strength pill and more of them than someone starting on day 1 of pain management. So they can sell half there pills and still keep enough to make there pain manageable if they actually need them if not they sell them and pocket the cash. A month's supply of say 60 oxycontin 40s could cost a medicaid patient a dollar or 2 for the copay and can be sold back in the day for any where from 15-25 bucks a piece. 15 was the going bulk rate 25 the individual price for name brand generic were usually 20. Lots of money to be made.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't seen much of the other big source: illegal manufacturing. If you have a chemist and a press, you have oxy 30s. While for pharmaceuticals, the source is largely prescription and pharmacy abuse, harsher narcotics like fentanyl are typically illegally manufactured as opposed to obtained. This is why so many oxy abusers are dying from fentanyl overdoses. Fent laced oxy(or just fentanyl) pressed as oxys or dillys. Also why there are so many fentantl overdoses in the first place. It's stronger and cheaper to produce than codiene and hydro morphine and can be smuggled in smaller amounts for more impact so when illegal manufacturers press their batches they just use fent instead of whatever opioid it's supposed to be. New but rare drugs making their way onto the scene are carfentanyl and w18. I was my cities first confirmed case of w18 laced drugs when I pissed negative for heroin and fentantyl after a clinical piss test in which I admitted to doing heroin. I expected it to be fentanyl laced at least but had never heard of w18 and I was very involved in the scene at the time. That was last summer. Lots of factories on the west coast and asia smuggling this stuff into america. I'm Canadian and our stuff typically comes into canada from the states(either manufactured there or imported from asia, we do have some factories on the west coast but most are making extasy, mdma, speed, etc. the best safest mdma in north america comes from shawnigan lake on vancouver island) into alberta and then dispereses into BC and the maritimes from there. Even a lot of ontario/east coast opioid trade starts in alberta.\n\nsource: recovering heroin/fentanyl addict that has been involved with various levels of this scene and grew up with people who now or have operated at much higher levels. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My perspective is from personal experience. I'm a PA. I've worked in surgical subspecialties and did a (thankfully) pretty brief stint in pain management, back to doing surgery now. There's a lot of comments being thrown around about how doctors are getting kickbacks/getting paid off/getting bribed by \"big pharma\" to prescribe more pain pills. Yeaah, that isn't happening. Take my word for it. Pharmaceutical companies are basically only allowed to give doctors food and pens and shit like that. No one is suddenly starting to prescribe a bunch of dilaudid because they got a nice cheese tray at the office.\nThe trouble with treating pain is that you can't measure it, and if someone comes to you complaining of say, back pain, chances are the harder you look the more you'll find anatomical reasons that the person might be in pain. Almost no one has stone-cold normal imaging, and it's hard to tell someone that they're just 'making it up' if there are some abnormalities that could potentially be painful. Postlaminectomy syndrome, a condition where a person has chronic back pain despite undergoing surgery and has no identifiable lesion that could be fixed surgically, is a great example of this. The person had back surgery, never got better, and imaging shows nothing conclusive to be fixed. How do you separate those people feigning continued pain from those really in pain? The simple answer is, you can't. People in chronic pain are often depressed, jobless, and destitute, so even your gut feeling may be thrown off by their presentation. \nIn pain management, we use all kinds of methods to try to figure out who's legit and who isn't- random pill counts, drug screens, checking state databases that show who filled what prescription when. Even with all of this, people are very adept at gaming the system and it takes a long time to catch them in the act. When you do, you kick them out of your practice and they move on to the next. This is part of the problem. Many states have what are called controlled substance monitoring databases, electronic record systems that keep track of who is filling what prescriptions. This can cut down on doctor shopping, but there's no national database, no information sharing, so you get patients who travel state to state filling scripts and unless you're logging into all those systems and checking, you won't catch them. There is a real need for a national system. \nThe biggest problem I think is that we need to be more forceful about when pain medication is appropriate. There has been research showing that chronic opioid therapy for back pain is ineffective in the long run. Neuropathic pain is better treated with other types of medication, like TCAs, gabapentin, lyrica- yet people are still being prescribed opiates for it. Fibromyalgia, likewise, should NEVER be treated with opiates, but plenty of patient are on them for this condition. \nMost people obtain opiates from friends or family members who are getting the medication for some purpose. Many of these are people who've had surgery. Surgery is painful. Oftentimes undertreating pain after surgery can lead to poor outcome- for instance, a knee replacement patient in a great deal of pain will not push hard enough in therapy, may end up contracted and have to undergo manipulation under anesthesia or lysis of adhesions. So sometimes docs err on the side of giving a little bit more after surgery. You can see how this could leave some people with extra pain medication they would sell or give away. Anyways, I've rambled long enough.",
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"answer": "My MIL abused pretty badly. She would go to 3 different doctors per day and 3 different pharmacy, if she didn't have money for a Dr then off to the ER. She would burn through 30-60 Percocet per day, then when she felt like shit coming down she would call the ambulance to take her to the hospital. She always had bruises and rashes on her from falling down and not bathing. The cops and EMTs thought she was being abused. One cop yelled at my wife that she was a terrible daughter. One cop filed charges against my wife and we had to bring the script copies to show the judge. We tried calling all the doctors in the area to let them know she was abusing, we tried contacting social services, we tried getting her to do treatment and then she died.",
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"answer": "My personal experience with the situation is this. I'm from the south in the u.s. In ghetto like neighborhoods older, seedy characters are abusing the health care system. Like others have said, pain is not measurable, However a \"script\" for oxy, hyrdo or what not holds a street value at about a dollar a milligram. What I see most is the patient would rather have crack. Crack dealer buys the bottle of pills for a deal, seller buys crack or something. Dealer probably has regular(addicted) clientele. Business is daily and lucrative. To the extent where the addicts are waiting on the day the dealers connect refills his/her monthly script.. while also seeking any other possible hookup. Maybe heroin...that's when a dangerous addiction/habit wander closer to...you get the point. Pain pills form of currency. When you don't even need or take them",
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"answer": "Well the government is behind it for one - it's a huge cash cow.\n\nIf you don't believe me just look at Afghanistan pre 2001 (low). Since its increase 35 fold. Coincidence that our invasion increases that production? \n\n",
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"answer": "Yes. The number of pills manufactured and sold are generally known quantities, as far as I'm aware. The abuse is driven by opioids being over-prescribed by doctors, which just puts more pills out there. And a LOT of people get their pills by exaggerating and taking illness. They can then turn around and sell those pills for a cash profit. They become dealers who use their unwitting doctors as suppliers. \n\nThis is compounded by the fact that pills are a huge target for thieves. Especially for the elderly. \n\nSo even though we know how many pills are being prescribed and manufactured, we also know that a lot of those pills change hand after the fact. \n\nSource : spouse is a chemical addiction therapist. ",
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"answer": "Big pharma pays law makers to look the other way. \n\nSane reason we re one of two countries that allows direct to consumer advertising on tv. \n\nLobbyists are paying govt officials to look the other way by donating to their campaigns.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You seem to be under the impression that the manufacturers don't want them to be abused. They absolutely want them to be abused. That is why these companies lobby very hard to keep their drugs the only options. ",
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"answer": "Story:\nI had my tonsils out two years ago at age 35. Was prescribed normal two week dose of oxy to handle pain. I recognize I love the stuff....got to the end of two weeks and needed (I.e wanted ) two more days of pills to ween off....I believe it was 4 or 6 pills total I wanted. I called doctors office who did procedure and was asked to come in and speak directly to surgeon who removed my tonsils. I sat in front of her and specifically asked for only 4 to 6 individual pills more. After debating with her for 5-10 minutes she finally relented and handed over prescription.\nWent to pharmacy to fill prescription.\nWhen I opened bag up there were 100 pills in the vial!!\nI called the doctors office to tell them there was an error and I got too many and they could care less. I pulled 4 out and told the wife to hide the rest.\nStill haven't found it. \nDammit \n",
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"answer": "If you're like me, you don't like opiates. Imagine getting a 30 day supply of Percocet after a surgery but only take half that. Now you have a 15 day supply. You leave them in the cupboard and forget about them. A nosy cousin comes over and finds them and sells them to his/her friends. Boom. Opiate abuse.\n\nThis didn't happen to me, I disposed of them using coffee grounds and dropped them off at the police drug drop.",
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"answer": "There's big money involved and pharmacy companies have a lot of sway. Doc's are happy & want to be safe, addicts know how to make things happen. I've read Burroughs' book/autobiography and even though it's outdated from today, doctor's are people and they can be played or pressured just as any other person. \n",
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"answer": "U.S. Pharmacist here\nTo answer your question directly (most responses here are parroting the everyday reasons/causes of our current opioid epidemic), you asked how is it not obvious the pills are being abused if we know the number of manufactured pills and number of prescriptions.\n\nThe thing is that we *don't know* either of those numbers. The number of pills manufactured & sold by a company is proprietary information and therefore not publicly available. That information also wouldn't be meaningful in identifying severity of widespread abuse: Person A and Person B can both rate their pain an 8 out of 10, but Person A may need 20 mg a couple times a day to adequately reduce their pain while Person B may need 60 mg (this example is assuming neither person is lying about their pain score nor abusing the drug).\n\nThe story of the second number is similar. The number of prescriptions doctors' offices and hospitals' dole out just isn't data that has been extracted by anyone. It isn't public information, and again wouldn't really enlighten where the problem is coming from.\n\nI highly recommend the Netflix documentary, Dr. Feelgood. It follows a physician that was convicted of widespread narcotic distribution. It really highlights the muddy line between treating someone's pain and enabling addiction & dependence.",
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"answer": "Big pharma overlooks abuse thanks to profit. Simple as that, OP. Some good people still work within the industry and they are trying their best to change things, but it ain't easy when the culture is so heavily focused on profits over the mental health and all-around well-being of it's customers.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I also want to add to the many good explanation. Some pharmacies collude with dealers and basically have their shop \"robbed\". ",
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"answer": "honestly, the main issue is that determining the difference between an addict and an actual person in need is very difficult. both for the prescribing physician, and at times the patient themselves. \ni had personal experience with this very issue. after a series of foot surgeries, some of which went significantly worse than others, i spent over 6 months on heavy painkillers because just standing caused severe pain. after the first few months i couldn't help but think \"shouldn't i be healing by now? shouldn't the pain be lessening?\" \nconversations with my doctor became...awkward. \"yes, i need the prescription refilled. again. yes, i really do need it. no, you don't understand. i can't function without it. yes, i know how i sound right now.\" \nedits: words are hard. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Pharmaceutical companies marketed drugs like OxyContin extremely heavily to doctors and lied very deliberately about their addictive potential, many believing it was to intentionally addict consumers to their products. The company behind OxyContin was ordered to pay something like 4 billion dollars in court. It's much more strict now. Fun fact, that's what really created the heroin/opioid epidemic in America, the majority of heroin/illegal opioid users were first addicted to their prescribed drugs",
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"answer": "I'm not an expert on the topic but I've been a victim of our healthcare system since I was a child.\nOn top of that one of my good friends has been a doctor for many, many years. (he's in his 70's now) and took the time to explain to me exactly what goes on. (this was a while ago, so My memory might be spotty)\n\nGrowing up, I basically lived out of psychwards, since I was around 6? or 8? years old. Somewhere around there. I've been on every medication in the book. Why? Because people want an easy solution. If the kid is sedated to the point he can't function problem solved.\nEasy right?\nMany psych wards are like this. They're in it for the profit but this isn't what op wanted to talk about.\n\nNow, look at your e.r's. Doctor's are given incentives to prescribe things such as opiods and the like. There is encourangement on both sides, the insurance companies and what they will approve and the incentives pharmaceuticals will offer.\nSometimes they're ignorant. Being overworked and dealing with a shit ton of paperwork really encourages people to go with the flow.\nOther times, their job might be in jeopardy if they don't offer these things.\nHeck...most kids I know that are hooked on opiods got so because of an e.r. visit gone wrong. Hell I was thrown on morphine because I had pneumonia last winter.\n\n\nAnd it was fucking scary. Everytime it wore off I felt like shit...and grabbing more would make it feel better...but when it wore off I FELT EVEN WORSE.\nif I didn't recognize that I would be another one of those addicts laying on the street begging for heroin.\n\n\nThe entire problem is caused by the pharmaceutical indusry. But simply restricting it won't work. We've tried that...and where did that lead?\nIt lead to a shit ton of heroin overdoses. Killing tons of fucking kids everywhere.\nWe need education. We need doctors not to prescribe these to kids.\nAnd if they're already hooked, they need to help ween the kids off the shit. i've always heard it's better to do it slowly, vs cold turkey...but no matter what these people need help.\nThey need your fucking help to get their lives back together...or they'll just keep spiraling downwards until they become the very dregs of society that you despise and look down upon.\n\nIt's our fault that this happens. We should fix it.\n\n\nEdit: I'm a bit scatterbrained right now. I'll edit this and make my points a bit more clear later.\nsorry guys.",
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"answer": "I keep seeing so many comments about how people are labeled as drug seekers. We see so many patients on combinations of opiates, benzos, and muscle relaxants. At a certain point you're just biding your time for respiratory failure. ",
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"answer": "I'll throw in my two cents. Rep for a large pharma whole saler. Every visit I make to a pharmacy I'm checking the parking lot and the general look of the area for any suspicious activity and we are constantly monitoring thresholds to prevent abuse or diversion. It's not an ELI5 problem so it doesn't deserve an eli5 answer unfortunately. The problem is so fantastically difficult to solve. From the wholesaler perspective it's up to the pharmacist and physician, but when we cut thresholds they threaten to pull out of their contracts so we fee the pressure. The funny and ironic thing is that we genuinely make very little money on C2 control substances. I know that in the past we have considered not selling them in the first place but unfortunately there is a legitimate need for these medications and it's difficult to determine legitimate vs illegitimate. To solve the problem would require coordination between every doctors office in the country, all 22000 retail pharmacies, all of the chains and every wholesaler. That's why this is an issue.\n\nEdit: there is some confusions between manufacturers rep and pharmacy business consultant. I do not represent manufacturers of drugs. I work for a drug wholesaler, I do not interact with the doctor and have no control over what they prescribe. I sell generic and brand name drugs to pharmacies. ",
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"answer": "Opioids are usually pretty well tracked once they are in circulation, but when they are being manufactured from pure ingredients, you still deal with the hole of large scale manufacturing. You cannot be 100% precise, so there is room for margin of error. When you're talking millions of pills in a production line in a day or a week, few hundred here and there are not missed much. I've hear stories that in the manufacturing plants, lose and broken pills of C2 narcotics are just swept into a corner for a while before being disposed. As a pharmacist, it boggles my mind a bit since I have to account for every single tablet of controlled substances and keep a record of it.\n\nHowever, the bigger issue is not opioid diversion from the manufacturers, but people mis-using and diverting opioids that was prescribed and dispensed legally. In 1996 the American Pain Society introduced the phrase \"Pain is the fifth vital sign\" in order to address the issue of pain being under-treated. However, the issue with that was that assessment of pain is completely dependent on the subjective feelings of the patient. Unlike heart rate or body temp, there is no objective monitoring method to measure pain. Health care providers are still being taught that pain is what the patient tells you what it is. That is correct, only the person feeling the pain can tell you much pain he/she is in and what makes it better and by how much. Even the most keen-eyed prescribers cannot tell for sure whether someone is faking pain or not. Under-treated pain also became a big issue with hospital surveyors and how hospitals got paid, so there was a push to better treat pain. Of course, that usually just meant more liberal use of opioid narcotics, which created a chain reaction of people becoming addicted, prescribers writing more opioids and so on. Shady doctors writing pill-mill scripts didn't help either of course. It's a vicious cycle at this point, and I'm not sure what could be done to address the issue.",
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"answer": "Fuck all of this shit. People are dying from fucking ELEPHANT TRANQUILIZERS because PHarma marketed the shit out of their opiods. Follow the money. This epidemic is the fault of large multinational corporations chasing money. And then we have the audacity to expect then to pay taxes!",
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"answer": "This is going to get buried in amongst all the highly informative and detailed answers already posted but no one seems to have mentioned that your question itself is a non sequitur... Yes we can _see_ that there is a lot of opioid abuse happening because of what you described, but that doesn't help us _stop_ it from happening. \n \nHow would that even work? It's not like a pharmacist can just arbitrarily deny medicine to people because \"sorry according to my international manufacturing data the entire world has already given out its full quota of opiates today\". Similarly we can't just get on the phone to every pill manufacturer everywhere and just say hey, stop, you've made too much. \n \nIt's a point of basic logic. ",
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"answer": " > Isn't it obvious the pills are being abused?\n\nYes.\n\n > How can there be so much opiate prescription drug abuse\n\nMoney.\n\nAbout as ELI5 as you can get.",
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"answer": "Here's a quick scenario from personal experience. I had back surgery a few years ago and was prescribed some opioids. I am not sure why, but I got a shit load of them and then I got a refill in the mail with a shit load more a month later. I really only used them for the first few days and then I stopped taking them as the level of pain I had was not bad. I probably consumed 10% of what was prescribed to be and had hundreds of pills left. I assume that this is how a lot of them end up on the black market, I probably could've sold them for $5-10 a piece (I threw them down the toilet to prevent them from getting into the wrong hands). ",
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"answer": "It is obvious that they are being abused. But here's the thing: they're also being USED. They have a purpose, a reason for existence, and they have people who genuinely, truly, need them. You can't just say: 'wow, dude, there's a lot of abuse here, let's cut down how many we make and only give them to the people who really need them.'\n\nOr rather, you CAN say that, but good luck doing it. Because the people who genuinely need opioids are quite difficult to distinguish from those who want to abuse opioids. Partly because the people who abuse them learn, very quickly, the ways that do work and the ways that don't work to get opioids. They learn what behaviors work, and they pass that information on to other abusers. So, sure, you can say, 'too many of these pills are getting out there,' but knowing which ones are going to the wrong people and which ones are going to the right people is extremely complicated.",
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"answer": "I'm not an addict, but I had dilaudid when I was sick in the hospital and I can see how easy it is to become dependent on that kind of drug. \n\nThe shit is amazing. It was given via needle and it ***instantly*** relieved my pain. I mean within seconds my pain was gone. I felt like I could leave the hospital the moment after getting it. \n\nI can see why people would use it. Once you're addicted you might have depression with your way of life or maybe you're already in a bad spot. \n\nOpioids like dilaudid gives you a fantastic high while also making you sleepy and sluggish. Perfect for you to forget about your problems, if only for a bit. \n\nEven though I only used it for a little bit in the hospital, I could feel it calling to me. Like the One Ring calls out to Frodo to place the ring on his finger. In this case I was lucky enough to be Sam - only had it for a bit and never let it cling to me. I still end up going across the sea tho...",
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"answer": "_URL_0_ this John Oliver video explains they do it for profit ",
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"answer": "Outside of the wonderful responses related to prescriptions... \n \nMy older sister was in a bad accident and had a lortab prescription. She still has the script but has always used as absolutely NEEDED and never more. \n \n2 other family members frequently steal her pills. Someone going so far as to replace her entire bottle with similar looking pills. It took her a few to notice. She was really worried she formed a tolerance. \n \nOne of those family members found out my wisdom tooth was removed. He called me. First time we had spoken in months! It was so sweet until he started making sure they gave me a good enough script for my pain. \n \nWhen I told him I didn't fill it because I didn't have any pain he offered me money to fill it and give him the pills. I told my brother no. We aren't close.",
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"answer": "Directly answering your question. Most prescription drugs on the 'illegal market' were 'legitimately' prescribed. That is, those opiates were prescribed to someone by a legitimate doctor to a patient who has legitimate pain, and that patient then sold the drugs or had the drugs stolen (commonly siphoned away a few at a time by a relative or friend).\nOR those opiates were prescribed by a licensed medical doctor who knowingly writes prescriptions for people who don't need them in order to make money (you hear these doctors referred to on the news as pill mills).\n\nThe largest share of prescription drugs being used illegally get to 'market' this way. Large quantities aren't coming from warehouse of pharmacy break-ins (though those do happen, especially at end point locations like pharmacies, fairly frequently).\n\n\nThe problem ends up getting complicated because most opiate abuse starts out 'legitimate' - a person has real, serious pain, opiates exist and will reduce it better than other options, so 'we' prescribe them. Unfortunately, opiates are highly addictive. This problem is compounded by lots of factors, including some misleading campaigns by drug makers who advertised to physicians that xyz new opiate can't be abused and is 'safe' to prescribe. This happened with meperidine and oxycodone. I'm old enough and I've worked in pharmacy long enough to remember being told by a rep that Oxycontin couldn't be abused.\n\nI could go into more detail, but this problem gets tricky. I have some other top-level comments to other similar threads in the past which answer certain facets of the question. I'd be willing to answer any specific questions though.\n\nDisclosure: I'm a third year PharmD candidate, with 8 years experience working as a technician in a large pharmacy prior to attending pharmacy school. My main duties as a lead technician revolved around maintaining our C-II and C-345 inventory and records, among other things.",
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"answer": "Pharmacist here, in my experience there are three types of \"incorrect\" narcotic prescriptions that require intervention.\n\nFirst one is the true fake prescription, where someone stole a script pad and is writing scripts. Relatively easy to catch, most people mess something up eventually, or the doctor will notice scripts he wasn't intentionally writing when he checks the database of narcotic scripts (assuming your state had one). \n\nSecond is where the patient withholds information to get more pills. Most commonly, someone getting pain pills chronically withholds that information to an ER doctor or dentist. Again, easy to catch, I just call the doctor, letting them know what the patient is already taking, and 9 time out of 10 they say, \"oh, I had no idea they were already taking that, tear my script up\"\n\nLastly is the troublesome one. Someone in actual pain has been taking these pills for years. Their doctor has been very lenient with prescribing, and increased their dose regularly. They are now at incredibly high doses, way higher then that necessary for treatment. Should I refuse to fill? They are in pain, and will go thru withdrawal if I do. And even if I do refuse, someone else won't, and they'll eventually get the medication. Plus, it's not exactly my place to question a diagnosis when I don't get the background information he doctor's do. Personally, I look into the experience of the MD. I almost never question the pain scripts written by an oncologist (cancer doctor) or pain clinic, given their large amount of experience with pain. I have called on excessive prescriptions written by family practitioners, but even with these scripts, it's really difficult to say when a script crosses the line; very few patients receiving these scripts think they are addicts or that they are abusing the medications. Big grey area",
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{
"answer": "Since every response I've seen is long and complicated, let me see if I can simplify it. \n\nThere's essentially two pain groups: the one time/emergency/accident type and chronic. \n\nThe first category is simple. Car accident, torn ligament, severe broken bone(s), lawn mower accident. These are all legitimate reasons for a no-refill prescription. Someone has an accident and they go to the emergency room/urgent care or go see their physician and they are evaluated and given medication. \n\nThe second category are your cancer patients, disease complications, severe surgery repercussions (fusing vertebrae, neck surgery, etc). These people tend to stay on pain medication for a long time or forever in some cases. These are completely legitimate reasons for narcotics. Someone who has trouble sitting down because of back surgery, or is in constant pain from bone cancer, shouldn't be denied pain relief. \n\nBoth categories can end up being over-prescribed. Many one-time occurrences are given close to if not a full month of medication in some cases. If a chronic pain patient says that their medication isn't helping, instead of being removed from one and given another, they are occasionally put on a different medication as well as the original. \n\nNow, people who are looking to get narcotic drugs are either going to have an \"accident\" that isn't visible to the naked eye (no broken bones, etc) or a chronic injury that has bothered them since X since EVENT A happened. Now, if the patient follows all of the physician's recommendations, jumps through all the hoops, and the road eventually leads to painkillers, then what is a doctor to do? A patient claims they have pain, they've spent months visiting several times, tried physical therapy, piss clean, and have done everything the physician has asked with no complaints. Boom, meds. \n\nReally though, in the early 2000s pain medication was over-prescribed. Anybody could get them basically anywhere. Compared to the rest of the world. North America is severely over medicated, but doctors prescribe less, and it is harder for John Doe to get an opiate prescription these days. Yes, there is an opiate epidemic. A lot of people were given a legal taste of opiates and then they were taken away. That's led to research chemical abuse, and heroin usage. The opiate prescription abuse is down, but the people who were prescribes during the pill mill heyday aren't going to get kicked off if they have followed all the rules and their doctor isn't crooked. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Drug companies just keep sending pills, even if it's clear that the pharmacy they're sending to couldn't possibly need all the pills. [West Virginia was shipped so many pills in the past few years that it amounts to nearly 500 pills for each person in the state. ](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This was my experience.. I am a normal person, dress nice, speak well and am a professional - I work in an office. \n\nI had a back injury that impinged my sciatic nerve and without opioids I couldn't walk. Besides that, I couldn't think straight due to pain.. \n\nHow can I take care of my family if I don't get treatment? I couldn't.\n\nHere's the problem with \"drug seeking behavior\": it matches the behavior of someone in severe pain. I needed these pills to be pain free. I knew I needed them to do my job. I knew when I was going to run out.. I knew how long it took for the doctors office to approve a refill. I knew half the time they would forget to call it in. I knew the pharmacy hours. I knew if everything didn't go just right, then the prescription wouldn't be refilled before I run out of pills. \n\nOn top of that they make you wait until you have exactly two days remaining to do a refill and you have to call the office to get the process started, then wait a day to find out if they actually did anything because if you bother them they think you're addicted.\n\nBasically the process sets you up to look like a \"drug seeker\" when actually you're just trying to get a refill on something you need that's medically necessary so that you can pay your bills. Of course I was concerned about getting the pills.\n\nIt took two years for my back to heal. Thankfully the person who thought I was a \"drug seeker\" was the pharmacy and I was able to switch pharmacies and continue my treatment.\n\nThis was all over Tramadol which isn't even a strong opiod and I was never addicted but they make you jump through the same hoops as opiods and everyone looks at you like you're an addict.\n\nIts bullshit. People need to be pain free to live their lives.. Life is hard enough already.. Yes people need to be educated about the dangers but until we have a better medication for pain we should not force people to live in pain and make their life hard while they're trying to get treated.\n\nA life in pain is no life at all. If your pain is so bad that you're willing to risk addiction then we should let people make that decision on their own until a better medication comes along.\n\nPain makes people desperate for relief and that behavior is the same behavior as an addict- we should not have a doctor prescribing relief in one moment and then for the same symptoms accusing them of being an addict in the next moment.",
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"answer": "C'mon now...can't be that naive right? Elderly folks get tons of pain killers, normal people get tons of pain killers. Shit I have crohns disease and was on MScontin and Vicodin at the same time just for everyday pain...one person who gets a script and doesn't need the whole bottle, plus all of the meds coming from Mexico and overseas, leaves a lot of unaccounted for medication on the streets...I was addicted to opiates for my crohns and then turned to heroin...been clean a year and 5 months now, off the methadone for 5 months. It's everywhere man.",
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"answer": "All drugs should be legal. Who cares what others want to put into their body it's a health problem not a criminal problem. If Dave wants to smoke meth let Dave smoke meth. If Dave kills people on meth put him in jail. If Dave gets caught with meth cause he doesn't kill people and just likes to stay up rubbing one off for 7 hours straight? Who knows but it's a medical problem if it's not causing other people problems. \n\nYou legalize all drugs and the government can now produce these drugs and sell em and tax em legally. You want to do drugs do em! You don't? Don't do em! Remember alcohol and caffeine are drugs. We don't treat gambling addicts like drugs addicts. They are pretty much the same damn thing they just get high in different ways and always end up broke. ",
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"answer": "It's a media driven story that has never once told the other side of opiate usage about patients that use the product correctly to maintain pain free living independence. Why? because that truth doesn't fortify the false message that everyone who has said pills eventually \"shoots up\".",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It all started with 'pain is the 5th vital bullshit'. Now you get drug seeking patients in the driver seat If you don't control their 'pain' you get bad patient satisfaction scores which can result in being reimbursed less. So now the government is all concerned about opioid use, but still ding you for not prescribing by lowering reimbursement, fun times being a doctor.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "they don't fix it because there is no $$$ in fixing it. \n\nCapitalism run amok. \n\n\n//not a communist...just sayin'",
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"answer": "It would be very fucking easy! Problem is that big pharma are paying too much to doctors and politicians for any real changes to be made. Meanwhile Jeff Sessions wants to bring back the war on drugs to fight an epidemic that congress & pharma created, while the war on drugs has already proven to be ineffective. They need to come down on doctors who prescribe opiates unnecessarily and they need to treat addicts as a health issue rather than a criminal problem (obviously if they're breaking into people houses & shit to get money for drugs it becomes criminal).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Knowing how many pills are being prescribed isn't going to help anything. The problem lies in whether or not the patient is taking their meds or not. If you have medication expenses totaling $1000 a month, and you can live with your pain, selling 90 percocets for $10 a pop covers your heart meds, your blood pressure meds, and the others that keep you alive. Nobody dies from being in pain so many of those prescribed pills get sold off. There is no way to track this without having someone physically check every patients pill bottle every day and count pills. \n\n\n\nThe real problem came about 5 years ago when doctors realized pain pills were being overprescribed, and cut back on how many and how often they could be dispensed. Suddenly thousands of people who are addicted to pain pills are sick. Heroin is cheap and everywhere, and if your sick from not having any pills, and you will be if you take them every day, heroin will fix that for you really quick. No more waiting 45 minutes for swallowed pills to work, just snort a little dope and you feenit within minutes. And it's so cheap compared to pills, I could spend ten bucks a day and not feel sick. 10 bucks turns into 20, 30, 50 bucks a day really quick. \n\n\n\nSuddenly you're unable to snort enough dope to get you high. You hate needles and you swore you'd never do this, but it's getting expensive to snort dope all day and not get the same feeling due to tolerance, so you let your friend shoot you up. The effect is super strong and immediate. Everyone I've ever know who shoots up dope says it's the most amazing and orgasmic feeling they have ever had, and it's cheaper! Now you can use $2 worth of dope to get high, so why not double the dose and feel double good? $2 becomes 10, 40, 100 real quick. When you don't have dope you get sick in a few hours, really sick compared to pills, and now you're broke. You need to feel better to be yourself, so you take some stuff to the pawn shop. Then one day you realize you e taken everything of value to the pawn shop, you're sick and it's awful. Your neighbor has some nice jewelry you could get a few hundred bucks for and you'd be well for a few days, maybe a week. This is how the addict mind rationalizes these things and this is how people's lives are ruined. I should know, I lived out this scenario for 10 years. The first time I snorted too much heroin and woke up covered in crusty vomit was the end of the rod for me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Old people get prescriptions thrown at them because they are old and probably gonna die soon. Then drug users like myself buy the opiates from the old lady because her social security checks ain't enough to get by on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have absolutely no experience in pharmaceuticals, abuse, or any related subject, but its time to give my two cents. What I do have is plenty of people I know who are/were addicted to opiates. Many addicts get started after they are legally and rightfully prescribed opiates after a severe injury or after a surgery. Due to taking them too long or in too high quantities, they become addicted. And some people will lie to keep getting them, or even hurt themselves to continue feeding their habit. Others will buy from others who sell their pills on the side, or any number of other methods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a former quality engineer (nothing to do with pharmaceuticals), I always wonder why manufacturers can't use lasers to etch individual pills with lot numbers, or something more specific.\n\nThere's a cost associated with that, but I think it's at least worth exploring whether that cost is more or less than the cost of law enforcement, prosecution, incarceration, treatment, premature deaths, and foster care associated with the opioid epidemic. At industrial scale, I'm skeptical that applying a trackable number to pills would be more expensive than the benefit in reducing the above outcomes. The number would better enable law enforcement to identify where diversion bus occurring.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "in short there's no aggregate data, no one willingly wants to share their manufacturing or sales numbers and the opiates are generics and come from tens of different sources",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Canada (Ontario at least), Codeine is Over-the-counter. You can buy 200 Tylenol-2 (15 mg Codeine) just by asking the pharmacists for it. $15.00. \n\nIt was a real problem for me, and it took (literally) a year for me to wean myself off. So for the US it's one thing, and for a country where things are less-regulated like Canada, it can be entirely another. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was just my thesis topic, finished a month ago!!! I'm glad you asked. I would be happy to cite any sources if you'd like.\n\nI'll ELI5 this. There are actually a lot of complex answers, and mine is WAY simplified. \n\nThe main logistical problem, at least the way you phrased the question, is that knowledge of abuse doesn't stop abuse. If you prescribe Johnny 60 pills, two pills a day, and see him on Day 24, there should be 12 pills left. But what if there aren't? What did Johnny do? Do we know? How do we find out? He could have taken them himself, he could have sold or given them to a friend (which in America among adolescents is by far the leading cause of introduction to opioids), a friend could have known he was on them and snuck them (also common) - anything. We don't know what he did. Therefore, it would be wrong to punish him for the illegal sale of prescription opioids; for all we know, they were stolen from him.\n\nWell, what if we still know exactly how many pills were prescribed and by whom, and we suspect he's selling them or taking too many because they've disappeared too fast several times? We still can't do anything about it. It's not illegal to take too many drugs, although you're right that that's by definition abuse. It IS illegal to sell, but unfortunately for us, Johnny doesn't wear an \"I SELL ILLEGAL OPIOIDS\" tshirt. He hands over a little foil packet of pills when he gets his pizza for lunch, and the *pizza guy* sells them. How could we track each pill? They don't have chips in them. \n\nNow, all this is assuming we know exactly how many pills are sold and to whom. Things get trickier with \"pill mills,\" where prescriptions are sold for money but not tracked in a system (illegal). Florida had a HUGE pill mill problem until around 2010, when state legislation cracked down by making each prescription be entered in the system. Easier said than done, but their problem has calmed down; the truth is that before 2010, it wasn't seen as an urgent problem. It crept up. (I'll get to that in a minute.) \n\nBesides pill mills, there's also doctor shopping. This is when a totally legitimate prescription is written by your GP, and then you go to your broken-bone specialist and say you're in pain and get another prescription, and then your friend goes to HIS GP and gets another and you buy it off him, etc. Basically, working the system by pretending each doctor is the only one prescribing you pills. This is again rarer now, because of inter-office patient tracking systems, but it's not that rare and still happens. So for this and for pill mills, there ISN'T a count of how many are prescribed, you see? (And yes, you could count the ones left, but nobody does that every day.) \n\nSo, in 2010 several important things happened. First, the nation and different states cracked down hard on drug abuse through different methods. I mentioned the Florida pill mill crackdown. Similar laws were put in place in the next few years, including one that said that Connecticut prescriptions could only be filled for 7 days at first and never refilled for minors (others had similar). \n\nBut the actual main thing that changed addiction was that in 2010 the manufacturers of OxyContin, Purdue Pharma, reformulated their pill. Before 2010, many people crushed and snorted the pill, or crushed it and mixed the powder with water to inject it. Way better and faster high than swallowing the pill, because the point of OxyContin was that it had a 12-hour release of its effects (it didn't -- Purdue lied -- but that's another story). By snorting it, you bypassed that. The Abuse-Deterrent Formula (ADF), though, turned to paste when mixed with water, and it couldn't be snorted or injected. \n\nSo, by 2011, there were many fewer drugs sold on the street, and the main brand previously abused was now not able to be abused. And you're right, OP, cracking down on pills does reduce the number of pills abused.\n\nHOWEVER, what my thesis was *actually* about -- and again, I'm happy to provide proof through cited sources if requested (I'm on mobile rn) -- was that the reduction in number of pills and the resulting increase in price of those pre-reform Oxys still on the market meant that an enormous number of people turned to heroin. Stronger, 8x cheaper on average for a hit, and - as you mentioned - far less traceable, because it was never prescribed. Not to mention any needle-sharing health risks, or the fact of Fentanyl or Carfentanil (which can literally kill you through skin absorption) mixed in.\n\nI'm out of time but hmu for more questions! Again, this is way simplified.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty simple: Doctor gets patient hooked on Oxy then the prescription runs out. The patient is now a junky (too bad, no help with that from the doctor) and turns to heroin or stolen pills. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rx Pricing Analyst here - I work for a major insurance company and PBM (Pharmacy Benefits Manager). We do quite a lot to find instances of fraud and abuse using the data available. Unfortunately, when we identify such fraud we can often only remove said pharmacy from being in our network. We have begun taking more drastic measures such as referring the prescription provider to their state ethics board, when we can find definitive proof. We have a team of pharmacists here that help us identify what makes sense from a clinical perspective. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Spine surgeon here. I write a fuck ton of narcotics. Spine surgery is really painful for a long period of time. You would be surprised at the volume of legitimate prescriptions I write. That being said, it is very difficult to figure out how much pain medicine someone truly needs. Pain is very subjective. For a given operation, I have had patients take about 4 doses of narcotics and flush the rest, and I have also had patients constantly requesting rx(up to 120 pills) for three months after. It is conceiveable that some of those could be diverted, but there's no good way to know. I don't want to falsely abuse a patient of narcotics diversion. Also \"not adequately treating pain\" is a common reason for medical review panels(basically the first step in initiating a lawsuit)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who do not need the medication get it prescribed so they can sell it. An investment of lets say $2000 w/out insurance can bring easily $4500. If you have insurance it could coast $220 and you make $$$ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I came to this thread looking for an explanation of how come doctors continue to prescribe opioids for anyone without adequate controls against abuse. I don't buy the theory that they are all on the take of big pharm.\n\nIt took a lot of reading to find out that:\n\n1. Some (probably not many) doctors are corrupt and don't mind creating or helping addiction.\n\n2. Some doctors are doing their best given the subjective nature of pain and the lying-nature of addicts.\n\n3. In fact limiting the prescriptions has had the unintended consequence of driving many addicts to heroin which increases the risk of overdose.\n\nI'm a big fan of doctors. The vast majority care about their patients' well-being very much. \n\n**That said, I would still challenge the medical community to come up with a protocol for monitoring patients on opiates in order to lower the risk of abuse. At the end of the day, it's their responsibility, it seems to me.** Moreover, they have the knowledge and authority to create such a protocol, far superior to the knowledge of politicians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60367555",
"title": "Opioid epidemic",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In 2015, approximately 50% of drug overdoses were not the result of an opioid product from a prescription, though most abusers' first exposure had still been by lawful prescription. By 2018, another study suggested that 75% of opioid abusers started their opioid use by taking drugs which had been obtained in a way other than by legitimate prescription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53140636",
"title": "Opioid epidemic in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In 2015, approximately 50% of drug overdoses were not the result of an opioid product from a prescription, though most abusers' first exposure had still been by lawful prescription. By 2018, another study suggested that 75% of opioid abusers started their opioid use by taking drugs which had been obtained in a way other than by legitimate prescription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511394",
"title": "Opioid",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Drug misuse and non-medical use include the use of drugs for reasons or at doses other than prescribed. Opioid misuse can also include providing medications to persons for whom it was not prescribed. Such diversion may be treated as crimes, punishable by imprisonment in many countries. In 2014, almost 2 million Americans abused or were dependent on prescription opioids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53140636",
"title": "Opioid epidemic in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Prescription rates for opioids vary widely across states. In 2012, healthcare providers in the highest-prescribing state wrote almost three times as many opioid prescriptions per person as those in the lowest-prescribing state. Health issues that cause people pain do not vary much from place to place and do not explain this variability in prescribing. In Hawaii, doctors wrote about 52 prescriptions for every 100 people, whereas in Alabama, they wrote almost 143. Researchers suspect that the variation results from a lack of consensus among elected officials in different states about how much pain medication to prescribe. A higher rate of prescription drug use does not lead to better health outcomes or patient satisfaction, according to studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14624338",
"title": "Healthcare in Nigeria",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Regulation of pharmaceuticals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In 1989 legislation made effective a list of essential drugs. The regulation was also meant to limit the manufacture and import of fake or sub-standard drugs and to curtail false advertising. However, the section on essential drugs was later amended. In 2005 it was estimated that about 16.7% of pharmaceutical drugs in the country were counterfeit. in 2012 a new study concluded that the proportion had fallen to 6.4%, of which 19.6% were Anti-Malaria medicines. In 2014 that had fallen to 3.6%. About N29 billion worth of counterfeit drugs were destroyed between 2015 – 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32255552",
"title": "Unnecessary health care",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "BULLET::::- Opiate prescriptions carry the risk of addiction. In some cases, the number of pills prescribed might exceed what is actually needed for pain relief from a given condition, or a different pain management technique or medication would be effective but less risky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60367555",
"title": "Opioid epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Outside North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Approximately 80 percent of the global pharmaceutical opioid supply is consumed in the United States. It has also become a serious problem outside the U.S., mostly among young adults. The concern not only relates to the drugs themselves, but to the fact that in many countries doctors are less trained about drug addiction, both about its causes or treatment. According to an epidemiologist at Columbia University: \"Once pharmaceuticals start targeting other countries and make people feel like opioids are safe, we might see a spike [in opioid abuse]. It worked here. Why wouldn't it work elsewhere?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19lft4
|
What are some examples of artwork by historical leaders?
|
[
{
"answer": "Winston Churchill did [a lot of painting](_URL_0_) too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stalin's also a famous Georgia Poet e.g. Morning or To the Moon",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is more literary art than visual, but I think you might be interested in the *Illustrissimi* of Albino Luciani, who would (however briefly) become Pope John Paul I. \n\nCardinal Luciani produced these documents during his tenure as the Patriarch of Venice. They constitute about forty \"letters\" addressed to various persons -- some major historical figures, and others actually fictional or non-human characters. Intriguing addressees include:\n\n- Jesus Christ (somewhat obviously)\n- Mark Twain\n- Penelope (Odysseus' wife from *The Odyssey*)\n- The members of the Pickwick Club, from Charles Dickens' *The Pickwick Papers*\n- Sir Walter Scott\n- Christopher Marlowe\n- The English novelist/poet/theologian [G.K. Chesterton](_URL_0_)\n- Pinocchio\n- Goethe\n- A bear belonging to St. Romedius\n- Guglielmo Marconi, the father of early radio\n\nThere are many more, but the above should give you a sense of the breadth of the thing. These letters addressed each recipient on a matter of philosophy or theology that was intimately tied to their particular exploits, and not all of them are entirely positive in tone. \n\nThe most regrettable feature of the experiment is that no replies were possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Frederick the Great composed music for the flute. [Here](_URL_0_) is one of his compositions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Emperor Huizong of Song was a quite noted painter, and enough of his work survives to the present to give a clear idea of his very high artistic abilities-he was at any rate a far, far better painter than emperor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While he was in Vienna, Hitler produced hundreds of paintings. They were mainly for postcards and were lost but quite a few survived and fetch a pretty penny at auction these days. Here are a few of them.\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32245591",
"title": "Praça Diogo de Vasconcelos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Its name honors the politician and historian Diogo de Vasconcelos, which stood out as a pioneer in defense of the historical and artistic heritage, mining and national level and is considered the first historian of art in Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18627197",
"title": "Rodolfo Plaza Montero",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Among the most representative works available to the public, we find historical events such as the hanging of Murillo or martyrdom Tupac Katari; outstanding characters from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries made of clay; a miniature replica, made of ceramic, the foundation of La Paz. In addition to pre-Columbian pictures of drums, some paintings of old La Paz and scenes of the old city tram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10089303",
"title": "Mișu Popp",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "But his main art legacy resides in creating many portraits of the personalities of his time (Ion Heliade Rădulescu, Andrei Mureşanu, Vasile Alecsandri, etc.) and of some famous historical figures, such as Michael the Brave, inspired from a contemporary engraving of the voivode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16076063",
"title": "Palacio de Correos de México",
"section": "Section::::Naval History Museum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Paintings are mostly portraits such as those of Pedro Sainz de Baranda y Borreyro, Blas Godínez Brito, José Sebastián Holzinger, Lieutenant José Azueta Abad, Cadete Virgilio and Uribe Roble and of historical events such as the defense of the Fort of San Juan de Ulúa during the French Intervention in Mexico, the bombing of the Port of Veracruz in 1846, the lake battle of the Spanish Conquest of Tenochtitlan, the naval battle between the \"Tampico\" and the \"Guerrero\", and the sinking of the \"Potrero del Llano.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40438987",
"title": "The Librarian (painting)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Arcimboldo created a number of portraits of people by painting an assemblage of objects such as fruits and vegetables, flowers, or in this case, books; the objects typically had some connection to the person's life or depiction. Benno Geiger called it a \"triumph of abstract art in the 16th century\". In 1957, art historian Sven Alfons was the first to conclude that this was specifically a portrait of Lazius. The work has been interpreted as both a celebration and a satirical mocking of librarians and scholarship. K. C. Elhard suggests that it may be specifically a parody of \"materialistic book collectors more interested in acquiring books than in reading them.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1912463",
"title": "Figge Art Museum",
"section": "Section::::Figge art collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The museum has over 4,000 works of art, ranging from the 16th century to the present, and is best known for its extensive collection of Haitian, Colonial Mexican and Midwestern art, particularly pieces by Thomas Hart Benton, Marvin Cone and Grant Wood, including the only self-portrait Wood ever painted. In 1990, Grant Wood's estate, which included his personal effects and various works of art, became the property of the Figge Art Museum through his sister Nan Wood Graham, the woman portrayed in American Gothic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9771863",
"title": "National Art Museum of Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Originally called the Kiev City Museum of Antiques and Art, the founders set out to put together a collection of pieces representative of Ukrainian fine art. Ranging from medieval icons to portraits of military and church leaders during Cossack times, some depicting caricatures of Mamay. Present time famous artist works included those of Taras Shevchenko, Ilya Yefimovich Repin, Vladimir Borovikovsky, Vasily Andreevich Tropinin, Mykola Pimonenko, Mikhail Vrubel, Nikolai Ge, Serhiy Svetoslavsky, and Oleksandr Murashko among many others. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24iu9t
|
Who was General Tso?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Tso Tsung-t'ang](_URL_1_) (alternately Zuo Zongtang) was a Chinese general during the late Qing dynasty, most famous for helping to quell the Taiping rebellion.\n\nI'm about to commit a horrible sin for /r/AskHistorians by linking to a TED talk. Nevertheless, this [talk by Jennifer 8. Lee](_URL_0_) (coincidentally titled \"Who was General Tso?\") is actually rather informative on the subject of American \"Chinese\" cuisine.\n\nTo answer the sub-question, \"General Tso's chicken\" is an entirely American invention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2181843",
"title": "Xu Yongchang",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "General Xu Yongchang (15 December 188512 July 1959) (Hsu Yung-chang; ; style name: Cichen (Tzu-chen)) was the Minister of Board of Military Operations of the Republic of China between December 22, 1948, and April 22, 1949, and the representative of the Republic of China on September 2, 1945, at the signing of the Instrument of Surrender of Japan that ended World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7328806",
"title": "William O. Brice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The general served in Korea as assistant commander of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing from April to October 1951. In World War II, when the Marines were fighting at Guadalcanal in America's first offensive against Japan, he commanded all United States Army, Navy, Marine and Royal New Zealand Air Force search, bombing and torpedo planes based on that island. He also headed Marine Aircraft Group 14 during its support of the New Georgia and Bougainville invasions and directed all Solomons-based Army, Navy, Marine and New Zealand fighter operations against Rabaul, Japan's biggest base in the Southwest Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "345384",
"title": "Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) (originally briefly styled Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers) was the title held by General Douglas MacArthur during the Allied occupation of Japan following World War II. It issued SCAP Directive (alias SCAPIN, SCAP Index Number) to the Japanese government, aiming to transform it into a non-terrorist nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476533",
"title": "Emmett O'Donnell Jr.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "General Emmett E. \"Rosie\" O'Donnell Jr. (September 15, 1906 – December 26, 1971) was a United States Air Force four-star general who served as Commander in Chief, Pacific Air Forces (CINCPACAF) from 1959 to 1963. He also led the first B-29 Superfortress attack against Tokyo during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322063",
"title": "Supreme Allied Commander",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek was named the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the China war zone (CBI) on 1942. However, US forces in practice were usually overseen by General Joseph Stilwell, the Deputy Allied Commander in China and South East Asia Command (SEAC). Until late 1944 that the land forces chain of command was clarified, after Stilwell was recalled to Washington. His overall role, and the CBI command were then split among three people: Lt Gen. Raymond Wheeler became Deputy Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia; Maj. Gen. Albert Wedemeyer became Chief of Staff to Chiang, and commander of US Forces, China Theater (USFCT). Lt Gen. Daniel Sultan was promoted, from deputy commander of CBI to commander of US Forces, India-Burma Theater (USFIBT) and commander of the NCAC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3074047",
"title": "George Kenney",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "George Churchill Kenney (6 August 1889 – 9 August 1977) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II. He is best known as the commander of the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), a position he held between August 1942 and 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274451",
"title": "Eric Shinseki",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Eric Ken Shinseki (; born November 28, 1942) is a retired United States Army general who served as the seventh United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs (2009–2014). His final United States Army post was as the 34th Chief of Staff of the Army (1999–2003). Shinseki is a veteran of two tours of combat in the Vietnam War, in which he was awarded three Bronze Star Medals for valor and two Purple Hearts. He was the first Asian-American four-star general, and the first Asian-American Secretary of Veterans Affairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9z5wm3
|
How do we have so many pictures and videos of the treatment of Jews in europe during the Nazi-era?
|
[
{
"answer": "Much of the footage that you see was done by the Nazis themselves. Their plan was to destroy the Jewish people and wanted to have evidence of how they had done so in a very thorough and efficient way. There was also a plan for Führermuseum - a museum whose purpose was to display a selection of the art bought, confiscated or stolen by the Nazis from throughout Europe during World War II. While ultimately the war ended before they could wipe out the Jews and build a museum, they had created a very significant amount of visual evidence of what they had been doing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3854948",
"title": "War crimes of the Wehrmacht",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of photos and letters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The attitude of German soldiers towards atrocities committed on Jews and Poles in World War II was also studied using photographs and correspondence left after the war. Photographs serve as a valuable source of knowledge; taking them and making albums about the persecution of Jews was a popular custom among German soldiers. These pictures are not the official propaganda of the German state but represent personal experience. Their overall attitude is antisemitic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30983537",
"title": "Encyclopedia of Jews in Music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The Encyclopedia of Jews in Music (\"Lexikon der Juden in der Musik\") was a Nazi-sponsored encyclopedia first published in Germany in 1940, which listed individuals involved in the music industry who were defined under Nazi racial laws as 'Jewish' or 'half-Jewish'. It was edited by Herbert Gerigk and Theophil Stengel and published in Berlin in 1940 by Bernhard Hahnefeld, with official support from the Nazi Party's \"Institute for Study of the Jewish Question\". The book's subtitle declared that it was produced \"on behalf of the national leadership of the Nazi Party for official reasons, partly officially certified documents\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2578344",
"title": "Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict",
"section": "Section::::Destruction of cultural property in World War II.:The Nazis and \"degenerate art\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Jewish collections were looted the most throughout the war. German Jews were ordered to report their personal assets, which were then privatized by the country. Jewish owned art galleries were forced to sell the works of art they housed. The Nazis concentrated their efforts on ensuring that all art within Germany would be Aryan in nature, speaking to the might of the Germanic state rather than Jewish art which was deemed as a blight on society. In a feat to \"purge\" German museums and collections, confiscation committees seized approximately 16,000 items within Germany. The remaining unexploited art was destroyed in massive bonfires. As the war progressed, the Nazi party elite ordered the confiscation of cultural property throughout various European countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26912311",
"title": "Jewish Historical Documentation Centre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Jewish Historical Documentation Centre (Zentrum für jüdische historische Dokumentation) was an office headed by Simon Wiesenthal in Linz. The centre collected and promulgated information about war crimes, specific mainly to crimes against the Jewish people as perpetrated by the Nazi Regime in Europe during the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1970651",
"title": "The Eternal Jew (1940 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The footage that Hippler shot in the Jewish ghettos of those cities in German occupied Poland was the only footage shot specifically for the purpose of the film. At the beginning of the film, animated text informs the audience that this \"documentary footage\" shows Jews in their original state \"before they put on the mask of civilized Europeans.\" In the Nazi press, Hippler expanded on this claim, asserting that his filming techniques captured Jews \"in an unprejudiced manner, real to life as they live and as they react in their own surroundings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7824051",
"title": "Rescuing Da Vinci",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Jewish Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "This book also reveals often-ignored aspects of the Nazi plan to rid Europe of its Jewish population. Photographs showing warehouses of furniture and household items from pianos to children's toys, all of which had been looted from Jewish families, symbolize the reach and extent of the Holocaust. Museums and mines full of stolen paintings show the work of the ERR, the organization in France that \"legalized\" the seizure of Jewish collections and property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83530",
"title": "Kristallnacht",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Jewish homes, hospitals and schools were ransacked as the attackers demolished buildings with sledgehammers. The rioters destroyed 267 synagogues throughout Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland. Over 7,000 Jewish businesses were damaged or destroyed, and 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and incarcerated in concentration camps. The British historian Martin Gilbert wrote that no event in the history of German Jews between 1933 and 1945 was so widely reported as it was happening, and the accounts from foreign journalists working in Germany sent shockwaves around the world. \"The Times\" of London observed on 11 November 1938: \"No foreign propagandist bent upon blackening Germany before the world could outdo the tale of burnings and beatings, of blackguardly assaults on defenseless and innocent people, which disgraced that country yesterday.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7n0h8s
|
Is there any evidence suggesting that the Roman origin myth, that it was settled by emigrees from Troy (or the Trojan war), had any basis in fact?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Homeric epics and Virgil's Aeneid, the telling of the myth of Rome supposedly founded by the descendants of Troy, are, well, myth. The Iliad tells us more about the culture of Archaic Greece at the time that the epic was put in writing than it does about the mythical time of Greek Gods and Heroes that is narrated in the epic. Same with the Aeneid, which is more about Rome and the way Rome saw itself than it about the actual historical origins of the Romans.\n\nThis said, is there evidence that could theoretically link the Latins of the time of the founding and early days of Rome with the Greek world? Let's look at a couple of objects from the archaeological record, the Corinthian Chigi Vase and the Laconian Arkesilas Cup.\n\nThe [Chigi Vase](_URL_0_) is an \"olpe\", a wine jug that in Archaic Greece could have been used to serve wine to aristocrats getting together for a \"symposion\", the custom of elite men getting together to drink wine and enjoy dance, music and poetry. The Chigi vase was made in Corinth, and its protocorinthian style allows us to date its manufacture to about the year 650 BCE. It famously depicts a battle between hoplite forces, but it also includes images of young men hunting lions and riding horses, and of children hunting rabbits with dogs. Seen as an overall narrative, it tells how to become proper Greek heroic men through the stages of youth to the adulthood as warriors. The imagery is very much a product of Greek culture of its era. And yet, it was excavated in Veio, an Etruscan city that was just north of Rome. How did it end up there? It is unlikely that it was brought to Etruria from Greece by someone hoping to find a buyer for such an unique, high-end artifact used in the Greek symposion and depicting Greek culture. It is more likely that it was commissioned by someone from Etruria who was familiar with Greek culture and customs of that time. \n\nThe [Arkesilas Cup](_URL_1_) is a xylik, a vessel used by the Greek elite for drinking wine at a symposion. It is from Laconia (Sparta), and can be dated to about a century later than the Chigi vase. It depicts a very Greek imagery, the loading of agricultural cargo in the Laconian colony of Cyrene, in North Africa. Again, like the Chigi vase, the Arkesilas Cup is very much a product of Archaic Greek culture and elite customs. And yet it was excavated in Etruria, in Vulci, about 100 km north-west of Rome. \n\nTaken together, these two objects tell us that the culture and customs of Archaic Greece were known and sought after in the area surrounding Rome, in a period ranging from the middle of the seventh century to the middle of the sixth century. There is no reason to think that this would have started suddenly in the year 650, so it is likely that there was commercial and cultural contact between the Etruscans and various parts of the Greek world in the early seventh century and possibly mid to late eight century. These are the years that are traditionally given for the founding of Rome (753 BCE) and the time of the seven kings of Rome. So while the founding myth of Rome in the time of Heroes and Gods, is just a myth that is designed to connect the history of the city to the great epics of the Greek world, it is not completely impossible that there was some actual human or cultural Greek DNA in the very early days of Rome, passed through them by the elite Etruscans.\n\n**Sources**\n\nHurwit, Jeffrey M. \"Reading the Chigi Vase.\" *Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens* 71, no. 1 (2002)\n\nOsborne, Robin. *Archaic and Classical Greek Art*, Oxford: Oxford University Press",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7205330",
"title": "Kings of Alba Longa",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Eratosthenes, the most influential of the ancient chronologists, reckoned that the sack of Troy occurred in 1184 BC, more than four centuries before the traditional founding of Rome, in 753. The history of the Alban kings conveniently filled that gap with a continuous line leading from Aeneas to Romulus, thus serving as a mythical justification for the close ties between Rome and the rest of Latium, and enhancing the status of Roman and Latin families who claimed descent from the original Trojan settlers or their Alban descendants. Such was the eagerness in the late Republic to claim a Trojan pedigree that fifteen different lists of the Alban kings from Aeneas to Romulus survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3537964",
"title": "Historicity of the Homeric epics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "With such authorities accepting it, post-Roman Europeans continued to accept Troy and the events of the Trojan War as historical. Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-genealogy traced a Trojan origin for royal Briton descents in \"Historia Regum Britanniae\". Merovingian descent from a Trojan ancestor was embodied in a literary myth first established in Fredegar's chronicle (2.4, 3.2.9), to the effect that the Franks were of Trojan stock and adopted their name from King Francio, who had built a new Troy on the banks of the river Rhine (modern Treves). However, even before the so-called Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century these supposed facts of the medieval concept of history were doubted by Blaise Pascal: \"Homer wrote a romance, for nobody supposes that Troy and Agamemnon existed any more than the apples of the Hesperides. He had no intention to write history, but only to amuse us.\" During the 19th century the stories of Troy were devalued as fables by George Grote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7205330",
"title": "Kings of Alba Longa",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "The first literary suggestions that the Romans were descended from survivors of the Trojan War are found among the Greek writers, many of whom considered the Romans descendants of the Achaeans, rather than the Trojans. At the conclusion of the \"Theogony\", Hesiod mentions Latinus and Agrius as sons of Odysseus and Circe; Agrius ruled over the Tyrrhenians, originally a somewhat vague term for the inhabitants of central Italy, which in later times was applied specifically to the Etruscans. This passage reveals Hellenic interest in the peoples of Italy dating to at least the eighth century BC. In this account, the Romans are descended from Odysseus, one of the Achaeans, rather than his contemporary, the Trojan prince Aeneas. Writing in the fourth century BC, Heraclides Ponticus, a pupil of Plato, referred to Rome as a \"Greek city\". About the same time, Aristotle related a tradition that Achaean warriors returning home after the Trojan War were driven to Italy by a storm. Stranded on the Italian shores with a number of captive Trojan women, they built a settlement called \"Latinium\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25176543",
"title": "Latins (Italic tribe)",
"section": "Section::::Latins in the Roman origin-myth.:Aeneas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "But whatever the origin of the legend, it is clear that the Latins had no historical connection with Aeneas and none of their cities were founded by Trojan refugees. Furthermore, Cornell regards the city of Alba Longa itself as probably mythical. Early Latial-culture remains have been discovered on the shore of the Alban lake, but they indicate a series of small villages, not an urbanised city-state. In any case, traces of the earliest phase of Latial culture also occur at Rome at the same time (c. 1000 BC), so archaeology cannot be used to support the tradition that Rome was founded by people from Alba Longa. If Alba Longa did not exist, then nor did the \"Alban kings\", whose genealogy was almost certainly fabricated to \"prove\" Romulus' descent from Aeneas. The genealogy's dubious nature is shown by the fact that it ascribes the 14 Alban kings an average reign of 30 years' duration, an implausibly high figure. The false nature of the Aeneas-Romulus link is also demonstrated by the fact that, in some early versions of the tradition, Romulus is denoted as Aeneas' grandson, despite being chronologically separated from Aeneas by some 450 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314843",
"title": "Campaign history of the Roman military",
"section": "Section::::Republic.:Late (147–30 BC).:Resurgence of the Celtic threat (121 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Memories of the sack of Rome by Celtic tribes from Gaul in 390/387 BC, had been made into a legendary account that was taught to each generation of Roman youth, were still prominent despite their historical distance. In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni, both of which they defeated with apparent ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon, the same year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261616",
"title": "Adriatic Veneti",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Roman historian Titus Livius (59 BC – AD 17), himself a native of the Venetic town of Patavium, records that after the fall of Troy, the Trojan prince Antenor became the leader of the Paphlagonians after they all had been expelled from their homeland. Together, they migrated to the northern end of the Adriatic coast, where they established a settlement and conquered and merged with indigenous people known as the Euganei. The story connects the Veneti with the Eneti, mentioned by Homer (850 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "968869",
"title": "Sicambri",
"section": "Section::::Sicambri in Frankish mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "An anonymous work of 727 called \"Liber Historiae Francorum\" states that following the fall of Troy, 12,000 Trojans led by chiefs Priam and Antenor moved to the Tanais (Don) river, settled in Pannonia near the Sea of Azov and founded a city called Sicambria. In just 2 generations from the fall of Troy (by modern scholars dated in the late Bronze Age 1550-1200 BC) they arrived in the late 4th century AD at the Rhine. A variation of this story can also be read in Fredegar, and similar tales continue to crop up repeatedly throughout obscure, mediaeval-era European literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kvbki
|
how do doctors choose which of several medicines that do the same thing they should prescribe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Medicines will be ranked as first, second or third choice, etc., for a given condition. Doctors will work through the line until they get a solution. \n\nThis is why you should never give up on meds just because they don't work for you. Second line meds might work far better than first line meds for any given person.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have two different drugs that target the same problem or same sets of problems you are still going to have some differences between them. They are going to have slightly different risks, or different target groups, or may work better under different circumstances ...there are many different factors to consider. For example, some drugs react badly together so the doctor needs to make sure they select the right drug for the right problem without it reacting with any of the patient's other prescriptions. So it is up to the doctor to learn about these differences, keep up on top of the latest drugs and prescribe the one that is best suited for their patient and their unique history. The doctor can look up the research that has been conducted on the drug, and they can look at the detailed drug label to find out who would best benefit from it. \n\nIn terms of drugs that are exactly the same (e.g. off-brand and brand name drugs) there can still be differences in their efficacy or in who they best target. For example hypothetically whatever coating is used for a certain brand-name allergy drug gives me heartburn, the exact same drug but off-brand has never given me issue. This might be something the doctor takes into account (e.g. the fillers in the pill that help the actual drug work). Another important factor between brand and off-brand drugs are their prices. If the patient is concerned about cost or what their plan will cover a doctor may end prescribing one drug over another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23876971",
"title": "Formulation",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a “formula”). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260979",
"title": "Bribery",
"section": "Section::::Medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Pharmaceutical corporations may seek to entice doctors to favor prescribing their drugs over others of comparable effectiveness. If the medicine is prescribed heavily, they may seek to reward the individual through gifts. The American Medical Association has published ethical guidelines for gifts from industry which include the tenet that physicians should not accept gifts if they are given in relation to the physician's prescribing practices. Doubtful cases include grants for traveling to medical conventions that double as tourist trips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1550394",
"title": "Off-label use",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Regulation in the United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Physicians in the United Kingdom can prescribe medications off-label. According to General Medical Council guidance, the physician must be satisfied that there is sufficient evidence or experience of using the medicine to demonstrate safety and efficacy. Prescribing may be necessary when no suitably licensed medicine is available to meet the patient's need (or when the prescribing is part of approved research).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3442784",
"title": "Pharmacy and Therapeutics",
"section": "Section::::Formulary Restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "When new drugs come to market, the pharmacy and therapeutics committee evaluates the drug's clinical and economic benefits and drawbacks to determine whether the drug will be added to the organization's formulary. Most generic drugs are available on formularies, except in cases where that class of drugs are no longer considered safe and efficacious. Medications under formulary restrictions may be used only by specific physicians, patient care area or disease states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7521201",
"title": "Compounding",
"section": "Section::::Regulation in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Hence, making truly patient-customized products with particular drug(s)/dosage(s) upon receiving valid prescriptions from a physician is likely to be acceptable, especially if the ingredients are FDA approved, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1550394",
"title": "Off-label use",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Regulation in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "However, once a drug has been approved for sale for one purpose, physicians are free to prescribe it for any other purpose that in their professional judgment is both safe and effective, and are not limited to official, FDA-approved indications. This off-label prescribing is most commonly done with older, generic medications that have found new uses but have not had the formal (and often costly) applications and studies required by the FDA to formally approve the drug for these new indications. However, there is often extensive medical literature to support the off-label use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304263",
"title": "Medical prescription",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Many brand name drugs have cheaper generic drug substitutes that are therapeutically and biochemically equivalent. Prescriptions will also contain instructions on whether the prescriber will allow the pharmacist to substitute a generic version of the drug. This instruction is communicated in a number of ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28357h
|
Was it common for WW2 fighter planes to shoot for wing-mounted bombs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Such precision gunnery was nearly impossible with WWII fighters. Shooting for the bombs would be a much more difficult target than the engine, cockpit, or wing root (where the wing meets the fuselage). There were largely two types of guns in WWII fighters. The first type was wing-mounted guns that were generally configured to converge at a given distance for maximum firepower. Most American and British designs featured this setup, with machine guns being the primary armament. Planes like the Spitfire and Hurricane for the British as well as the Mustang, Lightning, and most US naval fighters for the US. The second type of gun mount was in line with the pilot either through the propeller hub or through the propeller arc. These guns fired straight ahead and often included a cannon through the propeller hub. Many axis planes featured this alignment, though US planes like the P-38 and P-39 also had this type of arrangement.\n\n > And was, say, a B-17's bomb bay as armored as the rest of the plane? \n\nNo, there was little armor at all on a B-17 or most other bombers. To attack from below was difficult but possible. Also, most heavy bombers of the time used internal bomb loads--wing-mounted bombs were generally featured on dive bombers and fighters outfitted for ground attack.\n\n > Would it be easier to just shoot the plane itself?\n\nYes, yes it would. In either configuration accurate gunnery was difficult at any kind of range. Even bombers were moving in three dimensions through the sky and were varying their path--to avoid flak if nothing else. So you had to predict where your target would be by the time your bullets or shells reached it, maneuver yourself into position to make the shot, avoid incoming fire from the bomber and its escorts, *and* provide the right amount of lead for your shots to hit your target. None of these were easy to do. If your shots converged at a point out in front of you due to having wing-mounted guns your fire was much less concentrated at any other distance. You may have been firing six or eight machine guns, but the sky is still a very large place and it becomes an incredibly busy place during combat. Even if your guns fired straight ahead it was still difficult to produce accurate gunnery. Gyro-gunsights were available in WWII in some fighters and they did help, but later improvements like radar-assisted range finding would help even more. Even then, targeting the engines, cockpit, or wing root was much more likely than trying to pinpoint a relatively tiny bomb.\n\n > What about rockets?\n\nThe rockets mounted on planes in WWII were smaller than the bombs were. Most of them were mere inches in diameter, which would make them even more difficult to target than bombs.\n\nAs always, followup questions by OP and others are encouraged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the book \"General Kenney Reports\" George C Kenney says in the summer of 1942, the woefully out numbered Fifth Air Force had a serious problem. Its bomber pilots thought their bomb payloads were extremely vulnerable to exploding if hit with a bullet. So when a Fifth Air Force pilot or air crew saw any Japanese planes in the vicinity, they dropped their bombs right away and headed for home. \n Kenney put a stop to this by telling them that bombs don't explode until their fuses activate them. Bombs have to fall several thousand feet before the fuses activate them. The pilots did not believe him, so he had to show them, by having a P-39 shoot at a pile of 500 pound General Purpose bombs, from a distance of 500 feet. The bombs did not explode, but the pilots could see the evidence that fifty caliber and even 37 millimeter shells were hitting and ricocheting off of the bombs. That put an end to the early dropping of bombs, by Fifth Air Force bomber pilots. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20259869",
"title": "Honeywell Aerospace",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II & defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "During World War II, a new bombsight was invented that allowed bomber planes to hit precision targets from high altitudes, but at 25,000 feet a single degree of oscillation in the plane's flight course threw a bomb 400 feet off its target. The Flight Control Equipment system commonly known as “auto-pilot” was initially invented by Sperry (now part of Honeywell Aerospace) so World War II bomber planes could fly steady enough to hit precise targets from high altitudes. The first installation was on a B-17 in 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379330",
"title": "Fighter-bomber",
"section": "Section::::First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The first single seat fighters to drop bombs were on the Western Front, when fighter patrols were issued with bombs and ordered to drop them at random if they met no German fighters. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied aircraft of the First World War with 1,294 enemy aircraft downed, was losing its edge by 1918, especially over 12,000 ft. During the final German offensive in March 1918, it dropped 25 lb Cooper bombs on advancing columns: whilst puny by later standards, the four fragmentation bombs carried by a Camel could cause serious injuries to exposed troops. Pilot casualties were also high. The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5. was used in the same role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233670",
"title": "Royal Flying Corps",
"section": "Section::::First World War.:Roles and responsibilities.:Ground attack—army support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "Aircraft were increasingly engaged in ground attack operations as the war wore on, aimed at disrupting enemy forces at or near the front line and during offensives. While formal tactical bombing raids were planned and usually directed at specific targets, ground-attack was usually carried out by individual pilots or small flights against targets of opportunity. Although the fitted machine guns were the primary armament for ground attack, bomb racks holding 20 lb Cooper bombs were soon fitted to many single-seat aircraft. Ground attack sorties were carried out at very low altitude and were often highly effective, in spite of the primitive nature of the weaponry involved, compared with later conflicts. The moral effect on ground troops subjected to air attack could even be decisive. Such operations became increasingly hazardous for the attacking aircraft, as one hit from small arms fire could bring an aircraft down and troops learned deflection shooting to hit relatively slow moving enemy aeroplanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8028340",
"title": "Firepower (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "It can be very interesting to use the bombsight to drop newly added ordnance onto a target like the Little Boy, Fat Man, German radiological dirty bombs or the Tallboy bomb. However some of these aircraft are hypothetical especially the German designs some of which never saw aerial combat during World War II. So is the German ordnance hypothetical as well. Another feature in this add on is that you can fly bombers in a formation, with FLAK effects when under enemy anti aircraft fire. Twenty-five missions of the Memphis Belle B-17 Flying Fortress are included in this add on. One thing that's lacking though is a sophisticated simulation of the Norden Bombsight which B-17 Flying Fortress the Mighty 8th has a decent representation of albeit not fully emulating the Norden computer, it's gyrostabilizer and ancillary equipment. Instead the Bombsight in Firepower is fixed but it is functional. Even so, this is workable in the simulation add on with a fixed sight but it takes a lot of practice. Firepower is one of the most popular add ons to Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8389368",
"title": "Voisin III",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Earlier aircraft were armed with a Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun on the fuselage operated by a standing observer, and later models had 37 mm or 47 mm guns for ground attack. It could carry up to , or of bombs (sources vary).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4997",
"title": "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Bomber defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. Defensive armament increased from four machine guns and one nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not maneuver when attacked by fighters, and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181886",
"title": "Consolidated B-24 Liberator",
"section": "Section::::Variants and conversions.:U.S. Army Air Forces variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "BULLET::::- XB-41: Because there were no fighters capable of escorting bomber formations on deep strike missions early in World War II, the Army authorized tests for heavily armed bombers to act as \"gunship\" escorts for bombing missions, which inspired both the B-17 derived YB-40 Flying Fortress gunship and its Liberator-derived XB-41 counterpart. The XB-41 had fourteen .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, including a Bendix chin turret and a second Martin A-3 turret on the upper fuselage. A single aircraft was completed in 1942. Performance changed drastically with the addition of more turrets. The escorts were also unable to keep up with bomber formations once the bombs had been dropped. The results of 1943 testing were very negative and the project was quickly canceled. (Total: one converted B-24D)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5644ds
|
why do many americans support a 2-term limit on presidents?
|
[
{
"answer": "The 22nd Amendment was passed by Republicans and Southern Democrats (the conservative parties in America) who were strongly opposed to the New Deal and who didn't want to see another Presidency like that of Franklin Delano Roosevelt.\n\nFDR was the only President elected to more than 2 terms. He was elected to 4 terms but served only 3 full terms and then died a few months into his 4th term.\n\nSince then, it seems we're normally pretty sick of whoever is in office after 8 years...though this go around the choices we have are making us appreciate what we have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it was originally simply a precedent set by george washington that a president should politely step down after two terms in order to avoid the tyranny that he and the other founders had fought so hard to escape. it went on as precedent until the 1940s when FDR was elected for a third term. with this, the idea of enforcing the 2-term limit legally instead of relying on candidates to follow precedent was examined, and the courts decided that it would be a beneficial addition to the check and balance system. \n\nbasically, though, i think people want to avoid a putin scenario where after enough time in power it becomes easier and easier to stay in power regardless of what the public wants. if a president had 3 or 4 or 5 terms to stack the deck in their favor for the next election, then the fear is that at some point there would be no chance at getting them out of power. \n\nanother thing to consider is that an important function of the american executive branch is picking the bench for the supreme court. while it's ok to have the same party in office indefinitely, thus eventually stacking the bench to one side, it's much different to have the same *individual* in power indefinitely as that individual could start making arrangements/nominations to the bench that are more self-serving than helpful to the party or the country. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we very nearly had a dictatorship/monarchy installed by public support with FDR. He was so popular that he was elected 4 times. That many years in the Presidency allowed him to undermine a lot of the checks and balances in our system. \n\nHe was so popular that his support of a congressional candidate held a massive amount of weight. So much that he was starting to stack congress with people who agreed with his political leanings (but had not accomplished it yet). The fact that the Presidency is the one that names nominees for Supreme Court also proved an opportunity for him to start stacking it with people who agreed to his political leanings as seats became available. He even threatened to expand the number of seats thus putting more people loyal to him on the bench when he faced some problems with the Supreme Court. \n\nA maximum of 8 years greatly hinders how much you can stack things in your favor and acts to keep the checks and balances working properly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you take a good hard look at this current election, do you really think the logic of \"if people don't want a president, they won't vote for them\" always plays out perfectly? \n\nThere are many reasons why term limits are important. Why, look no further than the Senate. The Senate is useless, constantly gridlocked, and full of apathetic legislators more vested in their own interests than the good of the country. \n\nWhy? Because they have no term limits. And sitting in those seats of power allows them to slowly amass power, influence, and sway over their electorate. \n\nIf a President can sit in the seat of power indefinitely, *his primary motivation will be keeping that seat*. It incentivizes him to be selfish, to pay off in favors people who can keep him there, and to wage private wars with opponents and up-and-comers. \n\nThis is the problem with career senators. If they can make a career out of it, they're going to focus much more on that than doing their actual fucking job. They'll vote along party lines (because the party will cut their funding or kick them out if they rebel), rather than having the guts to vote pragmatically, and to write legislation that helps us, rather than secures their seat of power. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a non-american myself, I assume some of these factors (along with the other reasons stated by commenters here) also are part of it:\n\n- a president can create a lot of havoc if (s)he is left roaming free, it makes a lot of sense that after almost a decade you try something entirely new. At the very least you get someone who has been out in the world a bit the last few years. Presidents tend to, unfortunately, be a bit isolated with all those security measures, and after eight years you can probably argue that they have to some extent lost contact with the world they rule over.\n\n- Electing an official that half the nations voters are against and keep him forever is a recipe for disaster. Obama seems to have been doing okay, but he got about 50% of the vote. This means, within reason, that about half the population would want another president and would do a whole deal to overthrow him if they had the means to do so. You have to let the other bunch get a say now and then, because otherwise the nation will start falling apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most government systems there are limits on what can be done by any branch of the government- called checks and balances. America has a different political system and needs different checks and balances. One of the differences in the political system is the president has much more power than the prime minister in Canada. There are even a few instances where the president has no way of being restrained! To prevent people from abusing this, one of the checks and balances is the term limit. It prevents the president from doing unrestricted things for an unrestricted period. \n\nIn Canada there is no term limit because there is no need. A prime minister is not nearly as powerful a president. There's much less that Justin can do in the legal framework by himself. He needs support of other branches that are designed to provide oversight. So the prime minister of Canada is prevented from abusing power in a different way. \n\nTL:DR: Two different systems with two different ways of preventing abuse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Washington only served for two terms, and out of respect to Washington, presidents served two terms maximum until FDR got elected to his third and fourth terms. After FDR died at the beginning of his fourth term, the constitution was amended so that there is a two term maximum. It's not that Americans support it, it's that the constitution specifically caps it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly to honor George Washington (1st pres) and its not really that we all support it, its just the way it is, one of the Roosevelt's actually stayed for almost 3 terms cause there actually was no rule about it until after Roosevelt's 3rd term ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "505825",
"title": "Term limit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Many modern presidential republics employ term limits for their highest offices. The United States placed a limit of two terms on its presidency by means of the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution in 1951. There are no term limits for Vice Presidency, Representatives and Senators, although there have been calls for term limits for those offices. Under various state laws, some state governors and state legislators have term limits. Formal limits in America date back to the 1682 Pennsylvania Charter of Liberties, and the colonial frame of government of the same year, authored by William Penn and providing for triennial rotation of the Provincial Council, the upper house of the colonial legislature. (See also term limits in the United States).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45244774",
"title": "August 1923",
"section": "Section::::August 5, 1923 (Sunday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::- Iowa Senator Albert B. Cummins proposed a constitutional amendment limiting the president to one term only. \"Human frailities are too great to stand the strain which the presidency places on a man\", Cummins said. \"We should limit the President to one term. It might be made a six year term, but I am not so sure about that even.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31644",
"title": "Constitution of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Ratified amendments.:Government processes and procedures (Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, and 27).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7436762",
"title": "Term limits in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:After 1789.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 297,
"text": " says George Washington did not set the informal precedent for a two-term limit for the Presidency. He only meant he was too worn out to personally continue in office. It was Thomas Jefferson who made it a principle in 1808. He made many statements calling for term limits in one form or another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44255559",
"title": "2014 Burkinabé uprising",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Following an amendment in 2000, the constitution limits presidents to two terms of five years. However, the restrictions were not applied retroactively, allowing President Blaise Compaoré, who had been in office since 1987, to run for a further two terms and be re-elected in 2005 and 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70132",
"title": "Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Notwithstanding that the Twenty-second Amendment was clearly a reaction to Franklin D. Roosevelt's election to an unprecedented four terms as president, the notion of presidential term limits has long been debated in American politics. Delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 considered the issue extensively (alongside broader questions, such as who would elect the president, and the president's role). Many—including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison—supported a lifetime appointment for presidents, while others favored fixed terms appointments. Virginia's George Mason denounced the life-tenure proposal as tantamount to establishment of an elective monarchy. An early draft of the United States Constitution provided that the President was restricted to a single seven-year term. Ultimately, the Framers approved four-year terms with no restriction on the amount of time a person could serve as president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44254899",
"title": "2015 Burkinabé general election",
"section": "Section::::Background.:2014 uprising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Following an amendment in 2000, the constitution limits presidents to two terms of five years. However, the restrictions were not applied retrospectively, allowing President Blaise Compaoré, who had been in office since 1987, to run for a further two terms; accordingly, he was re-elected in 2005 and 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19325z
|
How intelligent are giant octopuses?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know, but increased body and brain size don't correlate with higher intelligence so you can't really infer anything from that alone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "David Quammen wrote an excellent article on the giant Pacific octopus (The Troubled Gaze of the Octopus, in his Natural Acts: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature). There's only a preview glimpse on Google Books; sorry.\n\nBut it notes that they definitely show certain skills and abilities that seem to indicate they're quite clever. Perhaps if they lived longer and could master fire, they'd be running the planet by now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's pretty hard to come up with a standard of intelligence which can apply to compare such a wide variety of animals. Still, my impression from classes and from being around a few cephalopods is that they are at least as bright as the more intelligent sorts of fish. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're about as clever as a toddler, according to the woman at the aquarium I went to recently. They had a giant pacific octopus that successfully distracted her and stole the bucket of food she had for him.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5675394",
"title": "Giant Pacific octopus",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Octopuses are ranked as the most intelligent invertebrates. Giant Pacific Octopuses are commonly kept on display at aquariums due to their size and interesting physiology, and have demonstrated the ability to recognize humans that they frequently come in contact with. These responses include jetting water, changing body texture, and other behaviors that are consistently demonstrated to specific individuals. They have the ability to solve simple puzzles, open childproof bottles and use tools. The octopus brain has folded lobes (a distinct characteristic of complexity), visual and tactile memory centers. They have about 300 million neurons. They have been known to open tank valves, disassemble expensive equipment, and generally wreak havoc in labs and aquaria. Some researchers even claim that they are capable of motor play and having personalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13001588",
"title": "Animal consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Octopuses are highly intelligent, possibly more so than any other order of invertebrates. The level of their intelligence and learning capability are debated, but maze and problem-solving studies show they have both short- and long-term memory. Octopus have a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in their brain. Two-thirds of an octopus' neurons are found in the nerve cords of their arms. Octopus arms show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organized in their brain using an internal somatotopic map of their body, instead using a non-somatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, move their arms in ways that emulate the shape and movements of other sea creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9424682",
"title": "East Pacific red octopus",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Like most octopuses, \"O. rubescens\" is thought to be among the most intelligent of invertebrates. The presence of individual personalities is a hallmark of intelligence, and \"O. rubescens\" was the first invertebrate in which individual personalities were demonstrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Nervous system and senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The octopus (along with cuttlefish) has the highest brain-to-body mass ratios of all invertebrates; it is also greater than that of many vertebrates. It has a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localised in its brain, which is contained in a cartilaginous capsule. Two-thirds of an octopus's neurons are found in the nerve cords of its arms, which show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organised in their brain via an internal somatotopic map of its body, instead using a nonsomatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to humans.:In science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Octopuses offer many possibilities in biological research, including their ability to regenerate limbs, change the colour of their skin, behave intelligently with a distributed nervous system, and make use of 168 kinds of protocadherins (humans have 58), the proteins that guide the connections neurons make with each other. The California two-spot octopus has had its genome sequenced, allowing exploration of its molecular adaptations. Having independently evolved mammal-like intelligence, octopuses have been compared to hypothetical intelligent extraterrestrials. Their problem-solving skills, along with their mobility and lack of rigid structure enable them to escape from supposedly secure tanks in laboratories and public aquariums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10129055",
"title": "Common octopus",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Training experiments have shown the common octopus can distinguish the brightness, size, shape, and horizontal or vertical orientation of objects. They are intelligent enough to learn how to unscrew a jar and are known to raid lobster traps. \"O. vulgaris\" was the first invertebrate animal protected by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 in the UK; it was included because of its high intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57066852",
"title": "Other Minds: The Octopus, the Sea, and the Deep Origins of Consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Drake Baer in \"New York Magazine\" compares octopuses and philosophers: \"They are both given to exploring their worlds, they both have a reputation for peculiarity, they both handle multiple subjects with ease.\" Octopus eyes, too, look and work much like those of vertebrates; but there, Baer remarks, the similarities end. Cephalopods are \"immensely foreign\", with \"a distributed sense of self\" and a \"lived reality\" quite unlike human consciousness, a feature that, he notes, Godfrey-Smith calls \"the most difficult aspect of octopus experience to imagine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w4rf9
|
How can a curve in spacetime make a a force (gravity)?
|
[
{
"answer": "The rubber-sheet analogy is an extreme simplification that doesn't really shed much light on the underlying mechanism. It gives a bit of intuitive justification for how the paths of objects can be curved, but as you correctly observe, it doesn't provide any explanation for where their motion comes from, or why gravity appears to be a \"force\".\n\nThe key is that it's not space that's curved, it's *spacetime*. Objects are always moving \"timewards\" in spacetime, at a rate of one year per year. But because of the curvature of spacetime, those timewards paths aren't necessarily parallel. If you put two massive objects at rest near each other, each of their worldlines appears locally straight, but the curvature brings them closer and closer together as time goes on. Gravity feels like a force because if you wanted to keep the objects separated, you'd have to continually apply an opposing force to keep the worldlines separated.\n\nThis is much easier to explain visually, so look at the last diagram on [this page.](_URL_0_) Imagine that the north-south axis is time, and the east-west axis is one-dimensional space. Each particle is moving north (into the future) along as straight a path as it possibly can, with no east-west deviations; nevertheless, they collide at the north pole. \n\nOf course, the actual geometry of the universe is more complicated than a sphere; it's a 4-D space with curvature that changes over time depending on the mass distribution. But if the universe were ever to suffer a [Big Crunch](_URL_1_) (which seems unlikely) that diagram is a decent geometric analogy for what it would look like, with all world-lines being forced to intersect at the \"future-most\" point.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Consider this an accompaniment to /u/teraflop's answer.\n\n > How can a curve in spacetime make a a force (gravity)?\n\nThe critical thing to understand is that curved spacetime (gravity) is *not* a force.\n\nImagine sitting in a car. The car accelerates forward and you feel pressure on your back. This pressure comes from the force between your back and the chair in which you're sitting. You feel the force and you accelerate along with the car. This is what you expect from *F* = *m* *a*.\n\nSummary: you feel force, you accelerate.\n\nNow think about your butt. It's sitting on a chair. You feel pressure on your butt, but you *don't seem to be accelerating*.\n\nSummary: You feel force, but you do not accelerate.\n\nWoah, what happened?\n\nNow suppose you jump off a cliff. You're in free fall. Gravity is pulling you downward and you seem to be accelerating downward... but you *don't feel any force!*.\n\nSummary: You do not feel force, but you accelerate.\n\nThe reconciliation of all of this is that gravity is *not a force*. Free falling in gravity is actually the \"natural\" trajectory through space time. Any deviation from this trajectory is true acceleration. This is why you feel force on your butt when you're sitting in a chair: the chair is deflecting you from your natural free fall trajectory.\n\nWhen you have a massive object, it just influences the shapes of the free fall trajectories. It's not a force in the usual sense because as we already saw, things in free fall don't feel any force. Another way to drive this point home is to realize that when you're in free fall, say in orbit around a planet, if you close your eyes you have absolutely no indication at all that you aren't just standing still in space. Free fall in the presence of gravity and standing still in the absence of gravity feel *exactly* the same. There is absolutely no experiment you can do to tell the difference.\n\nEDIT: clarification",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3071186",
"title": "Gravitational acceleration",
"section": "Section::::General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In Einstein's theory of general relativity, gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, masses distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. The gravitational force is a fictitious force. There is no gravitational acceleration, in that the proper acceleration and hence four-acceleration of objects in free fall are zero. Rather than undergoing an acceleration, objects in free fall travel along straight lines (geodesics) on the curved spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2037563",
"title": "Geodesics in general relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-D spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-D space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65913",
"title": "Equations of motion",
"section": "Section::::General relativity.:Geodesic equation of motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Given the mass-energy distribution provided by the stress–energy tensor , the Einstein field equations are a set of non-linear second-order partial differential equations in the metric, and imply the curvature of space time is equivalent to a gravitational field (see equivalence principle). Mass falling in curved spacetime is equivalent to a mass falling in a gravitational field - because gravity is a fictitious force. The \"relative acceleration\" of one geodesic to another in curved spacetime is given by the \"geodesic deviation equation\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6719257",
"title": "Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Geodesics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting around a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-dimensional spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-dimensional space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "174782",
"title": "Gravitational field",
"section": "Section::::General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 909,
"text": "These equations are dependent on the distribution of matter and energy in a region of space, unlike Newtonian gravity, which is dependent only on the distribution of matter. The fields themselves in general relativity represent the curvature of spacetime. General relativity states that being in a region of curved space is equivalent to accelerating up the gradient of the field. By Newton's second law, this will cause an object to experience a fictitious force if it is held still with respect to the field. This is why a person will feel himself pulled down by the force of gravity while standing still on the Earth's surface. In general the gravitational fields predicted by general relativity differ in their effects only slightly from those predicted by classical mechanics, but there are a number of easily verifiable differences, one of the most well known being the bending of light in such fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Problematic aspects.:Einstein's solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "These objections were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "In Einstein's general theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass. Generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume. As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the curvature changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature, which propagate outwards at the speed of light in a wave-like manner. These propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2i6lwa
|
Is anything still named after Hitler?
|
[
{
"answer": "Please, stop posting one sentence answers. If the OP was looking for links to websites without further context, he or she would go to /r/history or /r/askreddit. This is /r/AskHistorians and we have [rules](_URL_0_). Keep in mind that if you keep posting *bad* answers in this sub, you will be banned. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Maybe not entirely irrelevant to your question would be the story of the Viale delle cave ardeatine in Rome.\n\n\nYou might have guessed this road was formerly named 'Viale Adolfo Hitler'. And was part of the greatest charm offensive in history.\n\n\nMussolini wanted to impress Hitler so badly that he invited him over on a tour of Italy that took almost 2 years in preparation. The enitire length of railroad Hitler would travel in Italy was meticulously checked for buildings that weren't up to standard. Shabby looking houses were torn down or obscured from view by massive posters. Every town the train went through was adorned with Italian and Swastika flags and thousands of people were recruited to cheer at Hitlers train in every town.\n\n\nIn Rome Mussolini had roads specially constructed that would appeal to Hitlers love for wide boulevards and because the Termini train station was in an area surrounded by 19th century housing blocks Mussolini built an entire railway station, Roma Ostiense, in an area that showed Italy's new industrial zone and that had an appealing route into the city that passed all the great monuments.\n\n\nThe entire city was all flags and every monument was lit up using gas lamps and airial search lights. The road from the station Ostiense towards the ancient city gate Porta Sao Paulo was named after Hitler himself.\n\nAfter the war it was renamed after the Cave Ardeatini, the location where the biggest massacre inflicted by German forces on Roman citizens had taken place. 335 Citizens where massacred as retribution for a bomb attack on a German army collumn. The Germans tried covering their deed up by blowing up the cave.\n\nSo it's not really named after Hitler anymore. The station still remains as a piece of History that is hidden in plain sight, though.\n\n\nSource: *Capturing the Fascist Moment: Hitler's Visit to Italy in 1938 and the Radicalization of Fascist Italy* by Paul Baxa.\n\nFor anyone that wants to see a good movie about the visit of Hitler to Rome I can advice watching 'Una Giornata Particulare' (or 'A Special Day' in English) it makes use of acutal newsreel footage of Hitlers entry into Rome. _URL_0_\n\n\n*Edits* Spelling is hard.",
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"answer": "The only thing I know of that's named after Hitler from before WWII is a [particular sort of beetle](_URL_0_) discovered during Hitler's rise to power. Its name hasn't been changed on account of tradition: you don't change a species' binomial name unless it's miscategorized. \n\nOther than that, you'll find things named for Hitler as a joke, like the tongue-in-cheek logical fallacy Reductio ad Hitlerum. I don't know how quickly things were \"de-hitlerized,\" but dismantling such a well-developed cult of personality takes time. The Soviet union spent decades in de-stalinization, which was an effort specifically geared toward taking apart the image and legacy of Joseph Stalin, even changing the name of Stalingrad to Volgograd. ",
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{
"answer": "There's one building that is somewhat relevant to your question, but maybe not exactly what you were looking for. It's the building in Braunau am Inn Hitler was born in. In 1938, it was bought by a high-ranking Nazi official and converted into a cultural centre. In 1945, shortly after Braunau was liberated by US soldiers, an attempt by German soldiers to demolish the building was foiled. The building has since been rented by the City of Braunau and the Austrian government, and used for various purposes or sublet to charitable organizations. Of course, all of the parties involved want to prevent the place from becoming a nazi pilgrimage site. As part of a historic ensemble, the building has been under protection for a while. It is officially being referred to using it's address, \"Salzburger Vorstadt 15\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How common was it for things to be named after Hilter in Germany? Was there a Adolf Hitler Road in every town, or was it only saved for special buildings/addresses? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think this is the photo OP is referring to:\n _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14525860",
"title": "Back from the Front",
"section": "Section::::Production notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "\"Schicklgruber\" is the surname Adolf Hitler's father, Alois Hitler carried for the first 40 years of his life, until he took the name Hitler (Hiedler) from his stepfather. While Adolf Hitler himself never carried the surname, the British made use of it for propaganda purposes since even to Germans, the name is laughable. The Stooges used it numerous times as the only name by which they would refer to Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50037027",
"title": "Rommel myth",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:In Nazi and Allied propaganda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 2799,
"text": "In the spring of 1941, Rommel's name began to appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. The \"Daily Express\" and \"The Cairns Post\" wrote: \"No 'von' nonsense about Erich, nor the code of conduct—such as it was—that most Prussian officers have honoured in war. He is a gangster general, trained in a harder school than Chicago. He was Hitler's thug organiser before he came to power ... So Erich became leader of the S.S. Black Guard, Hitler's private army, which executes his private revenges and guards his person ... When at last Poland made a stand for democracy, it was Rommel who led a panzer corps against the Polish horse cavalry with conspicuous gallantry. Later in France Hitler made him a Knight of the Iron Cross for breaking through the Maginot Line at Maubeuge with the 7th Armoured Division. True, French resistance was almost at an end then, but Erich was entitled to his decoration, too.\" Toward the end of the year, the Reich propaganda machine also used Rommel's successes in Africa as a diversion from the Wehrmacht's challenging situation in the Soviet Union with the stall of Operation Barbarossa. The American press soon began to take notice of Rommel as well, following the United States' entry into the war on 11 December 1941, writing that: \"The British ... admire him because he beat them and were surprised to have beaten in turn such a capable general\". General Claude Auchinleck distributed a directive to his commanders seeking to dispel the notion that Rommel was a \"superman\". The Battle of Kasserine Pass during the Tunisian Campaign intensified the GIs' admiration towards Rommel. The cult of personality was so strong that, according to Peter Schrijvers, \"for the remainder of the war, German POWs would part with pictures of Rommel as reluctantly as GIs were eager to get them\". While Allied troops respected Rommel, civilians held the \"widely accepted\" negative image of Rommel's origin and his connection with the Nazis. As described by Rosie Goldschmidt Waldeck (who debunked the invented story) and \"The New York Times in 1943\", \"It has been said that Rommel started his career as a Hitler hoodlum and owes his quick rise to his early collaboration with Himmler.\" This line of propaganda perpetuated until the war ended. According to Atkinson, to counter the \"perverse chivalry\" (\"war without hate\", in Rommel's words) that Rommel promoted, the British and American authorities instituted hate training and tried to raise the eagerness to kill the enemies by stressing enemy brutality, as well as spatterring slaughterhouse blood in assault training courses. General John Strawson notes the same difference in attitudes to war between the leaderships of the two sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1034084",
"title": "Adolf Hitler in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::In India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 240,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 240,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The name \"Hitler\" is widely used for anyone is overly authoritarian in manner, but it does not have the same negative connotation as in the West. For example in the 1998 film \"Hitler\", the disciplinarian hero nicknamed Hitler is simply a person with staunch traditional values. There are at least three other Indian films entitled \"Hitler\", in all of which the Hitler character is the hero (\"Hitler\" (1996 film); \"Hitler\" (film); \"Hitler Umanath\"). \"Hitler Didi\" (My Sister Hitler) is a TV show about a character with a domineering elder sister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "414111",
"title": "Artur Axmann",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Artur Axmann (18 February 1913 – 24 October 1996) was the German Nazi national leader (\"Reichsjugendführer\") of the Hitler Youth (\"Hitlerjugend\") from 1940 to the war's end in 1945. He was the last living Nazi with a rank equivalent to \"Reichsführer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46427592",
"title": "List of cults of personality",
"section": "Section::::Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Adolf Hitler, Führer (\"leader\") of Nazi Germany, was referenced by Nazi propaganda in a number of honorary titles (\"Supreme Judge of the German People\", \"First Soldier of the German Reich\", \"First Worker of the New Germany\", \"Greatest Military Commander of All Time\", \"Military Leader of Europe\", \"High Protector of the Holy Mountain\", etc.). Numerous works in popular music and literature featured Adolf Hitler prominently. Hitler was usually depicted as a heroic, god-like figure, loved, feared and respected by the German people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21987631",
"title": "Führerreserve",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Note concerning the name: The first compound, \"Führer\", does not as elsewhere refer to \"the Leader\" Adolf Hitler, to whom the members of the Leaders Reserve were no more directly subject than were any other officers; it is plural and refers to the members themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10875074",
"title": "Emil Kirdorf",
"section": "Section::::Role during Nazi Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Hitler personally awarded to him, on 10 April 1937, date of Kirdorf's 90th birthday, the Order of the German Eagle, the highest distinction of the Third Reich. He benefited on 13 July 1938 from a state funeral in Gelsenkirchen, with Hitler deposing a crown on his coffin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
2aoelu
|
What would stop an AI system with greater-than-human intelligence from being detrimental to humanity?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question is difficult, mostly because of the notion of \"greater-than-human intelligence\". What does this mean?\n\nIn some sense it seems to imply that intelligence is a unidimensional quantity, and everything fits neatly onto some scale with humans at the top (currently). This is obviously wrong, though. Computers already possess \"greater-than-human intelligence\" when it comes to arithmetic or any rote computational task. Whereas humans are unbelievably better than computers at other things, such as spatial reasoning. (Of course this could change quickly.)\n\nEven if we were to grant that computers would become more intelligent than humans in _every conceivable way_, this by itself would pose no innate threat. So long as computers remained tools for human use--they only solved problems we set them to solve--we are fine.\n\nThe real question seems to be: What would happen if a super-AI system was given free will? What would motivate the AI--what would it want? Would its needs support human well being or oppose it? Would humans maintain a dominant role in the relationship? How would our ethical systems adjust?\n\nThese are philosophical questions outside the domain of computing. Within the domain of computing (and neuroscience, to be honest), what we can say is that we are far, far away from achieving them. (Even the energy requirements of simulating a human brain on modern processors would be prohibitive.) For the moment they are not a practical concern.\n\nI'd recommend posing this to /r/askphilosophy as well.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "AI works by finding *sequences of steps* that will cause the agent to achieve a goal. Such a goal is imposed externally (e.g. by a human).\n\nThe most familiar example of AI in everyday life is a GPS navigator. You tell it where you want to go, it will calculate the sequence of maneuvers that will take you there. Reusing [an old comment](_URL_0_):\n\n > It works using the A* algorithm (at least in most cases), which is very common in AI and (I think) it existed before navigation. The algorithm knows the starting point and ending point, and the street grid. So it can deduct what the position will be if a given maneuver is performed (this \"what-if\" is the essential part). Then it needs to evaluate if that is a viable possibility or an alternative should be considered - so the straight-line distance is taken as an estimate. If the estimate is good, then it will proceed with analyzing the maneuvers from that point. The programmer wrote the algorithm to figure out a path without knowing the actual maneuvers to be taken. The machine will decide if you have to turn or go straight. If we neglect the optimizations that are specific of A*, the basic algorithm would be analyzing all alternatives (all sequences of steps) until it finds one of them that leads to the solution.\n\nAnother common example of AI is playing chess. The program has the goal to do a check-mate, then it calculates the sequence of moves that will lead to its goal.\n\nSo even if we extrapolate that kind of intelligence into something greater than human intelligence (not unrealistic after Kasparov was defeated in chess) it still can't figure out objectives by itself. Humans *want* to do things, computers just do what they have to.\n\nWith current technology I'm not aware of any kind of AI that generates its own objectives the way humans do.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Quite honestly, I believe it would be human error in writing the code that created or was the AI that would either prevent or cause the problem. We can't even keep from making billion dollar errors in electronic trading so AI that could make that leap is, at best, a far distant dream. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You're asking this question about computers, but we don't actually know completely why humans turn out empathetic or sociopathic. By the time computer scientists are able to build this 'smarter than human' computer (which I'm assuming means basically an artificial human brain but enhanced) it's reasonable to assume psychologists/neuroscientists will have a very robust model for what conditions create sociopathic behavior that can be used in the design of the AI system you are describing. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21221594",
"title": "Global catastrophic risk",
"section": "Section::::Potential sources of risk.:Anthropogenic.:Artificial intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "A survey of AI experts estimated that the chance of human-level machine learning having an \"extremely bad (e.g., human extinction)\" long-term effect on humanity is 5%. A 2008 survey by the Future of Humanity Institute estimated a 5% probability of extinction by superintelligence by 2100. Eliezer Yudkowsky believes that risks from artificial intelligence are harder to predict than any other known risks due to bias from anthropomorphism. Since people base their judgments of artificial intelligence on their own experience, he claims that they underestimate the potential power of AI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13659583",
"title": "Ethics of artificial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Unintended consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Many researchers have argued that, by way of an \"intelligence explosion\" sometime in the 21st century, a self-improving AI could become so vastly more powerful than humans that we would not be able to stop it from achieving its goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54245",
"title": "Technological singularity",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Existential risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Anders Sandberg has also elaborated on this scenario, addressing various common counter-arguments. AI researcher Hugo de Garis suggests that artificial intelligences may simply eliminate the human race for access to scarce resources, and humans would be powerless to stop them. Alternatively, AIs developed under evolutionary pressure to promote their own survival could outcompete humanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "51344878",
"title": "Thomas G. Dietterich",
"section": "Section::::Dangers of AI: an academic perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The most realistic risks about the dangers of artificial intelligence are basic mistakes, breakdowns and cyberattacks, Thomas Dietterich, an expert in the field says – more so than machines that become super powerful, run amok and try to destroy the human race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8756",
"title": "Daniel Dennett",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical views.:Artificial intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "While approving of the increase in efficiency that humans reap by using resources such as expert systems in medicine or GPS in navigation, Dennett sees a danger in machines performing an ever-increasing proportion of basic tasks in perception, memory, and algorithmic computation because people may tend to anthropomorphize such systems and attribute intellectual powers to them that they do not possess. He believes the relevant danger from AI is that people will misunderstand the nature of basically \"parasitic\" AI systems, rather than employing them constructively to challenge and develop the human user's powers of comprehension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164",
"title": "Artificial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy and ethics.:Potential harm.:Existential risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "In his book \"\", Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind. He argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit convergent behavior such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this AI's goals do not reflect humanity's—one example is an AI told to compute as many digits of pi as possible—it might harm humanity in order to acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to better achieve its goal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51344878",
"title": "Thomas G. Dietterich",
"section": "Section::::Dangers of AI: an academic perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Dietterich's perspective of problems with AI, however, is a little more pedestrian that most – not so much that it will overwhelm humanity, but that like most complex engineered systems, it may not always work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
4ssyqq
|
Why was American Revolution helped by European powers, but French Revolution was feared?
|
[
{
"answer": "The reason is that the American revolution wasn't viewed as a revolution. The American revolutionaries legitimised their actions by claiming that the England had encroached on their traditional rights as Englishmen. The monarch had acted as a tyrant and rebellion could therefore be defensible, if the aim was to *restore* their rights. The French revolution was a true revolution; society itself was transformed. The sovereign, the King ordained by God, was replaced by a new sovereign, the nation. The American revolution did not change the basis for society itself (atleast until the constitution was ratified); the French revolution overturned the ideology of the ancien régime itself, threatening every society in Europe. One way to exemplify this is to look at the foreign policy of the United States and revolutionary France. The former never tried to export its ideas, but many of the most outspoken proponents of the latter wanted to spread the ideas of the revolution throughout Europe by force. \n\nI hope that makes sense. \n\nSource: Max Edling, 2009: \"Den konstitutionella revolutionens startskott\", in *Maktbalans och kontrollmakt*, eds. M. Brundin & M. Isberg. Edling is the foremost Swedish expert on the American revolution and a researcher at King's College, London. His dissertation, \"A Revolution in Favour of Government\", is an eminently readable revisit of the American revolution from a state formation perspective. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4408111",
"title": "Francophile",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.:Historical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "French support of the American Revolution was probably a significant factor in shaping American's feelings towards France. Prior to that, the French had been seen as rivals for control of North America until their decisive defeat in the French and Indian War. With the elimination of France as a major colonial power in North America, the rivalry between American colonists and British interests became primary, and France's role switched to that of a counter to British power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "61313146",
"title": "History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1123,
"text": "After the American Revolution began in 1775, the United States courted European powers for help in the war against the Kingdom of Great Britain. Benjamin Franklin negotiated an alliance with the Kingdom of France in 1778, and the French played a decisive role in the American victory in the war. Enlightenment-era Spain and the Dutch Republic also aided the U.S. cause, while other European countries joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to protect neutral shipping against the Royal Navy. The war came to an end with the signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, under which the United States gained control of territory as far west as the Mississippi River. In the five years after the end of the war, relations with Great Britain and Spain were key issues; both countries hindered U.S. settlement in the west through control of strategic locations and by cultivating alliances with Native Americans. The United States expanded trade with various countries. Partly due to the lack of a strong central government, was unable to negotiate a commercial treaty with Great Britain or retaliate against high British tariffs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23216526",
"title": "Franco-American alliance",
"section": "Section::::Historical perspectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "In the wake of the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution began across the Atlantic. Britain's victory against France and its allies in the war made the French feel vulnerable to British power. The French saw the American Revolution as a way to strengthen itself and cripple the British Empire. At the beginning, the French helped fuel the American war effort but never came out as an official ally on the side of the Americans. American envoys to France, namely Silas Deane, feared that the French would never join the war. They were so fearful, they thought of telling the French that if the French didn't sufficiently support the war effort, the Americans would begin peace talks with Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16829738",
"title": "Federalist Era",
"section": "Section::::Foreign Affairs.:Neutrality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "International affairs, especially the French Revolution and the subsequent war between Britain and France, decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800, and threatened to entangle the nation in potentially devastating wars. Britain joined the War of the First Coalition after the 1793 execution of King Louis XVI of France. The Louis XVI had been decisive in helping America achieve independence, and his death horrified many in the United States. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the excesses of the French Revolution, and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Democratic-Republicans, many of whom were strong Francophiles, largely supported the French Revolution. Some of these leaders began backing away from support of the Revolution during the Reign of Terror, but they continued to favor the French over the British. The Republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams, and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret monarchists, and as enemies of the republican values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37980916",
"title": "Monarchism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In the late 18th century, the American Revolution and the French Revolution were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. Each in its different way exemplified the concept of popular sovereignty upheld by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1848 then ushered in a wave of revolutions against the continental European monarchies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16888973",
"title": "Confederation Period",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "In the decade after the end of the Revolutionary War, the United States benefited from a long period of peace in Europe, as no country posed a direct threat and immediate threat to the United States. Nevertheless, the weakness of the central government, and the desire of localists to keep the national government from assuming powers held by the state governments, greatly hindered diplomacy. In 1776, the Continental Congress had drafted the Model Treaty, which served as a guide for U.S. foreign policy during the 1780s. The treaty sought to abolish trade barriers such as tariffs, while avoiding political or military entanglements. In this, it reflected the foreign policy priorities of many Americans, who sought to play a large role in the global trading community while avoiding war. Lacking a strong military, and divided by differing sectional priorities, the U.S. was often forced to accept unfavorable terms of trade during the 1780s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7639088",
"title": "Presidency of James Madison",
"section": "Section::::War of 1812.:Prelude to war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2005,
"text": "The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars had engulfed Europe since the early 1790s. Napoleon had won a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, and as a consequence Europe remained mostly at peace for the next few years, but tensions continued on the high seas, where the United States had long traded with both France and Britain. The United States benefited from these wars for much of period prior to 1807, as American shipping expanded and Napoleon sold Louisiana Territory to the United States. In 1807, the British announced the Orders in Council, which called for a blockade on the French Empire. The French announced a policy that allowed for attacks on any American ships that visited British ports, but this policy had relatively little effect as Britain had established naval dominance at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar. In response to subsequent British and French attacks on American shipping, the Jefferson administration had passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which cut off trade with Europe. Congress repealed this act shortly before Madison became president. In early 1809, Congress passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which opened trade with foreign powers other than France and Britain. Aside from U.S. trade with France, the central dispute between the Great Britain and the United States was the impressment of sailors by the British. During the long and expensive war against France, many British citizens were forced by their own government to join the navy, and many of these conscripts defected to U.S. merchant ships. Unable to tolerate this loss of manpower, the British seized several U.S. ships and forced captured crewmen, some of whom were not in fact not British subjects, to serve in the British navy. Though Americans were outraged by this impressment, they also refused to take steps to limit it, such as refusing to hire British subjects. For economic reasons, American merchants preferred impressment to giving up their right to hire British sailors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
212dwc
|
Would it be possible to build a magnetic shield for earth to protect us from solar flares?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes it is possible, and the earth already has one! The part of the earths atmosphere that protects us from radiation from the sun and other sources of radiation is called the [magnetosphere](_URL_0_). We could build an artificial magnetic shield by wrapping massive wires around the earth several times and inducing a missive current in the wires. Saying this is \"possible\" is not necessarily saying it's probable though. Building a global magnetic shield is far beyond our current engineering and resource capabilities. Other methods could be used such as an array of satellites all with massive magnetic fields, but these would face the same issues with availability of resources and modern engineering capabilities. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "206555",
"title": "Solar cycle",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Space.:Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "CME radiation is dangerous to astronauts on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs (\"e.g.\", for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded \"storm shelter\" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923982",
"title": "Terraforming of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Creating an artificial magnetosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Another study proposes the possibility of deployment of a magnetic dipole shield at the L1 Lagrange point, thereby creating an artificial magnetosphere that would protect the whole planet from solar wind and radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55351756",
"title": "Future of space exploration",
"section": "Section::::Breakthrough Starshot.:Human limitations.:Physiological issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Furthermore, without Earth's surrounding magnetic field as a shield, solar radiation has much harsher effects on biological organisms in space. The exposure can include damage to the central nervous system, (altered cognitive function, reducing motor function and incurring possible behavioral changes), as well as the possibility of degenerative tissue diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10151154",
"title": "Lagrange point colonization",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Solar storm shielding would only be needed occasionally and it would also be easier to protect against in a shelter settlers could retreat to during a major storm. Cosmic radiation doses build up more slowly over years of exposure, and would need a couple of meters or more of shielding. Designs for space habitats usually supply this with an external shield of regolith or other materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987773",
"title": "Astronautical hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Radiation hazards.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Laboratory tests reported in the Journal of Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion indicate that a magnetic \"umbrella\" could be developed to deflect harmful space radiation away from the spacecraft. Such an \"umbrella\" would protect astronauts from the super-fast charged particles that stream away from the Sun. It would provide a protective field around the spacecraft similar to the magnetosphere that envelops the Earth. This form of control against solar radiation will be necessary if man is to explore the planets and reduce the health risks from exposure to the deadly effects of radiation. More research is necessary to develop and test a practical system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266344",
"title": "Space debris",
"section": "Section::::Threats.:To spacecraft.:Unmanned spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Although spacecraft are protected by Whipple shields, solar panels, which are exposed to the Sun, wear from low-mass impacts. These produce a cloud of plasma which is an electrical risk to the panels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "Section::::The deep-space radiation environment in ACE.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::4. Electromagnetic radiation created by lightning in clouds only a few miles high can create a safe zone in the Van Allen radiation belts that surround the earth. This zone, known as the \"Van Allen Belt slot\", may be a safe haven for satellites in medium Earth orbits (MEOs), protecting them from the Sun's intense radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19avlz
|
semiconductors and doping
|
[
{
"answer": "Si has 4 electrons in its outer shell, and they bind up with other Si atoms in the crystal pretty well, so it is hard for them to move around. If you introduce a few atoms with 5 valence band electrons, those extra 5th electrons are like free agents. They aren't all that needed to bond the crystal together, so they are relatively free to move about. They are said to be in the \"conduction band\" of energy, and you've created an n-type semiconductor. \n \nDo the same thing with a dopant with 3 valence band electrons and you get the opposite situation...a \"hole\". It acts a lot like the opposite of a conduction band electron, except they are slower to move about. And you get p-type semiconductor. \n \nNow what happens if you abut the two types? The conduction band electrons and holes can combine. But the Si in the two areas doesn't have all of the *other* charges equally distributed around...the charges associated with the atomic nucleii. (Those atoms with an extra valence band electron also had an extra proton in the nucleus.) The overall charge of the Si material is neutral, but now you've got one area that has more positive atomic nucleii and one area with more negative. This creates a built-in electric field (called the \"space-charge region\" or \"depletion layer\"). \n \nNow if you want to have current flow through the diode, you first have to overcome that built-in field if you have the diode hooked up in the reverse bias direction. In the forward bias direction, it doesn't cause a problem and current can flow easily. (I'm vastly simplifying this.) \n \nThe [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) article on this is pretty good, and it has pictures that might help. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9512766",
"title": "Extrinsic semiconductor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Doping is the key to the extraordinarily wide range of electrical behavior that semiconductors can exhibit, and extrinsic semiconductors are used to make semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, semiconductor lasers, LEDs, and photovoltaic cells. Sophisticated semiconductor fabrication processes like photolithography can implant different dopant elements in different regions of the same semiconductor crystal wafer, creating semiconductor devices on the wafer's surface. For example a common type of transistor, the n-p-n bipolar transistor, consists of an extrinsic semiconductor crystal with two regions of n-type semiconductor, separated by a region of p-type semiconductor, with metal contacts attached to each part.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "775808",
"title": "Shallow donor",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Introducing impurities in a semiconductor which are used to set free additional electrons in its conduction band is called doping with donors. In a group IV semiconductor like silicon these are most often group V elements like arsenic or antimony. However, these impurities introduce new energy levels in the band gap affecting the band structure which may alter the electronic properties of the semiconductor to a great extent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9512766",
"title": "Extrinsic semiconductor",
"section": "Section::::Conduction in semiconductors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Unlike in metals, the atoms that make up the bulk semiconductor crystal do not provide the electrons which are responsible for conduction. In semiconductors, electrical conduction is due to the mobile charge carriers, electrons or holes which are provided by impurities or dopant atoms in the crystal. In an extrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of doping atoms in the crystal largely determines the density of charge carriers, which determines its electrical conductivity, as well as a great many other electrical properties. This is the key to semiconductors' versatility; their conductivity can be manipulated over many orders of magnitude by doping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18638809",
"title": "Degenerate semiconductor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "At moderate doping levels the dopant atoms create individual doping levels that can often be considered as localized states that can donate electrons or holes by thermal promotion (or an optical transition) to the conduction or valence bands respectively. At high enough impurity concentrations the individual impurity atoms may become close enough neighbors that their doping levels merge into an impurity band and the behavior of such a system ceases to show the typical traits of a semiconductor, e.g. its increase in conductivity with temperature. On the other hand, a degenerate semiconductor still has far fewer charge carriers than a true metal so that its behavior is in many ways intermediary between semiconductor and metal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9512766",
"title": "Extrinsic semiconductor",
"section": "Section::::Semiconductor doping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Semiconductor doping is the process that changes an intrinsic semiconductor to an extrinsic semiconductor. During doping, impurity atoms are introduced to an intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms are atoms of a different element than the atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms act as either donors or acceptors to the intrinsic semiconductor, changing the electron and hole concentrations of the semiconductor. Impurity atoms are classified as either donor or acceptor atoms based on the effect they have on the intrinsic semiconductor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40344",
"title": "Semiconductor device",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the deliberate addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped monocrystalline silicon grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to mobile or \"free\" electrons and electron holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor with a small proportion of an atomic impurity, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes, it is called a p-type semiconductor (\"p\" for positive electric charge); when it contains excess free electrons, it is called an n-type semiconductor (\"n\" for negative electric charge). A majority of mobile charge carriers have negative charge. The manufacture of semiconductors controls precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The connection of n-type and p-type semiconductors form p–n junctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860861",
"title": "Doping (semiconductor)",
"section": "Section::::Effect on band structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Doping a semiconductor in a good crystal introduces allowed energy states within the band gap, but very close to the energy band that corresponds to the dopant type. In other words, electron donor impurities create states near the conduction band while electron acceptor impurities create states near the valence band. The gap between these energy states and the nearest energy band is usually referred to as dopant-site bonding energy or \"E\" and is relatively small. For example, the \"E\" for boron in silicon bulk is 0.045 eV, compared with silicon's band gap of about 1.12 eV. Because \"E\" is so small, room temperature is hot enough to thermally ionize practically all of the dopant atoms and create free charge carriers in the conduction or valence bands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21jd0a
|
Why is South Africa the most developed African country?
|
[
{
"answer": "This might be better suited to /r/asksocialscience.\n\nAlso, you might want to re-frame the question - by any metric of development I'm aware of (for example, [HDI](_URL_0_)), South Africa *isn't* the most developed African country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30635784",
"title": "List of tallest buildings in South Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "South Africa is the most structurally and economically developed nation on the African continent. As such, its major cities have experienced construction booms that most other cities of similar size in Africa have not. Advanced development is significantly localised around five areas: Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Durban, Bloemfontein and Pretoria/Johannesburg. Beyond these five economic centres, development is marginal and poverty is still prevalent despite government efforts. Consequently, the vast majority of South Africans are poor. However, key marginal areas have experienced rapid growth. Such areas include the Garden Route (Mossel Bay to Plettenberg Bay), Rustenburg area, Nelspruit area, Cape West Coast, and the KwaZulu-Natal North Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39370572",
"title": "Photography in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "Moreover, South Africa's unique status as an African nation with incredible wealth and incredible poverty provides fertile ground for challenging discourses of afro-pessimism and neo-colonialist attitudes towards Africa. Exhibitions such as Swedish photographer Jens Assur's \"Africa is a Great Country,\" seek to dismantle essentialist notions of Africa as a poverty-stricken, war-torn continent, by drawing on impulses of the African Renaissance, to project images of everyday life, of a continent of real and normal people, whose lives are as rich and as varied as anyone's. As an influential voice on the continent, the artistic output of South Africa has a key role in forging new ways of imagining Africa that complicate received notions of a ‘struggling’ continent. Paul Weinberg's photo-essay \"Durban: Portrait of an African City\" exemplifies this new current of work that refuses to constrain engagement with African art to the familiar tropes of poverty and violence, depicting instead the dynamism and vivacity of life on the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30636800",
"title": "List of tallest buildings and structures in South Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "South Africa is one of the most structurally and economically developed nation on the African continent. As such, its major cities have experienced construction booms that most other cities of similar size in Africa have not. Advanced development is significantly localised around five areas: Cape Town, Durban, Pretoria, Johannesburg and Sandton. Beyond these five economic centres, development is marginal and poverty is still prevalent despite government efforts. Consequently, the vast majority of South Africans are poor. However, key marginal areas have experienced rapid growth recently. Such areas include Mossel Bay to Plettenberg Bay; Rustenburg area; Nelspruit area; Bloemfontein; Cape West Coast; and the KwaZulu-Natal North Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26762571",
"title": "Spatial Development in Cameroon",
"section": "Section::::Summary of Spatial Development in the Africa context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1316,
"text": "One of the greatest challenges facing Africa today is to upgrade sustainable development in areas where poverty and other economic problems are pronounced. The issue of environmental development needs to be enforced, especially as the world is today speaking the environmental language. It might be surprising to note that, only a few countries in Africa have concrete spatial development plans, most of them situated in the extreme South and North of the continent. Good examples are seen in the Republic of South Africa where there is a development plan at the national level called Spatial Development Initiative (SDI), presently known as, the National Spatial Development Perspective (NSDP). The main aim of these plans is to encourage integrated development within a given space defined by its economic potential rather than by political boundaries. Most of the present day spatial development policies in African countries are linked to their colonial history. That is, development plans mainly in the form of transport and infrastructure were focused along the coast and other sources of raw materials in the hinterlands. This is one of the reasons for spatial inequality in most African countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new approaches of spatial development to obtain equity in enhancement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27372",
"title": "Economy of South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other emerging markets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Nevertheless, South Africa is falling behind other emerging markets, such as India and China, owing to several factors: the country is relatively small, without the advantage of a huge domestic customer base; it has had for decades an unusually low rate of saving and investment, partly because of low disposable income; an inadequate education system results in an acute shortage of skilled manpower; a strong and volatile currency deters investors and makes its exports less competitive; the infrastructure, though far better than in the rest of Africa, suffers from severe bottlenecks, including scheduled power shortages, and urgently needs upgrading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521535",
"title": "List of companies of South Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The World Bank classifies South Africa as an upper-middle-income economy, and a newly industrialised country. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world. In terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed and living on less than US$1.25 a day. Nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17416221",
"title": "South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "South Africa has a mixed economy, the second largest in Africa after Nigeria. It also has a relatively high gross domestic product (GDP) per capita compared to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa (US$11,750 at purchasing power parity as of 2012). Despite this, South Africa is still burdened by a relatively high rate of poverty and unemployment, and is also ranked in the top ten countries in the world for income inequality, measured by the Gini coefficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w91we
|
Why was the Soviet military so ineffective in the first half of WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've been wondering this for a long time. Thank you in advance for anyone who takes the time to answer this question. You guys are the best!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stalins purges destroyed all competent Red leadership. Also, Stalin refused to mobilize or move troops to defensive positions when it was clear the Germans were up to something. No red air force probably had an effect as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is the mostly, but not entirely, tinfoil hat theory that the soviets were getting ready to attack the Germans. But mostly it was the purges, combined with the fact that all armies in ww2 needed time to learn modern warfare.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a disclaimer, this isn't my particular area of expertise regarding the Soviet Union. These are more educated guesses than previously verified facts.\n\nAside from the purges of the Red Army from 1937-1938 which we're mentioned in previous replies, the Soviet Union's industrial situation and tactics likely had a hand in it. If you look at casualty numbers, the Soviet Union had absolutely enormous casualties in the Second World War. Stalin and the Soviet leadership had little regard for loss of life, and thus a simple quantity over quality approach was often acceptable in warfare. Throw bodies at the problem until it eventually goes away. This is, however, directly related to the state of the Soviet military and industrial sector.\n\nThe Soviet Union, it must be remembered, had only just begun industrialization shortly before the Second World War. Although the Soviet Union's Industrial Revolution took place at an absolutely unprecedented rate, this was not enough to adequately transform the Soviet military into a modern fighting machine like that of Nazi Germany. Upon the outbreak of war, the Soviet Union was at a distinct disadvantage in regards to the quality and quantity of their weapons, armoured vehicles, and so forth. \n\nThis situation began to change as the war progressed. As Total War set in, the full human, technological and material resources of the Soviet Union's vast territory was now directed toward the war effort. In addition, the Soviet Union received material aid from the United States after 1941 in the form of the Lend-Lease agreement. This aid totalled 11.3$ billion, or about 140$ billion dollars in today's terms. Taken from Wikipedia, examples of American aid to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease agreement: \"2,000 locomotives and 11,000 railcars were supplied under Lend-Lease. Likewise, the Soviet air force received 18,700 aircraft, which amounted to about 14% of Soviet aircraft production (19% for military aircraft).\"\n\nI'm by no means an expert on this, however these factors are a good place to start.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stalin conducted a huge purge of senior army officers in the mid to late thirties. This had a catastrophic effect on the Red Army, especially as political officers were sent in to examine the decisions (and political reliability) of serving officers. This created a sense of paranoia, and was a damper of creativity and morale plummeted. These problems led directly to a poor performance against the highly motivated Finns.\n\nAfter this, Stalin realised that it was time to start undoing the damage that had been done. Some officers were returned to service from prison. However, this process of healing the Red Army had hardly begun by the time of the German invasion. Stalin kept his troops close to the border, thus permitting the Germans to use the element of surprise, and allowing his troops to be encircled with ease.\n\nSo now you have the situation where poorly led, poorly trained troops were put into a losing battle by incompetent higher ups against troops who were highly motivated, and much better armed and far more numerous than the Finns. Initially the troops were (in a manner similar to what happened to the French troops) given out of date and often conflicting orders, to hold objectives already far behind the fast moving German lines. Depleted units were ordered to attack, etc. It was, just like the French experience, the perfect storm of military incompetence. \n\nWhat is surprising is how quickly the Soviets bounced back. There were some very panicky moments in the high command, and a lot of troops were almost openly used as fodder to slow the German advance, but really the German invasion failed against stiffening Soviet resistance. If the snow hadn't fallen when it did, I doubt the Germans could have advanced much further anyway. They had been worn to the nub by ever increasing Soviet resistance.\n\nStalin reduced the power of the political officers and hastened the return of experienced officers from the gulags. Equipment was improved, supply was improved, and the call to arms for the motherland focused the energy of the people. Although there would be many setbacks along the way, after the first few months it was essentially all upwards for the Red Army, while the German army had started their slow decline.\n\nSo yeah, the Soviets sucked mightily at the start, but they learned fast and overcame their many problems in a most astonishing manner. I'm not sure that many armies could boast of such a turnaround in such a short time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a very complex and complicated subject - probably hundreds of books have been written about this both inside and outside of the USSR. Essentially, the reasons could be put into 2 categories:\n\n**First Reason**: The Soviet Union was simply not ready for war when Germany invaded. During peacetime, the military of any major country works on a skeleton crew. It is simply too expensive to maintain a war-time full size army in peacetime. As soon as the war starts, the country will call up reservists, troops will assemble in cities all over the country, get on trains (or ships/planes whatever) and then be transported and deployed to face the enemy. This is call mobilization. For a country the size of the Soviet Union, this process takes a long time - more than a month. When Germany invaded the SU on June 22, 1941, the Red Army was still largely a peace-time army - it wan't mobilized or it was perhaps only partially mobilized. The troops in the interior of the country have not yet joined with those at the border. This gave the German army a significant advantage. The German army could concentrate an overwhelming amount of troops at the key points of their advance. This allowed them to quickly surround and destroy many of the Red Army units facing them. This meant that the mobilizing RA units arriving from the interior could no longer join with anybody and had to make a new front. Essentially, the defeat at the border created a cascading domino effect where the Germans would never really fight the RA at full strength and instead defeat it peace-meal. \n\nYou might ask \"Well, why didn't the SU mobilize sooner? Couldn't they have seen this coming?\" There is a lot of misinformation out there that basically says that Stalin was given accurate intelligence that the invasion was pending but refused to believe it. Actually, intelligence reports he received were contradictory and not reliable. There was no conclusive evidence that war was indeed imminent. However, the Soviet leadership became very concerned about the threat in the early June (about 2-3 weeks before the invasion). Even if mobilization was declared then, it was already too late, since at least 30 days were needed. But more importantly, they reasoned that a mobilization would be provocative to Germany and make war a certainty rather than merely a threat. \n\n**Second Reason** is the difference in troop quality. The the few years before 1941, the RA had grown by nearly 5 times. Soviet military academies had difficulties meeting the demand for qualified new officers. On a more theoretical level, the RA didn't really have a clear and effective doctrine that it would put into use. Senior officers understood that the nature of war had changed dramatically since the days of WWI, especially with the advent of the tank. However, it was not very clear what was the best way to use armor, and without concrete experience it was hard to determine. (The terrain during the war with Finland was not very suitable for armored warfare). To give an example, originally the Soviets had their tanks spread across the infantry. However shortly before the war, in 1940, they decided to organize all the tanks in to 19 mechanized corps. Each corps would have hundreds of tanks. However as experience showed, these mechanized corps, while looking formidable on paper, were actually too big and too difficult to control. Also, as experience showed, tanks actually need a lot of infantry and artillery support - something that these mechanized corps didn't have enough of. Finally, the mechanized corps didn't have sufficient transport which limited their mobility, which is a key feature of armored units. \n\nThe Germans, on the other hand, probably had the best and the most complete doctrine on how to use armor at the beginning of the war. During the interwar years, they put a lot of thought into how armor should be organized, what the proper ratio of tanks to infantry is, and so on. The campaign in Poland was just about the ideal scenario to test their doctrine - it was a real war with a real enemy but still forgiving enough that mistakes would not lead to a disaster. The Polish campaign was also one of several opportunities for German officers and soldiers to gain valuable experience. Thus the German military was well ahead of the RA qualitatively. \n\n**Re: Stalin's Purges**: The misfortunes of the Red Army are often explained by Stalin's purges. However these claims are usually exaggerated. Overall, only about 4% of Red Army officers were killed as a result of the purges. The majority of those affected were returned to the army either before or immediately after the war began. Several of Red Army's very senior officers were killed but there is no indication that they were more talented or capable the the ones who replaced them. Also, while it is true that the RA had a deficit of junior officers, the purges were very top heavy. Of course, the purges didn't help the situation but it would be incorrect to say they were the main or even a very significant reason for RA's defeats of 1941. \n\nSorry for the wall of text but this as I said earlier, it is a rather complicated subject. \n\n**TL;DR** - The Soviet Union was not ready for war operationally - the Red Army wasn't mobilized or deployed at the start the war. Also the Soviet military planners, nor the officers in the field, had sufficient experience with modern warfare (contrary to Germans, which had a ton).\n\nEDIT: Formatting and grammar",
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},
{
"answer": "If I'm not mistaken it was Gen. Zhukov (the same one that defeated the Japanese at Khalkin Gol) that was among the pioneers of \"Deep Battle\" which today's planners basically call \"operational\" planning - somewhere between \"tactical\" and \"strategic\" planning. First implemented at Stalingrad but really really put into effect at Kursk (largest battle of all time!).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why did the Winter War last as long as it did? Some reasons:\n\n* Soviet military leadership: See grond's comment about the purges.\n* Adaptation to the weather: Finnish soldiers grew up and lived in cold climates for their entire lives. By contrast Stalin didn't trust any Russians living near the border/Stalingrad area and decided to bring in troops from the warm south. A Finnish platoon had only to destroy a Soviet field kitchen and thousands would freeze to death.\n* Suomi KP/-31 SMG (later copied as the PPSh-41): Many theorists believed that a clumsy soldier would shoot off all their ammunition in battle if had an automatic weapon. Nobody told the Finns about this though, and their infantry were able to mow down the advancing waves of Soviet troops.\n* Improvised explosives: The Finns had to wait until Molatav cocktails (name comes from the Soviet foreign minister) and AT mines were introduced to effectively counter tanks. These improvised explosives enabled any individual soldier to set up ambushes and eliminate armor (if he was brave enough), and it turned out that enemy tanks with tunnel vision were especially vulnerable to this sort of behavior.\n* \"Blitzkrieg\"-esque school of thought: The Russians fought the war like Fuller would have imagined: massive tank thrusts paving the way forward with infantry bringing up the rear. Unfortunately, like the Americans discovered in France and Italy, and Germans in Africa and Kursk, armored 'thrusts' don't fare vary well against hardened defensive positions and difficult terrain.\n* Finnish tactical flexibility: This is an especially lengthy topic. Check out Battle of Suomussalmi for an interesting case study.\n\nIf western powers had actually backed up Finland with proper weapons and ammunition instead of believing the nation would crumble after a few weeks I think there's a good chance that the Soviets would have bowed out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I might be going a little away from topic but I would argue the Red Army was never an effective army. While other people are correct as to why they were ineffective and got better, they had from 8-10 million casualties during this war. Axis armies from the start of Barbarossa only had less then 4 million. \n\nEven during the battle that marked the official turning of the tides (IMO), Operation Uranus, they won due to having many more men and the Germans low of resources. Poor reactions of German command also failed to recognize the threat of encirclement at all till it was far to late (Though yes it could easily be argued with Hitler controlling form afar it wouldn't of changed the outcome). Many of their first waves were pushed back with high casualties against frankly crappy Romanian soldiers. Why were they able to encircle the 6th army? Because they had a 1 million man offensive directed in two spots. One attacking SE, the other NW. Then after that Germany just had absolutely nothing left through a war of attrition for two years. Proven by the lackluster performance of Operation Winter Storm to free the 6th army, and the following counter attack by the RA in Little Saturn.\n\nWhile the courage of the Russian soldiers is undeniable the military was never effective. They valued their men next to zero, and won through sheer number. While it may look like the second half was different it really was not. Like stated earlier it was just two years of suicidal tactics that lead to Germany being beaten into the ground. Their highly trained German troops were at an end by when the Soviets started advancing west. The Battle of Stalingrad, quiet possibly the most brutal battle to happen on the face of the earth, nothing was pretty but if you send enough men into a meat grinder for long enough. Your under-supplied enemy about 1000miles from home, doesn't stand a chance when they do not get more men of matter. Hell in the Kessel they were using 10s of thousands of Russian men to defend the lines even. Hiwi's I believe they're called.\n\nThey used the same tactics as before. It was just against a different German army now.\n\nNow in their defense now. Stalin was able to wait more than 10 seconds before beginning a new offensive. Thus during counter attacks/attacks they were actually supplied now. Now they had many T-34's which German Panzors could not effectively pierce their armor. Though it should be mentioned Germany didn't have much armor left that was supplied well enough after Feb. 1943. And their communications system while not great it improves drastically. Lastly, great winter gear.\n\nBut still, I would never say they were effective fighting against a shadow of their former enemy. It just looks more effective because Germany was out of men, supplies, and will. They used the same strategy as before\n\nTL;DR *More* effective? Yes without a doubt. An effective army? No. Never ever start a land war in Asia against an enemy that has far more resolve then you could ever dream of.\n\nSorry if this is hard to follow I just sort of started typing. I could write about this for days so this is kind of a skeleton of my full argument. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A Russian historian has written a book on the first ten days of the war on the Eastern Front. Read it, and you'll better understand why the Red Army did so poorly. \n[link](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3010721",
"title": "Soviet Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second World War.:Barbarossa, 1941–1945 (Great Patriotic War).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Soviet forces suffered heavy damage in the field as a result of poor levels of preparedness, which was primarily caused by a reluctant, half-hearted and ultimately belated decision by the Soviet Government and High Command to mobilize the army. Equally important was a general tactical superiority of the German army, which was conducting the kind of warfare that it had been combat-testing and fine-tuning for two years. The hasty pre-war growth and over-promotion of the Red Army cadres as well as the removal of experienced officers caused by the Purges offset the balance even more favourably for the Germans. Finally, the sheer numeric superiority of the Axis cannot be underestimated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1355724",
"title": "List of Soviet armies",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "As World War II went on, the complement of supporting units attached to a Soviet army became larger and more complex. By 1945, a Soviet army typically had attached mortar, antitank, anti-aircraft, howitzer, gun–howitzer, rocket launcher, independent tank, self-propelled gun, armored train, flamethrower, and engineer-sapper units. In particular, the ratio of artillery pieces to riflemen increased as the war went on, reflecting the Soviet need for increased firepower as manpower reserves began to decline after staggering infantry losses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1397862",
"title": "Battles of Rzhev",
"section": "Section::::Strengths and weaknesses in the Soviet and German tactics.:USSR.:Weakness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The Soviet Army suffered terribly from severe deficits in weapons and equipment due to the tremendous losses during the German onslaught in 1941. Meanwhile, during the first half of 1942, the reserved source of equipment was still not adequate. For example, during January and February 1942, the Western Front only received 55% of needed 82mm mortar rounds, 36% of needed 120mm rounds and 44% of needed artillery munitions. On average, each artillery battery only had 2 rounds per day. The weapons deficit was so severe that the Front commanders had to make occasional appeals for equipment. The serious lack of ammunition hampered Soviet efforts in neutralizing German strongpoints, leading to heavy casualties in the assaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1336707",
"title": "Military history of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Development of the structure, ideology, and doctrine of the Soviet military.:Military-party relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "During the 1930s, Joseph Stalin's Five Year Plans and industrialization drive built the productive base necessary to modernize the Red Army. As the likelihood of war in Europe increased later in the decade, the Soviet Union tripled its military expenditures and doubled the size of its regular forces to match the power of its potential enemies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519489",
"title": "Eastern Front (World War II)",
"section": "Section::::Industrial output.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 202,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 202,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "As the Soviet Union's manpower reserves ran low from 1943 onwards, the great Soviet offensives had to depend more on equipment and less on the expenditure of lives. The increases in production of materiel were achieved at the expense of civilian living standards – the most thorough application of the principle of total war – and with the help of Lend-Lease supplies from the United Kingdom and the United States. The Germans, on the other hand, could rely on a large slave workforce from the conquered countries and Soviet POWs. American exports and technical expertise also enabled the Soviets to produce goods that they wouldn't have been able to on their own. For example, while the USSR was able to produce fuel of octane numbers from 70 to 74, Soviet industry only met 4% of demand for fuel of octane numbers from 90+; all aircraft produced after 1939 required fuel of the latter category. To fulfill demands, the USSR depended on American assistance, both in finished products and TEL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1336707",
"title": "Military history of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Development of the structure, ideology, and doctrine of the Soviet military.:Military doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Using these new resources, the Red Army of the 1930s developed a highly sophisticated concept of mobile warfare which relied on huge formations of tanks, aircraft, and airborne troops designed to break through the enemy's line and carry the battle deep to the enemy's rear. Soviet industry responded, supplying tanks, aircraft and other equipment in sufficient numbers to make such operations practical. To avoid overestimating the power of the Soviet army, although before 1941 Soviet formations of a given level were at least equal to and often stronger than equivalent formations of other armies, huge wartime losses and reorganisation based on war experience reversed the trend during the later war years. Thus, for example, the Soviet Tank Corps was equivalent in armored vehicle power to an American armored division, and a Soviet rifle (infantry) division, unless specifically reinforced, was often equivalent to an American infantry regiment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301934",
"title": "Battles of Khalkhin Gol",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Soviet assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Following the battle, the Soviets generally found the results unsatisfactory, despite their victory. Though the Soviet forces in the Far East in 1939 were not plagued by fundamental issues to the same extent as those in Europe during the 1941 campaigns, their generals were still unimpressed by their army's performance. As noted by Pyotr Grigorenko, the Red Army went in with a very large advantage in technology, numbers, and firepower, yet still suffered huge losses, which he blamed on poor leadership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65yfx9
|
why do non-native english speakers make the "their vs. there" confusion less often than natives?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because we don't write down a sound, we write down a meaning, and in our native languages their, there and they're (and your/you're) sound completely different, so we don't make that mistake. It's not that we translate, it's just impossible to mix them up because they are totally different things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Native speakers learn the language mainly through listening and speaking as a child. As there, their and they're are pronounced the same they may not be distinguished from each other for many years until a child starts learning grammar. \nOn the other hand when you are learning a foreign language you tend to begin with a greater focus on the grammar than a native speaker and this saves a lot of the confusion with these words",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17507588",
"title": "English as a lingua franca",
"section": "Section::::Globalization and ELF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Because of the use of English as a lingua franca, native speakers are outnumbered by non-native speakers of English, which is a situation that is quite atypical for western European languages. A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language by different communities, which is reflected in the way English has become ‘multiplex’.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367025",
"title": "Fritz Spiegl",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "\"...soon knew a great deal more about the language than most English people do. And cared more too. One can understand this. It's galling, when you've taken the trouble to learn that \"an alibi\" is not the same as \"an excuse\", to find that the natives themselves seem to have forgotten the difference.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387041",
"title": "English usage controversies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "In the English language, there are grammatical constructions that many native speakers use unquestioningly yet certain writers call incorrect. Differences of usage or opinion may stem from differences between formal and informal speech and other matters of register, differences among dialects (whether regional, class-based, or other), and so forth. Disputes may arise when style guides disagree with each other, or when a guideline or judgement is confronted by large amounts of conflicting evidence or has its rationale challenged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4051786",
"title": "Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The following is a list of common non-native pronunciations that English speakers make when trying to speak foreign languages. Many of these are due to transfer of phonological rules from English to the new language as well as differences in grammar and syntax that they encounter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30692239",
"title": "Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages",
"section": "Section::::Hindi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "While native speakers pronounce the sequences differently in different contexts, non-native speakers and voice-synthesis software can make them \"sound very unnatural\", making it \"extremely difficult for the listener\" to grasp the intended meaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415406",
"title": "English as a second or foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties for learners.:Varieties of English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "BULLET::::- The numerous communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world also have some noticeable differences like Irish English, Australian English, Canadian English, Newfoundland English, etc. For instance, following are words that only make meaning in originating culture: Toad in the hole, Gulab jamun, Spotted Dick, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226958",
"title": "Non-native pronunciations of English",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "More transparently, differing phonological distinctions between a speaker's first language and English create a tendency to neutralize such distinctions in English, and differences in the inventory or distribution of sounds may cause substitutions of native sounds in the place of difficult English sounds and/or simple deletion. This is more common when the distinction is subtle between English sounds or between a sound of English and of a speaker's primary language. While there is no evidence to suggest that a simple absence of a sound or sequence in one language's phonological inventory makes it difficult to learn, several theoretical models have presumed that non-native speech perceptions reflect both the abstract phonological properties and phonetic details of the native language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nyg3e
|
what is cosmic radiation and why is it harmful to life?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cosmic rays originate from outside of the Solar System, and it's essentially high-energy radiation coming from space. Because of how powerful it is, it's not only bad for life, but it's also bad for electronics because it can alter circuit components in them.\n\nAs for life, it's the main barrier for space travel because it's essentially space's form of ionizing radiation; That is, radiation that can separate electrons from atoms. With that said, long-term exposure to cosmic rays (and thus radiation) would lead to acute radiation sickness, and eventually death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "883646",
"title": "Mars Radiation Environment Experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Space radiation comes from cosmic rays emitted by our local star, the Sun, and from stars beyond the Solar System as well. Space radiation can trigger cancer and cause damage to the central nervous system. Similar instruments are flown on the Space Shuttles and on the International Space Station (ISS), but none have ever flown outside Earth's protective magnetosphere, which blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface of our planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202522",
"title": "Ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Sources of radiation.:Background radiation.:Cosmic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1 amu protons (about 85% of it) to 26 amu iron nuclei and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called HZE ions.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest particle accelerators (see ultra-high-energy cosmic ray). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, muons, protons, antiprotons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, positrons, and neutrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4882",
"title": "Background radiation",
"section": "Section::::Natural background radiation.:Cosmic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from protons to iron and larger nuclei derived from outside the Solar System. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of secondary radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude. For example, the city of Denver in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper troposphere, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for airline crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment. During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1728672",
"title": "Human impact on the environment",
"section": "Section::::Energy industry.:Nuclear power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Radiation is a carcinogen and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plant disasters such as the Chernobyl disaster, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and the Three Mile Island accident, among others, persist indefinitely, though several other factors contributed to these events including improper management of fail safe systems and natural disasters putting uncommon stress on the generators. The radioactive decay rate of particles varies greatly, dependent upon the nuclear properties of a particular isotope. Radioactive Plutonium-244 has a half-life of 80.8 million years, which indicates the time duration required for half of a given sample to decay, though very little plutonium-244 is produced in the nuclear fuel cycle and lower half-life materials have lower activity thus giving off less dangerous radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The health threats from cosmic rays is the danger posed by galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles to astronauts on interplanetary missions or any missions that venture through the Van-Allen Belts or outside the Earth's magnetosphere. They are one of the greatest barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333692",
"title": "Radiation protection",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft radiation challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Spacecraft, both manned and unmanned, must cope with the high radiation environment of outerspace. Radiation emitted by the Sun and other galactic sources, and trapped in radiation \"belts\" is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12772746",
"title": "Radioecology",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Nuclear radiation is harmful to the environment over immediate (seconds or fractions thereof) as well as long-term (years or centuries) timescales, and it affects the environment on both microscopic (DNA) and macroscopic (population) levels. Degrees of these effects are dependent on external factors, especially in the case of humans. Radioecology encompasses all radiological interactions affecting biological and geological material as well as those between different phases of matter, as each is capable of carrying radionuclides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3htqci
|
why do some governments call snap elections, even if they have a chance of losing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sometimes, governments are forced into positions where they have to make unpopular decisions.\n\nSome people will see how the government's hand has been forced and will accept it. But other people might object to the decision they've made, and feel the government is not acting for the thing it claimed to stand for when it was elected.\n\nIn this case, the legitimacy of the government might be called into question. This can result in them losing control, not being able to pass laws, and not being able to effectively govern.\n\nThey might then call an election. They'd hope to be re-elected, and, if they are, they will regain their legitimacy because the public have still voted for them even though they've seen what the government have had to do previously. Even if they lose, this will probably be less damaging than trying to govern without support.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "462915",
"title": "Snap election",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Since the power to call snap elections usually lies with the incumbent, they usually result in increased majorities for the party already in power having been called at an advantageous time. However, snap elections can also backfire on the incumbent resulting in a decreased majority or even the opposition winning or gaining power. As a result of the latter cases there have been occasions in which the consequences have been the implementation of fixed term elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42357335",
"title": "2015 British Virgin Islands general election",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Former Premier, Ralph T. O'Neal, had warned of the possibility of the Government calling a snap election. President of the opposition Virgin Islands Party, Carvin Malone, had predicted an election on 6 or 13 July 2015. Although it became common parlance to refer to the election as a \"snap\" election in local media, it is not entirely clear that it was. The ruling party announced candidates for an \"upcoming election\" over a month prior to dissolution of the House, and all parties claimed that they had anticipated the announcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462915",
"title": "Snap election",
"section": "Section::::Asia and Oceania.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In Japan, a snap election is called when a Prime Minister dissolves the lower house of the Diet of Japan. The act is based on Article 7 of the Constitution of Japan, which can be interpreted as saying that the Prime Minister has the power to dissolve the lower house after so advising the Emperor. Almost all general elections of the lower house have been snap elections since 1947, when the current constitution was enacted. The only exception was 1976 election, when the Prime Minister Takeo Miki was isolated within his own Liberal Democratic Party. The majority of LDP politicians opposed Miki's decision not to dissolve the lower house until the end of its 4-year term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370181",
"title": "Elections in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Overview of elections.:Timing of elections.:General elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Early or \"snap\" elections have occurred at least three times in New Zealand's history: in 1951, 1984 and 2002. Early elections often provoke controversy, as they potentially give governing parties an advantage over opposition candidates. Note that of the three elections in which the government won an increased majority, two involved snap elections (1951 and 2002 – the other incumbent-boosting election took place in 1938). The 1984 snap election backfired on the government of the day: many believe that the Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon, called it while drunk. \"See Snap election, New Zealand.\" The 1996 election took place slightly early (on 12 October) to avoid holding a by-election after the resignation of Michael Laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462915",
"title": "Snap election",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "The conditions for when a snap election can be called have been significantly restricted by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 to occasions when the government loses a confidence motion or when a two-thirds supermajority of MPs vote in favour. Prior to this, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom had the de facto power to call an election at will by requesting a dissolution from the monarch – the limited circumstances where this would not be granted were set out in the Lascelles Principles. There was no fixed period for holding elections, although between 1997 and 2015 there was a convention that the government should hold elections on the same date as local elections on the first Thursday of May. Since World War II, only the 2015 general election was held on the latest possible date (7 May 2015), due to being the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11538462",
"title": "1968 Belgian general election",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The snap elections were called after the government, a coalition of the Christian Social Party and the liberal Party for Freedom and Progress led by Christian Democrat Paul Vanden Boeynants, fell due to the Leuven Crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462915",
"title": "Snap election",
"section": "Section::::Asia and Oceania.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In the Philippines, the term \"snap election\" usually refers to the 1986 presidential election, where President Ferdinand Marcos called elections earlier than scheduled, in response to growing social unrest. Marcos was declared official winner of the election but was eventually ousted when it was alleged that he cheated in the elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23fxfb
|
Who do you think is Jack the Ripper?
|
[
{
"answer": "I found patricia Cornwell's case for Walter Sickert pretty compelling [Link to book if you want to check it out.](_URL_0_) Things like details in his paintings that a person uninvolved shouldn't have known as well as paper matching to the letters from jack the ripper to police are interesting ideas as well as her creating a physiological profile that fit him and the ripper. \n\nBut there are a few holes in her case as she is piecing together a 100+ year old crime. Nothing can every be conclusively proved or disproved so any real accusation is basically a highly educated guess. \n\nAt this point in history the only concrete thing to say is that nobody will know conclusively who Jack the Ripper was. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Academic historians tend to be fairly unconcerned with who the murderer really was. This is partly because we'll never know for sure, and partly because the myth of the Ripper is far more interesting than any reality. As a cultural historian of late-Victorian Britain, I'm fascinated by the response to the murders and what it reveals about British culture and society at the time. The failure of the police to apprehend the murderer created a void; a blank space into which people poured their fears and fantasies. It's a great way to explore ideas about gender, race, crime, the city, and the press. This is much more interesting (to me at least) than desperately speculating about the identity of the killer. Historians tend to leave this stuff to the Ripperologists...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A sort of followup question: I'm reading about H.H. Holmes right now and came across a mention that some people believe he was Jack the Ripper. Something about him being in London at the time. Can anybody offer a more scholarly analysis of this theory? It didn't seem particularly sound to me, but he did do some pretty nasty stuff in Chicago at the Colombian Exposition so maybe....\n\nIs this a theory that has ever been taken seriously by anybody? What is the likelihood of it being true? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6860726",
"title": "Jack the Ripper",
"section": "Section::::Suspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "There are many and varied theories about the identity and profession of Jack the Ripper, but authorities are not agreed upon any of them, and the number of named suspects reaches over one hundred. Despite continued interest in the case, the Ripper's identity remains unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6860726",
"title": "Jack the Ripper",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Jack the Ripper features in hundreds of works of fiction and works which straddle the boundaries between fact and fiction, including the Ripper letters and a hoax Diary of Jack the Ripper. The Ripper appears in novels, short stories, poems, comic books, games, songs, plays, operas, television programmes, and films. More than 100 non-fiction works deal exclusively with the Jack the Ripper murders, making it one of the most written-about true-crime subjects. The term \"ripperology\" was coined by Colin Wilson in the 1970s to describe the study of the case by professionals and amateurs. The periodicals \"Ripperana\", \"Ripperologist\", and \"Ripper Notes\" publish their research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2734759",
"title": "The Prowler in the City at the Edge of the World",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Jack the Ripper appears inexplicably in a sterile futuristic metropolis, where anyone is free to do what they want however arcane or immoral. He is brought before Juliette, a girl who is named after the Marquis de Sade's Juliette.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228993",
"title": "Saucy Jacky postcard",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "In the video game \"\", the protagonist is occasionally referred to as \"Jack the Ripper\", which is a reference to Raiden's proper name and a traumatic incident in his past. One antagonist, however, briefly calls him \"Saucy Jack\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25795333",
"title": "L. Forbes Winslow",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "BULLET::::- Knows \"Jack the Ripper\"; He Is Hopelessly Insane, Says Dr. Forbes Winslow of London. Confined In An English Asylum – He Was a Medical Student, and Religious Mania Caused Him to Butcher the Women of the Streets. \"The New York Times\" 1 September 1895/a\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1245730",
"title": "Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Claims of Thomas Stowell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1314,
"text": "In 1970, British surgeon Thomas E. A. Stowell published an article entitled \"Jack the Ripper – A Solution?\" in the November issue of \"The Criminologist\". In the article, Stowell proposed that the Ripper was an aristocrat who had contracted syphilis during a visit to the West Indies, that it had driven him insane, and that in this state of mind he had perpetrated the five canonical Jack the Ripper murders. Although Stowell did not directly name his suspect in the article, he described in detail the suspect's family and his physical appearance and nicknames, all of which pointed to Queen Victoria's grandson, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale. Stowell wrote that following a double murder on 30 September 1888, his suspect was restrained by his own family in an institution in the south of England, but later escaped to commit a final murder on 9 November before ultimately dying of syphilis. To back up his theory, Stowell drew comparisons between the evisceration of the women and the disembowelment of deer shot by the aristocracy on their estates. Stowell said his information came from the private notes of Sir William Gull, a reputable physician who had treated members of the royal family. Stowell knew Gull's son-in-law, Theodore Dyke Acland, and was an executor of Acland's estate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22656233",
"title": "Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jack the Ripper: The serial killer who strikes at the sinister district of Whitechapel. He kills prostitutes with no mercy and mocks the police, and is regarded both as a madman and a genius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sru7h
|
[Meta] Can we start a FAQ link of Recommended History Books?
|
[
{
"answer": "we have a link on the sidebar for finding good resources, however compiling a list of books can get unwieldy quick. WARFTW alone would contribute like 40 books just on the Battle of Kursk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We would need to start a whole wiki, and even then it would just turn into a list of books that would be so long it that people would feel buried.\n\nLook at US History:\n\n-Age of Exploration\n-Colonizaton\n-The Colonial Period\n-The Revolutionary Period\n-The Early Republic\n-Age of Jackson/Antebellum America\n-The Civil War\n-Reconstruction and Industrial America\n-The Progressive Era\n-World War War I\n-Interwar America\n-World War II\n-Post-War World II\n-Modern America\n\nThen you get specific, and stuff gets crazy. This is for a country with a hsistory that spans 500 years. When you're covering 10,000 years of history, it gets insane.\n\nIf you got a bunch of US Civil War buffs together, we might be able to agree on a general history of the war, but I doubt you could get a bunch of us to agree on five specific books that everyone should read. If you expand that to cover all of US history, I really don't know what to tell you, except avoid Howard Zinn. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think a collection of those \"recommend me books\" threads in one, updated post would be a nice addition to the sidebar. I could do this, if someone wants me to.\n\nBut there is a problem with the big list of recommended books you want: There are too much of them! Most people asking for books here will only read a few of them. I have read many books on World History and often recommend some of them here. Most of the time I ask the OP to be more specific or what subject/time period/geographical area he is interested in, because \"tailor-made\" recommendations are much more helpful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very difficult, because books on historical topics are rarely *definitive*, and if they're not definitive, the precise angle they take is more important than the coverage of the topic itself.\n\nAlso there's a big problem with books that are *important* but *not necessarily right*.\n\nBooks like Syme's *The Roman Revolution* and Finley's *The World of Odysseus* are undoubtedly terrifically important and influential books, but there are probably not many people today (or at least I hope not) who would subscribe to the detail of much of what they say.\n\nI'm really not sure that such a list is possible, unless it's simply a list of \"[/r/askhistorians](/r/askhistorians) regulars' favourite books\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14601746",
"title": "Our Dumb World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The book, written in the satirical paper's editorial voice, contains entries for nearly every country on Earth, including detailed maps, feature articles, and humorous stereotyped descriptions of regional history and customs. For example, Romania's entry is subtitled, \"Bram Stoker's Romania.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520610",
"title": "The Discworld Companion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The book compiles a precise (and often quoted directly from the books concerned) definition of words, lives of historical people, geography of places and events that have appeared in at least one \"Discworld\" novel, map, diary, non-fiction book and the short stories \"Troll Bridge\", \"Theatre of Cruelty\", and \"The Sea and Little Fishes\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44867421",
"title": "Saltwater City: An Illustrated History of the Chinese in Vancouver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The book has six chapters, organized chronologically. The book includes sidebar texts, documents, photographs, footnotes, a newspaper scan, and first-hand accounts. Mitchell Wong, a reviewer for the \"Amerasia Journal\", stated the book is intended to be a \"relatively short, illustrated\" book that highlights key points of history, in a manner similar to that of \"Longtime Californ'\", instead of having analytical depth in the manner of \"\" by Patricia Roy. Anthony B. Chan of California State University, Hayward wrote that \"This was never intended to be a scholarly book.\" Judy Yung of the University of California, Santa Cruz wrote that \"Saltwater City\" is \"not as scholarly\" as Roy's book, \"From China to Canada\", or \"\" by Chuenyan Lai.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41941400",
"title": "Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment",
"section": "Section::::Topics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The series publishes one book per month. Topics include history, literature and comparative studies, cultural studies, philosophy, the history of the book, theatre, arts and visual studies, and gender studies. Several of its books have won awards, such as the Society for the History of Natural History's Thackray Medal for \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau and botany: the salutary science\" (Alexandra Cook), and the Prix Marianne Roland Michel for \"The Profession of sculpture in the Paris 'Académie\"' (Tomas Macsotay).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29757301",
"title": "The Little Emperors",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The book contains a Historical Note, in which the author sets out what is documented history (not very much) and what he made up to fill in the gaps. As an example, a usurper called Marcus existed, but nothing is known of him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10406323",
"title": "The Lessons of History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Thus, the book presents an overview of the themes and lessons observed from 5,000 years of world history, examined from 12 perspectives: geography, biology, race, character, morals, religion, economics, socialism, government, war, growth and decay, and progress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29543367",
"title": "Monarchs, Rulers, Dynasties and Kingdoms of the World",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The book begins with a bibliography arranged by author's name in alphabetical order, followed by a Guide to Dynasties and States, a 150-page section giving brief descriptions and indicating where the related list(s) can be found. It is a good reference for finding the main rulers of a particular part of the world at various times. Tapsell briefly describes some royal family ties and attempts to help the reader locate many of the early realms of the world using the modern map, providing some history on each country or province. Minor criticisms of the book center on the complicated nature of locating exactly what is sought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vatki
|
the congressional vote to repeal no child left behind, and the impact it will have on the federal push for common core standards implementation.
|
[
{
"answer": "Remember during the Bush administration when a school's funding was to be based on test scores, and all the kids who failed the tests still got to move on to the next grade? That was no child left behind.\n\nNow that they are finally acknowledging our failing education system, they want to make kids pass the tests in order to move on like they did when our education system wasnt such a joke, and steer funding away from being solely dependant on testing results.\n\nOf course there is A LOT more going on, but this is the main point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33541929",
"title": "Racial achievement gap in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Efforts to narrow the achievement gap.:Standards-based reform.:No Child Left Behind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The No Child Left Behind Act(NCLB) legislation was signed by President Bush in January 2002 and dramatically expanded federal influence over the nation's more than 90,000 public schools. The main implications of this legislation was states had to conduct annual student assessments linked to state standards to identify schools failing to make \"adequate yearly progress\" (AYP) toward the stated goal of having all students achieve proficiency in reading and math by 2013–2014 and to institute sanctions and rewards based on each school's AYP status. One of the motivations for this reform is that publicizing detailed information on school-specific performance and linking that \"high-stakes\" test performance to the possibility of sanctions will improve the focus and productivity of public schools. However, critics charge that test-based school accountability has several negative consequences for the broad cognitive development of children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27684253",
"title": "Common Core State Standards Initiative",
"section": "Section::::Adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Until the Every Student Succeeds Act was passed in December 2015, the US Department of Education had encouraged states to adopt the Common Core Standards by tying the grant of waivers from the No Child Left Behind Act to adoption of the Standards. However, the Every Student Succeeds Act not only replaced the No Child Left Behind Act, it also expressly prohibits the Department of Education from attempting to \"influence, incentivize, or coerce State adoption of the Common Core State Standards ... or any other academic standards common to a significant number of States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40588143",
"title": "Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2014",
"section": "Section::::Debate.:Other aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The National Education Association (NEA) wrote an open letter to the House opposing H.J.Res 59. The NEA urged representatives to vote no because the bill \"continues the devastating cuts to education set in motion by the sequester and permanently defunds the Affordable Care Act.\" The organization states that they may decide to use the vote on this bill in their NEA Legislative Report Card for the 113th Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512852",
"title": "No Child Left Behind Act",
"section": "Section::::Proposals for reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "President Barack Obama released a blueprint for reform of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the successor to No Child Left Behind, in March 2010. Specific revisions include providing funds for states to implement a broader range of assessments to evaluate advanced academic skills, including students' abilities to conduct research, use technology, engage in scientific investigation, solve problems, and communicate effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48715391",
"title": "Every Student Succeeds Act",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The No Child Left Behind Act was due for reauthorization in 2007, but was not pursued for a lack of bipartisan cooperation. Many states failed to meet the NCLB's standards, and the Obama Administration granted waivers to many states for schools that showed success but failed under the NCLB standards. However, these waivers usually required schools to adopt academic standards such as the Common Core. The NCLB was generally praised for forcing schools and states to become more accountable for ensuring the education of poor and minority children. However, the increase in standardized testing that occurred during the presidencies of Bush and Obama met with resistance from many parents, and many called for a lessened role for the federal government in education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3091244",
"title": "Adequate Yearly Progress",
"section": "Section::::Present state of NCLB.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1279,
"text": "On January 8, 2002, George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act. According to Arne Duncan, U.S. Secretary of Education, it has created an artificial goal of proficiency that actually encouraged states to lower their standards to make it easier for students to meet goals and bring the school to meet AYP. Duncan also believes that this kind of system narrows curriculum and mislabels schools as failing, even though they may be demonstrating academic growth in other ways other than state tests. Over the years since NCLB has been in place, 44 states have made strides in raising their standards but are now having to explain why their schools are \"failing\". To fix this, the secretary of state believes the law needs to be less prescriptive and allow school districts to create their own improvement plans unique to their needs. In 2015, the Obama administration offered states flexibility from NCLB in exchange for their own fair and flexible plans to raise standards. So far, 42 states have shown interest in this system and are currently working with the Department of Education. Congress's efforts to reauthorize NCLB ultimately led in 2015 to the Every Student Succeeds Act, which replaced it, modifying but not replacing provisions related to standardized testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36738038",
"title": "Political positions of Paul Ryan",
"section": "Section::::Social, environmental, and science issues.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "In December 2015, Ryan led the bipartisan effort to pass the Every Student Succeeds Act, which, among other things, fully repealed No Child Left Behind and severely limited the federal government's ability to impose and enforce national education standards such as Common Core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
262sgd
|
Can light waves experience interference?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, one of the most well known phenomena is [two slit interference](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two small addenda: First, radio waves and visible light waves are essentially the same stuff, the only real difference is that visible light has a much higher frequency. The reason why we give them different names is partly historical and partly because we refer to different parts of the [electromagnetic spectrum](_URL_0_) by how they are usually generated or used to have shorthands for different frequency ranges.\n\nSecond, interference is a fundamental result of our mathematical description of waves: amplitudes at a certain point add up. So anything we would call a wave displays interference/diffraction phenomena. Even many things we wouldn't ordinarily call a wave display diffraction phenomena, such as nuclear spins in [magnetic resonance imaging](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Interference of light is a common phenomenon that can be explained classically by the superposition of waves, however a deeper understanding of light interference requires knowledge of wave-particle duality of light which is due to quantum mechanics. Prime examples of light interference are the famous double-slit experiment, laser speckle, anti-reflective coatings and interferometers. Traditionally the classical wave model is taught as a basis for understanding optical interference, based on the Huygens–Fresnel principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "912171",
"title": "Optical ring resonators",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Interference is the process by which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater or less amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other. In constructive interference, the two waves are of the same phase interfere in a way such that the resultant amplitude will be equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes. As the light in an optical ring resonator completes multiple circuits around the ring component, it will interfere with the other light still in the loop. As such, assuming there are no losses in the system such as those due to absorption, evanescence, or imperfect coupling and the resonance condition is met, the intensity of the light emitted from a ring resonator will be equal to the intensity of the light fed into the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and destructive interference result from the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves. The resulting images or graphs are called interferograms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2352712",
"title": "Gabriel Lippmann",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Colour photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The interference phenomenon in optics occurs as a result of the wave propagation of light. When light of a given wavelength is reflected back upon itself by a mirror, standing waves are generated, much as the ripples resulting from a stone dropped into still water create standing waves when reflected back by a surface such as the wall of a pool. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the standing waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201321",
"title": "Superposition principle",
"section": "Section::::Wave superposition.:Wave interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called \"destructive interference\". In other cases, such as in a line array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called \"constructive interference\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66338",
"title": "Holography",
"section": "Section::::Recording a hologram.:Items required.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1350,
"text": "These requirements are inter-related, and it is essential to understand the nature of optical interference to see this. Interference is the variation in intensity which can occur when two light waves are superimposed. The intensity of the maxima exceeds the sum of the individual intensities of the two beams, and the intensity at the minima is less than this and may be zero. The interference pattern maps the relative phase between the two waves, and any change in the relative phases causes the interference pattern to move across the field of view. If the relative phase of the two waves changes by one cycle, then the pattern drifts by one whole fringe. One phase cycle corresponds to a change in the relative distances travelled by the two beams of one wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is of the order of 0.5 μm, it can be seen that very small changes in the optical paths travelled by either of the beams in the holographic recording system lead to movement of the interference pattern which is the holographic recording. Such changes can be caused by relative movements of any of the optical components or the object itself, and also by local changes in air-temperature. It is essential that any such changes are significantly less than the wavelength of light if a clear well-defined recording of the interference is to be created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060624",
"title": "Newton's rings",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "BULLET::::- Constructive interference (a): In areas where the path length difference between the two rays is equal to an odd multiple of half a wavelength (λ/2) of the light waves, the reflected waves will be in phase, so the \"troughs\" and \"peaks\" of the waves coincide. Therefore, the waves will reinforce (add) and the resulting reflected light intensity will be greater. As a result, a bright area will be observed there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ead289
|
For some species of ant, like Army Ants, what determines whether they become a small worker, a large soldier, a male, or a queen? Is it random or do queen ants choose which profession ants will be when they lay the eggs?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the species, but among many species of ants the caste that an egg develops into is based on differences in nutrition received through care and feeding by other ants as the larvae develops -- not by anything that the queen does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This process actually varies quite a bit from one species to another. If you can access it, check out [Schwander et al. 2010](_URL_1_), which discusses caste determination systems in several different kinds of ants. Essentially, there is a continuum from purely environmental caste determination (as seen in some wood ants like [*Formica exsecta*](_URL_3_)) to purely genetic caste determination (as seen in the little fire ant [*Wasmannia auropunctata*](_URL_0_)). In the former case, caste is typically determined by some combination of food resources received during development and other factors about the colony itself, while in the latter case an ant's caste is determined at birth. Many species are somewhere in between these extremes however, and use a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. However, I do want to point out that neither of these is really random, and if any other individuals are directly determining the caste of workers, it is probably more likely to be other workers rather than the queen.\n\nThough I'm not sure if this applies to *all* army ants (of which there are a few hundred species), one of the better studied species, [*Eciton burchellii*](_URL_2_) seems to be one of those with caste determination that is neither fully environmental nor genetic. As described in [Jaffé et al. 2007](_URL_4_), there clearly is *some* genetic component; queens mate with multiple males, and individual males vary in the proportions of castes that their offspring develop into. However, this genetic component is far from capable of fully predicting caste either, since all males *can* have offspring of any caste. The above authors found that additive genetic variance from fathers accounted for 15% of the variation in caste phenotype, so the remaining 85% of variation is explained by some combination of environmental factors and influence from the queen's DNA (which wasn't directly tested).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11105212",
"title": "Nuptial flight",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Not all ants follow the basic pattern described above. In army ants only males are alates, having wings. They fly out from their parent colony in search of other colonies where wingless virgin queens wait for them. A colony with an old queen and one or more mated young queens then divides, each successful queen taking a share of the workers. The reason for this behavior is the fact that army ants do not have a physical nest. The queens are thus absolutely dependent on workers to protect them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2330207",
"title": "Army ant",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.:Queen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Colonies of real army ants always have only one queen, while some other ant species can have several queens. The queen is dichthadiigyne (a blind ant with large gaster) but may sometimes possess vestigial eyes. The queens of army ants are unique in that they do not have wings, have an enlarged gaster size and an extended cylindrical abdomen. They are significantly larger than worker army ants and possess 10–12 segments on their antennae. Queens will mate with multiple males and because of their enlarged gaster, can produce 3 to 4 million eggs a month, resulting in synchronized brood cycles and colonies composed of millions of individuals all related to a single queen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1056536",
"title": "Ant colony",
"section": "Section::::Colony structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Ant colonies have a complex hierarchical social structure. Ants jobs are determined and can be changed by age. As ants grow older their jobs move them further from the queen, or center of the colony. Younger ants work within the nest protecting the queen and young. Sometimes, a queen is not present and is replaced by egg-laying workers. These worker ants can only lay haploid eggs producing sterile offspring. Despite the title of queen, she doesn't delegate the tasks to the worker ants; however, the ants choose their tasks based on personal preference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12550267",
"title": "Crematogaster",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In these ant species, there is also a variation that exists to this mating strategy. There can exist large female workers that are smaller than winged queens yet larger than small workers. They also have many anatomical features that are intermediate to small workers and the queen, including ovary size and composition, and patches. These females can produce unfertilized eggs that can eventually develop into males in colonies that do not have a queen. If these eggs are produced in a colony with a queen, the queen can devour them. Larvae can also devour the eggs. Large workers will normally produce more eggs in ant colonies that are queenless. Large workers can be tended to by small workers in a similar manner to ant queens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12550267",
"title": "Crematogaster",
"section": "Section::::Division of labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "As with most eusocial insects, acrobat ants tend to form castes based on labor duties. This division is normally behavioral but also has a physical basis, including size or age. Soldiers are typically larger with a more developed metapleural gland specialized for colony defence or food acquisition. A worker ant is generally smaller than soldiers and queens, and its main task is to assist the queen in rearing the young. Workers vary in size more than soldiers. This considerable variation in size may have played a considerable role in the evolution of \"large workers\" in this genus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53496952",
"title": "Ant-keeping",
"section": "Section::::Starting a colony.:Locating a queen ant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "A queen ant can be distinguished from a worker ant by the relatively larger size of the thorax (which at this point contains the wing muscles of the queen), and the enlarged abdomen which contains eggs. Beware that certain species have large workers similar in size to a queen, if the possible queen you are looking at has marks on either side of the thorax (Wing scars, where the wings of the queen were) it is a queen. If not, it's a supermajor; a larger worker of the colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2330207",
"title": "Army ant",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Queen behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Being the largest ants on Earth, army ants, such as African \"Dorylus\" queens have the greatest reproductive potential among the insects, with an egg-laying capacity of several millions per month. Army ant queens never have to leave the protection of the colony, where they mate with foreign incoming males which disperse on nuptial flights. The exact mating behaviour of the army ant queen is still unknown, but observations seem to imply that queens may be fertilized by multiple males. Due to the queen's large reproductive potential, one colony of army ants can be descended from a single queen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47julj
|
how are professionals able to spot counterfeit signatures if a person can't sign their name exactly the same each time?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's more about finding consistent patterns than about finding perfectly consistent shapes to each figure. Maybe the signer does wide, loopy lowercase L's. They won't all be exactly the same, but they're always wide and loopy. If the L on a signature is thin and stunted, then it casts doubt on the signature.\n\nMaybe he lifts his pen between a specific two letters every time, maybe he dots the i as he makes it, instead of after finishing the word. Maybe the pen moves slower on one letter, and leaves a thicker line of ink because of it. All of these little things are more consistent than the shape exactly matching every time - find them all to be consistent, and it's almost certainly real. Find several discrepancies, and there's a good reason to doubt the signature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38940693",
"title": "Cursive handwriting instruction in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "While many people sign their names enough that it becomes very routine, it is still an important skill to have. A \"false signature\", forgery, is a punishable by law offense. Writing a check, signing a credit slip, signing a marriage certificate, and signing an apartment lease are just a few of the occasions when a valid signature is necessary. Signatures are reflections of the identity of a person and that person as a professional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7363430",
"title": "Electronic authentication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "When used in conjunction with an electronic signature, it can provide evidence whether data received has been tampered with after being signed by its original sender. In a time where fraud and identity theft has become rampant, electronic authentication can be a more secure method of verifying that a person is who they say they are when performing transactions online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26753",
"title": "Signature",
"section": "Section::::Function and types.:Mechanically produced signatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Special signature machines, called autopens, are capable of automatically reproducing an individual's signature. These are typically used by people required to sign a lot of printed matter, such as celebrities, heads of state or CEOs. More recently, Members of Congress in the United States have begun having their signature made into a TrueType font file. This allows staff members in the Congressman's office to easily reproduce it on correspondence, legislation, and official documents. In the East Asian languages of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, people traditionally use stamp-like objects known as \"name-seals\" with the name carved in \"tensho\" script (\"seal script\") in lieu of a handwritten signature. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31565884",
"title": "Signature forgery",
"section": "Section::::Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Several different methods can be used to forge signatures. One method is the \"freehand method\", whereby the forger, after careful practice, replicates the signature by freehand. Although a difficult method to perfect, this often produces the most convincing results. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239365",
"title": "David Chaum",
"section": "Section::::Notable research contributions.:New types of digital signatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In 1989, he (with Hans van Antwerpen) introduced undeniable signatures. This form of digital signature uses a verification process that is interactive, so that the signatory can limit who can verify the signature. Since signers may refuse to participate in the verification process, signatures are considered valid unless a signer specifically uses a disavowal protocol to prove that a given signature was not authentic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59644",
"title": "Digital signature",
"section": "Section::::Additional security precautions.:Digital signatures versus ink on paper signatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "An ink signature could be replicated from one document to another by copying the image manually or digitally, but to have credible signature copies that can resist some scrutiny is a significant manual or technical skill, and to produce ink signature copies that resist professional scrutiny is very difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16296098",
"title": "X mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "It is also used as a replacement for a signature for a person who is blind or illiterate and thus cannot write his or her name. Typically, the writing of an X used for this purpose must be witnessed to be valid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6tc4qi
|
why is low blood pressure and a low heart rate good, if that means that your heart is pumping less often and not pushing as hard?
|
[
{
"answer": "As long as your body functions normally at a lower pressure or pulse, that means it's doing what it needs to with less effort and less strain that could be damaging over time. It also means there is more room for pressure or pulse to increase later in life without necessarily becoming a problem.\n\nBut there are people whose hearts underperform and their pressure or pulse is *too* low, causing them problems with circulation, and they take medication to correct it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Low HR and BP are considered \"good\" because it means your heart is functioning efficiently (i.e. performing its job with less effort). Whereas, high HR and BP indicate your heart is having to strain to do the same job. Of course, you can have HR and BP that are too low, but generally speaking, the lower the better (to a point). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "500475",
"title": "Hypotension",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Some heart conditions can lead to low blood pressure, including extremely low heart rate (bradycardia), heart valve problems, heart attack and heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160581",
"title": "Tachycardia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "When the heart beats excessively or rapidly, the heart pumps less efficiently and provides less blood flow to the rest of the body, including the heart itself. The increased heart rate also leads to increased work and oxygen demand by the heart, which can lead to rate related ischemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7913995",
"title": "Bainbridge reflex",
"section": "Section::::Venous return.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Increasing the heart rate serves to decrease the pressure in the superior and inferior venae cavae by drawing more blood out of the right atrium. This results in a decrease in atrial pressure, which serves to bring in more blood from the vena cavae, resulting in a decrease in the venous pressure of the great veins. This continues until right atrial blood pressure returns to normal levels, upon which the heart rate decreases to its original level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56558",
"title": "Blood pressure",
"section": "Section::::Classification, normal and abnormal values.:Systemic arterial pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Observational studies demonstrate that people who maintain arterial pressures at the low end of these pressure ranges have much better long-term cardiovascular health. There is an ongoing medical debate over what is the optimal level of blood pressure to target when using drugs to lower blood pressure with hypertension, particularly in older people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "500475",
"title": "Hypotension",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "For some people who exercise and are in top physical condition, low blood pressure is a sign of good health and fitness. A single session of exercise can induce hypotension and water-based exercise can induce important hypotension response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "432986",
"title": "Physical fitness",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Controlling blood pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Physical fitness has proven to result in positive effects on the body's blood pressure because staying active and exercising regularly builds up a stronger heart. The heart is the main organ in charge of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. Engaging in a physical activity raises blood pressure. Once the subject stops the activity, the blood pressure returns to normal. The more physical activity that one engages in, the easier this process becomes, resulting in a more ‘fit’ individual. Through regular physical fitness, the heart does not have to work as hard to create a rise in blood pressure, which lowers the force on the arteries, and lowers the overall blood pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3186459",
"title": "Hypertensive heart disease",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Because there are no symptoms with high blood pressure, people can have the condition without knowing it. Diagnosing high blood pressure early can help prevent heart disease, stroke, eye problems, and chronic kidney disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eg3w5
|
How did Buddhist-majority nations reconcile state violence (wars and so on) with Buddhist precepts of non-violence? Did they bother to do so?
|
[
{
"answer": "A really interesting case study on this is japan during WWII and Zen Buddhism.\n\nTwo important works on this topic are \"Zen at War\" and \"Zen War Stories \" by Brian Daizen Victoria. These books examine how Zen Masters justified and contributed to pro war propaganda.\n\nHere are some quotes from Zen masters during WWII:\n\n > \"[If ordered to] march: tramp, tramp, or shoot: bang, bang. This is the manifestation of the highest Wisdom [of Enlightenment]. The unity of Zen and war of which I speak extends to the farthest reaches of the holy war [now under way].\" - Harada Daiun Sogaku \n\n > \"Showing the utmost loyalty to the emperor is identical with engaging in the religious practice of Mahayana Buddhism. This is because Mahayana Buddhism is identical with the law of the sovereign.\" -- Seki Seisetsu \n\n > . \"I wished to inspire our valiant soldiers with the ennobling thoughts of the Buddha, so as to enable them to die on the battlefield with confidence that the task in which they are engaged is great and noble. I wish to convince them.... that this war is not a mere slaughter of their fellow-beings, but that they are combating an evil.\" -- Shaku Soen \n\n > \"In the present hostilities, into which Japan has entered with great reluctance, she pursues no egotistic purpose, but seeks the subjugation of evils hostile to civilization, peace and enlightenment.\" -- Shaku Soen \n\nSo what we are seeing are men who are just as susceptible to nationalism as anyone else who are able to justify aggression using twists of Buddhist logic. Its the nature of belief structures that they can always be twisted to support a world view.\n\nAlso, understand that not every \"Buddhist\" \"takes the full precepts\". The full precepts would only be taken by Buddhist monks and nuns who \"renounce the world\". The average soldier would not have necessarily taken any preceipts personally. Even if a soldier has received something like the Soto Bodhisattva precepts which includes instructions not to kill, these types of things can be twisted subjectively.\n\nFor example:\n\n > \"\"It is just to punish those who disturb the public order. Whether one kills or does not kill, the precept forbidding killing [is preserved]. It is the precept forbidding killing that wields the sword. It is the precept that throws the bomb.\" -- Sawaki Kodo \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Interestingly enough, I did a paper on this very question in my bachelor (comparative religion). My case study was Sri Lanka, but I'll give examples from other nations here as well, for a more 'universal' approach. \n\nThere are three means of reconciliation of violence and Buddhism I will distinguish here. Incidentally, these are not unique to Buddhists. Other religions handle their formal rejection of violence in a similar manner. \n\nFirst, Buddhism, like other religions, is linked to cultural and national identity. Buddhists would fight in protection of their nationstate and what they perceive as the \"keepers of the tradition\". They apply a larger-than-life mentality to the warfare. That is to say, the importance of continuing the tradition outweighs the views on morality they hold. (Daniel Kent (2010), 'Onward Buddhist Soldiers, Preaching to the Sri Lankan Army' in: *Buddhist Warfare*) \n\n > Soldiers don’t shoot the enemy out of personal anger. If they shoot they do so for the common good. This war is on behalf of the country, people, religion, region, and motherland. It would be negative karma to shoot one’s neighbor over a land conflict, but the intention here is a good one.\n\nSecond, there are attempts to de-humanize the opponents. This is very similar to Christian and Islamic justification of violence. Opponents are represented as possessed by demons, thereby transforming the violence from a mortal to a sanctified action. (in: Michael Jerryson (2010), 'Militarizing Buddhism, Violence in Souther Thailand' in: *Buddhist Warfare*)\n\n > [B]ecause whoever destroys the nation, the religion, or the monarchy, such bestial types [man] are not complete persons. Thus we must intend not to kill people but to kill the Devi [Māra]; this is the duty of all Thai. \n\nThird, karmic sacrifice. This is a classic case of multiple interpretations of (somewhat) ambiguous theology. Some individuals are considered such sinful beings, that they will only commit more crimes the longer they live. Killing these individuals can be considered a heroic act, because the killer will sacrifice his own karma in order to prevent the victim from committing more crimes and going to hell. (in: Derek Maher (2008), *The Rhetoric of War in Tibet*)\n\n > [K]illings [can be] undertaken in order to preserve sinful opponents of Buddhism from committing worse crimes that could be expected to earn them more severe karmic retribution than if they had not been killed.\n\nLastly, on a more personal note (hope that's allowed) there are some understandable misconceptions about Buddhism. (these same misconceptions incited my initial question for the aforementioned paper). Buddhism has many forms. And the majority of those forms has aspects similar to other religions. Please don't believe that \"Buddhism is more a philosophy than a religion\". Many forms of buddhism have gods, demons, heaven, hell, prayer for help, and rituals with magic properties. Therefore, evil and violence toward perceived evil is not at all uncommon among buddhists. If someone tells you that that is not real Buddhism, that would be a theological belief, not a statement supported by scholars. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the more interesting one cases of Buddhism and war is Japan.\n\nHistorically Buddhism in Japan has being subordinated to the state and began as a religion of the upper classes. between the 10th and 17th centuries Buddhism temples and monasteries were incredibly powerful and military orders of warrior monks (not unlike Christian military orders like the knight templar), known as the Sohei. Those orders fought both to defend their own temples and in attacking rival sects. They eventually grew so powerful that they were viewed as major threats by would be unifiers of Japan during the Sengoku era. Nobunga, Hideyoshi and Tokugawa defeated them and banned them under in Tokugawa Japan.\n\nThat did not end the relationship between the state and Buddhism became a defacto state religion in the Shogunate, where families had to associated themselves with a nearby Buddhist temples. Buddhism in Japan was therefore subordinated to the state.\n\nZen Buddhism had always being favored by Japan's warrior classes, the sect advocated indifference between life and death, and stressed the importance of discipline and that of an austere life style. During the 20th century Zen Buddhism became actively involved in promoting war, especially during WWII.\n\nThey justified it by:\n\n1) Religion must support the state at all costs, because should the state ever collapse then the chaos it produces would in turn produce far greater violence than otherwise\n\n2) Killing could be justified if the people killed are \"evil\", and that failure to kill evil men actually constituted a breach of Buddhist beliefs. It is not compassionate, for instance, to let an evil man live so that he can harm others later on.\n\n3) The war being fought in East Asia was a \"just war\" based on eliminating western colonialism in Asia and the establishment of a greater Asian co-prosperity sphere, and hence on the long run, eliminate war.\n\n4) The emperor is an ultimate enlightened being and thus deserves special moral authority.\n\nThere were of course, dissidents to militaristic interpretation of Buddhism, but as religion was subordinated to the state, views favoring the needs of the state tended to be much more popular.\n\nSources: Critical Buddhism: Engaging with Modern Japanese Buddhist Thought By Mr James Mark Shields\n\nZen at War by Brian Victoria",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This is fascinating and a question I'd wondered about myself -- particularly as I'd mostly fallen for the sanitized version of Buddhism popular in the West. \n\nOn the one hand, these explanations indicate that Buddhism is largely like other religions in formally eschewing violence, but finding convenient exceptions when necessary. \n\nGiven the great commonality among religions in this regard, I wonder if a further question might be whether there are any *differences* between Buddhist-majority nations and other-religious-majority nations on this subject -- and differences that might plausibly be attributable to Buddhism itself (and not merely attributable to common geographical or historical circumstances).\n\nFor example, is there anything in the ongoing rapid reconciliation between Vietnam and the United States (particularly as compared to the ongoing wars in the Middle East or Nothern Ireland, etc.) that is attributable to Vietnam's majority Buddhism? Or is that simply a red herring that merely clouds the decisive role of historical circumstance? \n\nAlso, I recall that in China, some of the early Qing emperors, I think, were devout Vajrayana Buddhists, but also were quite militaristic and violent -- responsible for just as many atrocities as other emperors. I would be grateful if anyone knows of this and could elaborate? Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are we allowed to discuss the Burmese's treatment of the Rohingya here? Or is that too recent, even though it goes back to 1948?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone know of good books on king ashoka rule over india, that was a buddhist kingdom ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38967444",
"title": "Buddhism and violence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Buddhism and violence refers to acts of violence and aggression committed by Buddhists with religious, political, or socio-cultural motivations, as well as self-inflicted violence by ascetics or for religious purposes. Buddhism is generally seen as among the religious traditions least associated with violence. However, in the history of Buddhism, there have been acts of violence directed, promoted, or inspired by Buddhists. As far as Buddha's teachings and scriptures are concerned, Buddhism forbids violence for resolving conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38967444",
"title": "Buddhism and violence",
"section": "Section::::Regional examples.:East Asia.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The beginning of \"Buddhist violence\" in Japan relates to a long history of feuds among Buddhists. The sōhei or \"warrior monks\" appeared during the Heian period, although the seeming contradiction in being a Buddhist \"warrior monk\" caused controversy even at the time. More directly linked is that the Ikkō-shū movement was considered an inspiration to Buddhists in the Ikkō-ikki rebellion. In Osaka they defended their temple with the slogan \"The mercy of Buddha should be recompensed even by pounding flesh to pieces. One's obligation to the Teacher should be recompensed even by smashing bones to bits!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38967444",
"title": "Buddhism and violence",
"section": "Section::::Teachings, interpretations, and practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Gananath Obeyesekere, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University, said that \"in the Buddhist doctrinal tradition... there is little evidence of intolerance, no justification for violence, no conception even of 'just wars' or 'holy wars.' ... one can make an assertion that Buddhist doctrine is impossible to reconcile logically with an ideology of violence and intolerance\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178755",
"title": "Nonviolence",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Religious.:Buddhism.:War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2784",
"title": "Ahimsa",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.:War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10510197",
"title": "Criticism of Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of Buddhist practices.:Accusations of violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Violence in Buddhism refers to acts of violence and aggression committed by Buddhists with religious, political, and socio-cultural motivations. Buddhism is generally seen as among the religious traditions least associated with violence, but in the history of Buddhism there have been acts of violence directed, fomented or inspired by Buddhists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2784",
"title": "Ahimsa",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.:War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pāli Canon. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal queen/king as a pacifist, such a queen/king is nonetheless flanked by an army. It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qgr1t
|
i try to light my gas stove, but it doesn't light. i smell the gas several seconds later. i turn on another one, and that ones lights. why doesn't that flame blow my house up?
|
[
{
"answer": "They put bitterants in the gas that humans are *extremely* sensitive to. You smell amazingly small traces of it. \n\nYou need a decent amount to get a decent bang.\n\nCertainly you could do some damage if you were trying but the gas needed for the stove for a few seconds isn't really that dangerous. Be safe and give a bit for it to clear out, but it's no that big of a deal if you just flip the gas on and off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No where near enough gas has gone through your house. Youd have to empty a very large amount to make your house explode. The gas that has leaked has dispersed itself too much to even ignite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The percentage of fuel to air is no where near high enough to even puff, let alone explode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I worked in the natural gas industry in the 1990's. One thing I remember very well is the average LEL and HEL (Low Explosive Limit and High Explosive Limit) The concentration of gas to air needs to be roughly between 3% and 5% to form an explosive mixture. The amount released by stoves would take a few minutes at least before this ratio was met. (Depending on the size of your house, air movement, temperature, humidity, etc)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3488248",
"title": "Cook stove",
"section": "Section::::Advanced biomass cookstoves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gasifier stoves force the gases and smoke that result from incomplete combustion of fuels such as biomass back into the cookstove's flame, where the heat of the flame then continues to combust the particles in the smoke until almost complete combustion has occurred, reducing emissions. Typical gasifier stoves are known as Top Lit Updraft (TLUD) stoves because some fuel is lit on top of the stove, forcing combustible products to pass through the flame front before being emitted into the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4880373",
"title": "Primus stove",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "To light the stove, the user pours a small amount of alcohol into a circular \"spirit cup\" just below the burner and lights it to heat the burner assembly. When it is hot, the user pressurizes the tank by means of a small hand pump integrated into the housing, which forces kerosene from the tank up through the rising tube (A) and the ascending pipe (B) to the pre-heated burner head (C), where the fuel is heated and vaporized. The kerosene vapour is then forced under pressure through the descending tube (D) to the vapor nozzle (E); here it sprays through a jet in the middle of the burner, where it mixes with air and burns in a sootless blue flame. The heat from that flame vaporizes more fuel to sustain the process when the spirit cup burns out. The user can pump the tank more to increase the pressure and make the flame larger; turning a small \"air screw\" (usually located in the filler cap) will release pressure from the tank and make the flame smaller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1491805",
"title": "Gas stove",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Gas stoves became more wieldy when the oven was integrated into the base and the size was reduced to better fit in with the rest of the kitchen furniture. By the 1910s, producers started to enamel their gas stoves for easier cleaning. Ignition of the gas was originally by match and this was followed by the more convenient pilot light. This had the disadvantage of continually consuming gas. The oven still needed to be lit by match and accidentally turning on the gas without igniting it could lead to an explosion. To prevent these types of accidents, oven manufacturers developed and installed a safety valve called a flame failure device for gas hobs (cooktops) and ovens. Most modern gas stoves have electronic ignition, automatic timers for the oven and extractor hoods to remove fumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1491805",
"title": "Gas stove",
"section": "Section::::Ignition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 2068,
"text": "Gas stoves today use two basic types of ignition sources, standing pilot and electric. A stove with a standing pilot has a small, continuously burning gas flame (called a pilot light) under the cooktop. The flame is between the front and back burners. When the stove is turned on, this flame lights the gas flowing out of the burners. The advantage of the standing pilot system is that it is simple and completely independent of any outside power source. A minor drawback is that the flames continuously consume fuel even when the stove is not in use. Early gas ovens did not have a pilot. One had to light these manually with a match. If one accidentally left the gas on, gas would fill the oven and eventually the room. A small spark, such as an arc from a light switch being turned on, could ignite the gas, triggering a violent explosion. To prevent these types of accidents, oven manufacturers developed and installed a safety valve called a flame failure device for gas hobs (cooktops) and ovens. The safety valve depends on a thermocouple that sends a signal to the valve to stay open. Although most modern gas stoves have electronic ignition, many households have gas cooking ranges and ovens that need to be lit with a flame. Electric ignition stoves use electric sparks to ignite the surface burners. This is the \"clicking sound\" audible just before the burner actually lights. The sparks are initiated by turning the gas burner knob to a position typically labeled \"LITE\" or by pressing the 'ignition' button. Once the burner lights, the knob is turned further to modulate the flame size. Auto reignition is an elegant refinement: the user need not know or understand the wait-then-turn sequence. They simply turn the burner knob to the desired flame size and the sparking is turned off automatically when the flame lights. Auto reignition also provides a safety feature: the flame will be automatically reignited if the flame goes out while the gas is still on—for example by a gust of wind. If the power fails, surface burners must be manually match-lit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "556358",
"title": "Stove",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Some stoves use a catalytic converter, which causes combustion of the gas and smoke particles not previously burned. Other models use a design that includes firebox insulation, a large baffle to produce a longer, hotter gas flow path. Modern enclosed stoves are often built with a window to let out some light and to enable the user to view progress of the fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1084213",
"title": "Beverage-can stove",
"section": "Section::::Operation and performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "To use the stove, a small amount of fuel (preferably 2% salicylic acid in alcohol) is poured into the stove and ignited. The pot is then placed above the stove, on a windscreen or stand. The flame is small at first, only burning from the inner chamber. Once the fuel has warmed up (requiring about one minute) its vapor will pass through the perforations and form a ring of flame. Enough heat from the flame is passed to the fuel to maintain full combustion until the fuel runs out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18387734",
"title": "Wood-burning stove",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The stove is connected by ventilating stove pipe to a suitable flue, which will fill with hot combustion gases once the fuel is ignited. The chimney or flue gases must be hotter than the outside temperature to ensure combustion gases are drawn out of the fire chamber and up the chimney.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20x25o
|
Why are water droplets equal distance apart?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine instead of liquid water, we have the flow of identical marbles out of a spigot. That is, one successive marble after the other with the same initial horizontal velocity. The time between successive marbles starting to fall will be constant, let's call it Δ*t*. All marbles will follow the same trajectory, so the separation between successive marbles at any time is just the amount of distance corresponding to Δ*t* along the trajectory. This means that at any fixed point in the trajectory (e.g., the ground), the separation between successive marbles will be the same. Also the separation increases as the marbles fall further (at least until they've reached terminal velocity).\n\nIn fact, we can easily solve for the vertical separation between successive marbles neglecting air resistance. If the distance to the ground is a height *h*, then the time for one marble to reach the ground is sqrt(2 *h* / *g*). The next marble will have been airborne for sqrt(2 *h* / *g*) - Δ*t*, which means it will have fallen a distance *h* - Δ*t* sqrt(2 *g h*) + *g* (Δ*t*)^2 / 2. So the vertical separation is just Δ*t* sqrt(2 *g h*) - *g* (Δ*t*)^2 / 2 (as we expected it increases with drop height *h*).\n\nNow, the question is why a continuous stream of water breaks up into droplets, [which is not quite as simple to answer](_URL_0_). Naively, the stream has surface tension holding it together, but the acceleration will cause the stream to stretch for the same reasons as above. [At some point](_URL_1_) surface tension is overcome and we get water droplets for which the marble analysis holds. BTW, certain fluids (such as honey) are viscous enough to disfavor the formation of droplets, and instead exhibit [other interesting phenomena](_URL_2_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18779111",
"title": "Faucet aerator",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Prevents splashing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "When a single stream of water hits a surface the water must go somewhere, and because the stream is uniform the water will tend to go mostly in the same direction. If a single stream hits a surface which is curved, then the stream will conform to the shape and be easily redirected with the force of the volume of water falling. Adding the aerator does two things; reduces the volume of falling water which reduces the splash distance, and creates multiple \"mini-streams\" within the main stream. Each mini-stream, if it were falling by itself would splash or flow in a unique and different way when it hit the surface, as compared to the other mini-streams. Because they are all falling at the same time, the streams will splash in their own way but end up hitting other splash streams. The resulting interference cancels out the majority of the splashing effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2174453",
"title": "Lotus effect",
"section": "Section::::Functional principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The high surface tension of water causes droplets to assume a nearly spherical shape, since a sphere has minimal surface area, and this shape therefore demands least solid-liquid surface energy. On contact with a surface, adhesion forces result in wetting of the surface. Either complete or incomplete wetting may occur depending on the structure of the surface and the fluid tension of the droplet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331579",
"title": "Digital microfluidics",
"section": "Section::::Working principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Droplets are formed using the surface tension properties of a liquid. For example, water placed on a hydrophobic surface such as wax paper will form spherical droplets to minimize its contact with the surface. Differences in surface hydrophobicity affect a liquid’s ability to spread and ‘wet’ a surface by changing the contact angle. As the hydrophobicity of a surface increases, the contact angle increases, and the ability of the droplet to wet the surface decreases. The change in contact angle, and therefore wetting, is regulated by the Young-Lippmann equation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113302",
"title": "Surface tension",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary \"wall tension\" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12092048",
"title": "Capillary length",
"section": "Section::::Origin.:Experimental.:Association with a sessile droplet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The shape of a sessile droplet is directly proportional to whether the radius is greater than or less than the capillary length. Microdrops are droplets with radius smaller than the capillary length, and their shape is governed solely by surface tension, forming a spherical cap shape. If a droplet has a radii larger than the capillary length, they are known as macrodrops and the gravitational forces will dominate. Macrodrops will be 'flattened' by gravity and the height of the droplet will be reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41358691",
"title": "Hydrodynamic quantum analogs",
"section": "Section::::Quantum phenomena on a macroscopic scale.:Single and double slit diffraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "In 2006, Couder and Fort demonstrated that walking droplets passing through one or two slits exhibit similar interference behavior. They used a square shaped vibrating fluid bath with a constant depth (aside from the walls). The “walls” were regions of much lower depth, where the droplets would be stopped or reflected away. When the droplets were placed in the same initial location, they would pass through the slits and be scattered, seemingly randomly. However, by plotting a histogram of the droplets based on scattering angle, the researchers found that the scattering angle was not random, but droplets had preferred directions that followed the same pattern as light or electrons. In this way, the droplet may mimic the behavior of a quantum particle as it passes through the slit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8874570",
"title": "Spray nozzle",
"section": "Section::::Nozzle performance factors.:Surface tension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The surface tension of a liquid tends to assume the smallest possible size, acting as a membrane under tension. Any portion of the liquid surface exerts a tension upon adjacent portions or upon other objects that it contacts. This force is in the plane of the surface, and its amount per unit of length is surface tension. The value for water is about 0.073 N/m at 21 °C. The main effects of surface tension are on minimum operating pressure, spray angle, and drop size. Surface tension is more apparent at low operating pressures. A higher surface tension reduces the spray angle, particularly on hollow cone nozzles. Low surface tensions can allow nozzles to be operated at lower pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m6vov
|
What was the siege of Malta significance in WW2 and what are some good sources to read on the subject?
|
[
{
"answer": "Malta had a great strategic significance for the British in the Mediterranean, as a result of its geographical position. Being in the centre of the Mediterranean, aircraft, ships and submarines based there could interdict any shipping trying to move past it. This proved to be especially valuable, as it controlled the shipping lanes from Italy to North Africa. The RN based two main forces there - Force K, and the 10th Submarine Flotilla. Force K was a surface force, based around two light cruisers, *Penelope* and *Aurora*. It destroyed several Axis convoys, before increased German and Italian bombing forced a retreat. The 10th Submarine Flotilla was based in the old lazarette on Manoel Island in Marsamxett Harbour. Composed mainly of small U-class submarines, it was highly effective at interdicting shipping to and from North Africa. The flotilla produced some highly successful submarines, including HMS Upholder, which sank ~120,000 tons of shipping, making it the most successful British sub of the war. It provided a base for the RAF to launch raids on the Italian coast, and for repairing ships damaged in the waters around it. The British carrier *Illustrious*, heavily damaged by Stukas while escorting a convoy to Alexandria, received major repairs in Valetta's Grand Harbour. Aerial reconnaissance from Malta also proved useful. For example, Martin Maryland recon aircraft from Malta were able to confirm the presence of the Italian fleet at Taranto before the RN launched their raid. Once the siege had been broken, Malta also provided an excellent base for offensive operations against Sicily and southern Italy. The Italians and Germans were, of course, trying to prevent the British from using all of these functions. As far as books go, the big recommendation is James Holland's *Fortress Malta*, which is an excellent popular overview of the siege. Bradford's *Siege Malta 1940-1943* is also worth a read. If you can find them, the British official histories *The Air Battle of Malta 1940-1942* and *The Mediterranean Fleet* will give a good overview of the British side of the battle.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38523155",
"title": "Ivan de la Bere",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "The Siege of Malta began on 11 June 1940 following Italy's entry into the war. The island was dependent on supply convoys fighting their way through from Gibraltar or Alexandria, and meanwhile, the garrison and people were subjected to some of the heaviest bombing of the war for a period of over two years. For its part, the island provided a base for air and sea attacks on supply convoys to the Italian and German forces fighting in North Africa. On 27 July 1941 de la Bere, by now a Colonel (promoted 27 July 1940), was placed in command of a new Central Infantry Brigade, formed by a brigade headquarters that had come out from the United Kingdom and by infantry battalions that had been brought in as reinforcements from Egypt. De la Bere was injured in November 1941, but returned to duty within three weeks, and commanded the brigade until the end of the war, ending as an Acting Major-General. Central Brigade was redesignated 3rd (Malta) Infantry Brigade in 1942 and later became 233rd Infantry Brigade. During the siege de la Bere organised gifts and activities to maintain the morale of the civil population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36438143",
"title": "The Siege of Malta (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The Siege of Malta is a historical novel by Walter Scott written from 1831 to 1832 and first published posthumously in 2008. It tells the story of events surrounding the Great Siege of Malta by the Ottoman Turks in 1565.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "776074",
"title": "Siege of Malta (World War II)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The Siege of Malta in the Second World War was a military campaign in the Mediterranean Theatre. From 1940–42, the fight for the control of the strategically important island of Malta, then a British colony, pitted the air forces and navies of Italy and Germany against the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2640088",
"title": "Victory Day (Malta)",
"section": "Section::::Events related to 8 September.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The siege of Malta in the Second World War concluded in November 1942. During this time, Malta experienced a total of 3,000 bombing raids over a period of two years in an effort to destroy Royal Air Force defences and the ports. For enduring this, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the entire island and the design of the George Cross was incorporated into the Maltese flag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1636416",
"title": "Great Siege of Malta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The Great Siege of Malta () took place in 1565 when the Ottoman Empire tried to invade the island of Malta, then held by the Knights Hospitaller. The Knights, with approximately 2,000 footsoldiers and 400 Maltese men, women and children, withstood the siege and repelled the invaders. This victory became one of the most celebrated events in sixteenth-century Europe. Voltaire said, \"Nothing is better known than the siege of Malta\", and it undoubtedly contributed to the eventual erosion of the European perception of Ottoman invincibility and marked a new phase in Spanish domination of the Mediterranean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25161934",
"title": "Siege of Malta (1798–1800)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1084,
"text": "The Siege of Malta, also known as the Siege of Valletta or the French Blockade (), was a two-year siege and blockade of the French garrison in Valletta and the Three Cities, the largest settlements and main port on the Mediterranean island of Malta, between 1798 and 1800. Malta had been captured by a French expeditionary force during the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, and garrisoned with 3,000 men under the command of Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois. After the British Royal Navy destroyed the French Mediterranean Fleet at the Battle of the Nile on 1 August 1798, the British were able to initiate a blockade of Malta, assisted by an uprising among the native Maltese population against French rule. After its retreat to Valletta, the French garrison faced severe food shortages, exacerbated by the effectiveness of the British blockade. Although small quantities of supplies arrived in early 1799, there was no further traffic until early 1800, by which time starvation and disease was having a disastrous effect on health, morale, and combat capability of the French troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23796952",
"title": "AHQ Malta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Initially during the early stage of the Siege of Malta (World War II), Malta was not much of an offensive threat early in the North African Campaign. However it was considered an essential Allied stronghold as exemplified by Operation Pedestal and the other, often very costly, efforts to resupply the island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bofr5
|
What are the consequences of significantly skewed gender ratio among human population? Are there any documented cases?
|
[
{
"answer": "Check out [this article on missing women of Asia](_URL_0_) and China's [one-child policy](_URL_1_), both of which outline actual cases of sex disparity and consequences of such.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54421",
"title": "Sex-selective abortion",
"section": "Section::::Disparate gendered access to resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Although there is significant evidence of the prevalence of sex-selective abortions in many nations (especially India and China), there is also evidence to suggest that some of the variation in global sex ratios is due to disparate access to resources. As MacPherson (2007) notes, there can be significant differences in gender violence and access to food, healthcare, immunizations between male and female children. This leads to high infant and childhood mortality among girls, which causes changes in sex ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30688232",
"title": "Pre- and post-test probability",
"section": "Section::::Estimation of post-test probability.:By relative risk.:One risk factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "For example, the incidence of breast cancer in a woman in the United Kingdom at age 55 to 59 is estimated at approximately 280 cases per 100.000 per year, and the risk factor of having been exposed to high-dose ionizing radiation to the chest (for example, as treatments for other cancers) confers a relative risk of breast cancer between 2.1 and 4.0, compared to unexposed. Because a low fraction of the population is exposed, the prevalence in the unexposed population can be assumed equal to the prevalence in the general population. Subsequently, it can be estimated that a woman in the United Kingdom that is aged between 55 and 59 and that has been exposed to high-dose ionizing radiation should have a risk of developing breast cancer over a period of one year of between 588 and 1.120 in 100.000 (that is, between 0,6% and 1.1%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35734292",
"title": "Female foeticide in India",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for female foeticide.:Disparate gendered access to resource.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Some of the variation in birth sex ratios and implied female foeticide may be due to disparate access to resources. As MacPherson (2007) notes, there can be significant differences in gender violence and access to food, healthcare, immunizations between male and female children. This leads to high infant and childhood mortality among girls, which causes changes in sex ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21694424",
"title": "Transsexual",
"section": "Section::::Incidence and prevalence.:Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "Olyslager and Conway presented a paper at the WPATH 20th International Symposium (2007) arguing that the data from their own and other studies actually imply much higher prevalence, with minimum lower bounds of 1:4,500 male-to-female transsexual people and 1:8,000 female-to-male transsexual people for a number of countries worldwide. They estimate the number of post-op women in the US to be 32,000 and obtain a figure of 1:2500 male-to-female transsexual people. They further compare the annual incidences of sex reassignment surgery (SRS) and male birth in the U.S. to obtain a figure of 1:1000 MTF transsexual people and suggest a prevalence of 1:500 extrapolated from the rising rates of SRS in the US and a \"common sense\" estimate of the number of undiagnosed transsexual people. Olyslager and Conway also argue that the US population of assigned males having already undergone reassignment surgery by the top three US SRS surgeons alone is enough to account for the entire transsexual population implied by the 1:10,000 prevalence number, yet this excludes all other US SRS surgeons, surgeons in countries such as Thailand, Canada, and others, and the high proportion of transsexual people who have not yet sought treatment, suggesting that a prevalence of 1:10,000 is too low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8483785",
"title": "Fibrocystic breast changes",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The estimated figures for the prevalence of fibrocystic breast changes in women over lifetime vary widely in the literature, with estimates ranging from about 30 to 60 % over about 50 to 60 % to about 60 to 75% of all women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3328588",
"title": "Societal collapse",
"section": "Section::::Population dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Several key features of human societal collapse can be related to population dynamics. For example, the native population of Cusco, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalance in the sex ratio between men and women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16933122",
"title": "Human sex ratio",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of a high sex ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "There are several social consequences of an imbalanced sex ratio. It may also become a factor in societal and demographic collapse. For example, the native population of Cusco, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalance in the sex ratio between men and women. High ratios of males make it easier for women to marry, but harder for men. In parts of China and India, there is a 12–15% excess of young men. These men will remain single and will be unable to have families, in societies where marriage is regarded as virtually universal and social status and acceptance depend, in large part, on being married and creating a new family. Analyses of how sex ratio imbalances affect personal consumption and intra-household distribution were pioneered by Gary Becker, Shoshana Grossbard-Shechtman, and Marcia Guttentag and Paul Secord. High ratios of males have a positive effect on marital fertility and women's share of household consumption and negative effects on non-marital cohabitation and fertility and women's labor supply. It has been shown that variation in sex ratio over time is inversely related to married women's labor supply in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67ed2o
|
Why does Israel exist?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I will fully admit I am coming from a place of relative ignorance here but my uninformed understanding is that sometime following WWII, the U.N. created the state of Israel\n\nThe UN did not create Israel. It proposed a partition of what was known as the British Mandate for Palestine, originally envisioned as a Jewish state someday to come, where Jews and Arabs would get a state apiece. When this proposal passed the UN General Assembly, which was *nonbinding*, a civil war was launched between Jews and Arab Palestinians. The civil war turned into an international war when, in May 1948, Israel declared independence and the Arab states around it invaded (they had previously only been contributing resources and personnel more covertly in the civil war). This war is what Israel rose out of, not a UN decision.\n\nFurthermore, Israel was conceived of well before the 1947 partition proposal. Jews had been pushing for a state in the area since the 1880s, and the British proposed a Jewish state there (and partition) for the first time in 1937. It was not a new, or post-Holocaust idea.\n\n > My question is why. Was it just so western nations could have an ally in the region?\n\nThe reason behind supporting the creation of Israel was moral and strategic. Morally speaking, the Holocaust absolutely contributed. But there was also a moral imperative because of the feeling that permeated the world that self-determination should be given to all peoples, a theme that animated the creation of many new countries around then. Coupled with the belief by many that Jews simply deserved a homeland of their own and had none, the moral case was made. The strategic case was less clear, since it was unclear which side a Jewish state would take in the brewing Cold War over time, but both superpowers chose to support one, believing it might ally with them. The US was the first to *de facto* recognize Israel when it was created, for example, choosing to issue such a recognition 11 minutes after Israel's declaration of independence. The Soviets issued a more forceful *de jure* recognition a mere 3 days later, well before the US did. Israel eventually gravitated towards the west, but it's worth remembering that many of Israel's founders were very far-left, to the point of being socialist in many regards.\n\n > Why is it a traditional ally of the U.S. and other western nations?\n\nThis began with the shift of the Arab states to rely on the Soviets for arms. Israel was seen as a counterweight when the West could no longer rely on Arab allies, who the US had tried to entice as well. Israel's success since then made it a powerful strategic player in the region.\n\n > And what happened to the people who claimed that territory already?\n\nWhich? Are you referring to Palestinians? Arab states?\n\n > I am assuming the creation of Israel is only one part of the continual Middle East conflict, but didn't its sudden creation make a complicated situation infinitely more complex?\n\nDepends who you ask. That's kind of a difficult counterfactual to figure out, though.\n\n > Why would claiming that your ancestors owned the land thousands of years ago hold any weight in geopolitics?\n\nSee above.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13927537",
"title": "Israeli Jews",
"section": "Section::::Legal and political status in Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. Israel's Declaration of Independence specifically called for the establishment of a Jewish state with equality of social and political rights, irrespective of religion, race, or sex. The notion that Israel should be constituted in the name of and maintain a special relationship with a particular group of people, the Jewish people, has drawn much controversy vis-à-vis minority groups living in Israel—the large number of Muslim and Christian Palestinians residing in Israel. Nevertheless, through the years many Israeli Jewish nationalists have based the legitimacy of Israel being a Jewish state on the Balfour Declaration and ancient historical ties to the land, asserting that both play particular roles as evidence under international law, as well as a fear that a hostile Arab world might be disrespectful of a Jewish minority—alleging a variety of possible harms up to and including genocide—were Israel to become a post-national \"state for all its citizens\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2400008",
"title": "Sam Harris",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Criticism of Abrahamic religions.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Regarding Israel and Judaism, Harris has said, \"I don't think Israel should exist as a Jewish state. I think it is obscene, irrational and unjustifiable to have a state organized around a religion. So I don't celebrate the idea that there's a Jewish homeland in the Middle East. I certainly don't support any Jewish claims to real estate based on the Bible. Though I just said that I don't think Israel should exist as a Jewish state, the justification for such a state is rather easy to find. We need look no further than the fact that the rest of the world has shown itself eager to murder the Jews at almost every opportunity. So, if there were going to be a state organized around protecting members of a single religion, it certainly should be a Jewish state. Now, friends of Israel might consider this a rather tepid defense, but it's the strongest one I've got. I think the idea of a religious state is ultimately untenable.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38573468",
"title": "Jewish and democratic state",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Jewish State.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The Israeli Declaration of Independence identifies Israel as a \"Jewish State,\" In the sense that Jews as ethnicity can exercise their right for self determination. It doesn't give a Judaism any special status over other religions nor does it deny minority rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66543",
"title": "Jews for Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- Israel exists as a covenant people through whom God continues to accomplish His purposes and that the Church is composed of both Jews and Gentiles who acknowledge Jesus as Messiah and Redeemer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6065693",
"title": "Human rights in Israel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Israel is a multiparty parliamentary democracy. It was described in its Declaration of Independence as a \"Jewish state\" – the legal definition \"Jewish and democratic state\" was adopted in 1985. In addition to its Jewish majority, Israel is home to religious and ethnic minorities, some of whom report discrimination. In the Palestinian territories, successive Israeli governments have been subject to international criticism from other countries as well as international human rights groups. One of the Basic Laws of Israel, intended to form the basis of a future constitution, , is a major tool for safeguarding human rights and civil liberties in the State of Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9282173",
"title": "Israel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Israel (; ; ), also known as the State of Israel, is a country in Western Asia, located on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. It has land borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan on the east, the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the east and west, respectively, and Egypt to the southwest. The country contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel's economic and technological center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, although the state's sovereignty over Jerusalem has only partial recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211843",
"title": "Culture of Israel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Israel is the birthplace of the Jewish culture and its culture encompasses the foundations of many Jewish cultural characteristics, including philosophy, literature, poetry, art, mythology, folklore, mysticism and festivals; as well as Judaism, which was also fundamental to the creation of Christianity and Islam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x0m5l
|
On average, how accurate is the modern ascribing of medical conditions to historical figures?
|
[
{
"answer": "Even in situations where an accurate diagnosis can be made, the utility of this kind of diagnosis can be questionable.\n\nAll diseases are, to some extent, culture-bound. How we interpret and feel about symptoms and treatments, and how those feelings and interpretations inform our actions are directly tied to what we believe to be happening. For example, there was a time and place in which finding suppurating sores on one's skin would be a relief (it means that the bad stuff is coming out!). \n\nWhile there's perhaps some ways that knowing what a historical figure \"really\" was suffering from might help us better understand the past, it can also get in the way of understanding it if you apply it too rigidly. \n\nSometimes it works best to accept that what someone was suffering from was exactly what they and their contemporaries believed it to be, even if it's not a real thing anymore. If there's no context to understand, say, fibromyalgia, in the 19th century, declaring that a case of hysteria was 'really' fybromyalgia might obscure more about lived experience and context than it reveals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4860884",
"title": "Richard Morton (physician)",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "His landmark paper \"Phthisiologica, seu exercitationes de phthisi libris comprehensae. Totumque opus variis histories illustratum\" was published in Latin in 1689, with an English translation appearing in 1694. A second English edition was published in 1720. Its significance is partly due to the disease receiving little study by other doctors of the time despite it being a major cause of death; accounting for over 18% all deaths in the City of London in 1700. The paper is also significant in that it also contains the first recognised medical descriptions of the wasting condition now known as Anorexia Nervosa. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5242635",
"title": "Medical literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Contemporary and historic views regarding diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of medical conditions have been documented for thousands of years. The Edwin Smith papyrus is the first known medical treatise. Ancient medical literature often described inflictions related to warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827614",
"title": "George Huntington",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "In a 1908 review, the eminent physician William Osler said of this paper: \"In the history of medicine, there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately, more graphically or more briefly described.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60550814",
"title": "A History of Medicine",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The \"British Medical Journal\" and \"The Lancet\" gave favourable reviews and the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" recommended it to all physicians, but the \"Bulletin of the History of Medicine\" responded more critically, identifying a number of inaccurate names and dates. This intense criticism came from George Rosen, who was of the opinion that Guthrie should have included social context. Guthrie's response, as documented in his scrapbook, described it as \"the only really adverse criticism, obviously by a disgruntled reviewer who thinks he could have done better himself\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33336986",
"title": "Adoption detective",
"section": "Section::::Medical family history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Despite the increasing emphasis on diagnostic technology, many physicians perceive the medical family history as the preeminent source of information with a much higher value in diagnosis than either the physical examination or laboratory and radiography information because it is well known that many medical conditions, including heart disease, breast cancer, prostate cancer, diabetes, alcoholism, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and high blood pressure all have been shown to have links to our past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60594250",
"title": "Edwin Clarke",
"section": "Section::::History of medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "He was not completely at ease with the growing trend to apply a social context to medical history but his work in the history of medicine was still described as \"seminal\" and his scholarship as exhibiting \"timeless qualities of accuracy and care\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15587087",
"title": "Role of Christianity in civilization",
"section": "Section::::Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system.:Fourth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "Albert Jonsen, University of Washington historian of medicine, says “the second great sweep of medical history begins at the end of the fourth century, with the founding of the first Christian hospital at Caesarea in Cappadocia, and concludes at the end of the fourteenth century, with medicine well ensconced in the universities and in the public life of the emerging nations of Europe.” After the death of Eusebios in 370 and the election of Basil as bishop of Caesarea, Basil established the first formal soup kitchen, hospital, homeless shelter, hospice, poorhouse, orphanage, reform center for thieves, women's center for those leaving prostitution and many other ministries. Basil was personally involved and invested in the projects and process giving all of his personal wealth to fund the ministries. Basil himself would put on an apron and work in the soup kitchen. These ministries were given freely regardless of religious affiliation. Basil refused to make any discrimination when it came to people who needed help saying that “the digestive systems of the Jew and the Christian are indistinguishable.” \"...there is a striking resemblance between [Basil's] ideals and those of modern times. ...certainly he was the most modern among the pioneers of monasticism, and for this reason, if for none other, his work has a permanent interest...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q9jz1
|
Darwin's use of "Natural Selection"
|
[
{
"answer": "Is there a question here? I'm having a little trouble figuring out what kind of answer you're looking for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21147",
"title": "Natural selection",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Darwin's theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Darwin thought of natural selection by analogy to how farmers select crops or livestock for breeding, which he called \"artificial selection\"; in his early manuscripts he referred to a \"Nature\" which would do the selection. At the time, other mechanisms of evolution such as evolution by genetic drift were not yet explicitly formulated, and Darwin believed that selection was likely only part of the story: \"I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.\" In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term \"Natural Selection\", preferring the term \"Natural Preservation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21147",
"title": "Natural selection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1132,
"text": "Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology. The concept, published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858, was elaborated in Darwin's influential 1859 book \"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life\". He described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the modern synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to evolutionary developmental biology, which explains evolution at the molecular level. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19544",
"title": "Microevolution",
"section": "Section::::Four processes.:Selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book \"On the Origin of Species\", in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the \"modern evolutionary synthesis\". Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29932",
"title": "On the Origin of Species",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Impact on the scientific community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 1407,
"text": "Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague \"law of development\" of \"Vestiges\" had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's \"A System of Logic\", while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's \"Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences\", in which investigation could begin with the intuitive idea that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6144244",
"title": "A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism",
"section": "Section::::Statement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Charles Darwin himself described natural selection as being \"the main but not exclusive means of modification\" of species. The modern theory of evolution includes natural selection and genetic drift as mechanisms, and does not conclude that \"the ability of random mutation and natural selection\" accounts \"for the complexity of life.\" Southeastern Louisiana University philosophy professor Barbara Forrest and deputy director of the National Center for Science Education Glenn Branch comment on the ambiguity of the statement and its use in the original advertisement:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29932",
"title": "On the Origin of Species",
"section": "Section::::Structure, style, and themes.:Nature and structure of Darwin's argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from \"Vestiges\", and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30384",
"title": "The Evolution of Cooperation",
"section": "Section::::Cooperation theory.:The social contract and morality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Darwin's theory of natural selection is a profoundly powerful explanation of how evolution works; its undoubted success strongly suggests an inherently antagonistic relationship between unrelated individuals. Yet cooperation is prevalent, seems beneficial, and even seems to be essential to human society. Explaining this seeming contradiction, and accommodating cooperation, and even altruism, within Darwinian theory is a central issue in the theory of cooperation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jhpfw
|
if sugar is so bad why should i eat fruit? what does it give me that vegetables don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "some vitamins, such a C, are found more commonly and in greater quantities in fruits than in vegetables. \n\nhowever, that said, the sugar in fruit is no more healthy for you than the sugar in a candy bar. Sugar is sugar. Your body cannot tell the difference, the source does not matter. So you want to limit your fruit intake. Eating an assload of fruit is almost just as bad as eating an assload of candy, except the fruit has some vitamins and fiber in it. \"natural\" does not automatically mean better for you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not that sugar is bad; it's that sugars in certain capacities are bad.\n\nIf you drink a soda that has 20g of sugar, those 20g of sugar are going to be immediately and instantaneously absorbed by your body. On the other hand, let's say you eat a piece of fruit that contains 20g of sugar - that sugar will be digested over an hour or so, meaning it won't cause that significant spike the soda's sugar did.\n\nYour body needs sugar. Just make sure you give it the right kind in the right form.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I hope someone better equipped than I will answer this later but from what little I know: fruit has simple and natural sugars accompanied by both digestible and indigestible fiber and water which makes the sugars slower to pick up in the blood stream and doesn't cause the body to go into overdrive producing insulin like complex sugars. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch the documentary on Netflix called \"sugar coated\"\n\nIt's well worth the watch and will answer all your sugar questions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Too much fruit made me diabetic.\nI now eat 0 fruit, a LOT of vegetables, and I'm fine. \nYou dont need fruit if you eat a lot of vegetables. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Obesity and metabolic syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "A 2003 World Health Organization technical report provided evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice) increased the risk of obesity by adding to overall energy intake. By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather – when over-consumed – is a component of unhealthy dietary behavior. Meta-analyses showed that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome – including weight gain and obesity – in adults and children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Sugaring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar. \"Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage.\" Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica, and ginger. Also, sugaring can be used in the production of jam and jelly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125970",
"title": "Vegetable juice",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Many popular vegetable juices, particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and therefore consumption of them for health must be carefully considered. Some vegetables such as beets also contain large amounts of sugar, so care must be taken when adding these to juices. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56788376",
"title": "Intermediate moisture food",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Fruits and vegetables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Sugar is added to fruit to protect against microbial contamination and reduce water activity in the fruit. This allows the fruit to be more stable at room temperature. Some examples are strawberries, prunes, peaches, apricots, and pineapples. IMF blueberries are prepared by osmotic dehydration. They are soaked in sugar for one to two days followed by a freeze drying process until the desired moisture level is reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55151676",
"title": "Pure, White and Deadly",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Transition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The developing case against sugar was also manifest in the 2003 version of WHO's \"Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases\", which recognised that there were good reasons for restricting sugar intakes to less than 10% of total calories, not just because of dental caries, but “on nutritional grounds alone”. These grounds specifically included obesity. The subsequent controversy with the food industry over the global strategy to achieve this target was a turning point for some companies, who recognised that sugar and sweet products were now irremovably on the nutrition agenda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Sugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g. crisps/potato chips, may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to glucose by salivary amylase (an enzyme in the saliva) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as toffee, are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of chocolate or most fruits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46815395",
"title": "Chivita 100%",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional content of Chivita 100%.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "According to US Food and Drug Administration reports, Fruits are known to be rich in nutrients such as Vitamin A, C and Calcium. This is why in addition to its communication as containing No Added Sugar, No Preservative, No Artificial Colours, Chivita 100% Fruit Juice also considers its 100% juice a Nutrient density beverage, poised to address the nutritional needs of its consumers at every stage of their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lwi4r
|
what is a virtual cpu ?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Virtual CPUs or vCPU are the brand name of NetLogic for its SMT implementation, like Intels HyperThreading. The concept is easy: For each CPU core you have several vCPU's, which are simulated and share the hardware of the one core. The software that runs on such a architecture \"sees\" x vCPU's altough there are only y physical cores present. This is done for performance optimization.\n\n^_URL_0_\n\nConsidering that you have an i7, this is presumably from HyperThreading, which is only present in i7 series processors.\n\n**Why badly optimized games lag a lot?** Because they're unoptimized! More accurately, an unoptimized speed can be though of as the \"base\" or default speed. Optimization improves the performance, causing the game to run faster. As a result, an optimized game has better performance than an unoptimized game, in comparison.\n\n**Why does it over-heat fast?** Laptops don't have very efficient cooling systems (compared to desktops). That's part of the reason that processors and such for laptops are slower than their desktop variants. For comparison, my i7-2600K runs at 3.4 GHz by default, but can be easily overclocked to 4 GHz (the \"K\" means the chip is unlocked and can be overclocked).\n\nTo prevent overheating, get a cooling pad for laptops. And avoid blocking the air intake at the bottom of the laptop. Contrary to their name, they shouldn't go on your lap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268939",
"title": "General-purpose computing on graphics processing units",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "General-purpose computing on graphics processing units (GPGPU, rarely GPGP) is the use of a graphics processing unit (GPU), which typically handles computation only for computer graphics, to perform computation in applications traditionally handled by the central processing unit (CPU). The use of multiple video cards in one computer, or large numbers of graphics chips, further parallelizes the already parallel nature of graphics processing. In addition, even a single GPU-CPU framework provides advantages that multiple CPUs on their own do not offer due to the specialization in each chip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996179",
"title": "X86 virtualization",
"section": "Section::::Hardware-assisted virtualization.:Graphics processing unit.:Graphics Virtualization Technology (Intel GVT-d, GVT-g and GVT-s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Graphics Virtualization Technology was introduced with Intel Iris Pro. Intel's integrated GPU can be either dedicatedly assigned to a virtual machine (GVT-d), shared between multiple virtual machines on a time-sharing basis while using native graphics driver (GVT-g), or shared between multiple virtual machines by using a virtual graphics driver (GVT-s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3301619",
"title": "Graphics hardware",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Graphics Cards.:Parts of a Graphics Card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The GPU, or graphics processing unit, is the unit that allows the graphics card to function. It performs a large amount of the work given to the card. The majority of video playback on a computer is controlled by the GPU. Once again, a GPU can be either integrated or dedicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12366110",
"title": "Xbox 360 technical specifications",
"section": "Section::::CPU data streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The system allows for the GPU to directly read data produced by the CPU without going to main memory. In this specific case of data streaming, called Xbox procedural synthesis (XPS), the CPU is effectively a data decompressor, generating geometry on-the-fly for consumption by the GPU 3D core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32353",
"title": "Virtual machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Some virtual machines, such as QEMU, are designed to also emulate different architectures and allow execution of software applications and operating systems written for another CPU or architecture. Operating-system-level virtualization allows the resources of a computer to be partitioned via the kernel. The terms are not universally interchangeable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4624167",
"title": "Virtual console",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "A virtual console (VC) – also known as a virtual terminal (VT) – is a conceptual combination of the keyboard and display for a computer user interface. It is a feature of some Unix-like operating systems such as BSD, Linux, illumos and UnixWare in which the system console of the computer can be used to switch between multiple virtual consoles to access unrelated user interfaces. Virtual consoles date back at least to Xenix and Concurrent CP/M in the 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390214",
"title": "Graphics processing unit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device. GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. Modern GPUs are very efficient at manipulating computer graphics and image processing. Their highly parallel structure makes them more efficient than general-purpose central processing units (CPUs) for algorithms that process large blocks of data in parallel. In a personal computer, a GPU can be present on a video card or embedded on the motherboard. In certain CPUs, they are embedded on the CPU die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32rsun
|
When I viciously rip a leaf off of a tree during Spring months such as April, what exactly happens to the tree?
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming you didn't tear some of the bark and only ripped off the leaf, the tree will simply seal off that area via the [abcission layer](_URL_0_). Trees don't heal, they seal; leaves are shed in the fall by this same mechanism. While auxin is produced in the leaf the abcission layer will not seal off the leaf stem, but if conditions are appropriate to halt auxin production, or if a leaf is removed, the layer will grow and seal off the area exposed.\n\nTrees shed leaves before fall as well; infestation from aphids can cause trees to prematurely abcise their leaves. Nothing really bad happens to the tree other than getting a little less glucose from photosynthesis. If you were to damage part of the bark, the tree will still seal off the area to prevent the spread of infection, creating a callous tissue around the edge as well as using chemical defenses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18258915",
"title": "Tree: A Life Story",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "In the opening of the final chapter, \"Death\", the tree is 550 years old and stands 80 meters (260 feet) tall. Under the weight of too much snow accumulating on the canopy mat, a branch breaks off. Stresses from a long winter with a dry summer weaken the tree's immune system. The exposed area where the branch broke becomes infected with insects and fungus. Insect larvae eat the buds and the fungus spreads into the middle of the tree and down to the roots. With its vascular tissue system compromised, the tree diverts nutrients elsewhere, resulting in needles turning orange on the abandoned branches. Death takes years to occur as successive parts are slowly starved of nutrients. As a snag, it becomes home to a succession of animals, like woodpeckers, owls, squirrels, and bats. Eventually the roots rot enough that a rainstorm blows it down. Mosses and fungi grow on the deadfall, followed by colonies of termites, ants, and mites, which all help decompose the remaining wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13434229",
"title": "Phytophthora alni",
"section": "Section::::Infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Infected trees have abnormally small, yellow and sparse leaves which frequently fall prematurely. The crowns of trees which have been infected for many years have many dead twigs and branches. Tarry or rusty spots may appear at the base of the trunk which are indicative of the death of the phloem caused by the \"P. alni\" invasion. The course of the disease is varied, with many trees dying rapidly once symptoms appear, however, others may deteriorate slowly over many years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51239",
"title": "Quercus kelloggii",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The tree reproduces when its acorns sprout to form seedlings. It also reproduces vegetatively with new growth sprouting from the root crown after the tree is top-killed by wildfire, logging, frost, or other events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41625065",
"title": "Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The fungus infects trees in the spring, and continues to develop over the following winter. The fungus causes yellowing (chlorosis) of the needles, with eventual necrosis and premature needle-drop. In some heavily diseased stands of trees, the only needles remaining are those of the current year, in which the disease has not yet had time to fully develop. The overall result for the infected tree is reduced growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23872766",
"title": "Argyresthia thuiella",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The larvae feed on the leaves of \"Thuja occidentalis\" as well as other arborvitae and false cypress (\"Chamaecyparis\") species. Trees infested for several consecutive years can be killed, but usually an infested tree is able to renew foliage later during the growth season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173098",
"title": "Dutch elm disease",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The first sign of infection is usually an upper branch of the tree with leaves starting to wither and yellow in summer, months before the normal autumnal leaf shedding. This progressively spreads to the rest of the tree, with further dieback of branches. Eventually, the roots die, starved of nutrients from the leaves. Often, not all the roots die: the roots of some species, notably the English elm, \"Ulmus procera\", can repeatedly put up suckers, which flourish for approximately 15 years, after which they too succumb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9500213",
"title": "Ophiostoma ulmi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "In the spring, trees produce what is known as “springwood” from the stored starches of the previous growing season. This tissue is characterized by long xylem vessels with relatively thin walls, making it the ideal habitat for the pathogen. In springwood, the fungus spreads rapidly, and it is likely that the tree will die. Later in the growing season, the elm will utilize sugars produced by the leaves to nurture the formation of “summerwood”. Summerwood vessels are typically shorter with thicker walls, making it harder for the infection to spread. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67xfr0
|
why aren't we always hungry for the things that our body needs most?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are hungry for specific things. That's why you crave certain foods sometimes. Your body is used to nutrients being in that food so it tells you to eat that food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929220",
"title": "Food craving",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "There is no single explanation for food cravings, and explanations range from low serotonin levels affecting the brain centers for appetite to production of endorphins as a result of consuming fats and carbohydrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22025300",
"title": "Specific appetite",
"section": "Section::::Ongoing research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Commonly people have an appetite for meat or eggs, high protein foods. But these may be expensive or otherwise unavailable. A specific appetite for protein may be unsatisfied with the ingestion of a diet deficient in protein. But protein is vitally important to maintaining the structures of the body’s systems, so the specific appetite leads to more eating, in a desperate attempt to satiate the specific appetite for protein in life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235548",
"title": "Appetite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "Appetite is the desire to eat food, sometimes due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as \"approach behaviour\", and consummatory behaviours, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed, appetite levels may increase and result in an increase of food intake. Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia (or \"hyperphagia\") is increased eating. Dysregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, cachexia, overeating, and binge eating disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39393",
"title": "Epicureanism",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Natural but not necessary\": These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival. Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire. The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary. It is for this reason that they should be avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48369072",
"title": "Food and diet in ancient medicine",
"section": "Section::::Food and Diet in Ancient Greece.:Food and Diet in the Hippocratic Aphorisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Food and diet feature prominently in the aphorisms of the Hippocratic Corpus. For example, in one aphorism in the first section, Hippocrates states, “Things which are growing have the greatest natural warmth and, accordingly, need most nourishment. Failing this the body becomes exhausted. Old men have little warmth and they need little food which produces warmth; too much only extinguishes the warmth they have. For this reason, fevers are not so acute in old people for then the body is cold”. Another aphorism says, “It is better to be full of drink than full of food”. And finally, an aphorism that generally sums up treatment of disease in Hippocratic times states, “Disease which results from over-eating is cured by fasting; disease following fasting, by a surfeit. So with other things; cures may be effected by opposites,”. This concept of treating diseases opposite to the way it manifests in the individual is concept that is carried over into Roman medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41067638",
"title": "Psychological aspects of childhood obesity",
"section": "Section::::Social factors.:External motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Children who are externally motivated to eat are at a higher risk for obesity. In one study, two groups of children were told to focus on different prompts to eat: either external cues, such as the amount of food on their plate, or internal cues like hunger and satiety. The children who relied on internal cues were more likely to eat when they were hungry and stop when they were full. In contrast, the children who responded to external cues were more likely to ignore or overlook internal cues that indicated that they were full. Children who grow accustomed to relying on external hunger cues and thus eating more than their bodies need because are more likely to gain excess weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1864505",
"title": "Preta",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Pretas dwell in the waste and desert places of the earth, and vary in situation according to their past karma. Some of them can eat a little, but find it very difficult to find food or drink. Others can find food and drink, but find it very difficult to swallow. Others find that the food they eat seems to burst into flames as they swallow it. Others see something edible or drinkable and desire it but it withers or dries up before their eyes. As a result, they are always hungry. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5khkf8
|
why are there free refills for soft drinks in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cost to the restaurant is minimal - just a few cents. You would literally have to drink hundreds of drinks at a free-refill restaurant to start costing them money on the $2-3 for a soft drink. \n\nMeanwhile the restaurant keeps you there ordering appetizers and desserts and you're more likely to go to one with free refills than without (if it's important to you). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cost of soda to fill your cup from a fountain is pennies. The cup itself costs more than the soda that goes in it. They can sell it for 2 dollars, pocket almost all of that, and then give customers a \"deal\" with free refills, since it costs them almost nothing. With products like alcohol, you don't get free refills, because that actually costs money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US refills are free because soft drinks are commonly dispensed from fountain machines. A 12oz soft drink from a fountain costs the restaurant almost nothing, typically less than a penny. So restaurants see free refills as a perk they can offer with only a tiny cost to themselves that might encourage patrons to stay longer and maybe buy more food.\n\nDunno why they're uncommon in Europe. Maybe Europe got soda fountains later or they're less common.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Syrup is not pennies for most restaurants. Even if someone like McDonald's can get the syrup for half of my example below, it's far from pennies. \n\n5 gallons of syrup at our local Coca Cola bottling plant is $81.98. 5 gallons of syrup makes 237 - 16 ounce servings at a 5:1 water to syrup ratio. That is $0.346 for 16 ounces of soda. If you assume ice takes up 1/4 of the volume for 12 ounces of actual soda, that is 320 servings for a cost of $0.257. Then add in the ice, cup, CO2, water, and overhead. \n\n20 ounces = $0.423 or 3/4 full back to $0.346 for 16 ounces.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45345550",
"title": "Free refill",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Free refills are seen as a good way to attract customers to an establishment, especially one whose beverages are not their primary source of income. Due to the extremely low cost of fountain soft drinks (especially the beverage itself, not including the cost of the cup, lid and straw), often offering a profit margin of 80-82%, establishments tend to offer free refills as a sales gimmick. Coffee produces a similar high profit margin, allowing establishments to include coffee in free refill offers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45345550",
"title": "Free refill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Free refills occur when a drink, usually soda, tea or coffee, is allowed to be filled again, free of charge, after being consumed. Free refills are commonplace in America and Canada in traditional restaurants, while rarer in airports, cafés, or service stations. Around the world, the availability of free refills is typically scarce, but varies widely depending on the country and the ownership of the restaurant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5970134",
"title": "Fountain Fresh International",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The original value proposition was for consumers to enjoy low-priced beverages by washing and refilling reusable soft-drink bottles in the Fountain Fresh dispenser. In return for providing a bottle and operating the machine, consumers could purchase soft drinks for as low as 59-cents for one liter and two liters for 69-cents, a significant discount from the price of commercially bottled soft drinks. The concept was rolled out in several retail locations throughout the United States, including a large number of Wal-Mart stores. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45345550",
"title": "Free refill",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Most of these establishments have fast customer turnover, thus customers rarely consume enough beverage to make the offering unprofitable. Some establishments, who make their primary income with beverage sales, only offer free refills to members of rewards programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202538",
"title": "Costa Rican cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Beverages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "\"Refrescos\" is the local name for bottled soft drinks, which are widely sold. Most common brands are available, although in rural areas, vendors sometimes sell soft drinks in plastic bags, which are cheaper than cans or bottles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45345550",
"title": "Free refill",
"section": "Section::::History.:Worldwide availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "There is little consistency outside of North America regarding the availability of free refills. For example, Burger King restaurants in Spain often provide free refills, whereas in Bolivia, Burger King restaurants do not. In France, free refills have actually been outlawed; in Germany, most restaurants charge even to refill water. In Japan, free refills are referred to as \"drink bar\" (ドリンクバー) and often a separate purchase is required to access them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7728420",
"title": "American Beverage Association",
"section": "Section::::Latest news.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "To date, 33 states have taxes on soft drinks but they are \"too low to affect consumption and the revenues are not earmarked for health programs,\" according to the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
148d9h
|
how does prison labor work?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think like 10 or 20 cents an hour, certainly much less than a dollar an hour. Prisoners have access to a commissaryn where they can buy treats and snacks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my prison, as an example, the guys who work in the dining facility start out at 40c an hour. The guys who work in the welding shop start out at 60c an hour. The guys who work in the wood shop get 45c an hour, but can get a bonus of up to $25 dollars depending on what they build. Inmates who stay with a job long enough and attend additional training can work up to become a supervisor and can earn up to $1.10 an hour. The guys who work third shift make an extra dime per hour. \n\nThey don't make a lot of money, because, regardless of what the inmates believe, it costs a lot of money to house an inmate. The difference between the wages of an inmate and a living wage outside goes to offset some of that cost. The inmates can do what they want to with that money. Some use the money to pay for college courses. Some use the money to buy things from the commissary. Some invest the money in a savings or retirement account. \n\nLarge corporations at some prisons can \"outsource\" jobs. The corporation has to be approved to do so, and some of the considerations are if the inmate labor will have an effect on the local economy. \n\nInmate labor is allowed because the inmates have to have something to do during the day. You can't leave them locked up in their cells all day and having a job to go to helps prepare them to reintegrate with the outside when they get released and have to have a job. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Slave labor is legal in the United States.\n\n13th Amendment:\n\n > Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, **except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted**, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "422887",
"title": "Labor camp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A labor camp (or labour, see spelling differences) or work camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are forced to engage in penal labor as a form of punishment under the criminal code. Labour camps have many common aspects with slavery and with prisons (especially prison farms). Conditions at labor camps vary widely depending on the operators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2388271",
"title": "Penal labour",
"section": "Section::::Punitive versus productive labour.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Prison inmates can work either for the prison (directly, by performing tasks linked to prison operation, or for the Régie Industrielle des Établissements Pénitentiaires, which produces and sells merchandises) or for a private company, in the framework of a prison/company agreement for leasing inmate labour. Work ceased being compulsory for sentenced inmates in France in 1987. From the French Revolution of 1789, the prison system has been governed by a new penal code. Some prisons became quasi-factories, in the nineteenth century, many discussions focused on the issue of competition between free labour and prison labour. Prison work was temporarily prohibited during the French Revolution of 1848. Prison labour then specialised in the production of goods sold to government departments (and directly to prisons, for example guards' uniforms), or in small low-skilled manual labour (mainly subcontracting to small local industries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14298944",
"title": "Penal system in China",
"section": "Section::::Administration.:Prison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The prisoner shall do labour and receive compensation.It was reported that most prisons uses a point-based system, where the prisoners who passed their line will receive extra compensation based on the extra points they have. The judge for commutation trial will also consider labour record as evidence for good behavior. The prison shall have classroom and reading room, and the prisoners shall receive education. The prisoner shall receive promptly medical treatment. Prison shall be equipped with an infirmary. The prisons use a point-based system to evaluate the behavior of the prisoners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2388271",
"title": "Penal labour",
"section": "Section::::Punitive versus productive labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a prison farm or in a prison workshop. In such cases, the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment and/or reeducation as such of the prisoners, who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour (profit may be minor after expenses, e.g. on security).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2633047",
"title": "Prison farm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In addition to being forced to labor directly for the government on a prison farm or in a penal colony, inmates may be forced to do farm work for private enterprises by being farmed out through the practice of convict leasing to work on private agricultural lands or related industries (fishing, lumbering, etc.). The party purchasing their labor from the government generally does so at a steep discount from the cost of free labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19008450",
"title": "Prison",
"section": "Section::::Economics of the prison industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "The prison industry also includes private businesses that benefit from the exploitation of the prison labor. Some scholars, using the term prison-industrial complex, have argued that the trend of \"hiring out prisoners\" is a continuation of the slavery tradition, pointing out that the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution freed slaves but allowed forced labor for people convicted of crimes. Prisons are very attractive to employers, because prisoners can be made to perform a great array of jobs, under conditions that most free laborers wouldn't accept (and would be illegal outside of prisons): sub-minimum wage payments, no insurance, no collective bargaining, lack of alternative options, etc. Prison labor can soon deprive the free labor of jobs in a number of sectors, since the organized labor turns out to be uncompetitive compared to the prison counterpart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2388271",
"title": "Penal labour",
"section": "Section::::Non-punitive prison labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "In a number of penal systems, the inmates have the possibility of a job. This may serve several purposes. One goal is to give an inmate a meaningful way to occupy their prison time and a possibility of earning some money. It may also play an important role in resocialisation as inmates may acquire skills that would help them to find a job after release. It may also have an important penological function: reducing the monotony of prison life for the inmate, keeping inmates busy on productive activities, rather than, for example, potentially violent or antisocial activities, and helping to increase inmate fitness, and thus decrease health problems, rather than letting inmates succumb to a sedentary lifestyle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33rmp2
|
Are there any lifeforms that have evolved exclusively on land and never began from water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not sure what you mean there.\n\nIf you trace back the lineage of all known life forms further and futher back, eventually they all had ancestors that lived in the water. \n\n(E.g. for *Homo sapiens* - _URL_0_)\n\nIf you're just looking back one or two evolutionary steps, then of course the recent ancestors of almost all land animals were also land animals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as we can tell, no. From what we can tell, life has originated on earth [just once](_URL_0_), in the oceans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "875148",
"title": "Evolution of cetaceans",
"section": "Section::::Early evolution.:Ambulocetidae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Recent studies showcase that ambulocetids were fully aquatic like modern cetaceans, possessing a similar thoracic morphology and being unable to support their weight on land. This suggests that complete abandonment of the land evolved much earlier among cetaceans than previously thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2056572",
"title": "Marine life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Most life forms evolved initially in marine habitats. By volume, oceans provide about 90 percent of the living space on the planet. The earliest vertebrates appeared in the form of fish, which live exclusively in water. Some of these evolved into amphibians which spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Other fish evolved into land mammals and subsequently returned to the ocean as seals, dolphins or whales. Plant forms such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton, and particularly phytoplankton, are key primary producers forming the general foundation of the ocean food chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38046595",
"title": "Evolution of tetrapods",
"section": "Section::::Palaeozoic tetrapods.:Devonian tetrapods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Research by Jennifer A. Clack and her colleagues showed that the very earliest tetrapods, animals similar to \"Acanthostega\", were wholly aquatic and quite unsuited to life on land. This is in contrast to the earlier view that fish had first invaded the land — either in search of prey (like modern mudskippers) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out — and later evolved legs, lungs, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37824359",
"title": "Evolution of fish",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Fish to tetrapods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Research by Jennifer A. Clack and her colleagues showed that the very earliest tetrapods, animals similar to \"Acanthostega\", were wholly aquatic and quite unsuited to life on land. This is in contrast to the earlier view that fish had first invaded the land — either in search of prey (like modern mudskippers) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out — and later evolved legs, lungs, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349161",
"title": "Cambrian explosion",
"section": "Section::::Precambrian life.:Beck Spring Dolomite.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Microfossils have been unearthed from holes riddling the otherwise barren surface of the dolomite. These geochemical and microfossil findings support the idea that during the Precambrian period, complex life evolved both in the oceans and on land. Knauth contends that animals may well have had their origins in freshwater lakes and streams, and not in the oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22210655",
"title": "Aquatic locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Secondary evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Primarily or exclusively aquatic animals have re-evolved from terrestrial tetrapods multiple times: examples include amphibians such as newts, reptiles such as crocodiles, sea turtles, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, marine mammals such as whales, seals and otters, and birds such as penguins. Many species of snakes are also aquatic and live their entire lives in the water. Among invertebrates, a number of insect species have adaptations for aquatic life and locomotion. Examples of aquatic insects include dragonfly larvae, water boatmen, and diving beetles. There are also aquatic spiders, although they tend to prefer other modes of locomotion under water than swimming proper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20462443",
"title": "Coelacanthopsis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The Coelacanth is the only living example of the fossil Coelacanth fishes Actinistia. They are also the closest link between fish and the first amphibian creatures which made the transition from sea to land in the Devonian period (408-362 Million Years Ago). That such a creature could have existed for so long is nearly incredible, but some say that the cold depths of the West Indian Ocean at which the Coelacanth thrives, and the small number of predators it has, may have helped the species survive eons of change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cl6vx3
|
How is the insulin transfer into the bloodstream regulated?
|
[
{
"answer": "The insuline secretion is mainly modulated by the blood sugar, i.e. your glucose level in the blood which is roughly 5 mmol/L or 90 mg/dL. Every cell in the body absorpts glucose (different mechanisms) where it can be metabolized. One important substance that you get this way is the ATP (Adenosine-Triphosphate), an energy carrier of a cell. If you want details on this I recommend to read up on glycolysis and the citrate cycle.\n\nAs the ATP levels inside the beta-cell rises, the membrane permeability of potassium decreases. This happens because there are ATP-sensitive potassium channels directly built into the membrane of the cell which deactivate upon interacting with ATP. This causes potassium to accumulate inside the cell. Note that the inside of a cell is negatively charged relative to the outside of a cell, in other words, the cell becomes *less* negatively charged.\n\nAs a consequence of this ion-shift the cell 'deporalizes' (see below) and thus increases the Calcium influx to the cell. Calcium is usually a trigger ion because its native concentration in cells is *extremely* low. Therefore, the cell is turn extremely sensitive to changes in the calcium concentration (which can easily change by up to 2 orders of magnitude). As a result of the Ca-increase inside the cell, the exocytosis of prepared insulin vesicles is triggered.\n\nThe insulin then allows other cells in the body to absorb glucose and thus lowers the blood sugar level. In turn, the glucose level inside the beta-cell of the pancreas decreases which leads to the activation of potassium channels which down regulates the Ca levels and therefore finally decreases the scretion of insuline. In short, insuline sort of regulates itself.\n\n\\-----------------------------------------------------------------\n\nNow to add on a few terminologies:\n\nA cell membrane is an electric isolator that has selective permeability to certain ions and molecules. There are active and passive transport mechanisms which built up an ion concentration gradient or passively resolve it. In all your cells there is a transporter that sacrifices one ATP to bring 3 Na ions out and 2 K ions into the cell (Na-K-ATPase). This way you have a very high concentration of potassium in your cell. Note that you have also gained a difference in electric charge. This change in charge is what your cell ultimately wants, because it allows it cell to have 'turned on mode' and a 'turned off mode'. Normally a cell is polarized, i.e. the membran has a negative electric potential. When the permeability of a membrane increases this electric gradient is decreasing and the cell depolarises. This mechanism is periodically induced in your pace-maker cells in the heart or used to store and transfer information in your nervous system. It is also used to trigger the release of Ca in your muscle cells to cause contractions of your muscle fibers.\n\nFor most (if not all cells) potassium is the driving factor for where the exact membrane potential is without excitation. It is usually sufficient to use the so called Nerst equation to calculate the membrane potential via E = RT/(zF) ln(\\[K\\]\\_o / \\[K\\]\\_i) which only uses the concentration of potassium inside and outside of the cell (and some constants). More generally you have to actually take the [Goldman equation](_URL_0_) which also accounts for the membrane permeabilities (the permeability for other ions than potassium is extremely low in comparison however and thus somewhat negligible).\n\n\\-----------------------------------------------------------------\n\nTo add on the blood sugar level in general:\n\nThere are of course a lot more hormones that regulate this important parameter. To give just one example, glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisole) are called 'gluco' because they increase the blood sugar levels. Patients that take high doses of cortisole or prednisolone over a long period have a high risk of developing a 'steroid diabetes'. Note that cortisole levels are also elevated under high psychological stress.\n\n\\-----------------------------------------------------------------\n\nWhy do we need insulin? Why don't cells just absorb glucose, what is all this fuzz about?\n\nCells absorb glucose differently. There are, in fact, different glucos transporters. The most important ones are GLUT1-5 (yes biochemists finally had an easy naming convention). We have these because we want our beta-cells in the pancreas to permantently check the glucose level, so they have the GLUT 1 transporter that does allow the uptake of glucose without the interaction of insuline.\n\nHowever, we absolutely do not want our muscles or fat cells (fat cells are the worst) to take all the glucose without any regulation, so they have the transporter GLUT4 which only acts with insuline. If the muscles did not need insuline, they'd just burn the glucose and our liver wouldn't be able to produce glycogen (short-term storage of glucose that lasts maybe 10-20 minutes under physical exercise, we use this energy ressource until the burning of fatty acids allows long-term energy supply).\n\nSimilarly, the fat cells would produce fatty acids with the glucose. The problem here is that this is a one-way ticket, there is basically (Succinyl-CoA etc. aside) no going back from fatty acids to glucose and we wouldn't be able to restock our short-term storage in the liver. If a lion now decided to hunt us, we'd have to parley for 20 minutes until we have activated the burning of fatty acids. This is also the reason that a diabetes patient has small lipoma around the insuline injection points.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31216882",
"title": "Insulin signal transduction pathway",
"section": "Section::::Transduction pathway.:Insulin secretion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "This influx then stimulates fusion of the insulin vesicles to the cell membrane and secretion of insulin in the extracellular fluid outside the beta cell; thus making it enter the bloodstream. [Also Illustrated in Figure 1.1.1].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31216882",
"title": "Insulin signal transduction pathway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "This insulin signal transduction pathway is composed of trigger mechanisms (e.g., autophosphorylation mechanisms) that serve as signals throughout the cell. There is also a counter mechanism in the body to stop the secretion of insulin beyond a certain limit. Namely, those counter-regulatory mechanisms are glucagon and epinephrine. The process of the regulation of blood glucose (also known as glucose homeostasis) also exhibits oscillatory behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31216882",
"title": "Insulin signal transduction pathway",
"section": "Section::::Transduction pathway.:Action on the cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "After insulin enters the bloodstream, it binds to a membrane-spanning glycoprotein receptor. This glycoprotein is embedded in the cellular membrane and has an extracellular receptor domain, made up of two α-subunits, and an intracellular catalytic domain, made up of two β-subunits. The α-subunits act as insulin receptors and the insulin molecule acts as a ligand. Together, they form a receptor-ligand complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3757348",
"title": "GLUT4",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.:Insulin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Insulin is released from the pancreas and into the bloodstream in response to increased glucose concentration in the blood. Insulin is stored in beta cells in the pancreas. When glucose in the blood binds to glucose receptors on the beta cell membrane, a signal cascade is initiated inside the cell that results in insulin stored in vesicles in these cells being released into the blood stream. Increased insulin levels cause the uptake of glucose into the cells. GLUT4 is stored in the cell in transport vesicles, and is quickly incorporated into the plasma membrane of the cell when insulin binds to membrane receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38599073",
"title": "Chromium in glucose metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Proposed mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1469,
"text": "When insulin concentrations within the blood rise, insulin binds to the external subunit of the insulin-receptor proteins, and induces a conformational change. This change results in the autophosphorylation of the tyrosine residue located on the internal ß-subunit of the receptor, thereby activating the receptor's kinase activity. An increase in insulin levels also signals for the movement of transferrin receptors from the vesicles of insulin-sensitive cells to the plasma membrane. Transferrin, the protein responsible for the movement of chromium through the body, binds to these receptors, and becomes internalized via the process of endocytosis. The pH of these vesicles containing the transferrin molecules is then decreased (resulting in increased acidity) by the action of ATP-driven proton pumps, and as a consequence, chromium is released from the transferrin. The free chromium within the cell is then sequestered by LMWCr. The binding of LMWCr to chromium converts it into its holo or active form, and once activated, LMWCr binds to the insulin receptors and aids in maintaining and amplifying the tyrosine kinase activity of the insulin receptors. In one experiment that was performed on bovine liver LMWCr, it was determined that LMWCr could amplify the activity of protein kinase receptors by up to seven-fold in the presence of insulin. Furthermore, evidence suggests that the action of LMWCr is most effective when it is bound to four chromic ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5924517",
"title": "Pulsatile insulin",
"section": "Section::::Pulsatile Insulin and the Liver.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1694,
"text": "Normally, insulin is secreted from the pancreas in pulses into the portal vein which brings blood into the liver in variable amounts, closely related to ingestion of meals. For induction and maintenance of insulin-dependent enzymes essential for glucose metabolism in the liver (e.g. hepatic glucokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase), the hepatocytes require a defined insulin level (200-500 µU/ml in the portal vein) concomitant with high glucose levels (which acts as a bimolecular signal). In non-diabetic subjects, portal insulin concentrations are twofold to threefold greater than those in the peripheral circulation. During the first pass through the liver, 50% of the insulin is removed, strongly insinuating that the liver is the principal metabolic target organ of the gastrointestinal tract and the pancreas. The insulin retained by the hepatocytes may itself be essential for the long-term effects of insulin on hepatic glucose metabolism as well as growth and de novo enzyme synthesis. Following oral glucose intake, the liver accounts for an equal or greater portion of total net glucose uptake compared to the periphery. Insulin exerts pivotal control of glucose levels through its ability to regulate hepatic glucose production directly or indirectly. The traditional subcutaneous (S.C.) insulin administration regimens used by diabetic patients a) fails to capture the pulsatile nature of natural insulin secretion and b) does not reach high enough insulin concentrations at the hepatocyte level (e.g., 10 U regular insulin injected S.C. produce a peak systemic circulation concentration of 30-40 µU/ml and an even lower portal vein concentration of 15-20 µU/ml).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38599073",
"title": "Chromium in glucose metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Proposed mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "When the insulin signaling pathway is turned off, the insulin receptors on the plasma membrane relax and become inactivated. The holo-LMWCr is expelled from the cell and ultimately excreted from the body via urine. LMWCr cannot be converted back into its inactive from due to the high binding affinity of this oligopeptide for its chromium ions. As of currently, the mechanism through which apo-LMWCr is replaced within the body is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ae808
|
Roman (and other classical) political graffiti--what's the deal with it?
|
[
{
"answer": " > In I, Claudius, I think there's a major plot element where Claudius freaks out about seeing his name written upside down\n\nNot quite. Part of the plot involves Germanicus, Caligula's superstitious father, being terrorised by defacements of his name and other omens, which turn out to be the doing of Caligula.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48457395",
"title": "Roman graffiti",
"section": "Section::::Commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "More than simply text and thought, Roman graffiti give insight into the use of space and how people interacted within it. Studying the motivation behind the marks reveals a trend for the graffiti to be located where people spend time and pass most frequently as they move through a space. Common places for graffiti are staircases, central peristyle, and vestibule. The use of graffiti by Romans has been said to be very different from the defacing trends of modern day, with the text blending into the walls and rooms by respecting the frescoes and decoration with the use of small letters. In this way, the environment influences the graffiti by subject and organization, and the graffiti in turn changes and influences the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48457395",
"title": "Roman graffiti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In archaeological terms, graffiti (plural of graffito) is a mark, image or writing scratched or engraved into a surface. There have been numerous examples found on sites of the Roman Empire, including taverns and houses, as well as on pottery of the time. In many cases the graffiti tend toward the rude, with a line etched into the basilica in Pompeii reading \"Lucilla made money from her body,\" phallic images, as well as erotic pictures. Studying the graffiti left behind from the Roman Period can give a better understanding of the daily life and attitudes of the Roman people with conclusions drawn about how everyday Romans talked, where they spent their time, and their interactions within those spaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985",
"title": "Graffiti",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 283,
"text": "The term \"graffiti\" referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Use of the word has evolved to include any graphics applied to surfaces in a manner that constitutes vandalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985",
"title": "Graffiti",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern-style graffiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The ancient Romans carved graffiti on walls and monuments, examples of which also survive in Egypt. Graffiti in the classical world had different connotations than they carry in today's society concerning content. Ancient graffiti displayed phrases of love declarations, political rhetoric, and simple words of thought, compared to today's popular messages of social and political ideals\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "473370",
"title": "Visual rhetoric",
"section": "Section::::Modern Application.:Graffiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1238,
"text": "Graffiti is a \"pictorial or visual inscription on a accessible surface.\" According to Hanauer, Graffiti achieves three functions; the first is to allow marginalized texts to participate in the public discourse, the second is that graffiti serves the purpose of expressing openly \"controversial contents\", and the third is to allow \"marginal groups to the possibility of expressing themselves publicly.\" Bates and Martin note that this form of rhetoric has been around even in ancient Pompeii; with an example from 79 A.D. reading, \"Oh wall, so many men have come here to scrawl, I wonder that your burdened sides don't fall\". Gross and Gross indicated that graffiti is capable of serving a rhetorical purpose. Within a more modern context, Wiens' (2014) research showed that graffiti can be considered an alternative way of creating rhetorical meaning for issues such as homelessness. Furthermore, according to Ley and Cybriwsky graffiti can be an expression of territory, especially within the context of gangs. This form of Visual Rhetoric is meant to communicate meaning to anyone who so happens to see it, and due to its long history and prevalence, several styles and techniques have emerged to capture the attention of an audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985",
"title": "Graffiti",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Radical and political.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "On top of the political aspect of graffiti as a movement, political groups and individuals may also use graffiti as a tool to spread their point of view. This practice, due to its illegality, has generally become favored by groups excluded from the political mainstream (e.g. far-left or far-right groups) who justify their activity by pointing out that they do not have the money – or sometimes the desire – to buy advertising to get their message across, and that a \"ruling class\" or \"establishment\" controls the mainstream press, systematically excluding the radical and alternative point of view. This type of graffiti can seem crude; for example fascist supporters often scrawl swastikas and other Nazi images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985",
"title": "Graffiti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Graffiti (both singular and plural; the singular \"graffito\" is very rare in English except in archeology) is writing or drawings made on a wall or other surface, usually as a form of artistic expression, without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2puuhk
|
why does steam always have to install microsoft c++ redistributable 2005 when i install a game?
|
[
{
"answer": "In case it isn't already there. It isn't part of the operating system (Windows XP, say, was released in 2001 so isn't going to have something released in 2005). Since the game needs it, it is going to be installed.\n\nWhy do all games need it? Because it contains all the basic building blocks of the C++ language when compiled with the MS compiler.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47155408",
"title": "AdvertCity",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The game also drew praise for its high-performing engine, which enables the game to run on previous-generation hardware; the minimum system requirements for CPU on Steam are stated simply as \"Anything made since 2004\" and the game supports Windows XP despite Microsoft having discontinued support for that operating system before development of AdvertCity began.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36924601",
"title": "McPixel",
"section": "Section::::Release and reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "As of October 2013, a Linux version exists, but is not yet available on Steam. Kamiński has stated on the Steam Forums that this is because the Adobe Air run-time can not be distributed via Steam. To fix this and other issues, Kamiński has stated that he intended to rewrite the game engine to not use Adobe Air. Kamiński announced the rewrite in June 2013, writing that he hoped to be done by September 2013, though there as been no news as of September 2014. As of June 2019, the Linux version is not on Steam, however Proton can be used to run the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38097022",
"title": "The Stanley Parable",
"section": "Section::::Development.:High-definition remake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "To distribute the new version, the team initially considered a pay what you want scheme, but later sought the use of the Steam Greenlight service, where independent developers can solicit votes from other players in order to have Valve subsequently offer the title through Steam. In October 2012, the game was successfully approved by Valve to be included on Steam upon the game's completion. Although Wreden originally called the stand-alone version \"The Stanley Parable: HD Remix\", he later opted to drop the distinguishing title, affirming that he believes the remake is the \"definitive\" version of the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27851100",
"title": "Breach (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "As of August 2011, the PC version has been removed from the Steam Store, due to lack of servers to play on and Atomic Games having seemingly gone dark. Retail versions can still be activated on Steam; Valve has been reported to be giving out Store credits to unsatisfied customers who bought the retail version after the game has been made unavailable for purchase from Steam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2286175",
"title": "Realms of Arkania: Blade of Destiny",
"section": "Section::::Remake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "A remake developed by the Austrian Crafty Studios and published by German United Independent Entertainment was released on Steam on July 30, 2013. Metacritic, a review aggregator, rated it 18/100 based on five reviews. This is one of Metacritic's lowest ratings for a PC game. On release, the game was plagued with bugs, and the developer's forums were full of complaints. Crafty Studios eventually posted an apology to Steam in which they promised to update the game. Steven Strom of \"Ars Technica\", in an article where he played each of the five worst-rated games on Metacritic, said the remake is playable but still feels unfinished, including untranslated dialogue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52290471",
"title": "My Summer Car",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay and setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The game does not have Steam Workshop as of now, but modifications can be done by using Unity Asset Explorer, mostly texture modifications or with MSC loader (My Summer Car loader) for assets additives. Thanks to this, one can make their own car paint job, edit the rear window stickers and even change the appearance of other vehicles and buildings. There are also unofficial mods such as cars and objects made in Blender, two of the most notable are the Lada 1200 Station Wagon and Utesuma (Satsuma pickup) mod.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50401093",
"title": "Call of Duty: Modern Warfare Remastered",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Criticism of the Windows version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The Windows version of \"Remastered\" was criticized for suffering from a number of technical issues in the multiplayer, with players also being dissatisfied with the game's available settings. On Steam, it received mostly negative user reviews, with complaints including poor performance, a locked 90 frames per second, insufficient mouse support, numerous hackers, and a low player count. Players felt that Activision had failed to provide adequate support for PC in favor of the game's console versions, a trait which had also been apparent with previous installments in the series. Consequently, many users suggested that the multiplayer of \"Modern Warfare\" would be a more suitable alternative, which still attracted a sizable number of players and offered better options for performance, modding, and customization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
busoiy
|
what's the difference between a war and a 'cold war'?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cold war was a period where neither side liked each other, but both were too afraid of the consequences to fight an actual war against each other (since both had nuclear weaponry). The cold war involved spies, propaganda, arms races, foreign coups, supplying aid to terrorist groups attacking your enemy, supporting your allies in proxy wars (i.e against your enemies allies), and so on. Actual wars typically involve full scale fighting between the sides at war.",
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},
{
"answer": "A “Cold War” doesn’t involve battles and fighting. Instead there’s propaganda and threats, spying...etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A Cold War is a war fought without the use of bullets.\n\nObviously, that's an oversimplified answer, in the fact that even in the American/Soviet Cold War, there were armed conflicts, like Korea and Vietnam, as well as border skirmishes and missile crises, but there is not all-out war between the primary antagonists of the conflict.\n\nKorea was supported by China and Russia, but the conflict was mostly limited to the Korean peninsula, for example.\n\nIn reality, the term Cold War was given to the American/Soviet conflict because it encompassed a longer campaign that wasn't always bloody, leading to verbal standoffs and culture wars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "USA and Soviet Union were on the verge of starting a BIG (\"normal\") war which may have included the use of nuclear bombs. They were basically like two feral hounds growling at each other, showing their teeth, on the verge of ripping each other's throats out. Since even the people in charge kinda knew that a nuclear war is probably not that good of a thing to commence, it never came to that, there was \"just\" a lot of fearmongering, spying, building pressure in other states (USA placed nuclear weapons in Europe, for example). However, they did do \"proxy wars\", meaning they supplied opposing states at war with money, weapons etc. just because the other side did the same to the opposing state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The term \"Cold War\" was meant to indicate that the US and USSR were essentially \"at war\" but that if they went against each other (\"World War III\") it would be so devastating to both sides that they would, if possible, refrain from doing it. Instead they did lots of other things: spying, influencing elections, setting up and disrupting alliances, \"psychological warfare\" (propaganda), \"economic warfare\" (e.g. sanctions), etc.\n\nIt is worth noting that among those \"other things\" were to fight \"proxy wars\" in other countries. This is what the Korean War was, for example: the US was fighting North Korea, who was being supplied by the USSR and China. The Vietnam War, the Soviet-Afghan War, and many other wars in Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and many other parts of the world were all versions of this kind of dynamic. These proxy wars killed _millions_ of people (just not usually Soviets or Americans; the bulk of the dead were the civilians who lived in the countries where these wars took place), so there are those who think that too much emphasis can be put on the \"coldness\" of the Cold War. But it didn't \"go nuclear,\" so it was _relatively_ cold (but pretty much everything else would be).\n\nYou may think: gosh, some of this sounds like it is still going on, or describes the US-Russia or US-China relationships today. These kinds of dynamics were not unique to the 1945-1991 period, and still continue today in many ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer: We weren't in a declared war with Russia, but there was an extended and very real conflict going on - just without our two armies fighting, or a declaration of war. Due to sabotage, proxy wars, assassinations, terrorist groups and poorly run prisons (mostly on Russia's side) lots of people died - but the US and Russia never formally entered into war or had our armies shooting at each other, so you can't call it a war. \n\nThere were a lot of costs to both sides. Russia tried to outstrip us in the space race and arms production, resulting in a lot of poverty and food shortages in the country. Paranoia and corruption in a planned state didn't help the matter. On our end, we had McCartyism and an anti socialist bent to politics that lead the way to our rather conservative political culture we have now and the stark income disparity. It also informed our unilateral interventionist tendencies that got us into a few intractable wars. \n\nThis is a period worth learning about, because the consequences of it are still VERY present in the world and can help you to understand modern politics. Everything from our close alliance to Israel, the destabilization of the middle east, our uneasy relationship with China, and the massive quasi-military drug cartels in the Americas can all be traced back to policies and programs introduced during the cold war. It also helps to understand Putin's popularity in Russia (though certainly inflated, he is undeniably popular).\n\nThere are some fun side effects of the cold war. In an attempt to spread their culture, an exchange was set up with India, resulting in tons of Indian films coming to Russia and becoming extremely popular. At the same time, Russian novels were translated into the many different Indian languages - so you will find indians of a certain age well versed in Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, while Russians of a certain age will know Bombay's hit. (Credit: [99 Percent invisible](_URL_0_) for this gem of a story) \n\nThe show The Americans can give you a bit of a look at some of the events going on, though obviously dramatized.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "War = actually killing each other.\n\nCold war = Both sides threaten to kill each other and say 'swing first'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know that guy in class that you just can't stand? You know the one, he's a total knucklehead and all his friends are real goobers too. Well he's been pushing your buttons lately and you want to do something about it. You're fairly certain you could take him but you can't just haul-off and hit him, because he might just take you down or his friends might get in on the action. It's better to have your friends pull elaborate pranks, snitch on him to your teacher and spread nasty rumors, preferably without being too obvious. The whole point is to to convince your other class mates that \"that guy\" is as big a knucklehead as you think he is, and ostracize him from the class community.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A war is when two parties openly use military force against each other. War ends in either a surrender or military domination.\n\nA “Cold War” is between two parties that don’t like each other, but for various reasons they don’t engage in full military conflict. Instead they engage in political and economic tactics to try and assert dominance. The two parties may give aid and weapons to be fought in a proxy war. Tactics include sanctions, tariffs, espionage, and trying to gang up on the other through international political pressure.\n\nThe most famous example, but not the only, was between the US and the USSR. Both parties wanted to be the only super power in the world. If both countries did not have nuclear stockpiles I believe we would ha e engaged in traditional war fare. However, since we had nukes the two countries didn’t dare engage on full scale war. During this time the United States engages in direct and indirect warfare against parties that were perceived to be more of an ally to the USSR than the US (Vietnam, Latin America, Cuba, etc).\nDuring this time the US said if companies do business with the USSR you couldn’t do business in the US, which economically attacked the USSR.\n\nDoes this answer your question?",
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},
{
"answer": "Let's say you want to punch me in the face. But the only reason you don't is cause I will likely punch you in the face. That's a cold war. Now if you do punch me in the face and we fight, that's war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "War is when you decide to fight your annoying neighbor. \n\nCold war is when you pay a friend to beat up his neighbor that he's always had problems with, only your friend's neighbor is actually related to your original annoying neighbor. That way you and your neighbor don't have to fight each other because you know if you did one of you would pull a gun and neither of you want to actually die.\n\nInstead you cover your friend's hospital bills and take him to kickboxing classes so he can fight better and just keep sending him out there. So you're not technically fighting anyone yourself, you're just helping a friend fight someone who is directly related to the guy you actually want to beat up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imo main thing to summarize is \"A war thru Proxy Wars.\"\n\nIn a cold war - the nations won't fight each other directly, but will do so indirectly thru other countries generally poorer ones. \n\nI.e. vietnam war (north vietnam was backed by Soviet union thru training n $l and the war in Afghanistan (Afghanistan supported by US thru training n $ albeit ironically as these same weapons were used against us later on).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2276358",
"title": "Cold war (general term)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "A cold war is a state of conflict between nations that does \"not\" involve direct military action but is pursued primarily through economic and political actions, propaganda, acts of espionage or proxy wars waged by surrogates. This term is most commonly used to refer to the Soviet-American Cold War. The surrogates are typically states that are \"satellites\" of the conflicting nations, i.e., nations allied to them or under their political influence. Opponents in a cold war will often provide economic or military aid, such as weapons, tactical support or military advisors, to lesser nations involved in conflicts with the opposing country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2276358",
"title": "Cold war (general term)",
"section": "Section::::Tensions labelled a Cold War.:Cold War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Cold War II, also called Second Cold War, Cold War 2.0, or the New Cold War refers to a renewed state of political and military tension between opposing geopolitical power-blocs, with one bloc typically reported as being led by Russia or China, and the other led by the United States or NATO. This is akin to the original Cold War that saw a global confrontation between the Western Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union, Russia's predecessor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43497999",
"title": "Second Cold War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The Second Cold War (also called the New Cold War or Cold War II) is a new, post-Cold-War era of political and military tension between opposing geopolitical power blocs, with one bloc typically reported as being led by Russia and/or China and the other led by the United States, European Union, and NATO. It is akin to the original Cold War that saw a stand-off and proxy wars between the Western Bloc led by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union, Russia's predecessor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21208200",
"title": "Western world",
"section": "Section::::Historical divisions.:Cold War II context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "During the Cold War II, a new definition emerged. More specifically, Cold War II, also known as the Second Cold War, New Cold War, Cold War Redux, Cold War 2.0, and Colder War, refers to the tensions, hostilities, and political rivalry that intensified dramatically in 2014 between the Russian Federation on the one hand, and the United States, European Union, NATO and some other countries on the other hand. Tensions escalated in 2014 after Russia's annexation of Crimea, military intervention in Ukraine, and the 2015 Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. By August 2014, both sides had implemented economic, financial, and diplomatic sanctions upon each other: virtually all Western countries, led by the US and EU, imposed restrictive measures on Russia; the latter reciprocally introduced retaliatory measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47246185",
"title": "History of socialism",
"section": "Section::::The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (1945–1985).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The term \"Cold War\" was introduced in 1947 by Americans Bernard Baruch and Walter Lippmann to describe emerging tensions between the two former wartime allies. There never was a direct military engagement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, but there was a half-century of military buildup, and political battles for support around the world, including significant involvement of allied and satellite nations. Although the U.S. and the Soviet Union had been allied against Nazi Germany, the two sides differed on how to reconstruct the postwar world even before the end of World War II. Over the following decades, the Cold War spread outside Europe to every region of the world, as the U.S. sought the \"containment\" of communism and forged numerous alliances to this end, particularly in Western Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23415939",
"title": "Outline of the Cold War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Cold War – period of political and military tension that occurred after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact). Historians have not fully agreed on the dates, but 1947–1991 is common. It was termed as \"cold\" because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides. Based on the principle of mutually assured destruction, both sides developed nuclear weapons to deter the other side from attacking. So they competed against each other via espionage, propaganda, and by supporting major regional wars, known as proxy wars, in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1192229",
"title": "United States in the 1950s",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "The Cold War (1945–1991) was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, and economic competition between the Soviet Union and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, led by the United States. Although the primary participants' military forces never officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, a nuclear arms race, espionage, proxy wars, propaganda, and technological competition, e.g., the space race. The first use of the term to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the USSR and the United States came in a speech by Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents, The speech, written by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, proclaimed, \"Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war.\" Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann gave the term wide currency with his book \"The Cold War\"; when asked in 1947 about the source of the term, Lippmann traced it to a French term from the 1930s, \"la guerre froide\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cdr08
|
why do cars stop/stall when they are spun around?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cars can stall when the car is in drive and the car is spun and the tires start to roll in the opposite way that the gear is supposed to be rolling, thus making the gears go the wrong way. If you have enough power and are spun, and keep your foot on the gas and the tires are spinning forward still, the car wont stall, like when youre doing a burn out. \n\nManual cars also will not stall if spun if you hold the clutch in, disengaging the power from the engine to the transmission. \n\nSome cars also will shut off the engine just because it thinks you may have been in an accident. \n\nIf you look at enough police chase videos, youll find some where the car doesnt stall when pitted and keeps on running ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41311857",
"title": "Skid (automobile)",
"section": "Section::::Types of skid.:Spin out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Once the vehicle is rotating sufficiently rapidly, its angular momentum of rotation can overcome the stabilizing influence of the tires (either braking or skidding), and the rotation will continue even if the wheels are centered or past the point that the vehicle is controlled. This can be caused by some tires locking up in braking while others continue to rotate, or under acceleration where driven tires may lose traction (especially, if they lose traction unevenly), or in combining braking or acceleration with turning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56571945",
"title": "NASCAR Cup Series",
"section": "Section::::Cup cars.:Setup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The automobiles' suspension, brakes, and aerodynamic components are also selected to tailor the cars to different racetracks. A car that understeers is said to be \"tight\", or \"pushing\", causing the car to keep going up the track with the wheel turned all the way left, while one that oversteers is said to be \"loose\" or \"free\", causing the back end of the car to slide around, which can result in the car spinning out if the driver is not careful. The adjustment of front and rear aerodynamic downforce, spring rates, track bar geometry, brake proportioning, the wedge (also known as cross-weight), changing the camber angle, and changing the air pressure in the tires can all change the distribution of forces among the tires during cornering to correct for handling problems. Recently, coil bind setups have become popular among teams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19505841",
"title": "Roll-O-Plane",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "When in motion, the arm swings until it makes a complete loop, though the riders never become inverted. This is because the ride has two \"twists\" that the older version did not. First, the arm pivots while the ride is in motion. Second, the cars are free to rotate horizontally or \"roll\" while the ride is in motion, always keeping the riders right-side-up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927277",
"title": "Aquaplaning",
"section": "Section::::In motor vehicles.:Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "If the drive wheels aquaplane, there may be a sudden audible rise in engine RPM and indicated speed as they begin to spin. In a broad highway turn, if the front wheels lose traction, the car will suddenly drift towards the outside of the bend. If the rear wheels lose traction, the back of the car will slew out sideways into a skid. If all four wheels aquaplane at once, the car will slide in a straight line, again towards the outside of the bend if in a turn. When any or all of the wheels regain traction, there may be a sudden jerk in whatever direction that wheel is pointed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29784269",
"title": "Pullback motor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1170852",
"title": "Stiction",
"section": "Section::::Automobiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "This is why driver training courses teach that if a car begins to slide sideways, the driver should try to steer in the same direction as the slide with no brakes. It gives the wheels a chance to regain static contact by rolling, which gives the driver some control again. An overenthusiastic driver may \"squeal\" the driving wheels trying to get a rapid start but this impressive display of noise and smoke is less effective than maintaining static contact with the road. Many stunt-driving techniques are also done by deliberately breaking and/or regaining this rolling friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1135199",
"title": "Stroboscopic effect",
"section": "Section::::Wagon-wheel effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "If the wheel rotates a little more slowly than two revolutions per second, the position of the spokes is seen to fall a little further behind in each successive frame and therefore, the wheel will seem to be turning backwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k018w
|
Are we bound to get cancer if we don't die from something else before that?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pretty much yes.\n\nCancer is an unavoidable consequence of evolution.\n\nA multicellular organism is a colony of cells that work in concert for one common goal. As we have evolved our cells have developed mechanisms to make sure all the cells divide and grow as complying members of the whole. Still, an individual cell that mutates (mutations happen all the time) to grow out of this control will do so!\n\nThe control systems have evolved to reduce the risk of cancers until they no longer posed significant selective pressure on reproductive success.\n\nGenerally though, because of evolution, as you live longer the chance of getting cancer approaches 1. That being said, there is no reason why we should not be able to push this back a lot further.\n\n=)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yep.\n\nI'm going to quote my wife on this one, who worked with the American Cancer Society (since expert opinions count around here). Her best example of this was prostate cancer. On a long enough time scale nearly every human male will get this. And the time scale for that to happen is only a fair bit longer than human life spans.\n\nShe was trained that for some cancers it is not if but when. Which is why screen becomes so important since for those cancers everyone is a reasonably high probability of having it crop up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, because, on the most trivial level, eventually you'll get hit by a cosmic ray in juuust the right spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also:\n\"Would you die from a lightning strike, if you don't die from something else before that?\"\n\n-Yes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your question has a bit of a problem. Technically if I don't die of something before X, then I'll eventually die of X is true of a lot of things. If I don't die of something else first, eventually I will be sucked into a black hole. Excluding all other possibilities of course you will die of the only fatal possibility left. \n\nHowever, yes, eventually you will get cancer. In fact, chances are you have cancer right now. Everybody has cancers, your immune system just eliminates the mutated cells very quickly unless there is a problem. Most people don't really understand that cancers are not some disease that you catch, they're simply a byproduct of biological processes. Statistically, the longer you live the higher the probability that a mutation will eventually not be caught by your immune system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty much yes.\n\nCancer is an unavoidable consequence of evolution.\n\nA multicellular organism is a colony of cells that work in concert for one common goal. As we have evolved our cells have developed mechanisms to make sure all the cells divide and grow as complying members of the whole. Still, an individual cell that mutates (mutations happen all the time) to grow out of this control will do so!\n\nThe control systems have evolved to reduce the risk of cancers until they no longer posed significant selective pressure on reproductive success.\n\nGenerally though, because of evolution, as you live longer the chance of getting cancer approaches 1. That being said, there is no reason why we should not be able to push this back a lot further.\n\n=)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yep.\n\nI'm going to quote my wife on this one, who worked with the American Cancer Society (since expert opinions count around here). Her best example of this was prostate cancer. On a long enough time scale nearly every human male will get this. And the time scale for that to happen is only a fair bit longer than human life spans.\n\nShe was trained that for some cancers it is not if but when. Which is why screen becomes so important since for those cancers everyone is a reasonably high probability of having it crop up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, because, on the most trivial level, eventually you'll get hit by a cosmic ray in juuust the right spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also:\n\"Would you die from a lightning strike, if you don't die from something else before that?\"\n\n-Yes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your question has a bit of a problem. Technically if I don't die of something before X, then I'll eventually die of X is true of a lot of things. If I don't die of something else first, eventually I will be sucked into a black hole. Excluding all other possibilities of course you will die of the only fatal possibility left. \n\nHowever, yes, eventually you will get cancer. In fact, chances are you have cancer right now. Everybody has cancers, your immune system just eliminates the mutated cells very quickly unless there is a problem. Most people don't really understand that cancers are not some disease that you catch, they're simply a byproduct of biological processes. Statistically, the longer you live the higher the probability that a mutation will eventually not be caught by your immune system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9495306",
"title": "Beanibazar Upazila",
"section": "Section::::Charities working in Beani Bazar.:Beani Bazar Cancer Hospital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 299,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 299,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "With the right medical help, cancer doesn't have to be a death sentence. Those who can afford it travel to other countries to pay for their treatment and care. Those who can't are left to suffer and die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Treatment and survival is determined, to a great extent, by whether or not a cancer remains localized or spreads to other locations in the body. If the cancer metastasizes to other tissues or organs it usually dramatically increases a patient's likelihood of death. Some cancers—such as some forms of leukemia, a cancer of the blood, or malignancies in the brain—can kill without spreading at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3130699",
"title": "Cancer survivor",
"section": "Section::::Needs of cancer survivors.:Psychosocial.:Fear of cancer recurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "Patients whose cancer is in remission may still have to cope with the uncertainty that at any time their cancer could return without warning. After the initial treatment has ended, anxiety is more common among cancer survivors than among other people. This anxiety regarding the cancer's return is referred to as fear of cancer recurrence. Many patients are anxious that any minor symptom indicates that the cancer has returned, with as many as 9 in 10 patients fearful that their cancer will recur or spread. In addition to the appearance of any new aches and pains, common triggers for a fear that the cancer may return include hearing that someone else has been diagnosed with cancer, annual medical exams to determine whether the cancer recurred and news stories about cancer. This anxiety leads to more medical check ups, which can be measured even after a period of up to ten years. This fear can have a significant impact on individual's lives, resulting in difficulties in their daily life such as work and socialising, and difficulties planning for the future. Overall, fear of cancer recurrence is related to a reduced quality of life in cancer survivors\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20528341",
"title": "INCTR Challenge Fund",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There are several reasons for this high death toll from cancer in developing countries. Due to poverty, lack of resources and vast distances, public access to treatment maybe difficult or non-existent. There is also not enough awareness (public or professional) about cancer to help either prevent the disease developing or to support early diagnosis. As a result, 80% of cancer patients present with advanced/incurable cancers. Unfortunately, in many cases, palliative care will not be available to them at the end of their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Those who survive cancer develop a second primary cancer at about twice the rate of those never diagnosed. The increased risk is believed to be due to the random chance of developing any cancer, the likelihood of surviving the first cancer, the same risk factors that produced the first cancer, unwanted side effects of treating the first cancer (particularly radiation therapy), and to better compliance with screening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2803186",
"title": "Scott Radinsky",
"section": "Section::::Baseball career.:Chicago White Sox (1990–93; 1995).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Oh, it sucks to have a doctor tell you that you have cancer, but in the same breath, he told me that with aggressive treatment they can treat this particular disease. Thank God I didn't have Internet back then, so I couldn't get all wrapped up in it. I didn't have access to see how bad it could be. They told me I had to go through six months of this and five weeks of that, and that's all I really looked at: the end. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116856",
"title": "Adherence (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Health and disease management.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "200,000 new cases of cancer are diagnosed each year in the UK. One in three adults in the UK will develop cancer that can be life-threatening, and 120,000 people will be killed by their cancer each year. This accounts for 25% of all deaths in the UK. However while 90% of cancer pain can be effectively treated, only 40% of patients adhere to their medicines due to poor understanding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ig977
|
If you could theoretically survive on Venus, would you be floating in mid-air?
|
[
{
"answer": "Density, not pressure is the key point for buoyancy. According to wiki,\n\n > The density of the air at the surface is 67 kg/m3, which is 6.5% that of liquid water on Earth.\n\nSo while the air is 50 times denser than Earth's air, it's still like 15-20 times less dense than the human body, so you won't float.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26049929",
"title": "Life on Venus",
"section": "Section::::Habitability of its atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Although there is little possibility of existing life near the surface of Venus, the altitudes about 50 km above the surface have a mild temperature, and hence there are still some opinions in favor of such a possibility in the atmosphere of Venus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32745",
"title": "Venus",
"section": "Section::::Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth, raising temperatures on the surface to nearly , the atmospheric pressure is ninety times that of Earth, and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect, make water-based life as currently known unlikely. A few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure and temperature fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. This has led to proposals to use aerostats (lighter-than-air balloons) for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent \"floating cities\" in the Venusian atmosphere. Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26049929",
"title": "Life on Venus",
"section": "Section::::Historical views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Since the 1960s, increasingly clear evidence from various space probes showed Venus has an extreme climate, with a greenhouse effect generating a constant temperature of about 500 °C on the surface. The atmosphere contains sulfuric acid clouds and the atmospheric pressure at the surface is 90 bar, almost 100 times that of Earth and similar to that of more than deep in Earth's oceans. In such an environment, and given the increasingly hostile characteristics of the Venusian weather, life as we know it is highly unlikely to occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6410946",
"title": "Atmosphere of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Possibility of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "The surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C. However, the lower temperature of the cloud tops means that life could plausibly exist. It has been proposed that life on Venus could exist there, the same way that bacteria have been found living and reproducing in clouds on Earth. Any such bacteria living in the cloud tops, however, would have to be hyper-acidiphilic, due to the concentrated sulfuric acid environment. Microbes in the thick, cloudy atmosphere could be protected from solar radiation by the sulfur compounds in the air. The solar wind may provide a mechanism for the transfer of such microbiota from Venus to Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131886",
"title": "Venera 7",
"section": "Section::::Landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The probe provided information about the surface of Venus, which could not be seen through a thick veil of atmosphere. The spacecraft definitively confirmed that humans cannot survive on the surface of Venus, and excluded the possibility that there is any liquid water on Venus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18995926",
"title": "Lifting gas",
"section": "Section::::Balloons on other celestial bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "BULLET::::- Venus has a CO atmosphere at the surface. Because CO is about 50% more dense than Earth air, ordinary Earth air could be a lifting gas on Venus. This has led to proposals for a human habitat that would float in the atmosphere of Venus at an altitude where both the pressure and the temperature are earthlike. In 1985, the Soviet Vega program sent two balloons to float in Venus' atmosphere at 54 km altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26049929",
"title": "Life on Venus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Venus's location closer to the Sun than Earth and the extreme greenhouse effect raising temperatures on the surface to nearly , and the atmospheric pressure 90 times that of Earth, make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet. However, a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
352s4n
|
why do some armies use chevrons and others use inverted chevrons? is it simply a stylistic choice or does it have some significance?
|
[
{
"answer": "I dont exactly know where it came from, but from an educated guess it could be left over from the use of heraldry when it was used to show a particular family association, or even a throw back to the Spartans who used a lambda (Λ) on their shields. Of course if you read the da vinci code, you'd know its a penis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59874738",
"title": "Insignia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "At the earliest times, military insignias were very simple. Tree branches, mauled birds, heads of beasts, or a handful of dry grass, were placed on top of a pole or long stick, so that the combatants could recognize themselves in the fight, or to signpost a meeting place in retreat or defeat. But as the arts of war were refined, sturdier and brighter insignias were designed, and everyone wanted theirs to use characteristic symbols.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59226",
"title": "Chevron (insignia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "A chevron (also spelled cheveron, especially in older documents) is a V-shaped mark, often inverted. The word is usually used in reference to a kind of fret in architecture, or to a badge or insignia used in military or police uniforms to indicate rank or length of service, or in heraldry and the designs of flags (see flag terminology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59226",
"title": "Chevron (insignia)",
"section": "Section::::Other uses as insignia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In some armies, small chevrons are worn on the lower left sleeve to indicate length of service, akin to service stripes in the U.S. military. The Israel Defense Forces use chevrons in various orientations as organizational designators on their vehicles, specifically which company within a battalion they belong to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2123219",
"title": "Regimental symbol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A regimental symbol is a distinguishing emblem used by soldiers during times of war. Usually, it is some easily identifiable icon that can be displayed on uniforms, vehicles, and buildings to alert others of the nationality of the respective military force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38076491",
"title": "Anti-American sentiment in Russia",
"section": "Section::::Pindos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "\"Pindos\" or \"Pendos\" (rus: Пиндос) in the Russian language is a derogatory ethnic slur, used to refer to Americans. Originally, the term was used to refer to US military servicemen, but it gradually became a universal disparaging term to refer to all Americans. Other slur terms to refer to the United States such as \"Pindosiya\" and \"Pindostan\" (rus: \"Пиндосия\", \"Пиндостан\") have also been derived. Some sources claim that the term was first used by Russian military servicemen during Kosovo War, where they allegedly heard this term. According to Russian soldiers, it was perfect fit for \"armed to the teeth and coward American soldier\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429168",
"title": "Skull and crossbones (symbol)",
"section": "Section::::History of the symbol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The symbol is an ancient one, becoming widespread with the medieval \"Danse Macabre\" symbolism. From at least the 12th century, it has been used for military flags or insignia and as a warning of the ferocity of the unit displaying it. It became associated with piracy from the 14th century onwards, possibly even earlier. By the 15th century, the symbol had developed into its familiar form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "932277",
"title": "Ducktail",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The D.A. quickly became a stereotypical feature of rebels, mobsters, and nonconformists, and gained popularity especially after the rise of rock 'n roll legend Elvis Presley, who sported the same look. Although the ducktail was adopted by Hollywood to represent the wild youth of the Fifties, only a minority of males actually sported a D.A., even amongst the British Rockers and Teddy Boys of the same era. The style became popular in India after film star Shammi Kapoor started sporting it. It is also associated with men of certain ethnic groups, mainly ones of Mediterranean, Eastern European and/or Latin American descent, though in slightly different styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zdvao
|
how to patent an invention idea and get rich.
|
[
{
"answer": "tl;dr: patents are not the way to go for an inventor\n\nIt is said, that every good idea for a product is worth negative one million dollars. Why? Because you have to invest a significant amount of money until you can get any profit from it (prototypes, testing, tooling for production machines, investment in raw materials and parts).\n\nSo could you just get a patent and then license it to a bigger company, which then in turn makes a huge profit and gives you a (still decent) cut? So suppose your idea is *really* good. Then you will have to hire a patent lawyer which helps you to formulate your patent, or it will be worthless and easily circumvented. Let's also say that your did your research and there is no prior art present (nobody invented said thing before you already). Then the patent will be granted to you. At this point you can sue anybody who you think is infringing on your patent. The question is: Do you have enough free time and money at hand to fight that lawsuit?\nAlso: In you patent you will have to disclose a lot of information about your invention. This means that everbody interested in said invention will look for loopholes to use your idea, but without infringing your patent instead of giving money to you.\n\nSo what would you do if you have a brilliant idea? First check if it is really that brilliant. What to do next depends on the idea itself. Not disclosing how e.g. a production process works and relying on trade secrets could be an idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Step 1: Be rich and own a international company.\n\nStep 2: Hire a crazy expensive Patent lawyer to construct a patent in your own country.\n\nStep 3: Hire more expensive patent lawyer/translators in order to translate the patent for other country's.\n\nStep 4: Spend a shitload of money to implement these patents.\n\nStep 5: China steals your idea.\n\nStep 6: get sued by apple.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49635856",
"title": "Pennock v. Dialogue",
"section": "Section::::Ruling of Supreme Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "[T]this could be done best, by giving the public at large a right to make, construct, use, and vend the thing invented, at as early a period as possible, having a due regard to the rights of the inventor. If an inventor should be permitted to hold back from the knowledge of the public the secrets of his invention; if he should for a long period of years retain the monopoly, and make, and sell his invention publicly, and thus gather the whole profits of it, relying upon his superior skill and knowledge of the structure, and then, and then only, when the danger of competition should force him to secure the exclusive right, he should be allowed to take out a patent and thus exclude the public from any further use than what should be derived under it during his fourteen years, it would materially retard the progress of science and the useful arts and give a premium to those who should be least prompt to communicate their discoveries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2490248",
"title": "Inventor (patent)",
"section": "Section::::Compensation of inventors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "There are many ways in which an inventor might be compensated for a patent. An inventor might bring the patented product to market under the protection of the monopoly created by the patent. The inventor may license a patent to another entity for an up-front fee, an ongoing royalty or other consideration. The inventor may also sell the patent outright. Henry Woodward, for example, sold his original US patent on the light bulb to Thomas Edison who then developed it into a commercially successful product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23273",
"title": "Patent",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "One effect of modern patent usage is that a small-time inventor, who can afford both the patenting process and the defense of the patent, can use the exclusive right status to become a licensor. This allows the inventor to accumulate capital from licensing the invention and may allow innovation to occur because he or she may choose not to manage a manufacturing buildup for the invention. Thus the inventor's time and energy can be spent on pure innovation, allowing others to concentrate on manufacturability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17432177",
"title": "Equality (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Important quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"No inventor could introduce an invention, however excellent, unless he could get capitalists to take it up, and this usually they would not do unless the inventor relinquished to them most of his hopes of profit from the discovery.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015346",
"title": "Patent Reform Act of 2005",
"section": "Section::::Proposed changes in U.S. patent law.:Expand prior user rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "Even under a first-to-invent system, the first-inventor-in-fact does not always obtain entitlement to a patent. If, for example, a first-inventor-in-fact maintained his invention as a trade secret for many years before seeking patent protection, he may be judged to have \"abandoned, suppressed or concealed\" the invention. Well-established patent law provides that an inventor who makes a secret, commercial use of an invention for more than one year prior to filing a patent application at the USPTO forfeits his own right to a patent. If an earlier inventor made secret commercial use of an invention, and another person independently invented the same technology later and obtained patent protection, then the trade secret holder could face liability for patent infringement. Many foreign patent regimes, on the other hand, protect prior user rights, which are often seen as assisting small entities that may lack the sophistication or resources to pursue patent protection. The American Inventors Protection Act of 1999 established a \"first inventor defense,\" but limited the defense to patents on \"methods of doing or conducting business;\" H.R. 2795 would have extended it to all subject matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11241058",
"title": "Intellectual property brokering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Inventors are faced with several alternatives to making their invention a commercial success. They can build their own start up company from scratch using their own resources. In the United States, they can seek government grants; SBIR (Small Business Innovative Research) and (TTR) Technology Transfer Research to fund the early stage development of their technology. They can contract with third parties such as: venture capital or angel investors to finance a startup or they can sell or license their products to an existing and established company. Often inventors are interested in expanding their own intellectual property assets through licensing and acquisitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14724",
"title": "Intellectual property",
"section": "Section::::Intellectual property rights.:Patents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability. To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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