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3mp3x9
|
For a typical box fan, does the air move because the blades "push" it or because of the Bernoulli Effect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fan blades work the same way screws work. As the blade turns about it's axis, the pitch of the blades forces air to move in the direction of the fan's axis (as well as spinning with the fan, but that's irrelevant here).\n\nBernoilli's principle is just a way of expressing conservation of energy in a flow of fluid, so it can be applied here, but it's not necessary to explain how fans generate thrust.\n\nIf you examine the shape of the fan blades, it should be apparent that angle of attack is the primary reason fans drive air forward. Airplane propellers use a more complex blade cross-section, more like a wing, which helps with efficiency, but angle of attack is a huge factor there as well - it's not just an airfoil moving at zero attack angle.\n\nAlso, the low pressure is on the back side of the blade, just as low pressure is on the top of the wing - it sounds like you may be a bit confused there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31848205",
"title": "Bladeless fan",
"section": "Section::::Dyson model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The air flows through the channel in the pedestal of the fan when the motor is turned on. After that, the air flows through the hollow tube. Then the air is shot out through 16-mm slits. This air flows smoothly, rather than turbulently as with a traditional fan (fan with blades). The curvature of the inner wall of the fan creates an area of negative pressure like an airplane wing to draw more air into the flow, hence \"multiplying\" it. This property of the air is called inducement. Further, the air surrounding the edges of the fan also begins to flow with the direction of the breeze, or is \"entrained\" to it. Dyson says that the air-multiplier technology increases the output of the air flowing through the tube by at least 15 times compared to the airflow taken in at the base of the fan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1806687",
"title": "FanWing",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "When the fan spins with the upper edge moving backwards and the lower edge forwards, the fixed half-duct is shaped to create a net backward flow of air, resulting in forward thrust. This backward flow over the upper surfaces also creates a net circulation of air around the rotor-wing combination, resulting in vertical lift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42766221",
"title": "Rotor wing",
"section": "Section::::Cross-flow fan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The cross-flow fan comprises an arrangement of blades running parallel to a central axis and aligned radially, with the fan partially or fully enclosed in a shaped duct. Due to the specific shaping, rotating the fan causes air to be drawn in at one end of the duct, passed across the fan and expelled at the other end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38247",
"title": "Wind tunnel",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar. To correct this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21146024",
"title": "Components of jet engines",
"section": "Section::::Major components.:Thrust reversers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "These either consist of cups that swing across the end of the exhaust nozzle and deflect the jet thrust forwards (as in the DC-9), or they are two panels behind the cowling that slide backward and reverse only the fan thrust (the fan produces the majority of the thrust). Fan air redirection is performed by devices called \"blocker doors\" and \"cascade vanes\". This is the case on many large aircraft such as the 747, C-17, KC-10, etc. If you are on an aircraft and you hear the engines increasing in power after landing, it is usually because the thrust reversers are deployed. The engines are not actually spinning in reverse, as the term may lead you to believe. The reversers are used to slow the aircraft more quickly and reduce wear on the wheel brakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39358688",
"title": "Axial fan design",
"section": "Section::::Causes of unstable flow.:Fan surge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "This unstable operation results from the development of pressure gradients in the opposite direction of the flow. Maximum pressure is observed at the discharge of the impeller blade and minimum pressure on the side opposite to the discharge side. When the impeller blades are not rotating these adverse pressure gradients pump the flow in the direction opposite to the direction of the fan. The result is the oscillation of the fan blades creating vibrations and hence noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4092733",
"title": "Dust collector",
"section": "Section::::Fan and motor.:Types of fans.:Axial-flow fans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Axial-flow fans are used in systems that have low resistance levels. These fans move the air parallel to the fan's axis of rotation. The screw-like action of the propellers moves the air in a straight-through parallel path, causing a helical flow pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
emdcyh
|
why does depression increase a lot when you happen to fall in love ?
|
[
{
"answer": "From personal experience, depression seems to happen because the brain is focused on itself and it’s perception of itself from an outside perspective. Falling in love with someone is heavily emotional and depends largely on how the person you are in love with treats you. A depressed brain heavily relies on positive validation, as without it, it identifies a lack of interaction from others to that of worthlessness. \n\nAnother someone that you are in love with is more valuable to you than the ones you normally interact with on a daily basis. I myself can receive positive validation from others on a daily basis, but for me only the validation from the girl I love matters most and can lift me out of a funk. Unfortunately this girl I love lives very far from me and our communication has become difficult, making me feel depressed as although her perspective of me have not changed, her thoughts about me are not shared frequently.\n\nBasically, the feedback you get from the one you love has a significant influence on your mental state due to the way you value their thoughts, moods, opinions, and perception of you. And the worst part is that you have no control over it, so if it’s not perfect then it can really be damaging to your mental health. I hope you don’t have the same experience I do where you are lost in hopeless love, and remember that you deserve to feel loved no matter what kind of person you think you are. No human life is undeserving of love!\n\nThis may not be easily understood by a 5-year old, but anyways I hope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31809928",
"title": "Rolling recession",
"section": "Section::::Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Depression can lead to a high increase of unemployment. It is more likely a balance sheet recession can cause depression. \"Due to falling asset prices and bank losses, this has a large impact on economic activity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In addition to the loss of a relationship with a loved one, conflict has also been suggested as another way social factors can bring about depression. Divorce, separation, and the threat of either often result in both conflict and depression, and serious marital problems and divorce are two of the strongest predictors of depression. Conflict with other family members is also predictive of depression, although not to the extent of marital problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13190302",
"title": "Evolutionary approaches to depression",
"section": "Section::::Psychic pain hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet it has an evolved function: to inform the organism that it is suffering damage, to motivate it to withdraw from the source of damage, and to learn to avoid such damage-causing circumstances in the future. Sadness is also distressing, yet is widely believed to be an evolved adaptation. In fact, perhaps the most influential evolutionary view is that most cases of depression are simply particularly intense cases of sadness in response to adversity, such as the loss of a loved one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18550003",
"title": "Behavioral theories of depression",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral theories.:Wendy Treynor's Theory of Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 2815,
"text": "According to social psychologist Wendy Treynor, depression happens when one is trapped in a social setting that rejects the self, on a long-term basis (where one is devalued continually), and this rejection is internalized into self-rejection, winning one rejection from both the self and group—social rejection and self-rejection, respectively. This chronic conflict seems inescapable, and depression sets in. Stated differently, according to Treynor, the cause of depression is as follows: One's state of harmony is disrupted when faced with external conflict (social rejection) for failing to measure up to a group’s standard(s). Over time, this social rejection is internalized into self-rejection, where one experiences rejection from both the group and the self. Therefore, the rejection seems inescapable and depression sets in. In this framework, depression is conceptualized as being the result of long-term conflict (internal and external), where this conflict corresponds to self-rejection and social rejection, respectively, or the dual needs for self-esteem (self-acceptance) and belonging (social acceptance) being unmet, on a long-term basis. The solution to depression offered, therefore, is to end the conflict (get these needs met): Navigate oneself into an unconditionally accepting social environment, so one can internalize this social acceptance into self-acceptance, winning one peace both internally and externally (through self-acceptance and social acceptance—self-esteem and belonging, respectively), ending the conflict, and the depression. (Treynor obtained this result and framework by piecing together social psychological science research findings using mathematical logic.) But what if one cannot find an unconditionally accepting group to navigate oneself into? If one cannot find such a group, the solution the framework offers is to make the context in which one generally finds oneself the self (however, the self must be in meditative solitude—alone and at peace, not lonely and ruminating—as stated, a state commonly achieved through the practice of meditation). The framework suggests that a lack of self-acceptance lies at the root of depression and that one can heal their own depression if they (a) keep an alert eye to their own emotional state (i.e., identify feelings of shame or depression) and (b) upon identification, take reparative action: undergo a 'social environment' shift and immerse oneself in a new group that is unconditionally accepting (accepts the self, as it is)—whether that group is one that exists apart from the self or simply is the self [in meditative solitude]. Over time, the unconditional acceptance experienced in this setting will be internalized, allowing one to achieve self-acceptance, eradicating conflict, eliminating one's depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Negative social life events.:Sex and gender differences in sensitivity to social loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "In general, women are at much higher risk of developing depression after a social loss than men. One explanation for this is that women tend to have larger networks of meaningful supporters than men where an important loss can happen. Evidence for this comes primarily from the finding that both sexes are equally likely to become depressed in response to conflict or death within the nuclear family, while women are more likely to become depressed in response to the loss of a friend and family members outside of the nuclear family. In addition to this, women may also be more sensitive to depression when conflict exists and is physically expressed as evidenced by women being more likely to be depressed after a physical attack but not men\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13190302",
"title": "Evolutionary approaches to depression",
"section": "Section::::Social navigation or niche change theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1501,
"text": "Thus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36156441",
"title": "Logic-based therapy",
"section": "Section::::Higher order premises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In this way, the depression can be traced back to a demand for perfection from which a person is deducing their own worthlessness, from which they are in turn deducing the horribleness of what happened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ztn1x
|
why is lemmy such a big deal?
|
[
{
"answer": "First off, I hate Motorhead.\n\nHowever, most metal fans and musicians loved the band. They had a unique sound forged in the early days of metal. Lemmy was the front man and only consistent member of the band. He was an icon. \n\nOh, and [Lemmy was God.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Never been a big fan of Lemmy/Motorhead. But they were very influential and they helped shaped what hard rock/metal is today.\nPlus the guy didn't give a fuck about anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He influenced a lot of bands but most notably Metallica. He also wrote music for a number of bands including the Ramones and Ozzy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He was pure rock and roll, he started off in Hawkwind and was kicked out for doing the wrong drugs he did speed when they were all about the organics (pot, mushrooms, peyote etc) he formed Motorhead a band that played pure rock and roll but with a touch of distortion and a very fast bass. Lemmy was fueled by speed, jack daniels and meat nothing else. Totally no nonsense and a true legend. I met him once and saw the band 7 times, he shall be missed as being influential to hard rock, metal and punk and being one of the few artists respected in all genres. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When Motörhead appeared, they were the hardest band around. No one else was close to their noisy, no compromise metal sound.\n\nOthers have since surpassed them, but they were first. That's how you become an icon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, I love Motorhead.\n\nLemmy was as rock and roll in flesh. He lived rock and roll, not just sing about it. His music influenced a lot of bands. \n\nThe thing most people admire about him, even the ones who do not listen to this kind of metal is that he was a rebel, a type of person who lives by his own rules. He didn't care about trends, about what people think. He did things his own way. He even said that the music he does is for him, what they like, they release. If people love it, that is a bonus. \n\nDon't forget he is so deep in rock and roll that he influenced a lot of bands. He said he remembers a time before rock and roll, that should give you an idea how old he and his music are.\n\nHe was a roadie for Jimmy Hendrix, was in Hawkwind, Lars Ulrich, from Metallica, was the president of his fan club (don't know if this one is a rumor or truth). He wrote music for a lot of famous people like Ozzy. Made a lot of songs with a lot of them too.He is basically admired and loved by every famous rocker.\n\nSorry if I made any mistakes, I'm at work but I hope I answered your question.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20907",
"title": "Motörhead",
"section": "Section::::History.:Formation and early years, 1975–1977.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "Lemmy wanted the music to be \"fast and vicious, just like the MC5\". His stated aim was to \"concentrate on very basic music: loud, fast, city, raucous, arrogant, paranoid, speedfreak rock n roll ... it will be so loud that if we move in next door to you, your lawn will die\". He recruited guitarist Larry Wallis (formerly of Pink Fairies) on the recommendation of Mick Farren, based on Wallis' work with Steve Peregrin Took's band Shagrat, and Lucas Fox on drums. According to Lemmy, the band's first practice was at the now defunct Sound Management rehearsal studios, in Kings Road, Chelsea in 1975. Sound Management leased the basement area of furniture store The Furniture Cave, located in adjacent Lots Road. Kilmister has said they used to steal equipment, as the band was short on gear. Their first engagement was supporting Greenslade at The Roundhouse, London on 20 July 1975. On 19 October, having played 10 gigs, they became the supporting act to Blue Öyster Cult at the Hammersmith Odeon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4053139",
"title": "Duppy",
"section": "Section::::In music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The term \"duppy\" has been featured in various musical works from the Caribbean. According to Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, after Bob Marley wrote the song \"My Cup\", Marley was complaining to Lee that he was too \"successful\" and was being plagued by hangers-on and leeches, referring to them as duppy in the context of \"human vampires\" (or scroungers). Lee apparently consoled him by saying, \"Look, we'll sort this out — we are duppy conquerors.\" Marley then wrote \"Duppy Conqueror\". The term \"duppy\" is also referenced in the song \"Mr. Brown\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22619573",
"title": "The Slugger's Wife",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Debby isn't ready to put her professional hopes on hold. But from the moment Darryl meets her, his own career takes off. He begins a full assault on baseball's single-season home run record of 61 (at that time) and considers Debby a good-luck charm, wanting her to be there at his games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236487",
"title": "Warrior on the Edge of Time",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.:Band reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Lemmy: \"The album was a fuck-up from start to finish. That 'Opa-Loka' was a lot of fucking rubbish. I wasn't even on that. That was the drummer's thing, that track... We were kind of complacent anyway. If you have a hit album, you're complacent, and if you have two you really are in trouble. With them, they had four, 'cos they had \"In Search of Space\" before me... There's great stuff on all them albums. 'The Golden Void' was a beautiful track, but by then I was well out of favour.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62120",
"title": "Of Mice and Men",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Steinbeck's characters are often powerless, due to intellectual, economic, and social circumstances. Lennie possesses the greatest physical strength of any character, which should therefore establish a sense of respect as he is employed as a ranch hand. However, his intellectual handicap undercuts this and results in his powerlessness. Economic powerlessness is established as many of the ranch hands are victims of the Great Depression. As George, Candy and Crooks are positive, action- oriented characters, they wish to purchase a homestead, but because of the Depression, they are unable to generate enough money. Lennie is the only one who is basically unable to take care of himself, but the other characters would do this in the improved circumstances they seek. Since they cannot do so, the real danger of Lennie's mental handicap comes to the fore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28362228",
"title": "Troubleshooter (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "However, the reason that it made Harvey-Jones Britain's most notable and public business person was the fact that he engaged both the audience and the company on a human level. By both observing key issues (Harvey-Jones was always very focused on markets and customers first, and then systematic efficient production secondly, focused around people and responsibility), and then asked simple questions to confirm his view or see if the management actually saw the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1523887",
"title": "Mr Blobby",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "In March 1994, Elizabeth Kolbert of \"The New York Times\" wrote: \"Mr. Blobby's rise to stardom has provoked anguished commentaries about just what he stands for... Some commentators have called him a metaphor for a nation gone soft in the head. Others have seen him as proof of Britain's deep-seated attraction to trash.\" A \"Sun\" article published the previous month had reported that Blobby reduced a young girl to tears after throwing her birthday cake onto the floor during a show in Luton, causing the girl's father to mount the stage and assault Blobby. Neville Crumpton, who owns the rights to the character, said: \"If the press can knock him, they'll knock him whenever they can.\" A trio of failed Mr Blobby theme parks also resulted in considerable negative press and scandal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2venb7
|
what effects do electronic devices, wi-fi, electromagnetic fields, etc. really have on human health?
|
[
{
"answer": "To date, there is no proof that there is any effect whatsoever. Doesn't mean that it's impossible, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The effects they have on humans is immeasurably small, at least from a pure electromagnetic sense. When I was a kid, I could hear the whine of a CRT display, which got quite annoying in elementary school, because teachers would leave the TV on with no signal (so it displayed a black screen) after the video they wanted to show was over, and it was distracting. And they never really believed me when I asked them to turn it off because I could hear it (despite being able to 100% tell when it was on and off...). It's also quite possible to hear the buzz of a fluorescent light or see the flicker of one.\n\nOther than that, people with \"electromagnetic hypersensitivity\" who could *actually* tell when the so-called cause of their symptoms was actually present or not in scientific tests are exceedingly rare, if they exist at all.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe World Health Organization has concluded that, whatever the sufferers thinks, it's not electromagnetic fields doing it, it's something else -- which could be related to EMF, such as glare, noise, or whatever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is important to make sure we know what these fields are and how they rank in danger to us.\n\nThings like Wi-Fi, cell phones, TV, Radio, et cetera communicate through Electromagnetic Radiation. Humans are very familiar with this, as light is a form of EM Radiation. Scientists have categorized all EM radiation and placed them in a spectrum displaying them by wavelength, energy, and frequency. \n\nSmaller wavelength = Higher freq. = more energy = greater \"danger.\" \n\nThose devices I listed operate in the range of microwaves and radio waves. Now look at this chart and notice the positions of microwaves and radio waves compared to visible light.\n\n[EM Spectrum](_URL_0_)\n\nRadio waves and microwaves have less energy than visible light. They have greater wavelengths and lower frequencies. This means they are less dangerous than visible light, so to speak. The honest answer, **EM waves less than ultraviolet likely have little to no effect on human health.** One way to look at this is that natural selection likely wouldn't have allowed a creature vulnerable to radio waves to exist very long. \n\nUV, X-Ray, and Gamma radiation is dangerous because the wavelengths are small enough to pass through skin and corrupt DNA and other genetic materials. In nuclear explosions or power plant meltdowns like Chernobyl, there is a blast of such intense radiation that people in the vicinity mutate and become disfigured. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seeing as how we live inside a gigantic electromagnetic field produced by the Earth, and also a much larger one produced by the sun, I would say electromagnetic fields are pretty harmless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8674",
"title": "Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Most studies have been unable to demonstrate any link to health effects, or have been inconclusive. Electromagnetic fields may have an effect on protein expression in laboratory settings but have not yet been demonstrated to have clinically significant effects in real-world settings. The World Health Organization has issued a statement on medical effects of mobile phones which acknowledges that the longer term effects (over several decades) require further research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Stochastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Quantitative data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is relatively limited compared to other medical conditions because of the low number of cases to date, and because of the stochastic nature of some of the effects. Stochastic effects can only be measured through large epidemiological studies where enough data has been collected to remove confounding factors such as smoking habits and other lifestyle factors. The richest source of high-quality data comes from the study of Japanese atomic bomb survivors. In vitro and animal experiments are informative, but radioresistance varies greatly across species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1272748",
"title": "Mobile phone radiation and health",
"section": "Section::::Base stations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The \"Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale\" () , says that there is no demonstrated short-term effect of electromagnetic fields on health, but that there are open questions for long-term effects, and that it is easy to reduce exposure via technological improvements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3108062",
"title": "Bioelectromagnetics",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "While health effects from extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields (0 to 300 Hz) generated by power lines, and radio/microwave frequencies (RF) (10 MHz - 300 GHz) emitted by radio antennas and wireless networks have been well studied, the intermediate range (IR) used increasingly in modern telecommunications (300 Hz to 10 MHz) has been studied far less. Direct effects of electromagnetism on human health have been difficult to prove, and documented life-threatening interferences from electromagnetic fields are limited to medical devices such as pacemakers and other electronic implants. However, a number of studies have been conducted with artificial magnetic fields and electric fields to investigate their effects on cell metabolism, apoptosis, and tumor growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30872182",
"title": "Non-ionizing radiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "Different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation. The upper frequencies of non-ionizing radiation near these energies (much of the spectrum of UV light and some visible light) are capable of non-thermal biological damage, similar to ionizing radiation. Health debate therefore centers on the non-thermal effects of radiation of much lower frequencies (microwave, millimeter and radiowave radiation). The International Agency for Research on Cancer recently stated that there could be some risk from non-ionizing radiation to humans. But a subsequent study reported that the basis of the IARC evaluation was not consistent with observed incidence trends. This and other reports suggest that there is virtually no way that results on which the IARC based its conclusions are correct. The Bioinitiative Report 2012 makes the claim that there are significant health risk associated with low frequency non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. This report claims that statistically significant increases in cancer among those exposed to even low power levels, low frequency, non-ionizing radiation. There is considerable debate on this matter. Currently regulatory bodies around the world have not seen the need to change current safety standards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2605490",
"title": "Wireless electronic devices and health",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The World Health Organization (WHO) has researched electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and their alleged effects on health, concluding that such exposures within recommended limits do not produce any known adverse health effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Stochastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are stochastic, meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose. Radiation-induced cancer, teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease are all examples of stochastic effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mc7di
|
the fda and its role in tobacco regulation
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not knowledgeable on this subject, but I think the ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms) regulates tobacco, not the FDA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not knowledgeable on this subject, but I think the ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms) regulates tobacco, not the FDA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1640192",
"title": "FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The FDA's authority to regulate came from the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). The FDA argued that nicotine was a \"drug\" and cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are \"devices\" that deliver nicotine to the body within the meaning of the FDCA. Congress had enacted a number of tobacco-specific laws after the FDCA, and the FDA had never exercised any control over tobacco. The Court concluded in light of this that Congress did not intend to give the FDA the power to regulate tobacco, and that the regulations were therefore invalid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38323",
"title": "Cigar",
"section": "Section::::Marketing and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "In 2009, the US Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act provided the Food and Drug Administration regulatory authority over the manufacturing, distribution, and marketing of cigarettes, roll-your-own tobacco and smokeless tobacco. In 2016, a deeming rule extended the FDA's authority to additional tobacco products including cigars, e-cigarettes and hookah. The objective of law is to reduce the impact of tobacco on public health by preventing Americans from starting to use tobacco products, encourage current users to quit, and decrease the harms of tobacco product use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27135995",
"title": "Regulation of tobacco by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Regulation of tobacco by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began in 2009 with the passage of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act by the United States Congress. With this statute, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was given the ability to regulate tobacco products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27135995",
"title": "Regulation of tobacco by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration",
"section": "Section::::FDA regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Prior to 1996, the FDA played no role in the regulation of tobacco products, and regulations were controlled through a combination of state and congressional regulation. Most state laws dealt with the sale of tobacco products, including the issue of selling to minors and licensing of distributors. By 1950, most states had laws prohibiting the sale of tobacco products to minors, which at the time, the purchase age differed in each state. In 1992 the federal government required states to set a minimum age of at least 18 years to purchase tobacco products, which was amended in all states by 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18909502",
"title": "History of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In the United States, The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (Tobacco Control Act) became law in 2009. It gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products to protect public health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22922620",
"title": "Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act",
"section": "Section::::Origins and proposal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "On March 21, 2000, the Supreme Court in \"FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.\", in a 5-4 decision, held that the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, particularly when considering \"Congress’ subsequent tobacco-specific legislation,\" that Congress had not given the FDA the authority to regulate tobacco products as customarily marketed. Thus the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act was introduced to respond to the decision, which had held that the Clinton administration's FDA had \"overreached\" its Congressionally delegated authority, thus giving the FDA the authority the Court determined it had lacked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27135995",
"title": "Regulation of tobacco by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration",
"section": "Section::::Center for Tobacco Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The Center for Tobacco Products (CTP) is the branch of the FDA created in response to and for the implementation of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act. The FDA currently has eight divisions, each of which is responsible for protecting some aspect of the public health. The main duties of the Center for Tobacco control include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c6biha
|
how can manure/hay self combust in hot temperatures even though they're nowhere near 200+ degrees celsius?
|
[
{
"answer": "hay is more than just dried grass... it’s actually undergone a natural curing process which locks in nutrients and makes it keep better. This happens because grass doesn’t die the moment it’s been mowed...its cells (and certain microbes on it) continue to respire, and this creates some heat. \n\nnow imagine this grass is a little bit damp... it gets made into hay bales and theyre stacked sky-high in a sealed barn. the middle of each bale has little chance to cool down (low air flow) and the cellular respiration... and maybe even now some fermentation... go on and on. this is like having a pile of oily rags in a hot room. the temperature inside the bale can climb to the tipping point where it starts smoldering. nobody notices. it’s packed can’t-reach-it deep in a barn full of fuel. ay yi yi.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46593",
"title": "Hay",
"section": "Section::::Safety issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Hay baled before it is fully dry can produce enough heat to start a fire. Haystacks produce internal heat due to bacterial fermentation. If hay is stacked with wet grass, the heat produced can be sufficient to ignite the hay causing a fire. Farmers have to be careful about moisture levels to avoid spontaneous combustion, which is a leading cause of haystack fires. Heat is produced by the respiration process, which occurs until the moisture content of drying hay drops below 40%. Hay is considered fully dry when it reaches 20% moisture. Combustion problems typically occur within five days to seven days of baling. A bale cooler than is in little danger, but bales between need to be removed from a barn or structure and separated so that they can cool off. If the temperature of a bale exceeds more than , it can combust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9353706",
"title": "Spontaneous combustion",
"section": "Section::::Affected materials.:Hay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Hay is one of the more studied materials in spontaneous combustion. As hay varies by the type of grass and location grown utilized in its preparation, it is very hard to establish a unified theory of what occurs in hay self-heating. It is anticipated that dangerous heating will occur in hay that contains more than 25% moisture. The largest number of fires occurs within 2 to 6 weeks of storage, with the majority occurring at 4 to 5 weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21436315",
"title": "Hay steaming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Hay steaming is a method of treating hay to reduce the airborne respirable dust which naturally occur in hay, causing respiratory problems in both humans and horses when in close contact. The method encompasses a steam generator which produces the steam and a connecting hose to direct the steam into a closed, sealed vessel containing the hay, exposing it to the steam. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21436315",
"title": "Hay steaming",
"section": "Section::::Importance of temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "When a professionally engineered and designed high temperature steaming method is used, the temperature of the hay reaches over 100⁰C. This has been scientifically proven to kill the Bacteria, mould and fungal spores thereby improving the hygienic quality of hay and dramatically reducing airborne respirable dust by up to 98% . With hay steaming, however, if the required high temperatures are not reached it can have a detrimental effect on the hygiene quality of the hay by creating an “incubator effect”, leading to a dramatic increase in observed bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49408787",
"title": "Hugo Miehe",
"section": "Section::::Published works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In 1907 he published \"\"Die Selbsterhitzung des heus: eine biologische Studie\"\", in which he demonstrated that the phenomenon of \"self-heating hay\" was due to bacterial action. The following is a list of his noteworthy written efforts:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24999087",
"title": "Heat stroke",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Heatstroke can affect livestock, especially in hot, humid weather; or if the horse, cow, sheep or other is unfit, overweight, has a dense coat, is overworked, or is left in a horsebox in full sun. Symptoms include drooling, panting, high temperature, sweating, and rapid pulse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "889856",
"title": "Superheated steam",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Pest control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Superheated steam is used for soil steaming. Steam is induced into the soil which causes almost all organic material to deteriorate. Soil steaming is an effective alternative to chemicals in agriculture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44ohbm
|
i have acid reflux. what is happening inside of my body that makes it feel like i am softly belching molten lava?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are burping up a strong stomach acid and while your stomach has a protective lining, your throath has not.\n\nThe acid is corroding your throath and that feels like belching molten lava.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7502807",
"title": "Inversion therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "During an episode of acid reflux, small amounts of stomach acid may manage to escape from the stomach and into the oesophagus. Typically, gravity minimises this upward leakage but combining an inversion table and acid reflux can be a painful, nauseating, and potentially dangerous combination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146311",
"title": "Shock (circulatory)",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Compensatory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "This stage is characterised by the body employing physiological mechanisms, including neural, hormonal and bio-chemical mechanisms in an attempt to reverse the condition. As a result of the acidosis, the person will begin to hyperventilate in order to rid the body of carbon dioxide (CO). CO indirectly acts to acidify the blood and by removing it the body is attempting to raise the pH of the blood. The baroreceptors in the arteries detect the resulting hypotension, and cause the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine causes predominately vasoconstriction with a mild increase in heart rate, whereas epinephrine predominately causes an increase in heart rate with a small effect on the vascular tone; the combined effect results in an increase in blood pressure. The renin–angiotensin axis is activated, and arginine vasopressin (Anti-diuretic hormone; ADH) is released to conserve fluid via the kidneys. These hormones cause the vasoconstriction of the kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and other organs to divert blood to the heart, lungs and brain. The lack of blood to the renal system causes the characteristic low urine production. However the effects of the renin–angiotensin axis take time and are of little importance to the immediate homeostatic mediation of shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232345",
"title": "Butyric acid",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Inhalation of butyric acid may result in soreness of throat, coughing, a burning sensation, and laboured breathing. Ingestion of the acid may result in abdominal pain, shock, and collapse. Physical exposure to the acid may result in pain, blistering and skin burns, while exposure to the eyes may result in pain, severe deep burns and loss of vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39354",
"title": "Uracil",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "When uracil reacts with anhydrous hydrazine, a first-order kinetic reaction occurs and the uracil ring opens up. If the pH of the reaction increases to 10.5, the uracil anion forms, making the reaction go much more slowly. The same slowing of the reaction occurs if the pH decreases, because of the protonation of the hydrazine. The reactivity of uracil remains unchanged, even if the temperature changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19774381",
"title": "Performic acid",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Performic acid is non-toxic; it does irritate the skin, but less so than peracetic acid. Concentrated acid (above 50%) is highly reactive; it readily decomposes upon heating, and explodes upon rapid heating to 80–85 °C. It may ignite or explode at room temperature when combined with flammable substances, such as formaldehyde, benzaldehyde, or aniline, and explodes violently upon addition of metal powders. For this reason, spilled performic acid is diluted with cold water and collected with neutral, non-flammable inorganic absorbents, such as vermiculite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29247",
"title": "Sulfuric acid",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Laboratory hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "Sulfuric acid is capable of causing very severe burns, especially when it is at high concentrations. In common with other corrosive acids and alkali, it readily decomposes proteins and lipids through amide and ester hydrolysis upon contact with living tissues, such as skin and flesh. In addition, it exhibits a strong dehydrating property on carbohydrates, liberating extra heat and causing secondary thermal burns. Accordingly, it rapidly attacks the cornea and can induce permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes. If ingested, it damages internal organs irreversibly and may even be fatal. Protective equipment should hence always be used when handling it. Moreover, its strong oxidizing property makes it highly corrosive to many metals and may extend its destruction on other materials. Because of such reasons, damage posed by sulfuric acid is potentially more severe than that by other comparable strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300465",
"title": "Diuresis",
"section": "Section::::Osmotic diuresis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Osmotic diuresis is the increase of urination rate caused by the presence of certain substances in the small tubes of the kidneys. The excretion occurs when substances such as glucose enter the kidney tubules and cannot be reabsorbed (due to a pathological state or the normal nature of the substance). The substances cause an increase in the osmotic pressure within the tubule, causing retention of water within the lumen, and thus reduces the reabsorption of water, increasing urine output (i.e. diuresis). The same effect can be seen in therapeutics such as mannitol, which is used to increase urine output and decrease extracellular fluid volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pwpgl
|
Physiology Blood type question, how can universal recipient receive any type of blood and universal donor can donate to any blood type without the transfused blood cells being attacked and destroyed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blood type describes the type of antigens (structures used in immune system response) found on a person’s red blood cells. The letters (A, B, & O) refer to sugar-based antigens. There are A antigens and B antigens. We use type O to refer to blood cells with neither A or B antigens. The plus/minus (Rh D) refers to a protein-based antigen. Plus blood types have the Rh D antigen, while minus types do not have it. \n\nThe immune system recognizes antigens as either native or foreign to the body. Any blood cells with foreign antigens will be attacked by the immune system; this is why blood types must be taken into account for blood transfusions. Red blood cells without these antigens will be accepted by any immune system. This is why O- is the universal donor; it does not have the A, B, or Rh D antigens, allowing it to avoid detection. In contrast AB+ is the universal recipient; it has all 3 antigens and therefore the immune system will be accepting of any blood type. \n\nAs a quick example, we can think about a type A- person (only have the A antigen) donating to our universal donor (O-) and our universal recipient (AB+). The universal recipient has A antigens in its blood already. So the universal recipient’s immune system is accepting of the A- blood. On the other hand, the universal donor does not have A antigens in its blood. So the universal donor’s immune system will attack the type A red blood cells. This will cause a transfusion reaction which can range from mild to life-threatening.\n\n[Source 1]( _URL_0_), [Source 2]( _URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've gotten a few detailed answers here, but the short is whole blood is no longer transfused regularly. Instead we transfuse blood components (red cells, plasma, platelets, etc). If you transfuse whole blood there will be some degree of reaction unless donor and recipient have the same blood type (and even then there might be if the blood is not crossmatched, as there are hundreds of blood group antigens outside of A, B, and D aka Rh).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Screening.:Blood testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "The donor's blood type must be determined if the blood will be used for transfusions. The collecting agency usually identifies whether the blood is type A, B, AB, or O and the donor's Rh (D) type and will screen for antibodies to less common antigens. More testing, including a crossmatch, is usually done before a transfusion. Type O negative is often cited as the \"universal donor\" but this only refers to red cell and whole blood transfusions. For plasma and platelet transfusions the system is reversed: AB positive is the universal platelet donor type while both AB positive and AB negative are universal plasma donor types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196121",
"title": "Platelet",
"section": "Section::::Therapy with platelets.:Transfusion.:Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 1428,
"text": "Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494752",
"title": "Plateletpheresis",
"section": "Section::::Platelet transfusion.:Whole blood platelets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Not all platelet transfusions use platelets collected by automated apheresis. The platelets can also be separated from donations of whole blood collected in a traditional blood donation, but there are several advantages to separating the platelets at the time of collection. The first advantage is that the whole-blood platelets, sometimes called \"random\" platelets, from a single donation are not numerous enough for a dose to give to an adult patient. They must be pooled from several donors to create a single transfusion, and this complicates processing and increases the risk of diseases that can be spread in transfused blood, such as human immunodeficiency virus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "In transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative blood are often called universal donors. Those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called universal recipients. However, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is individuals with hh antigen system (also known as the Bombay phenotype) who can only receive blood safely from other hh donors, because they form antibodies against the H antigen present on all red blood cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12223532",
"title": "Induced pluripotent stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Medical research.:Red blood cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Although a pint of donated blood contains about two trillion red blood cells and over 107 million blood donations are collected globally, there is still a critical need for blood for transfusion. In 2014, type O red blood cells were synthesized at the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service from iPSC. The cells were induced to become a mesoderm and then blood cells and then red blood cells. The final step was to make them eject their nuclei and mature properly. Type O can be transfused into all patients. Human clinical trials were not expected to begin before 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7474498",
"title": "Bone Marrow Donors Worldwide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "These global hematopoietic cells from donors or cord blood units are used to transplant patients around the world with a variety of with life-threatening blood disorders such as leukemia, lymphoma, aplastic anemia, as well as certain immune system and metabolic disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cgde6
|
What would happen if a soldier in the U.S. military from the south, was stationed in the north during the start of the civil war, but he support the confederacy and wanted to go fight for them? Would he be arrested or allowed to leave?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some of them were allowed to leave at least.\n\nLewis Armistead for instance, resigned his commissioned in late May 1861, a month after the bombardment of Fort Sumter. His fellow officers knew full well that he was doing so to join the South. He traveled to Texas and was commissioned a colonel in the Confederate army.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact, only officers really defected to the Confederacy. I am aware of no rank and file soldier defecting after secession, and even if one or two did, there was no mass exodus out of the Regular Army.\n\nThats important, because Officers were held to a different standard. Firstly, many of the men who became prominent officers during the war were civilians during the secession movement. Obviously, in that weird political limbo, it was pretty easy to slip away to their state of choice. But for active officers even, there was a different code of \"honor\", and many of these men knew each other socially. Its not like today, where tens of thousands of officers served in active duty in the Army. With a small army, the officer corps naturally grew intimate in a way were not familiar with. And when your friend, a drinking buddy, a West Point classmate, a social acquaintance said they were heading south, it was a lot harder to arrest them for treason. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11563216",
"title": "Hylan B. Lyon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Hylan Benton Lyon (February 22, 1836 – April 25, 1907) was a career officer in the United States Army until the start of the American Civil War, when he resigned rather than fight against the South. As a Confederate brigadier general, he led a daring cavalry raid into Kentucky in December 1864, in which his troops burned seven county courthouses which were being used as barracks by the Union Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91283",
"title": "Mathews County, Virginia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "During the American Civil War, many white men from Mathews County enlisted in the Confederate Army. Some Union sympathizers petitioned President Abraham Lincoln for help, alleging that Confederate sympathizers had harassed them. Union forces by 1862 controlled the Hampton Roads area and in July 1862 a detachment of Pennsylvania cavalry arrived at Gloucester Court House, then went to Mathews to arrest Carter B. Hudgins, but were unsuccessful. Several other Union raids occurred beginning in September 1863, initially designed to disrupt Confederate salt works. However, in the October 1863 raid, Union General Wistar later reported some of his troops behaved very badly, and Sands Smith was executed after he shot a Union soldier attempting to confiscate his cow. His son and grandson would become prominent Mathews County officials by century's end. Also, Miss Sally Louisa Tompkins, of a prominent Mathews family, went to Richmond, Virginia and established a private hospital for Confederate wounded, which achieved significant success, such that she was granted an officer's commission on September 9, 1861 by Confederate President Jefferson Davis and continued to nurse the wounded until 1865.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23691256",
"title": "Colorado (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "During the American Civil War a Confederate officer who is also a Captain in the Union Cavalry is keeping Federal troops in the Colorado Territory from reinforcing their armies in the East by forming an alliance of secessionists, outlaws, and opportunists as well as arming hostile Indians. Unable to send more reinforcements, the United States Secret Service sends one man, Military intelligence officer Lieutenant Jerry Burke to identify who is behind the troubles and put an end to it. Armed with a sweeping letter of both law enforcement and military powers signed by President Abraham Lincoln Jerry meets his old comrade in arms Gabby to go west.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44947369",
"title": "Big Harts Creek",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "During the Civil War, over 90 percent of local men who enlisted to fight served in the Confederate military. In November 1861, Confederate General Albert Gallatin Jenkins and his Confederate forces passed by the creek on their way east with Union sympathizers captured in the town of Guyandotte. Shortly thereafter, while Confederates rested in Chapmanville, West Virginia, Union Major Kellian V. Whaley escaped and made his way to safety up Big Harts Creek to Queens Ridge. His escape was widely reported upon by newspapers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "115080",
"title": "Ghent, Kentucky",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "In August 1864, in a skirmish during the Civil War in what was known as the Gex Landing Incident, members of the African-American United States Colored Troops and the United States Colored Cavalry engaged with CSA troops seeking to rescue local resident James Southard, a ferryman and Confederate sympathizer who had been arrested. USCT soldiers suffered an undetermined number of casualties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5803907",
"title": "1st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Colored)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Department of the South staff officer James D. Fessenden was heavily involved in efforts to recruit volunteers for the 1st South Carolina. Although it saw some combat, the regiment was not involved in any of the war's major battles. Its first commander was Thomas Wentworth Higginson, who—like all the other officers—was white. A proclamation by Confederate President Jefferson Davis had indicated that members of the regiment would not be treated as prisoners of war if taken in battle: The enlisted men were to be delivered to state authorities to be auctioned off or otherwise treated as runaway slaves, while the white officers were to be hanged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97653",
"title": "Winn Parish, Louisiana",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "There was little military action in Winn Parish during the Civil War, but there was a problem with conscripts fleeing into the wooded areas to avoid military duty. The Confederate States Army defeated a Union detachment sent to destroy a salt works in the parish. Winn Parish contributed to the $80,000 raised to build fortifications on the nearby Red River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5huhfz
|
what is the difference between a president, a chancellor, and a prime minister?
|
[
{
"answer": "It varies from nation to nation. In general, many nations have both a head of government and a head of state.\n\nIn the Westminster system (UK, Canada, Australia), the Prime Minister is the head of the government and is in charge of all executive policy. The prime minister and other government ministers are also often, but not always, sitting members of the legislature. The head of state is largely a cerimonial role, often filled by a king, queen, or governor general.\n\nIn the United States of America, the president is the head of state and the head of the government's executive branch. However, the USA observes strict separation between the executive branch and the legislature. The president does not sit in the house, cannot vote on legislation (although he or she must either veto it or sign it into law), and cannot whip his or her party. However, the Vice President does have a tie-breaking role in the Senate.\n\nIn countries that have both a President and a Prime Minister, the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. What duties belong to whom varies from country to country however it is common for the President to handle foreign affairs, non-political affairs, and exercise discretionary reserve powers.\n\nChancellor is a title in Germany that is equivalent to Prime Minister.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several different system, but in the end there is a sort of pattern:\n\nMost countries have two highest offices: The Head of State and the Head of Government.\n\n* The Head of State often is a monarch like a Queen or King, or in many countries an elected position that fills the same general role often called a president. \nThis Office in many countries only has a symbolic and little actual power.\n* The Head of Government is usually an elected position and filled by someone with actual power who does the actual running of the country. It can be a Chancellor or Prime Minister or Premier or similar name.\n\nIt originated in many way in the transition form monarchies to democracies where Kings of old had advisers and viziers and chancellors or similar running much of the day to day businesses or when they had some parliament that they gave some power to which elected a leader. Eventually the kings became mere figureheads and the chancellors or whatever got more and more power and while the kings in theory still appointed them and could in some cases overrule them those power became more and more on paper and only in theory.\n\nIn some countries the monarchy was abolished but the actual point where the monarch slotted into the system was kept as an elected position.\n\nSome countries have a system where both head of state and head of government are united in the same office. The Presidents of both the USA and Brazil are examples for this Presidential system that uses on person for both jobs.\n\nIf you see a country fiddling with the balance of power between the two roles or trying to merge them into one office that is usually a sing that someone is consolidating power. An often cited example is a certain Adolf Hitler uniting the offices of Reichskanzler (imperial chancellor) and Reichspräsident (imperial president) in one office simply called Führer (Leader). Currently Turkey's Erdogan has been letting it know that he would like to have a similar arrangement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61102",
"title": "Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional institutions.:Executive branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The Chancellor is the head of government and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the Federal Cabinet, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a \"constructive vote of no confidence\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70075",
"title": "Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The chancellor is responsible for all economic and financial matters, equivalent to the role of finance minister in other nations. The position is considered one of the four Great Offices of State, and in recent times has come to be the most powerful office in British politics after the prime minister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60582",
"title": "Chancellor of Austria",
"section": "Section::::Appointment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A Chancellor is typically appointed or dismissed together with his or her ministers, which means the whole government. Technically, the President can only appoint ministers on advice of the Chancellor, so the Chancellor is appointed first. Having been sworn in, the Chancellor presents the President with his or her list of ministers; they will usually have been installed just minutes later. Neither Chancellors nor ministers need to be confirmed by either house of parliament; the appointees are fully capable of discharging the functions of their respective offices immediately after having been sworn in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60567",
"title": "President of Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Germany has a parliamentary system of government in which the chancellor (same rights and duties as a Prime Minister) is the head of government. The president has far-reaching ceremonial obligations, but also the right and duty to act politically. What is more, he can give direction to general political and societal debates and has some important \"reserve powers\" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81 of the Basic Law). The German presidents, who can be elected to two consecutive five-year terms, have wide discretion about how they exercise their official duties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58537853",
"title": "Minister (Austria)",
"section": "Section::::Special cases.:Chancellor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "BULLET::::- The chancellor is the first minister of any new cabinet to be appointed and represents the cabinet vis-a-vis the president. Ministers other than the chancellor can only be appointed on nomination by the chancellor. The president also needs the chancellor's active cooperation to a minister other than the chancellor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196150",
"title": "Presidency",
"section": "Section::::The presidency by country.:German presidency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 2412,
"text": "The head of state is the President of Germany, where the president completes a five-year term and can be reelected after that five-year term for only one time. He has similar roles like to other countries. He represents Germany as the Commander-in-chief of the military, He has the role of being the Minister of Defense and Germany cannot declare a state of war without the approval of the president. The president then appoints what is called a chancellor, which is known as Germany’s Head of state. Which the role is pretty comparable to a prime minister like in other countries. There are many roles the chancellor has here are a few of them. The chancellor provides basic law and for their party, it determines the composition of the Federal Cabinet. But the president then gives recommendation on appointing and dismissing Cabinet Minister, through the Federal Cabinet. The chancellor then goes by three main principles. The first is called the Chancellor Principles in which he or she is responsible for all government policies. The Second one is called The Principle of ministerial autonomy in which the chancellor prepares everything for the legislative and proposes other laws threw the Cabinet and the third one is called Cabinet Principle were this calls for disagreements between federal ministers over Jurisdictional or Budgeting relative things, in which is settled by the Cabinet. Germany has what is called a Federal legislative power which is divided between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag is elected by the German people. To were the Bundestrat represents the regional states. It seems that Bundestag is more powerful than the Bundesrat. The reason is because bundestag has more powers and responsibilities of that the states given to it. The judicial branch of Germany has three courts which are the Ordinary Courts, Specialized Courts and the Constitutional Courts. Ordinary courts, deal with criminal and civil cases. Specialized Courts, deal with administrative, labor, social, fiscal, and patent law and Constitutional Courts deal with more of judicial review and constitutional interpretation. The big thing in Germany constitution is individual liberty, which gives protection to individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human rights and also divides powers between the federal and state levels which are between the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1279974",
"title": "Constitution of Austria",
"section": "Section::::Federal executive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The federal chancellor's dual role as executive officeholder and heavyweight party official well-connected to the legislature makes him or her far more powerful than the formally senior federal president. Actual executive authority thus lies with the chancellor and his or her ministers, while the federal president is a figurehead rather than an actual head of government. Austria's presidents are largely content with their ceremonial role, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8a9mkg
|
why are there so many fake movie trailers trending on youtube?
|
[
{
"answer": "Majority of them are getting tricked, it's like people watching those GTA 6 videos. The people posting them do it on purpose for views, this one guy had practically made a living by making videos like \"Rockstar accidentally sent me GTA 6!\" If you throw some ads on you can make some pretty easy money",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "Section::::Truth vs. misleading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1268,
"text": "Over the years, there have been many instances where trailers give misleading representations of their films. They may give the impression that a celebrity who only has a minor part in the film is one of the main cast members, or advertising a film as being more action-packed than it is. These tricks are usually done to draw in a larger audience. Sometimes the trailers include footage not from the film itself. This could be an artistic choice, or because the trailer was put together before the film's final cut, but at other times it is to give the audience a different impression of the movie. Then trailers could be misleading in a 'for the audience's own good' kind of way, in that a general audience would not usually see such a film due to preconceptions, and by bait and switching, they can allow the audience to have a great viewing experience that they would not ordinarily have. However, the opposite is true too, with the promise of great trailers being let down by mediocre films. An American woman sued the makers of \"Drive\" because their film \"failed to live up to its promo's promise\", although her lawsuit was dismissed. In August 2016, an American lawyer attempted to sue \"Suicide Squad\" for false advertising over lack of scenes including Joker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367590",
"title": "Teaser campaign",
"section": "Section::::For films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Later examples of major motion picture events that used teaser trailers to gain hype are \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy, the \"Star Wars\" prequels, and the \"Spider-Man\" films. \"The Da Vinci Code\" teaser trailer was released even before a single frame of the movie had been shot. \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\"'s teaser trailer was released surprisingly late, but when it was pushed back from November 21, 2008 to July 17, 2009, the trailer was surprisingly early.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4298801",
"title": "Re-cut trailer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "With continued growth of the Internet, including the ease of mixing videos and publishing to sites like YouTube, re-mix trailers continued to gain popularity. While most were made with the intent of present a film in a different genre than intended, other trailers were made to rectify what some might see as bad marketing or approaches to movie promotion. A notable example was the fan-made re-cut of \"John Carter\" based on the Edgar Rice Burroughs character. Michael Sellers, a fan of Burroughs' work, had been disappointed by the trailers Disney had released, including the one used during Super Bowl XLVI. He and his friend Mark Linthicum spent the evening after the Super Bowl downloading available material for the film and other works to piece together a more representative trailer of the source material; this caught not only the attention of the film's director Andrew Stanton, but of major media productions that praised the trailer's quality over Disney's own efforts. In a similar vein, the web series \"Honest Trailers\" from Screen Junkies similar remixes films to create trailers that sarcastically portray what happens in the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2819577",
"title": "Grindhouse (film)",
"section": "Section::::Fictitious trailers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1566,
"text": "Before each segment, there are trailers advertising fake films, as well as vintage theater snipes and an ad for a fictional restaurant called Acuña Boys. According to Rodriguez, it was Tarantino's idea to film fake trailers for \"Grindhouse\". \"I didn't even know about it until I read it in the trades. It said something like 'Rodriguez and Tarantino doing a double feature and Tarantino says there's gonna be fake trailers.' And I thought, 'There are?'\" Rodriguez and Tarantino had originally planned to make all of the film's fake trailers themselves. According to Rodriguez, \"We had so many ideas for trailers. I made \"Machete\". I shot lobby cards and the poster and cut the trailer and sent it to Quentin, and he just flipped out because it looked so vintage and so real. He started showing it around to Eli Roth and to Edgar Wright, and they said, 'Can we do a trailer? We have an idea for a trailer!' We were like, 'Hey, let them shoot it. If we don't get around to shooting ours, we'll put theirs in the movie. If theirs come out really great, we'll put it in the movie to have some variety.' Then Rob Zombie came up to me in October at the Scream Awards and said, 'I have a trailer: \"Werewolf Women of the SS\".' I said, 'Say no more. Go shoot it. You got me.'\" Each trailer was shot in two days. While Wright and Roth shot only what ended up on screen, Zombie shot enough footage to work into a half-hour film and was particularly pained to edit it down. Some Canadian screening releases included the South by Southwest-winning trailer \"Hobo with a Shotgun\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Some trailers use \"special shoot\" footage, which is material that has been created specifically for advertising purposes and does not appear in the actual film. The most notable film to use this technique was \"\", whose trailer featured an elaborate special effect scene of a T-800 Terminator being assembled in a factory that was never intended to be in the film itself. Dimension Films also shot extra scenes for their 2006 horror remake, \"Black Christmas\" - these scenes were used in promotional footage for the film, but are similarly absent from the theatrical release. A trailer for the 2002 blockbuster \"Spider-Man\" had an entire action sequence especially constructed that involved escaping bank robbers in a helicopter getting caught in a giant web between the World Trade Center's two towers. However, after the September 11 attacks the studio pulled it from theaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367590",
"title": "Teaser campaign",
"section": "Section::::For films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Film teasers are usually made for big-budget and popularly themed movies. Their purpose is less to tell the audience about a movie's content than simply to let them know that the movie is coming up in the near future, and to add to the hype of the upcoming release. Teaser trailers are often made while the film is still in production or being edited and as a result they may feature scenes or alternate versions of scenes that are not in the finished film. Often they contain no dialogue and some (notably Pixar films) have scenes made for use in the trailer only. Teaser trailers today are increasingly focused on internet downloading and the fan convention circuit. Some teaser trailers show a quick montage of scenes from the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2819577",
"title": "Grindhouse (film)",
"section": "Section::::Response.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Critics generally enjoyed the fake trailers. Geoff Pevere of the \"Toronto Star\" wrote that the use of the trailers helps the film establish \"its credibility as both mock-artifact and geeky fetish object even before the opening feature.\" Todd McCarthy of \"Variety\" claimed that the trailers were \"excellent candidates for exploitation immortality.\" Jeff Vice of \"Deseret News\", who gave the feature films negative reviews, called the trailers \"... the strongest aspect of the entire presentation.\" Maitland McDonagh of \"TV Guide\" added, \"With the exception of \"Werewolf Women\", which tries a little too hard, they're all spot-on pastiches.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4eyb38
|
What was life like in Rome's provinces? How different would life be in a province compared to Rome itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a very, very vast and complicated question. Not only does the meaning of what a province actually *is* change considerably over the course of Roman history, but the provinces themselves have an internal history and considerable variation, from Britannia to Egypt or Baetica to Syria. There can be more variation in a provicne itself than between Rome and a province, meaning, life in Augusta Treverorum/Trier in the 3rd/4th century would be more similar to life in Rome than to life in a small village 10 km away, or a villa rustica outside the gates of the citry. \n\nIf you could narrow it down to an area or time-frame that interests you, that would be very helpful since otherwise this is just too vast a question to answer easily (to give you an idea consider a modern analogy - switch provinces with U.S. states and Rome with Washington, even if it's a poor analogy - and try to answer that question over only some 300 years of history).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51205017",
"title": "Civitas stipendaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or \"municipia\", whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (\"peregrini\"), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the \"civitates stipendariae\" were the lowest grade, after the \"civitates foederatae\" (\"allied states\") which were bound to Rome by formal treaty (\"foedus\"), and the \"civitates liberae\" (\"free states\"), which were granted specific privileges. The \"civitates stipendariae\" were by far the most common of the three—for example, in 70 BC in Sicily there were 65 such cities, as opposed to only 5 \"civitates liberae\" and 2 \"foederatae\"—and furnished the bulk of a province's revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35682889",
"title": "Civitas foederata",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or \"municipia\", whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (\"peregrini\"), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the lowest were the \"civitates stipendariae\" (\"tributary states\"), followed by the \"civitates liberae\" (\"free states\"), which had been granted specific privileges. Unlike the latter, the \"civitates foederatae\" were individually bound to Rome by formal treaty (\"foedus\"). Although they remained formally independent, the \"civitates foederatae\" in effect surrendered their foreign relation to Rome, to which they were bound by perpetual alliance. Nevertheless, the citizens of these cities enjoyed certain rights under Roman law, like the \"commercium\" and the \"conubium\". In the Greek East, many of the Greek city-states (\"poleis\") were formally liberated and granted some form of formal guarantee of their autonomy. As they had a long history and tradition of their own, most of these communities were content with this status, unlike in the Latin West, where, with their progressive Romanization, many communities sought a gradual advancement to the status of a \"municipium\" or even a \"colonia\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33823669",
"title": "Roman Dacia",
"section": "Section::::Life in Roman Dacia.:Settlements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The province had about 10 Roman towns, all originating from the military camps that Trajan constructed during his campaigns. There were two sorts of urban settlements. Of principal importance were the \"coloniae\", whose free-born inhabitants were almost exclusively Roman citizens. Of secondary importance were the \"municipia\", which were allowed a measure of judicial and administrative independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314732",
"title": "Roman province",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The Roman provinces (Latin: \"provincia\", pl. \"provinciae\") were the lands and people outside of Rome itself that were controlled by the Republic and later the Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman who was appointed as governor. Although different in many ways, they were similar to the states in Australia or the United States, the regions in the United kingdom or New Zealand, or the prefectures in Japan. Canada refers to some of its territory as provinces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Colonies and roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Rome left a legacy of founding many cities as \"Colonia\". There were more than 500 Roman colonies spread through the Empire, most of them populated by veterans of the Roman legions. Some Roman colonies rose to become influential commercial and trade centers, transportation hubs and capitals of international empires, like Constantinople, London, Paris and Vienna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314732",
"title": "Roman province",
"section": "Section::::Imperial provinces during the \"principate\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Under Augustus, Roman provinces were classified as either public or imperial, meaning that their governors were appointed by either the senate or by the emperor. Generally, the older provinces that existed under the republic were public. Public provinces were, as before under the republic, governed by a proconsul, who was chosen by lot among the ranks of senators who were ex-consuls or ex-\"praetors\", depending on the province assigned. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12468311",
"title": "Peregrinus (Roman)",
"section": "Section::::Local authorities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Each province of the empire was divided into three types of local authority: \"coloniae\" (Roman colonies, founded by retired legionary veterans), \"municipia\" (cities with \"Latin Rights\", a sort of half-citizenship) and \"civitates peregrinae\", the local authorities of the \"peregrini\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
52d95b
|
why does gravity influence objects with larger mass, even though they're farther away, more than those with smaller mass
|
[
{
"answer": "The ISS and its astronaut's are also \"trapped in orbit\" around earth, and earth's gravity does influence both; more than it does the moon, because it's farther away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thing with space station is not that they're so far away or anything. If you build a tower as high as to reach ISS, you would experience about 90% of normal surface gravity on top of that building. You would not float, things would fall down almost as fast as on Earth.\n\nThe difference is that on ISS, people are on free fall. That's what makes weightlessness happen. In fact, that's how you train astronauts for weightlessness as well, you climb high up with aeroplane, and then just dive at free fall speed for as long as possible. People inside remain weightless until plane has to stop dive to avoid crashing.\n\nISS however is not gonna crash. Orbiting basically happens when you're moving sideways fast enough that on free fall you miss the Earth. That means everyone will remain weightless there.\n\nThe moon orbits Earth just the same, it falls towards Earth but keeps missing because of sideways motion",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Astronauts are in orbit - that means they are constantly falling, but also moving forward fast enough that the Earth bends away and they kinda miss the ground all the time. If they wared pulled in by gravity they could fall. \n\nThe technical term is micro gravity. They feel as if they are floating because everyhing around them is falling at thr same speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are misunderstanding way astronauts experience microgravity. It is not because they are far from the Earth. It is because they are in freefall.\n\nIf you could build a tower to the ISS’s altitude and stood on a scale at its top, you’d find that weigh more than 80% of what you weigh at Earth’s surface.\n\nNow imagine the power was instantly demolished below you. You’d suddenly weigh nothing according to the scale, which would fall with you in vacuum.\n\nEssentially the same thing is happening with the astronauts and the space station, except that instead of falling straight down and hitting thick atmosphere or solid ground, they’re moving so fast sideways that the curvature of the Earth keeps them hitting the Earth, or deviating from the same altitude at all.\n\nAt the height of the Moon’s orbit, however, the strength of Earth’s gravity is significantly diminished. You could calculate it from Newton’s law of gravity, but I don’t remember the mass of the Moon or Earth offhand so let’s take a different approach. I know the Moon orbits 400 000 km up, I know it takes 28.5 days to orbit, and I know Earth’s gravity supplies the centripetal force.\n\nFrom the formula for centripetal acceleration, (2π÷(28.5 days × 86400 s∕day))^2 × 400000000 m = .0026 m∕s^2\n\nSo each kilogram of the Moon’s matter is subject to less than three hundredths of one percent as a kilogram of matter on Earth’s surface. The Earth’s gravity is indeed feeble out there, but it’s enough to keep the Moon orbiting. The Moon is orbiting much slower (1.0 km/s vs. ISS’s 7.7 km/s), and the Earth’s gravity has 28.5 days to bend its orbit rather than 90 minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33931",
"title": "Weight",
"section": "Section::::Mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "The distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity does not vary too much on the surface of the Earth. In a uniform gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is directly proportional to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, weighing (using a weighing scale) is an entirely acceptable way of measuring mass. Similarly, a balance measures mass indirectly by comparing the weight of the measured item to that of an object(s) of known mass. Since the measured item and the comparison mass are in virtually the same location, so experiencing the same gravitational field, the effect of varying gravity does not affect the comparison or the resulting measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48497658",
"title": "Geophysical signal analysis",
"section": "Section::::Existing approaches in geophysical signal recognition and analysis.:Measurement of seismic waves.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The motion of any mass is affected by the gravitational field. The motion of planets is affected by the Sun's enormous gravitational field. Likewise, a heavier object will influence the motion of other objects of smaller mass in its vicinity. However, this change in the motion is very small compared to the motion of heavenly bodies. Hence, special instruments are required to measure such a minute change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6980742",
"title": "Geophysical survey",
"section": "Section::::Geophysical signal detection.:Measurement of seismic waves using atom interferometer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The motion of any mass is affected by the gravitational field. The motion of planets is affected by the Sun's enormous gravitational field. Likewise, a heavier object will influence the motion of other objects of smaller mass in its vicinity. However, this change in the motion is very small compared to the motion of heavenly bodies. Hence, special instruments are required to measure such a minute change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16619",
"title": "Kilogram",
"section": "Section::::Mass and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Because at any given point on Earth the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, the mass of an object in kilograms is usually measured by comparing its weight to the weight of a standard mass, whose mass is known in kilograms, using a device called a weighing scale. The ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1720933",
"title": "Surface gravity",
"section": "Section::::Relationship of surface gravity to mass and radius.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "The fact that many large celestial objects are approximately spheres makes it easier to calculate their surface gravity. The gravitational force outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as if its entire mass were concentrated in the center, as was established by Sir Isaac Newton. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius. For example, the recently discovered planet, Gliese 581 c, has at least 5 times the mass of Earth, but is unlikely to have 5 times its surface gravity. If its mass is no more than 5 times that of the Earth, as is expected, and if it is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50% larger than that of Earth. Gravity on such a planet's surface would be approximately 2.2 times as strong as on Earth. If it is an icy or watery planet, its radius might be as large as twice the Earth's, in which case its surface gravity might be no more than 1.25 times as strong as the Earth's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "A better scientific definition of mass is its description as being composed of inertia, which is the resistance of an object being accelerated when acted on by an external force. Gravitational \"weight\" is the force created when a mass is acted upon by a gravitational field and the object is not allowed to free-fall, but is supported or retarded by a mechanical force, such as the surface of a planet. Such a force constitutes weight. This force can be added to by any other kind of force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19048",
"title": "Mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Mass is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (a change in its state of motion) when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hiplk
|
what are the differences between the electricity in the usa vs. europe.
|
[
{
"answer": "Europe uses a 220 volt system, whereas the United States uses a 110 volt system. The 220 volt system is just more powerful, but can also be more dangerous if you are shocked by it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Europe uses 230V AC at 50 Hz, the US uses 115V AC at 60 Hz.\n\n\nMost devices with switching power supplies (laptops, computers, cell phones) can use either just fine, some other devices would need a voltage converter, and some won't work properly at all even with a voltage converter (old school alarm clocks, devices with certain types of AC motors) because of the 50/60Hz difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1669741",
"title": "District heating",
"section": "Section::::National variation.:Cogeneration in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "As a whole, the European Union currently generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration, saving Europe an estimated 35 Mtoe per annum. However, there are large differences between the member states, with energy savings ranging from 2% to 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world's most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3967167",
"title": "Energy policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Energy imports.:Electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The United States is a net importer of electricity from Canada, and a net exporter to Mexico. Overall, in 2012 the US had net electricity imports of 47 thousand gigawatt-hours, which was less than 1.2% of the electrical power generated within the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9540",
"title": "Electricity generation",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Production by country.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The United States has long been the largest producer and consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%, followed by China, Japan, Russia, and India. As of Jan-2010, total electricity generation for the two largest generators was as follows: USA: 3,992 billion kWh (3,992 TWh); China: 3,715 billion kWh (3,715 TWh).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763555",
"title": "Cogeneration",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cogeneration in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration. However, there is large difference between Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world’s most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland. Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533487",
"title": "Energy development",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.:Wired energy transfer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7635170",
"title": "Energy in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "The United States is the world's second largest producer and consumer of electricity. It consumes about 20% of the world's electricity supply. This section provides a summary of the consumption and generation of the nation's electric industry, based on data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2017 files. Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) files. Consumption is detailed from the residential, commercial, industrial, and other user communities. Generation is detailed for the major fuel sources of coal, natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, hydro, and the other renewables of wind, wood, other biomass, geothermal, and solar. Changes to the electrical energy fuel mix and other trends are identified. Progress in wind and solar contributing to the energy mix are addressed. Expected changes in the generation environment during the next 5 years are discussed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24074449",
"title": "Electricity sector of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The electricity sector of the United States includes a large array of stakeholders that provide services through electricity generation, transmission, distribution and marketing for industrial, commercial, public and residential customers. It also includes many public institutions that regulate the sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3txun4
|
how are new data points created in a video such that a video filmed in 30 fps can be viewed at 60 fps?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interpolation is a process where a display unit (TV/Monitor) takes two frames and puts them together (similar to an \"average\") to generate an extra frame in the middle. By inserting an extra frame between each one that was recorded, you effectively double the frames per second and can bring 30 to 60.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wait I'm confused what's the actual method of getting that \"average\" frame like how do you gather pixels to make sense ... So does that mean that mean I can make smooth slow-motion by doing introlpation over and over again ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "444550",
"title": "Flyball",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Pass Calling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Some teams use digital video cameras to record the pass, and then review frame-by-frame to develop an estimate of distance, but the traditional frame rate of 30 frames per second (FPS) can present a problem in that it is unlikely to capture a frame of the exact moment the returning dog breaches the plane of the start/finish line. More recently, high-speed consumer cameras such as the Casio Exilim EX-FH100 have been used to record video at much higher frame rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37082086",
"title": "Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "It is the first MILC that can record video with a bit rate of up to 72 megabits per second. That is significantly higher than the specification of AVCHD 2.0 of up to 28 megabits per second, which was released in July 2011 and is used for similar cameras and camcorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577251",
"title": "24p",
"section": "Section::::24p vs. NTSC video.:The Optical Flow Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "For best results, footage should be deinterlaced and frame-doubled to 60p. This preserves all of the footage's temporal information, which is key in determining what the \"missing\" points in time should look like when converting to 24 frame/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15435455",
"title": "JVC GZ-MG555",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Video can be recorded in four quality settings: Ultra Fine (720 x 480, 8.5Mbit/s), Fine (720 x 480, 5.5Mbit/s), Normal (720 x 480, 4.2Mbit/s), and Economy (352 x 240, 1.5Mbit/s). The built-in harddrive has capacity of 30GB (40GB for GZ-MG575) and can hold up to 7 hours of video when recorded at the highest quality setting. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577251",
"title": "24p",
"section": "Section::::24p vs. NTSC video.:The Optical Flow Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "This is currently the highest quality method of converting 60i footage to 24p. It involves using optical flow to extrapolate 24 frames of information from 60 frames while compensating for the time displacement between the two. For example, in one second of 60i footage, each image is captured at 1/60 second, which does not perfectly align with images that would have been captured 24 times per second. Simply \"cherry picking\" 24 images out of 60 does not present 24 frames with perfect temporal consistency, since more or less time may have elapsed between frames. The result is a slightly jittery picture, which appears to jitter in a cyclic fashion. Optical flow algorithms will analyze the footage and make corrections to the picture in order to better \"fit\" each frame into the new 24 frame sequence. The resulting footage is much smoother because it simulates equal exposure time between frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4020313",
"title": "Sony HDR-HC1",
"section": "Section::::Unique features.:Cinema effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The 50 Hz version of the camcorder, HDR-HC1E, throws away one field from the original interlaced video and doubles another, effectively halving both temporal and spatial resolution. The result can be treated as 25- frame/s progressive video because there is no motion between the two fields of one video frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8733",
"title": "Digital video",
"section": "Section::::Technical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 290,
"text": ", the highest resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 35 megapixels (8192 x 4320). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6m3wxb
|
If a Tsunami is coming inland would it be better to attempt to go upward into skyscraper, or try to go inland?
|
[
{
"answer": "That depends on your location on the beach, the structural integrity of the beach-side buildings and the size of the tsunami. \n\nMost tsunami travel a fairly short distance once beached, think of how quickly a big wave stops when walking on sand. The flooding can reach 300 meters or more from the coastline, the average human can sprint this distance in 30 seconds to a minute so this is likely your best bet. \n\nIf you heppen to be in a skyscapper near the beach when a tsunami hits, you are likely safe (or really, really not safe; depends on the engineers who built it).\n\nOtherwise it is probably not worthwhile to try to cram into one, as it will wase time you could spend running. Just make sure you don't get stuck in the horde and evacuate as soon as you hear a tsunami warning. If you can see the wave and are not in safe high groung, you are doing it wrong. \n\nAlso, mabe don't go to the beach after an earthquake. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9502903",
"title": "Beach evolution",
"section": "Section::::Erosion and accretion.:Extraordinary processes: tsunamis and hurricane-driven storm surges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Tsunamis, potentially enormous waves often caused by earthquakes, have great erosional and sediment-reworking potential. They may strip beaches of sand that may have taken years to accumulate and may destroy trees and other coastal vegetation. Tsunamis are also capable of flooding hundreds of meters inland past the typical high-water level and fast-moving water, associated with the inundating tsunami, can crush homes and other coastal structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Tsunami.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "As a tsunami moves into shallower water its speed decreases, its wavelength shortens and its amplitude increases enormously, behaving in the same way as a wind-generated wave in shallow water, but on a vastly greater scale. Either the trough or the crest of a tsunami can arrive at the coast first. In the former case, the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas close to the shore exposed which provides a useful warning for people on land. When the crest arrives, it does not usually break but rushes inland, flooding all in its path. Much of the destruction may be caused by the flood water draining back into the sea after the tsunami has struck, dragging debris and people with it. Often several tsunami are caused by a single geological event and arrive at intervals of between eight minutes and two hours. The first wave to arrive on shore may not be the biggest or most destructive. Occasionally, a tsunami may transform into a bore, typically in a shallow bay or an estuary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31161",
"title": "Tsunami",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed \"run up\". Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run-up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52959577",
"title": "Vertical and horizontal evacuation",
"section": "Section::::Vertical evacuation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In areas where horizontal evacuation to higher ground is impossible, vertical evacuation to higher areas of a structure may be a way to shelter individuals from the surge of water, several meters high, that can follow an earthquake in coastal areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1420450",
"title": "Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "People in some areas would have had more than adequate time to seek safety if they were aware of the impending catastrophe. The only way to effectively mitigate the impact of a tsunami is through an early warning system. Other methods such as sea walls only work for a percentage of waves, but a warning system is effective for all waves originating outside a minimum distance from the coastline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31161",
"title": "Tsunami",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632101",
"title": "1700 Cascadia earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Future threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "As seen in the 1700 quake, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, subduction zone earthquakes can cause large tsunamis, and many coastal areas in the region have prepared tsunami evacuation plans in anticipation of a possible future Cascadia earthquake. However, the major nearby cities, notably Seattle, Portland, Vancouver, Victoria, and Tacoma, which are located on inland waterways rather than on the coast, would be sheltered from the full brunt of a tsunami. These cities do have many vulnerable structures, especially bridges and unreinforced brick buildings; consequently, most of the damage to the cities would probably be from the earthquake itself. One expert asserts that buildings in Seattle are vastly inadequate even to withstand an event of the size of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, let alone any more powerful one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ycm1w
|
richard the lionheart. how did brits know what lions were if at that point they had never been to africa?
|
[
{
"answer": "There used to be lions in Europe but they were hunted to extinction.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe British would have seen or heard of lions from any of the southern states of Europe, most likely the Romans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If Brits didn't go to Africa until like the 17/1800s, why did they call Richard the first Richard the lionheart? \n\nHere's your problem - this is untrue. It's true that there was less travel back then... but there was travel. Don't forget the Crusades were on during this time... which I believe is where Richard earned that moniker. \n\nThe English (calling them Brits is just incorrect historically) knew about lions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the Romans spread their Empire across Europe, including the British Isles, they also spread their knowledge of the world. They spread knowledge from the Mediterranean, northern Africa, and the Middle East. The knowledge of lions came from this information. Furthermore, lions are mentioned in the Bible. Since religious study was important back then, lions were well known from that as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\nThe Bible contains a story involving lions: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While Europeans didn't really probe into the innards of Africa until the Age Of Exploration, Africa and Europe traded with one another all throughout the middle ages. Even if the average European had never seen an African lion with his eyes, he surely would have heard tales of their ferocity via traders, if not seen art depicting them. \n\nAlso, there were Lions in the southern bits of Europe until they were hunted to extinction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46167813",
"title": "British Lions (band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "British Lions were a short-lived British rock band, together from 1977 to 1980, with former members of Mott and Medicine Head. They released just two studio albums with little commercial success in the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22814037",
"title": "Rugby union in Zimbabwe",
"section": "Section::::British Lions tours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The British Lions toured South Africa a number of times. Despite officially being South African tours, the Lions also played Rhodesia (as it was then). Later tours of the region were stopped until the 1990s, due to the controversy over playing Ian Smith's regime, and apartheid era South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41556826",
"title": "Rugby union and apartheid",
"section": "Section::::British and Irish Lions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The British and Irish Lions were regular visitors to South Africa until the 1980s, and the less formally segregated colony long before that. Their fondness for South Africa no doubt stemmed from the fact that the first tour they made was to South Africa. They would alternate these tours with tours to Australia and/or New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131045",
"title": "Barbary lion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The Barbary lion was a \"Panthera leo leo\" population in North Africa that is regionally extinct today. This population occurred in Barbary Coastal regions of Maghreb from the Atlas Mountains to Egypt and was eradicated following the spreading of firearms and bounties for shooting lions. A comprehensive review of hunting and sighting records revealed that small groups of lions may have survived in Algeria until the early 1960s, and in Morocco until the mid-1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46720456",
"title": "Hunting, fishing and animals in ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Hunting.:Lions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Lions are often identified as the king of the jungle and a symbol of power in the animal kingdom. The earliest pictures of lion hunting came from late pre-historic or early historic times and in the beginning it was not intended to be as a sport, but to rid the country of a plague, which was threatening people. Later, pictures emerged of the king taking hold of the lion to stab it to death as was displayed in Ramesses III's temple at Medinet Habu. Moreover, Tuthmosis III bragged about his ability to hunt lions, claiming that he killed seven lions in one second with his arrow shot. Amenophis III, a fan of big game hunting had a list of the animals he hunted, including one hundred and two wild lions in his first decade as ruler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20924556",
"title": "1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The 1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia was the twelfth tour by a British Isles team and the fifth to New Zealand and Australia. This tour is recognised as the first to represent a bona fide British team and the first to be widely dubbed the 'Lions', after the nickname was used by journalists during the 1924 tour of South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7595969",
"title": "Cultural depictions of lions",
"section": "Section::::In heraldry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, when lions became a major element in heraldry, few Europeans had any chance to see actual lions. The lions were for them nearly as much legendary animals as were dragons or gryffins, which also commonly appeared on coats of arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22joy9
|
Historic Document Translation?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are correct, it means 'ditto'\n\nIt shows up very commonly in passenger and freight manifests for ships. Other things said would be 'same', 'above', 'SAA', a single or double quotation mark or a carrot.\n\nSource: Pg 4, [Immigration Research Guide from _URL_0_](_URL_1_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "954508",
"title": "Translation studies",
"section": "Section::::Fields of inquiry.:Translation history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Translation history concerns the history of translators as a professional and social group, as well as the history of translations as indicators of the way cultures develop, interact, and may die. Some principles for translation history have been proposed by Lieven D'hulst and Pym. Major projects in translation history have included the Oxford History of Literary Translation in English and Histoire des traductions en langue française.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18630637",
"title": "Translation",
"section": "Section::::Fidelity and transparency.:Back-translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the \"Till Eulenspiegel\" folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26428",
"title": "Rosetta Stone",
"section": "Section::::Memphis decree and its context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "There can be no one definitive English translation of the decree, not only because modern understanding of the ancient languages continues to develop, but also because of the minor differences between the three original texts. Older translations by E. A. Wallis Budge (1904, 1913) and Edwyn R. Bevan (1927) are easily available but are now outdated, as can be seen by comparing them with the recent translation by R. S. Simpson, which is based on the demotic text and can be found on line, or, best of all, with the modern translations of all three texts, with introduction and facsimile drawing, that were published by Quirke and Andrews in 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3618556",
"title": "Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media",
"section": "Section::::Scholarship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Finally, Interpreting the Declaration of Independence by Translation is a roundtable of historians brought together to discuss the translation and reception of the Declaration of Independence in Japan, Mexico, Russia, China, Poland, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Israel. In addition to these reflections, the site includes actual translations of the Declaration into several different languages and \"re-translations\" back into English to illustrate the effects of translation on how a key historical document has been understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1423807",
"title": "Kinderhook plates",
"section": "Section::::Smith's response.:Connection with the Grammar and Alphabet of the Egyptian Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "A number of translation documents were created in 1835 in connection with the translation of the Book of Abraham, one of which is called the Grammar and Alphabet of the Egyptian Language (GAEL). There is evidence that this document was used in deciphering the Kinderhook Plates. In a May 7, 1843 letter to a friend apostle Parley P. Pratt wrote, \"A large number of Citizens have seen them and compared the characters with those on the Egyptian papyrus which is now in this city.\" A sympathetic letter also dated May 7, 1843 published in the New York Herald for May 30th, 1843 presents further evidence:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16893191",
"title": "Church History (Eusebius)",
"section": "Section::::Translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The work was translated into other languages in ancient time (Latin, Syriac, Armenian). Codex Syriac 1 housed at the National Library of Russia is one of the oldest Syriac manuscripts, dated to the year 462. The first English translation was by Mary Basset, the granddaughter of Sir Thomas More, made between 1544 and 1553; the first version to be printed was by Meredith Hanmer, in 1576.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49225219",
"title": "Translate.com",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "In September 2017, NRK reported that documents originated by Norwegian individuals and organizations and translated by Translate.com are openly available online, also specifically reporting on internal documents of Statoil. A couple of days later, YLE reported that it was easily able to find, via Google searches, hundreds of confidential documents originated by Finnish companies, organizations, and individuals that had been translated by Translate.com and made publicly available on the Internet. YLE reported that the license terms of Translate.com grant it the rights to keep documents translated by it, and to make them available online alongside its translation service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mr0nj
|
why do so many apps require sign-up these days?
|
[
{
"answer": "They require this information so they or their partners can send you marketing information based on what you so on you phone, where you are, what time it is, etc. If you want to use these apps most of the time you don't have a choice. Some of the app owners may also sell on the information they gather from you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60729516",
"title": "IOS 13",
"section": "Section::::System features.:Sign in with Apple.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "A new single sign-on implementation known as \"Sign in with Apple\" was implemented, allowing users to create accounts with third-party services with a minimal amount of information. Users have the option to generate a disposable email address for each site, improving privacy, anonymity, and further reduces the amount of information that can be associated with a single email address. All iOS applications that support third-party login methods, such as Facebook and Google, must support the \"Sign in with Apple\" system, and the iOS human interface guidelines recommend that developers place the \"Sign in with Apple\" option above other login methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927470",
"title": "Single sign-on",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.:Email address.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Single sign-on in theory can work without revealing identifying information like email address to the relying party (credential consumer), but many credential providers do not allow users to configure what information is passed on to the credential consumer. As of 2019, Google and Facebook sign-in do not require users to share email address with the credential consumer. 'Sign in with Apple' introduced in iOS 13 allows user to request a unique relay email each time the user signs up for a new service, thus reducing the likelihood of account linking by the credential consumer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3768009",
"title": "Code signing",
"section": "Section::::Providing security.:Code-Signing in Xcode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Developers need to sign their iOS and tvOS apps before running them on any real device and before uploading them to the App Store. This is needed to prove that the developer owns a valid Apple Developer ID. An application needs a valid profile or certificate so that it can run on the devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38452770",
"title": "IKEA effect",
"section": "Section::::Examples of IKEA effect.:Business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Computer app designers have been advised to take advantage of the IKEA effect by providing \"sample data, pre-filled defaults, and editable templates to help make your app feel animated with content and connections, and alive to users. Then use email triggers, prompts, and guidance to get people to interact with that content — even if it's just to move a card around on a board or reply to an email. This helps to lower the fear and frustration of dealing with a new product while increasing capabilities.\" The manufacturers of such computer products as Wistia, Basecamp, and iDoneThis have been guided by the IKEA effect in introducing them to the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52061512",
"title": "SignEasy",
"section": "Section::::History and Achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "SignEasy allows users to send documents to others for signatures. SignEasy was Featured among Best Business Apps in App Store 2014 & 2015. And the only eSignature app featured in Apple's global TV commercials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18676543",
"title": "Adobe Document Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Cloud-based apps.:Adobe Sign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Adobe Sign is a complete, automated electronic signature and web contracting solution that lets users send, e-sign, track, and file documents securely online. There is nothing to download or install because it's an online service used with a web browser. People can send and e-sign using mobile devices. Adobe Sign works with leading cloud-based automation tools like Salesforce, Dropbox, Workday, NetSuite, and Microsoft Office, SharePoint and Dynamics. Free and paid subscriptions are available. Users can access Adobe Sign from the Sign pane in Adobe Reader XI or Adobe Acrobat XI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3235536",
"title": "Google Translate",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Mobile apps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In January 2015, the apps gained the ability to translate physical signs in real time using the device's camera, as a result of Google's acquisition of the Word Lens app. The original January launch only supported seven languages, but a July update added support for 20 new languages, and also enhanced the speed of Conversation Mode translations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4x8m8n
|
Why were there so many different names for the ancient greeks? Lacedemonians, hellenes, etc...
|
[
{
"answer": "In the Classical period, there is only one name for the Greeks: *hoi Hellênes*, the people of Hellas.\n\nThere were, however, numerous ways to refer to the Greeks in earlier times. In the works of Homer, the most common name for the Greeks is *hoi Akhaioi*, the Achaeans; this may have been an archaising way to refer to the Greeks, which originally dates back to the Mycenaean period. In Classical times, the name referred only to the people of Achaea, an unremarkable region in the north of the Peloponnese.\n\nAdditional names found in the Iliad and Odyssey are *hoi Danaoi*, the Danaans, and *hoi Argeioi*, the Argives. Like \"Achaeans\", the latter is a *pars pro toto* elision - the name of one part is used as a name for the whole. The city of Argos was one of the largest and most prominent cities in mainland Greece, and so its people were apparently used as a shorthand to mean all the Greeks.\n\nNone of the Homeric names remained in widespread use. For most of Antiquity, the standard Greek name for the Greeks was *hoi Hellênes*. However, the Greek world consisted of many hundreds of smaller states, regions, and dialect groups, all of which had their own names (and sometimes several names). Your example, \"Lacedaemonians\", does not mean \"the Greeks\" as a whole - it is the name for the inhabitants of Lacedaemon, a region in the southeastern Peloponnese of which the main urban centre was the town of Sparta.\n\nThere are certainly many names for the full citizens of Sparta. As citizens they were known as Equals and as Spartiates; as inhabitants of their region they were called Spartans and Laconians and Lacedaemonians; as speakers of Doric Greek, they were called Dorians; and finally, as inhabitants of Hellas, they were called Hellenes. But only that final word described the ancient Greeks as a whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26409837",
"title": "Achaeans (tribe)",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "In the classical period, the generic term for Greeks was \"Hellenes\", echoing the Hesiodic foundation story in which Hellen was the founder of the Greek race. However, in the \"Iliad\", \"Hellenes\" is restricted to those inhabitants of \"Hellas\", a region in Thessaly. There were therefore at least two different traditions concerning the origins of the Greeks, and for this reason, a direct connection between the historic Achaeans and Mycenaean-era Greeks is difficult to establish on the basis of name alone. For instance, the historic Lacedaemonians used that name, but claimed no connection to the Lacedaemonians mentioned in the \"Iliad\"; the use of the same name does not therefore automatically imply direct descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42056",
"title": "Greeks",
"section": "Section::::Identity.:Names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" (the Homeric \"long-haired Achaeans\" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are (Δαναοί) and (Ἀργεῖοι) while (Πανέλληνες) and (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the \"Iliad\"; all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity. In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2445603",
"title": "Names of the Greeks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The Greeks () have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is \"Hellen\" (), pl. Hellenes (); the name \"Greeks\" () was used by the ancient Romans and gradually entered the European languages through its use in Latin. The mythological patriarch \"Hellen\" is the named progenitor of the Greek peoples; his descendants the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians correspond to the main Greek tribes and to the main dialects spoken in Greece and Asia Minor (Anatolia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2020",
"title": "Achaeans (Homer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "The Achaeans (; \"Akhaioí,\" \"the Achaeans\" or \"of Achaea\") constitute one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's \"Iliad\" (used 598 times) and \"Odyssey\". The other common names are Danaans (; \"Danaoi\"; used 138 times in the \"Iliad\") and Argives (; ; used 182 times in the \"Iliad\") while Panhellenes ( \"Panhellenes,\" \"All of the Greeks\") and Hellenes (; \"Hellenes\") both appear only once; all of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek civilizational identity. In the historical period, the Achaeans were the inhabitants of the region of Achaea, a region in the north-central part of the Peloponnese. The city-states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League, which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340504",
"title": "Ionians",
"section": "Section::::Name.:Mycenaean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The name first appears in Greek literature in Homer as Ἰάονες, \"iāones\", used on a single occasion of some long-robed Greeks attacked by Hector and apparently identified with Athenians, and this Homeric form appears to be identical with the Mycenaean form but without the *-w-. This name also appears in a fragment of the other early poet, Hesiod, in the singular Ἰάων, \"iāōn\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362373",
"title": "Gymnosophists",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Indian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The philosophical, religious, and tribal identities of the gymnosophists that the Greeks encountered in the 3rd Century B.C. at the town of Taxila in Ancient India were not preserved in the ancient Greek literature, leading to much modern speculation. The following have been proposed as non-mutually exclusive possibilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36487",
"title": "Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "\"Lacedaemonia\" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica glossing place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's \"Lexicon\" (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a \"place in Lacedaemonia\" named after Agis. The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's \"Etymologiae\" (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. He relied heavily on Orosius' \"Historiarum Adversum Paganos\" (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's \"Chronicon\" (early 5th century AD) as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be \"Lacedaemonia Civitas\" but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, relying on Eusebius. There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of Lacedaemonia, in Diodorus Siculus, but probably with (‘’chúra’’, \"country\") suppressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6jcbjc
|
Why don't Americans eat very much sheep?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging further contributions here, but you may be interested in some previous threads on sheep in the USA\n\n* [If sheep were so numerous and popular in medieval times, why do we use so few sheep products now? What happened to the sheep?](_URL_0_), with a few follow-on comments here [Why do I not eat mutton?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [Why/how did North Americans stop eating lamb in favour of other meats?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "915258",
"title": "Sheep farming",
"section": "Section::::Sheep production worldwide.:U.S. sheep production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Since the 1960s, per capita consumption of lamb and mutton declined from nearly 5 pounds to just about 1 pound, due to competition from poultry, pork, beef, and other meats. Since the 1990s, U.S. sheep operations declined from around 105,000 to around 80,000 due to shrinking revenues and low rates of return. According to the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, the \"sheep industry accounts for less than 1 percent of U.S. livestock industry receipts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38978117",
"title": "Native Americans and reservation inequality",
"section": "Section::::Healthcare.:Genetic predisposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Because the traditional way of life had been taken away from the Native Americans, a domino effect of problems began to arise. During a normal day of hunting, gathering, and normal activities, the pre-reservation Indians expended approximately 4,000 calories a day, while eating a high fiber, low fat diet. After the reservation system went into effect, Indians were no longer able to hunt or gather food, but expected to farm in a community that at certain places had no water source, or there was no money to buy supplies for a farm in the first place, which led to more poverty. Poverty led to poor eating habits, which led to diseases such as diabetes mellitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2793067",
"title": "Native American cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Native American cuisine of North America.:Southeastern Native American cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Southeastern Native Americans also supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. Venison was an important meat staple, due to the abundance of white-tailed deer in the area. They also hunted rabbits, squirrels, opossums, and raccoons. Livestock, adopted from Europeans, in the form of hogs and cattle, were kept. Aside from the meat, it was not uncommon for them to eat organ meats such as liver, brains, and intestines. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like chitterlings, commonly called chitlins, which are the fried large intestines of hogs; livermush, a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver; and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly of hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying. Many of the early settlers were taught Southeastern Native American cooking methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25651214",
"title": "Bison hunting",
"section": "Section::::Bison population crash and its effect on indigenous people.:Spiritual effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Native Americans served as the caretakers of bison, so their forced movement towards bison-free reservation areas was particularly challenging. Upon their arrival to reservations, some tribes asked the Government officials if they could hunt cattle the way they hunted buffalo. During these cattle hunts, Plains Indians would dress up in their finery, sing bison songs, and attempt to simulate a bison hunt. These cattle hunts served as a way for the Plains Indians to preserve their ceremonies, community, and morale. However, the U.S. government soon put a halt to cattle hunts, choosing to package the beef up for the Native Americans instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3099997",
"title": "Protein poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "The groups that depend on the blubber animals are the most fortunate in the hunting way of life, for they never suffer from fat-hunger. This trouble is worst, so far as North America is concerned, among those forest Indians who depend at times on rabbits, the leanest animal in the North, and who develop the extreme fat-hunger known as rabbit-starvation. Rabbit eaters, if they have no fat from another source—beaver, moose, fish—will develop diarrhea in about a week, with headache, lassitude and vague discomfort. If there are enough rabbits, the people eat till their stomachs are distended; but no matter how much they eat they feel unsatisfied. Some think a man will die sooner if he eats continually of fat-free meat than if he eats nothing, but this is a belief on which sufficient evidence for a decision has not been gathered in the North. Deaths from rabbit-starvation, or from the eating of other skinny meat, are rare; for everyone understands the principle, and any possible preventive steps are naturally taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144156",
"title": "Mussel",
"section": "Section::::As food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Nowadays, freshwater mussels are generally considered to be unpalatable and are almost entirely not consumed, although the native peoples of North America ate them extensively and still do today. In the USA during the Second World War, mussels were commonly served in diners and eateries across the country. This was due to the lack of access to red meat (such as beef and pork) for the general public, in relation to the aspect of the American wartime rationing policy concerning food, with much of the meat available being sent to aid the US military's war efforts abroad. Instead, mussels became a popular substitute for most meats (with the exception of chicken).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252507",
"title": "American frontier",
"section": "Section::::Social history.:Cattle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "On a much smaller scale sheep grazing was locally popular; sheep were easier to feed and needed less water. However, Americans did not eat mutton. As farmers moved in open range cattle ranching came to an end and was replaced by barbed wire spreads where water, breeding, feeding, and grazing could be controlled. This led to \"fence wars\" which erupted over disputes about water rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f768x7
|
how was the chris hanson predator show not entrapment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Entrapment involves inducing someone to commit a crime they otherwise would not be inclined to carry out. For example threatening someone to get them to buy drugs. However posing as a drug dealer and arresting those attempting to buy drugs is not entrapment, as people not inclined to illegally purchase drugs would not do so even if the opportunity was presented by the undercover officer.\n\nIn the case of To Catch a Predator the police were simply posing as underage children. Someone who was not a pedophile wouldn't be caught up in such an act, so it isn't entrapment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Entrapment is when the police (or other law enforcement agency eg the FBI) persuade or pressure you to commit a crime you probably wouldn't have committed otherwise. Note that this doesn't mean that specific *instance* of the crime, because obviously you couldn't have committed that without them, but that crime in general.\n\nIf a cop walks up to you and says \"Hey, got any meth I can buy?\", and you say \"Hell yeah, it's $30 a gram\", then that's not entrapment. They didn't persuade or pressure you, they just gave you the opportunity to commit a crime, and you chose to take it. You would've sold that meth to anyone so setting a simple no-pressure trap like that is a good way to catch people who commit crimes or are ready to commit crimes at any opportunity.\n\nNow if you say no, they say \"I've got a 100g of meth here, wanna buy it from me and sell it on the streets for 3x what you paid?\", you say you're not interested, and they keep hounding you and trying to talk you into it for ages, pushing you, persuading you, or intimidating you, until you eventually give in, then *that's* entrapment, because they're prosecuting you for doing something you probably would never have done without them. You weren't ready to sell meth or take any opportunity to commit a crime.\n\nOn *To Catch a Predator*, the stings weren't done by police, so it can't be entrapment to start with. But even if they were, the actors pretending to be kids never pressure or persuade the adults to have sex with them. They just hang around online acting like normal kids, and wait for the would-be-abusers to start grooming or propositioning them. The pedophiles on the show can't really say \"I never would've done this if Chris Hansen & friends hadn't pressured me!\" if the 'kid' was never the one to bring up sex, meeting in person, etc. If you look at the conversations, the bait/'kid' never provokes or initiates any of that stuff, and never mentions anything sexual or anything about meeting in person except in direct response to prompts from the would-be-abuser.\n\nIt's similar to what police sometimes do in areas with frequent car burglaries. They'll leave a car out with a phone or a laptop on the seat, then sit and watch it from somewhere discreet. When someone smashes the window and steals the items, they get arrested. It's a trap, but is that entrapment? They didn't trick you into doing anything you weren't already predisposed to doing. If you did it to that car, you likely already had a habit of doing it, or would do it at the next opportunity, and you had complete freedom to *not* commit that crime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6275482",
"title": "Murder of Sophie Hook",
"section": "Section::::Appeals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "On 5 September 1997, the Court of Appeal gave Howard Hughes leave to appeal against his conviction for the abduction, rape and murder of Sophie Hook. Six months later he sparked further outrage by launching a £50,000 compensation claim against the Bryn Estyn children's home, where he claimed he was abused as a child. Two weeks later, the Court of Appeal rejected Hughes's bid to have his convictions quashed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39423731",
"title": "Zaky Mallah",
"section": "Section::::First Australian charged under its anti-terrorism act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Entrapment of a suspect in Australia is legal if the police obtain a \"controlled operations authority certificate.\" However, the police did not get a certificate so the entrapment was illegal. At his trial Justice James Wood allowed the entrapment into evidence. Wood criticized the media for accepting claims as credible and giving them undue prominence in newspapers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738443",
"title": "Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty",
"section": "Section::::Convictions and legislation.:2007: Operation Achilles (UK).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Prosecutors told jurors that a 2007 meeting between the defendants had been bugged by police, and revealed that SHAC supported illegal acts that were traced to attacks on people across Great Britain. The prosecution also alleged there was evidence of direct email links between SHAC, the Animal Liberation Front, and Animal Rights Militia. \"Der Spiegel\" wrote that as a result of the police operation the number of attacks on HLS and associated businesses declined drastically, although the day after the convictions new posts on SHAC's website indicated that the campaign would continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166186",
"title": "Victim (1961 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The blackmailers vandalise Farr's Chiswick property, painting \"\"FARR IS QUEER\"\" on his garage door. Farr resolves to help the police catch them and promises to give evidence in court, despite knowing that the ensuing press coverage will certainly destroy his career. The blackmailers are identified and arrested. Farr tells Laura to leave before the ugliness of the trial, but that he will welcome her return afterward. She tells him that she believes she has found the strength to return to him. Farr burns the suggestive photograph of him and Barrett.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21484286",
"title": "To Catch a Predator",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Entrapment claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Although entrapment does not ordinarily apply to actions taken by private organizations, when Perverted-Justice works sufficiently in concert with a law enforcement agency, the involvement of the state actor may allow for an entrapment defense. Perverted-Justice takes the position that it has precautions in place to avoid entrapment issues, claiming that volunteers never initiate contact with the target or instigate lewd conversations or talks of sexual meetings. However, former \"Dateline\" anchor Stone Phillips disputes that claim, arguing that, \"In many cases, the decoy is the first to bring up the subject of sex.\" Phillips defended the tactic as enticement as opposed to entrapment, stating that, \"Once the hook is baited, the fish jump and run with it like you wouldn't believe.\" In contrast, Montopoli contends that this alone may render \"Predator\"-related cases vulnerable to the defense of entrapment on the basis that targets might be enticed to commit a crime that they had no previous intent to commit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9976510",
"title": "The Dice Spelled Murder",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Along the way, and unbeknownst to Danny, Velma and another male friend, Joe Lovelli, have committed blackmail. Velma has twice enticed men to her hotel room, where Joe waited in a closet with a camera. Using infrared film, Joe snapped photographs of the men in compromising positions with Velma. The blackmailers then extorted—or attempted to extort—hush-up money from their victims. Danny remains unaware of Velma and Joe's sideline until near the end of the book, when Velma's second blackmail victim, a mob-related big shot, propels the novel to its climax in a fatal car chase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841917",
"title": "Perverted-Justice",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "BULLET::::- In May 2007, Perverted-Justice was criticized in a now-dismissed employment lawsuit brought by former \"Dateline\" producer Marsha Bartel. In the filing, Bartel alleges that NBC provides financial incentives to the group to use trickery and to humiliate targets to \"enhance the comedic effect of the[ir] public exposure.\" According to Bartel, some of the men caught in the \"Predator\" sting operations have reported that the decoys begged them to come to the sting houses, even after they had decided to walk away. Perverted-Justice responded to the criticism by labeling Bartel a disgruntled former employee motivated by financial gain. The lawsuit was eventually dismissed after the New York Supreme Court ruled that \"an employer is free to terminate an employee at any time for any reason or no reason.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tbth5
|
why does reddit have such a bad reputation amongst non-redditors
|
[
{
"answer": "a lot of the big things reddit gets known for (the events that blow up) paint reddit in a bad light. The most popular probably is the witch hunt on the wrong guy for the Boston bombings, which made reddit look extremely racist. The other is the nazi flag on the front page (which is still the 6th most upvoted thing of all time) which..i mean you can see how that looks. And the other big one is the massive outpouring of anti-fat hatred and anti-woman hatred during the ellen pao fiasco ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some great people here, but there are a lot of misogynists and racists and all-around shitty people here too. The impression is based on the assholes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of its past associations with 4chan and its vocal contingent of MRAs, white supremacists, conspiracy theorists and other assorted \"internet people\". You are the company you keep, after all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like AdBlock and proxies, and they dislike \"feeling manipulated by brands\" but respond well to \"content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants.\" Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that \"Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign\" but there is a \"very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you.\" Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that \"reddit's communities belong to their members\" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Community and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The possibilities that subreddits provide create new opportunities for raising attention and fostering discussion across various areas. In gaining popularity in terms of unique users per day, Reddit has been a platform to raise publicity for a number of causes. Additionally, the user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38338768",
"title": "Christopher Slowe",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "reddit became a successful enterprise, calling itself “the front page of the Internet”, although it attracted its share of negative news, some of which arose from its \"hands off\" editorial approach of allowing content voted as worthy of retention to remain on its site. reddit's core values include anonymity and protecting identity, and these values center on the concept of open, free and protected speech on its website. reddit was acquired by Condé Nast Publications, the owner of technology Magazine WIRED in October 2006. Conde Nast wanted reddit to \"just focus on building out, which may involve adding to the current staff of four (all co-founders), who will all move from Boston to San Francisco and work at Wired's office.\" A long-standing rivalry also developed between reddit and Digg, a competing site, and a hostile feud with Gawker, a separate internet comment site, which remains at the time of writing, but by the time of the Violentacrez incident, Slowe had moved on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Community and culture.:Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23871095",
"title": "Steve Huffman",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Since returning to Reddit, Huffman instituted a number of technological improvements including a better mobile experience and stronger infrastructure, as well as new content guidelines. These included a ban on content that incites violence, quarantining some material users might find offensive, and removing communities \"that exist solely to ... make Reddit worse for everyone else\". Shortly after returning, Huffman wrote that \"neither Alexis nor I created reddit to be a bastion of free speech, but rather as a place where open and honest discussion can happen.\" In a 2012 interview, Ohanian had used the same phrase to describe Reddit, as noted by \"The New Yorker\" and \"The Verge\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn \"karma\" for their posts and comments, which reflects the user's standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called \"subreddits\", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site's front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit's administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ow3e8
|
what action could navient take if all borrowers stopped paying our student loans?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am sure there would be instant penalties for late payment. The borrowers would eventually have to pay extra interest. The debts are legal. Their manner of operation was not fair. If all the borrowers stopped paying the worth of the company would increase due to expected increased future revenue.\n\nThe company is good at collecting debt owed. They would just do it efficiently and make more money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20209096",
"title": "Student loan default in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Garnishment of wages and tax refund.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Defaulting on student loans can also end in a lawsuit. The government and private lenders can sue in order to collect on loans. There is no time limit on suing to collect on federal student loans, and the borrower can be sued indefinitely. Private student loans, in most cases, are subject to statute of limitations laws depending on the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1107755",
"title": "The Art Institutes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Student loan debtors have appealed to the US Department of Education for debt cancellation through defense to repayment claims. These efforts are premised on the allegations that they were defrauded. Students who attended the school during the time it closed may also be eligible for student loan cancellation. However, the Trump-DeVos administration has been unwilling to act in favor of students. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6008037",
"title": "Private student loan (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Unlike other consumer loans, Congress made student loans, both federal and private, exempt from discharge (cancellation) in the event of a personal bankruptcy, except when repaying the student loan would represent an undue hardship on the borrower and the borrower's dependents. This is a serious restriction that students rarely appreciate when obtaining a student loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25042227",
"title": "Student loan deferment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Student loan deferment is an agreement between the student and lender that the student may reduce or postpone repayment of a student loan for a designated period. Deferment or forbearance will prevent the loan from going into default, but may increase the overall cost of the loan. If the student is experiencing financial hardship or is unemployed, he or she may be eligible for deferment. The lender may require valid proof of financial hardship and other financial information when the student applies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17662295",
"title": "Forbearance",
"section": "Section::::Forbearance internationally.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Borrowers can either opt for a short-term relief by having their mortgage payment suspended for a short period of time (known as forbearance in the U.S.), or they can apply for reduced payments over the life of the loan’s term (known as loan modification in the U.S.). Lenders are required to give a particular reason as to why an application for hardship variation was being turned down by them. Borrowers are encouraged to talk to their internal complaints section of their respective bank or file a dispute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20209096",
"title": "Student loan default in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Individuals who are worried that they are unable to service their student loan debt should receive advice and counseling. There are few options available for American students other than payment in full. The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act makes discharging student loans through bankruptcy virtually impossible. Critics have noted that this lack of bankruptcy protection for consumers results in a \"risk-free\" loan for creditors, removing pressure on creditors to negotiate lower payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1697560",
"title": "Negative equity",
"section": "Section::::Negative net worth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "In the United States, student loans are rarely dischargeable in bankruptcy, and typically lenders provide student loans without requiring security. This stands in contrast to lenders requiring borrowers to have an equity stake in a comparably-sized real estate loan, as described above, secured by both a down payment and a mortgage. An explanation for the willingness of creditors to provide unsecured student loans is that, in a practical sense, American student loans are secured by the borrower's future earnings. This is so since creditors may legally garnish wages when a borrower defaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hbhd8
|
Hello. I would like to expand my knowledge about the general history of Europe
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi! Glad you're taking an interest in history. SO, you like Europe but don't know where to start. I'll give you a good list to get started but we have to cover two things first: Historical Interpretation and Historiography.\n\nHistory isn't an exact retelling of the past, instead, it is an argument about the past; this is because we only have a certain number of sources and they don't all line up perfectly and they are all biased. Therefore the historian's job is to take a look at these sources and compare them to one another and tease out the truth as best as possible. The facts and truths are just that--facts and truths--they don't mean anything on their own. Julius Caesar is assassinated in 44 BCE. Big deal. What does it mean? This what the historian tries to explain! After uncovering facts and truths from the sources, these are then lined up into a narrative of whatever event they are studying, and in the process of creating a narrative, the historian interprets the facts in a way that makes sense.\n\nIn the process of interpretation, the historian has an argument about the past they are trying to make: Edward Gibbon looked at the third through sixth centuries and to him, the facts made it evident that Rome was collapsing. Therefore this is what stands out to him and this what he writes about. Peter Brown took another look at it and while he saw decay, he also saw growth, so that is the argument he made.\n\nThere are all of these different arguments, and that is what history is characterized by--this isn't something fully touched on in school until the college level. As more evidence and sources are uncovered these arguments and views change over time. To re-use my previous example, the standard view of what happened to the Roman Empire--that it declined and fell in fire and blood and war and whatnot--comes from Edward Gibbon's work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire because this was what the evidence available at the time (1700s) led him to believe. More evidence is uncovered and debates move forward until, in 1971, Peter Brown writes The World of Late Antiquity, which challenges the notion of a decline and fall, and which emphasized the cultural legacy of Rome and revitalization of Europe in that era.\n\nThese arguments and the state of the field of history is something called Historiography: how historians have seen a certain event or era over time, as well the general written body of works on a given topic (anything written on the Roman Empire is part of Roman Historiography, for example).\n\nNow that that's out of the way I'll give you a list of works, and I'll explain how to read the works like a historian!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to give you a small list of European history books that try to cover as much history as possible. Once you read...five or six of these, you will have a decent enough background in general history to be able to pick a subfield--like the Roman Republic, or the Viking raids--to start going in-depth.\n\nEurope: A History--Norman Davies\n\nA History of Modern Europe--John Merriman\n\nThe History of the Ancient World--Susan Bauer\n\nThe History of the Medieval World--Susan Bauer\n\nThe History of the Renaissance World--Susan Bauer\n\nA Short History of the Middle Ages--Barb Rosenwein\n\nNow for how to read like a historian. So, these are general histories, they're not really going to have an argument about the past, just trying to lay out some general facts. Once you get through these, pick a field that has sparked your interest and start reading through that stuff. \n\nOpen up an Excel spreadsheet if you have a Windows computer, or a Numbers spreadsheet if you have an Apple. Create four columns, with the last being very wide. I know Roman stuff very well so we'll use that as a guide for how this is going to work. Title the spreadsheet Roman Historiography (or Norse, or German, or Medieval, or whatever you choose to read at that time). Far left column: Title of the book. Next column is the author. Next is the year of publication. The far right column will be titled Historical Argument/Interpretation. In this one you will summarize what the book was about and what the main argument the book was trying to make is (the book's thesis is usually in the introduction). \n\nNot everyone uses this method, but I find it a useful way to keep track of everything I am reading--be sure to organize it by publication year so you can easily find stuff!\n\nWhen you are actually reading the work, keep a pen or pencil handy, or a notebook if you prefer. Be sure to make a note of any interesting points or comments the historian makes (if they describe someone as a really good guy, for example, you may wish to make note of this, read some other stuff on whoever that historian was writing about, and come back to it and make your own judgment as to whether or not so and so was actually a \"good guy\" and hence form your own opinion on history).\n\nI'm going to give you one more list.\n\n",
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"answer": "This last list is on Historiography and Historical Interpretation. It's somewhat advanced, but if you really do have a passion for history you should have no trouble!\n\nA Student's Guide to History--Jules Benjamin\n\nHistory on Trial--Gary Nash\n\nTelling the Truth about History--Joyce Appleby\n\nThe Landscape of History--John Gaddis\n\nHistoriography--Eileen Cheng\n\nThe Story of Historiography--Jeremy Popkin\n\nAn Introduction to the theory, method and practice of History--Peter Claus\n\nHow to Study History--Norman Cantor\n\nThe Essential Historiography Reader--Caroline Hoefferie (this is a VERY good book)\n\nThe Philosophy of History--Mark Day\n\nThe Lessons of History--Will Durant\n\nWhat is History--Edward Carr\n\nI hope I helped! If you have any questions about books for particular areas, please feel free to message me or check the booklist on the sub!\n\nAlso!!!! Since you want to pursue this professionally, a tip: If possible, study both history and archaeology, as it will help give you a versatilty in the field!",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2527591",
"title": "Omar Pasha",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Reconstruction of Europe: A Sketch of the Diplomatic and Military History of Continental Europe, from the Rise to the Fall of the Second French Empire by Harold Murdock, John Fiske; Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1889\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "885795",
"title": "Modern history",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.:20th-century sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 340,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 340,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Robinson, James Harvey, and Charles Austin Beard. \"Readings in Modern European History; A Collection of Extracts from the Sources Chosen with the Purpose of Illustrating Some of the Chief Phases of Development of Europe During the Last Two Hundred Years\". Boston: Ginn & Co, 1908.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "11751644",
"title": "Contemporary European History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Contemporary European History is an international peer-reviewed academic history journal, published by Cambridge University Press quarterly since 1992 and covering the history of Europe from 1918 onwards. Currently its editors are Dr Ludivine Broch (University of Westminster), Dr Matthew Frank (University of Leeds) and Dr Jessica Reinisch (Birkbeck, University of London). The Managing Editor is Dr Victoria Harris. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "53430117",
"title": "Plamen Tzvetkov",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Europe in the 20th Century (A Political and Diplomatic History of the European Countries from World War I to the Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1914-1995, Vols.1-2\" (Original title: \"Европа през ХХ век. Политическа и дипломатическа история на европейските държави от Първата световна война до падането на Берлинската стена 1914–1995\". Ч.1-2. София, Нов български университет, 2002–2003)\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "31997884",
"title": "European History Online",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "European History Online (\"Europäische Geschichte Online, EGO\") is an academic website that publishes articles on the history of Europe between the period of 1450 and 1950 according to the principle of open access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "48414842",
"title": "Johan Schot",
"section": "Section::::Books.:Making Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 689,
"text": "Edited by Johan Schot and Philip Scranton of Rutgers University (USA), the Making Europe book series investigates the question of ‘Who built Europe?’ by charting the people and ideas, goods and technologies that spread between countries— and between continents. It is the result of a collective effort of an international team of authors and researchers, initiated in 1999 by researchers from Eindhoven University of Technology and the Dutch Foundation for the History of Technology. Fifteen years later the initiative is supported by an international group of renowned universities, research institutes, museums of science and technology, business and industry, and public organizations.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "10097663",
"title": "Geoffrey Bruun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "He was the author of several books on European history, including \"Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814,\" published in 1938; \"Europe in Evolution,\" (1945) and \"Europe and America Since 1492\" (1954), as well as a biography of Georges Clemenceau, the French statesman, published in 1943.\n",
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1aa3rq
|
how old is the notion of the political party?
|
[
{
"answer": "UK perspective here. It's important to note that the ideal of personal independence - moral, financial and political - was paramount as parties took shape in the late 18th and early 19thC. To be dependent on some kind of party line was seen almost as disreputable. You're into the 1830s and 40s before parties mean something other than a very loose collection of interests.",
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"answer": "Many of the answers that have been given focus on the machinery of the modern political party, but the question is about the *notion* of the political party, which is rather different. As with many of the central ideas of modern liberal-democratic politics, this concept can be traced, broadly speaking, to 17th and 18th-century England. It's no surprise that David Hume, writing in the mid-18th century, comments on the novelty of the concept, listing beside \"factions of interest\" and \"affection\" the \"parties from principle\":\n\n > Parties from principle, especially abstract speculative principle, are known only to modern times, and are, perhaps, the most extraordinary and unaccountable phænomenon, that has yet appeared in human affairs. [[Source](_URL_0_)]\n\nHenry Bolingbroke was instrumental in formulating the idea, being one of the first figures to argue for the need for a systematic opposition. In his *On the Idea of a Patriot King*, Bolingbroke argued for a formal opposition party to scrutinise and oppose government policies. He used this argument to support the unity of the so-called \"Country Party\", a coalition that was formed to oppose the government at the time. \n\nBy the time of Edmund Burke in the later 18th century, the idea of the party had been firmly established: \"a body of men united ... upon some particular principle\".\n\nThis idea is closely linked to, and to a large extent enabled by, the development of British liberalism. The Enlightenment liberals essentially upheld the idea that it was possible to reasonably disagree on the common good -- this was rather in contrast to many previous arguments which had seen the definition of the common good as an inherent function of sovereignty (Hobbes, for instance, thought along these lines). On this basis it was possible to articulate the idea of factions of people united not because of venal interest or obligations, but because of their principled agreement on some particular issue. \n\nIt is interesting that in more recent history the idea of the party has swung back in the opposite direction, becoming seen not as a mechanism for legitimate disagreement but, as Hume would put it, a \"faction of interest\" (Marx, of course, was instrumental in triggering this change with his reduction of all political discourse to an economic 'base').",
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"answer": "You can find political factions and movements wherever you have a democracy or a vocal aristocracy with rights. These factions are sometimes called parties (I've seen the Roman [*optimates*](_URL_4_), \"the best men\", and [*populares*](_URL_3_), \"of the people\", called \"parties\" before), but these were often orientations, common bases of powers and interests, sets of alliances and affiliations, political philosophies, etc. rather than political parties as we think of them today (for me, the best comparison for these is the orientations within a party, like the factional jockeying within the Politburo of the USSR). People could and did switch between the two (Pompey, for example).\n\nThe United States, Revolutionary France, and Constitutional UK are where most people start seeing \"factions\" becoming \"parties\" (what this means depends, and I don't claim enough knowledge to give the competing standpoints). In the United States, you have the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists, but again these were more factions than centrally organized parties (while the Federalists were somewhat united and networked, it is my understanding the Anti-Federalists were not). In the UK, fairly well organized and established factions had a long, illustrious role dating at least back to the [English Civil War](_URL_0_), though the boundaries kept shifting (as in Revolutionary France) as more and more people got kicked out. In Revolutionary France, you get the terms \"left\", \"right\", and \"center\" coming about *based on where they actually sat in the constitutional assembly* (a fact which I always thought was so cool). The constant meeting for government affairs allowed the establishment of more or less fixed blocs, proto-parties if you word, but the unstable political situation meant these blocs were changing. From [Wiki](_URL_2_):\n\n > The terms \"left\" and \"right\" appeared during the French Revolution of 1789 when members of the National Assembly divided into supporters of the king to the president's right and supporters of the revolution to his left. One deputy, the Baron de Gauville explained, \"We began to recognize each other: those who were loyal to religion and the king took up positions to the right of the chair so as to avoid the shouts, oaths, and indecencies that enjoyed free rein in the opposing camp.\" However the Right opposed the seating arrangement because they believed that deputies should support private or general interests but should not form factions or political parties. The contemporary press occasionally used the terms \"left\" and \"right\" to refer to the opposing sides.\n\n > When the National Assembly was replaced in 1791 by a Legislative Assembly composed of entirely new members the divisions continued. \"Innovators\" sat on the left, \"moderates\" gathered in the centre, while the \"conscientious defenders of the constitution\" found themselves sitting on the right, where the defenders of the Ancien Régime had previously gathered. When the succeeding National Convention met in 1792, the seating arrangement continued, but following the coup d'état of June 2, 1793, and the arrest of the Girondins, the right side of the assembly was deserted, and any remaining members who had sat there moved to the centre. However following the Thermidorian Reaction of 1794 the members of the far left were excluded and the method of seating was abolished. The new constitution included rules for the assembly that would \"break up the party groups.\"\n\nThis institutional impetus against parties was actually common. See above, with the new French constitution trying to \"break up the party groups\". In the American context, [George Washington's Farewell Address](_URL_1_) famously condemns political parties, saying that they will lead to \"despotism\". Jefferson's Republicans were becoming organizationally opposed to Hamilton's Federalists, so it wasn't like this was idle speculation about a situation that \"might emerge\". \n\n > In contemplating the causes, which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter of serious concern, that any ground should have been furnished for characterizing parties by Geographical discriminations, Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western; whence designing men may endeavour to excite a belief, that there is a real difference of local interests and views. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence, within particular districts, is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts. You cannot shield yourselves too much against the jealousies and heart-burnings, which spring from these misrepresentations; they tend to render alien to each other those, who ought to be bound together by fraternal affection. [...]\n\n > All obstructions to the execution of the Laws, all combinations and associations, under whatever plausible character, with the real design to direct, control, counteract, or awe the regular deliberation and action of the constituted authorities, are destructive of this fundamental principle [that \"a Government for the whole is indispensable\"], and of fatal tendency. They serve to organize faction, to give it an artificial and extraordinary force; to put, in the place of the delegated will of the nation, the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minority of the community; and, according to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the public administration the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous projects of faction, rather than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans digested by common counsels, and modified by mutual interests. [...]\n\n > I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party, generally.\n\nIt goes on from there. Those are three paragraphs, but [most of at least paragraphs 15-26 is about parties](_URL_5_). I feel like every high school U.S. history textbook covers speech and then finishes this section with some sentiment like \"But it was already too late.\"\n\nNone of these are parties (except maybe the ones Washington is railing against). None of them have central offices, united platforms, fixed formal affiliation, party names on ballots, etc., but I thought it was useful to give some sense of what existed before parties to better help understand them. \"Political clubs\" of the late 18th and early 19th century in all three countries probably help establish parties, as it ties voters to institutional political identities in a different way. There's a lot more, of course, that turns factions to parties, but I just wanted to give a little bit of background to the whole debate. I hope someone will help pick up where I left off (or correct any overly broad brush strokes).",
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"wikipedia_id": "3612962",
"title": "First Party System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The First Party System is a model of American politics used in history and political science to periodize the political party system that existed in the United States between roughly 1792 and 1824. It featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress, and the states: the Federalist Party, created largely by Alexander Hamilton, and the rival Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party, formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, usually called at the time the Republican Party. The Federalists were dominant until 1800, while the Republicans were dominant after 1800.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "249433",
"title": "Political parties in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History and early political parties.:Minor parties and independents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
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"end_character": 420,
"text": "Although American politics have been dominated by the two-party system, several other political parties have also emerged throughout the country's history. The oldest third party was the Anti-Masonic Party, which was formed in upstate New York in 1828. The party's creators feared the Freemasons, believing they were a powerful secret society that was attmpting to rule the country in defiance of republican principles.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "40605472",
"title": "Social Democratic Party (UK)",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_character": 577,
"text": "The origin of the party can be traced back to the ideological divisions in the Labour Party in the 1950s (with its forerunner being the Campaign for Democratic Socialism established to support the Gaitskellites), but publicly lies in the 1979 Dimbleby Lecture given by Roy Jenkins as he neared the end of his presidency of the European Commission. Jenkins argued the necessity for a realignment in British politics, and discussed whether this could be brought about from within the existing Liberal Party, or from a new group driven by European principles of social democracy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "32443",
"title": "Vanuatu",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The first political party, established in the early 1970s, was called the New Hebrides National Party. One of the founders was Father Walter Lini, who later became Prime Minister. Renamed the Vanua'aku Pati in 1974, the party pushed for independence, which was gained amidst the brief Coconut War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "144570",
"title": "History of the Constitution of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Post-Civil War.:Popular political movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 507,
"text": "The idea of a political party with factions took form around the time of the Civil War. Soldiers from the Parliamentarian New Model Army and a faction of Levellers freely debated rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The Levellers published a newspaper (The Moderate) and pioneered political petitions, pamphleteering and party colours. Later, the pre-war Royalist (then Cavalier) and opposing Parliamentarian groupings became the Tory party and the Whigs in the Parliament.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "539672",
"title": "History of the United States (1789–1849)",
"section": "Section::::Federalist Era.:Emergence of political parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The First Party System between 1792 and 1824 featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress, and the states: the Federalist Party was created by Alexander Hamilton and was dominant to 1800. The rival Republican Party (Democratic-Republican Party) was created by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, and was dominant after 1800. Both parties originated in national politics but moved to organize supporters and voters in every state. These comprised \"probably the first modern party system in the world\" because they were based on voters, not factions of aristocrats at court or parliament. The Federalists appealed to the business community, the Republicans to the planters and farmers. By 1796, politics in every state was nearly monopolized by the two parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political parties and elections.:General developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Most of the Founding Fathers rejected political parties as divisive and disruptive. By the 1790s, however, most joined one of the two new parties, and by the 1830s parties had become accepted as central to the democracy. By the 1790s, the First Party System was born. Men who held opposing views strengthened their cause by identifying and organizing men of like mind. The followers of Alexander Hamilton, were called \"Federalists\"; they favored a strong central government that would support the interests of national defense, commerce and industry. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, the Jeffersonians took up the name \"Republicans\"; they preferred a decentralized agrarian republic in which the federal government had limited power.\n",
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1myvmv
|
Why did the pikemen of the Hellenistic phalanxes carry shields, while the medieval European pikemen didn't?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know a ton about ancient pikemen, but as for the Swiss:\n\nThe massive pikes they used required two hands to use effectively, but that still could have allowed the use of a small shield. The Swiss pike formation adopted very aggressive tactics - the goal was to use a combination of speed, surprise, and shock to overrun the enemy force before they knew what hit them. Still, this doesn't necessarily preclude the use of a small shield.\n\nI think a better answer would note that shields in general were in decline in European warfare at this time, or at least radical transformation when it came to their traditional function. First, the introduction of steel plate armor made shields increasingly redundant, as anything capable of getting through your breastplate would probably pierce a shield. Men-at-arms began to use two-handed weapons almost exclusively, and shields like the buckler became more associated with light armor. Second, the increasing use of firearms made the anti-archery function of shields less useful and prompted a focus on thick armor to deflect bullets over large shields to catch arrows.\n\nSo, in the time that the pike were rising (mid 15th to early 16th centuries) shields were on their way out due to better armor and a change in the likely threat from ranged attacks. The pikemen of the era wore plate corselets (and possibly more, up to three quarters or full plate armor if they could get it) to defend themselves, which provided more protection than shields were likely too against gunfire and enemy blades and gave them good protection while keeping their hands free.\n\nNote that this is simplified - this is also the era of the buckler and Spanish \"sword and buckler men\" (who, despite the name, used full shields rather than bucklers). But the shields of that time focused more on complementing a maneuverable soldier who could use it in melee against a close-quarters opponent - not exactly a situation a pikeman is likely to find himself in.\n\nInterested in anyone's comments, especially someone familiar with Hellenistic phalanxes - I'd love to compare and contrast.",
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"answer": "It's all about the specifics, but I'll try here. \n\nAny military is going to be the product of its time and circumstances. On one hand, yes, the spear was shorter and therefore lighter, enabling the use of a shield, but the Macedonian phalangite formations used a massive pike, comparable to the Swiss, but had a small shield they slung over the shoulder and strapped to the forearm. \n\nThe Mediterranean phalanxes really saw their major actions against the Persians. The Persian armies used massed archers as a large part of their tactical toolbox, and an effective counter to these archer blocks was the shielded, armored phalanx. There were societal and technological forces at work as well (later Persian generals went so far as to import Greek mercenaries to train 'imitation' hoplites, which met with little success), but facing an archer with a shielded formation is an effective means of defeating that archer. \n\nThe Swiss pike blocks evolved around pressures of facing heavy shock cavalry charges instead of massed archery. Since the main threat to the formation is a heavily armored charging knight, the Swiss formations were built around repelling that threat. The pike and the mobility and discipline of the men wielding that pike was a weapon system that suited its time period. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "427067",
"title": "Swiss mercenaries",
"section": "Section::::Organization and tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
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"text": "Such deep pike columns could crush lesser infantry in close combat and were invulnerable to the effects of a cavalry charge, but they were vulnerable to firearms if they could be immobilized (as seen in the Battle of Marignano). The Swiss mercenaries did deploy bows, crossbows, handguns and artillery of their own, however these always remained very subsidiary to the pike and halberd square. Despite the proven armour-penetration capability of firearms, they were also very inaccurate, slow-loading, and susceptible to damp conditions, and did not fit well with the fast-paced attack tactics used by the Swiss mercenary pike forces.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1012887",
"title": "Early modern warfare",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Firearms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "The proper use of the pike required complex operations in formation and a great deal of fortitude and cohesion by the pikemen, again making amassing large forces difficult. Starting in the early 14th-century, armourers added plate-armour pieces to the traditional protective linked mail armour of knights and men-at-arms to guard against the arrows of the longbow and crossbow. By 1415, some infantrymen began deploying the first \"hand cannons\", and the earliest small-bore arquebuses, with burning \"match locks\", appeared on the battlefield in the later 15th century.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "86778",
"title": "Pike (weapon)",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The great length of the pikes allowed a great concentration of spearheads to be presented to the enemy, with their wielders at a greater distance, but also made pikes unwieldy in close combat. This meant that pikemen had to be equipped with an additional, shorter weapon such as a dagger or mace in order to defend themselves should the fighting degenerate into a melee. In general, however, pikemen attempted to avoid such disorganized combat, in which they were at a disadvantage. To compound their difficulties in a melee, the pikeman often did not have a shield, or had only a small shield which would be of limited use in close-quarters fighting.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "86778",
"title": "Pike (weapon)",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The pike, being unwieldy, was typically used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often alongside other missile and melee weapons. However, better-trained troops were capable of using the pike in an aggressive attack with each rank of pikemen being trained to hold their pikes so that they presented enemy infantry with four or five layers of spearheads bristling from the front of the formation.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1001476",
"title": "Tercio",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the Granada War (1482–92). During the Italian Wars, under the direction of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, called \"the great captain\", the system of combined groups of pikemen, arquebusiers and swordsmen developed. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a tactically unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, but by 1534 this had been reduced to the tercio with a maximum of 3,000.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "86778",
"title": "Pike (weapon)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe revival.\n",
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"text": "These formations were essentially immune to the attacks of mounted men-at-arms as long as the knights obligingly threw themselves on the spear wall and the foot soldiers remained steady under the morale challenge of facing a cavalry charge, but the closely packed nature of pike formations rendered them vulnerable to enemy archers and crossbowmen who could shoot them down with impunity, especially when the pikemen did not have adequate armor. Many defeats, such as at Roosebeke and Halidon Hill, were suffered by the militia pike armies when faced by cunning foes who employed their archers and crossbowmen to thin the ranks of the pike blocks before charging in with their (often dismounted) men-at-arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5427676",
"title": "Cavalry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Riding and fighting on horseback.:Infantry countertactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "The long spears (pikes) of Scots and Swiss were an excellent defensive weapon against cavalry. The warriors stood in tight formations like an ancient phalanx, the end of their pikes embedded in the ground, presenting a massive spiked wall. In battle against the Scots, the English knights proved to be as narrow-minded as their French counterparts, employing the classic cavalry charge despite the new challenge of the Scottish pike. In the battles of Stirling Bridge (1297) and Bannockburn (1314) they were defeated by the Scots. While the English imitated this tactic successfully against the French, the Swiss perfected it. Despite longer lances for the knights, this formation was now almost impenetrable. Pikemen with polearms remained an important part of armies throughout the Thirty Years' War. Later tactics used against this formation included caracole maneuvers with ranged weapons. However, a well-trained cavalry force could outflank a force of enemy pikemen on even terrain and triumph. The most elite knights, with the best armour, immense prowess and extremely-well trained horses, could charge pike formations and still, even if only scarcely, hold their own, sometimes even triumphing; however, the cost to raise and maintain such troops was enormous and impractical when considering alternative options to the head-on charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qdgf6
|
Who is the current "Lineal Champion" of military history?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think this is answerable (even if it didn't break the rules).\n\nThe greatest military minds in history are by definition generals who performed exceptionally well. They won wars after wars, beat all those around them, and by these feats are labelled as exceptional military leaders. In this sense they are considered exceptional military minds because they are the champions of their place and time.\n\nThat means there's no way to have a show down between these metaphorical champions. Alexander the Great, Bai Qi, Caesar, Ashoka, Napoleon, Uesugi Kenshin, Genghis Khan and a whole bunch of talented generals and admirals did not fight each other. They existed at different times and/or places. So there is simply no way to answer your question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "360126",
"title": "Union Army",
"section": "Section::::Leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Among memorable field leaders of the army were Nathaniel Lyon (first Union general to be killed in battle during the war), William Rosecrans, George Henry Thomas and William Tecumseh Sherman. Others, of lesser competence, included Benjamin F. Butler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328744",
"title": "Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "By some historians he is considered the most effective general of his generation as well as one of the greatest in military history. Although a tough leader, he was respected by his troops. He touched their sentiments e.g. by addressing them in his speeches as \"gentlemen soldiers\" (señores soldados), but was also popular among them for daring statements such as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "915493",
"title": "Robert",
"section": "Section::::People with the name.:Wartime Figures and Military Leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Robert E. Lee, American and Confederate general, commander of the Confederate States Army during American Civil War, one of the moust famous military commanders of his time, considered one of the greatest generals of all time;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31217800",
"title": "World Heroes (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "In the distant future, Dr. Sugar Brown: a well-renowned and famous scientist is determined to figure out on who the strongest fighter of history is and has gone to great lengths in order to finally gain the answer of his own question. Through the use of a time machine that he had built, Dr. Brown has brought together eight fighters from the distant past (each of whom are based on actual historical figures) so that all of them can compete and take part in a fighting tournament that Dr. Brown has organized, the tournament itself being used as a way to determine on who the strongest fighter of history is. Little does Dr. Brown and the participating fighters know and realize that an unknown threat is secretly watching them during the progression of the tournament and that this unknown threat could easily endanger them and the rest of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28741971",
"title": "List of people in Montana history",
"section": "Section::::Montana Territory (1864–1889).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer, (1839–1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. Defeated and killed during the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Southeast Montana. Custer's defeat made him one of the most famous military figures in American history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41426428",
"title": "Guy Beatty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "He fought in several wars and conflicts, including those on the North-West Frontier, in the Boxer Rebellion, in the First World War and in the Third Afghan War. During which he commanded his regiment and several brigades, rising in rank to major-general. He was also awarded several orders and was knighted for his service before retiring from the army in 1931.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2611376",
"title": "Lewis Blaine Hershey",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "General Hershey was one of only six generals in the history of the United States Army to have served as a general during three major conflicts. The other five were Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott (War of 1812, Mexican War and Civil War), General of the Army Douglas MacArthur (World War I, World War II and Korea), Lieutenant General Milton Reckord (World War II, Korea, Vietnam), Major General Leo Boyle (World War II, Korea, Vietnam), and General Hugh Shelton (Panama, Gulf War, War on Terror).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abzdnx
|
why does the federal reserve pay interest to banks? what is the impact of this?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the other way around: the banks pay interest to the Federal Reserve Bank on money they borrow from the FRB.\n\nA higher rate on those loans makes it more expensive for banks to borrow money, which makes those banks charge more for loans (discouraging borrowers) or be more cautious about the loans they make.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42894999",
"title": "Discount policy",
"section": "Section::::The United States discount rate policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "The United States Federal Reserve System lends money to eligible commercial institution called discount window, Purposely created in 1913 as a mean to operate the central bank in The United States. The interest on loans given out to commercial institutions are discount rate, which is a monetary policy tool used by the Federal Reserve to stimulate the U.S economy. Commercial banks mark up interest from the loans taken from the discount window to gain profit from interest on loan taken out by the public. With the high interest rates, people are less expected to take out loans. Thus, there are less money circulating in the economy, causing it to move in to a recessionary state. Decline in interest rates are made by the Central Bank if the economy goes into a recession. The Federal Reserve have varieties of tools along with the discount rate to manage and relieve tension in the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42894999",
"title": "Discount policy",
"section": "Section::::The United States discount rate policy.:Usage of the discount rate during The Great Recession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "According to UC Berkeley researchers, commercial institutions started to give loan to subprime borrowers in order to increase profits on risky investments. Since they were more likely to default on their loans, banks were losing money which resulted in increase interest rates. Consequently, interest rate prices are higher than usual, people weren't taking out loans causing the economy to be contractionary. In turn, the The Federal Reserve System recognized the problem and took counter measures to intervene with the downsizing economy. They decreased the interest rates at the discount window to bail out the economy during The Great Recession. Since the commercial banks are able to retrieve loans at a lower rate, this waterfalls down to the general public to be able to circulate money in the economy. Monetary policy used by The Central Banks caused the economy to thrive from the recession by utilizing the discount rate that bails out commercial banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164391",
"title": "Monetary policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Opinions of the Federal Reserve.:Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms, involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion. Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10819",
"title": "Federal Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Monetary policy.:Tools.:Reserve requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10819",
"title": "Federal Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Federal Reserve Banks.:Legal status of regional Federal Reserve Banks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26692249",
"title": "Structure of the Federal Reserve System",
"section": "Section::::Federal Reserve Banks.:Legal status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1601,
"text": "The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. Each member bank (commercial banks in the Federal Reserve district) owns a nonnegotiable share of stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. However, holding Federal Reserve Bank stock is unlike owning stock in a publicly traded company. The charter of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks. Federal Reserve Bank stock cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. They do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768158",
"title": "Federal funds rate",
"section": "Section::::Explanation of federal funds rate decisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The Federal Reserve has responded to a potential slow-down by lowering the target federal funds rate during recessions and other periods of lower growth. In fact, the Committee's lowering has recently predated recessions, in order to stimulate the economy and cushion the fall. Reducing the federal funds rate makes money cheaper, allowing an influx of credit into the economy through all types of loans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
786z5b
|
Why is Hitler's Muder of USSR Civilians never talked about?
|
[
{
"answer": "Related to your question, you might be interested in [this](_URL_0_) earlier answer by u/commiespaceinvader, which doesn't specifically focus on Soviet civilians, but does explain why there's a tendency to highlight the fate of the Jews in particular.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This thread](_URL_1_) from /u/commiespaceinvader discusses Generalplan Ost, which is the larger planned campaign of murder in the East, beyond simply the Holocaust. It doesn't specifically address \"why is it never talked about\" in the way you might be wondering, but I would caution you about *any* question which is premised in that way, as the answer is rarely one that can be approached entirely objectively, as it, in reality, says more about where and when you were in school, and what kind of media you generally have been exposed to, so the answer can vary wildly for, say, someone with a basic high school education who graduated in 1960, and someone like this /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov guy who has read extensively about the Eastern Front of World War II. [This answer I wrote a little while ago](_URL_0_) is *not* about Generalplan Ost, but it is about another topic on the Eastern Front, and I think is relevant for you here. The sum which carries over is that, while Generalplan Ost *is* a bigger deal than the Night Witches, it still is something which brief coverage - if any - is the best I would expect to see in a high school environment, and given how cursory education of even the Holocaust often is at that level (I'm failing to find it, but there have been some useful discussion chains between myself, /u/kugelfang52, and several others, about the poor quality of Holocaust education in the American school system, which perhaps he can remember the thread for), skipping over it is not at all surprising.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/Iphikrates already linked my [previous answer](_URL_2_) related to this subject (thank you!) but there are some problems with your premise:\n\nFirst of all, both the number of civilians killed in the USSR (7 million) and the number of killed Soviet POWs (3 million) include the number of Jewish victims that are also counted towards the approximately 6 million Jewish victims of the Holocaust. In this case they represent 1.3 million in case of the civilians and at least 50.000 (in case of the POWs) respectively.\n\nSecondly, \"objectively worse\" is not a category that can be applied here, in my opinion. There is no scale of mass atrocity. Both the murder of millions of Jewish victims in Europe and the murder of millions of Soviet civilians and POWs (including the Jewish ones) are crimes that are just beyond imagination for us and any scale applied here about which was worse, is basically useless because it doesn't contribute in any meaningful way to our understanding of what these crimes meant or why they were carried out. Simply put, as I have written before, when you deal in the category of Nazi atrocities against all its victims \"worse\" is not really a category that can cover it anymore.\n\nThirdly, that the crimes of the Nazis against the population of the Soviet Union are not talked about is simply not the case in any meaningful sense. Various institutions charged with remembrance and research into the crimes of the Nazis deal quite extensively with the atrocities in the Soviet Union. E.g. the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum makes specific mention of the Soviet POWs in their [Intro into the Holocaust](_URL_1_) and deals with both the Einsatzgruppen shootings, the hunger policy, and the crimes committed in the course of Partisan warfare extensively in their exhibition.\n\nSimilarly, both German and English language academia has produced a wealth of books that could fill whole libraries about the crimes committed by the Germans against the Soviet populace. This goes as far back as the late 70s with Helmtuh Krausnick's publication about the Einsatzgruppen but also includes Christian Streit's *Keine Kameraden*, which is still the definitive book about the crimes committed against the Soviet POWs but also more recent publications such as Omer Bartov's books about the Wehrmacht in the Soviet Union. Crimes against the Soviet populace even took center stage in one of the most hard-fought historiographical debates in recent German memory in the form of the so-called \"war of annihilation\" debate.\n\nIn 1991 various German scholars put together the so-called Wehrmacht exhibition, which premiered in 1995. It dealt with the various criminal activities of the Wehrmacht and thus focused mainly on the Soviet Union. Not only was this exhibition seen by thousands upon thousands of people in subsequent years, it also sparked a debate among German and also English language historians, namely, did the Wehrmacht set out with plans for annihilator warfare into their war in the USSR or was this something that arose from the situational circumstances of the war. Historians such as Manfred Messerschmidt and also the aforementioned Omer Bartov posited that the Wehrmacht was fighting a \"partisan war without partisans\", meaning that they employed brutal and ruthless policy against Soviet civilians, regardless if they were involved in partisan warfare or not, simply because they were Soviets. And while this did receive some backlash, mostly from conservative historians, by now, this has become a pretty accepted model with which to explain the German crimes in the Soviet Union – as motivated by racism, hatred and Nazi ideology.\n\nAdditionally, it ought to be kept in mind that virtually all of the scholarship produced in the former Eastern Bloc during the period of existing socialism (and some of that is still surprisingly useful and therefore read today) placed a strong emphasis on the plight of the Soviet people – to such a degree in fact that other victim groups unrelated to socialist political activity were left out or subsumed in official political memory of the Nazi crimes: Within this nexus of memory, places like Belzec, Treblinka and Sobibor were not remembered as places where people were killed because the Nazis persecuted them for being Jewish but places of socialist Soviet suffering. This was a problem within itself from a historiogrpahical standpoint (and a political one seeing the continuation of such trends under new auspices today in many formerly socialist countries) but it goes to show that there was and is a lot of research and dealings with Nazi crimes against the Soviet populace.\n\nWhile I can't address the American school curriculum and its probable shortcomings (where I suspect there are many concerning WWII and the Holocaust), as I've said, there are various institutions out there who make the effort to deal with German crimes against the Soviet Union and its populace and there is far from a dearth of information out there – rather the opposite.\n\nFor more information, I'd suggest the following books among others:\n\n* Omer Bartov: The Eastern Front, 1941–45 : German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare, 2001.\n\n* Richard Evans: The Third Reich at War.\n\n* Waidman Beorn: Marching into Darkness (Beorn did an AMA with us [here](_URL_0_))\n\n* Edward B. Westerman: Hitler's police battalions.\n\n* Stephen G. Fritz: Ostkrieg: Hitler's War of Extermination in the East, 2011.\n\n* Jürgen Förster: \"The Wehrmacht and the War of Extermination Against the Soviet Union\".\n\n* Alex J. Kay: Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder: Political And Economic Planning for German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1940-1941. 2011.\n\n* Lee Baker: The Second World War on the Eastern Front. \n\n* Ben Shepherd: Hitler's Soldiers: The German Army in the Third Reich.\n\n* Mark Mazower: Hitler's Empire.\n\n* Dieter Pohl: Die Herrschaft der Wehrmacht in der Sowjet Union.\n\n* Christian Gerlach: Kalkulierte Morde.\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is also worth pointing out that the traditional, Soviet portrayal of German crimes during WWII was to focus on crimes against all civilians, downplaying the particular suffering of Jews (what we would today refer to as the Holocaust) by calling victims “peaceful soviet citizens” or “peaceful soviet residents”. This trend of subsuming Jewish suffering into a wider story of people who died in bombings, as a result of German reprisal killings in response to partisan activity, from illness, or as part of other campaigns of German violence (which did exist, and were directed against so-called “gypsies”, the mentally ill, Communists, etc) began in 1943 and continued until the mid-nineteen-eighties, when Gorbachev came to power and *glastnost’* began. So OP, when your parents were young, if they were growing up in the USSR, they would have heard no public discussions of Jewish suffering, and only broader descriptions of German crimes against the Soviet people as a whole.\n\nIt is important to remember that the way we commemorate and remember events today is not necessarily the way it has always been.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4751135",
"title": "Soviet war crimes",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Germany.:Murders of civilians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In the Soviet occupation zone, members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rape by Soviet soldiers could result in a negative reaction by the German population towards the Soviet Union and the future of socialism in East Germany. Stalin is said to have angrily reacted: \"I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20084130",
"title": "World War II casualties of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1279,
"text": "Russian scholars attribute the high civilian death toll to the Nazi Generalplan Ost which treated the Soviet people as \"subhumans\", they use the terms \"genocide\" and \"premeditated extermination\" when referring to civilian losses in the occupied USSR. German occupation policies implemented under the Hunger Plan resulted in the confiscation of food stocks which resulted in famine in the occupied regions. During the Soviet era the partisan campaign behind the lines was portrayed as the struggle of the local population against the German occupation. To suppress the partisan units the Nazi occupation forces engaged in a campaign of brutal reprisals against innocent civilians. Historian Albert Seaton maintains that the Soviet government's \"disregard for life and its contempt for any form of humanity and decency was one of the decisive factors in recruiting and control of the partisan movement\". According to Seaton the local population was coerced by the Soviet led partisans to support their campaign which led to the reprisals. The extensive fighting destroyed agricultural land, infrastructure, and whole towns, leaving much of the population homeless and without food. During the war Soviet civilians were taken to Germany as forced laborers under inhuman conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25854438",
"title": "Rape during the occupation of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Soviet troops.:Studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "In his analysis of the motives behind the extensive Soviet rapes, Norman Naimark singles out \"hate propaganda, personal experiences of suffering at home, and an allegedly fully demeaning picture of German women in the press, not to mention among the soldiers themselves\" as a part reason for the widespread rapes. Naimark also noted the effect that tendency to binge-drink alcohol (of which much was available in Germany) had on the propensity of Soviet soldiers to commit rape, especially rape-murder. Naimark also notes the allegedly patriarchal nature of Russian culture, and of the Asian societies comprising the Soviet Union, where dishonor was in the past repaid by raping the women of the enemy. The fact that the Germans had a much higher standard of living visible even when in ruins \"may well have contributed allegedly to a national inferiority complex among Russians\". Combining \"Russian feelings of inferiority\", the resulting need to restore honor, and their desire for revenge may be the reason many women were raped in public as well as in front of husbands before both were killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392171",
"title": "Hans Globke",
"section": "Section::::Globke's Nazi past.:Trial in East Berlin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Globke became a central target of Soviet propaganda, not so much because of his career during the Nazi era, but because of his powerful position in the West German government and trenchant anti-communist stance. In 1963 East Germany convicted him in a show trial \"in absentia\"; however, such East German trials were not recognised outside of the Soviet bloc, least of all by West Germany. The fact that much of the criticism of Globke came from the Soviet bloc, and that it mixed genuine information with false accusations, made it easier for the West Germans and the Americans to dismiss it as communist propaganda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28552142",
"title": "Mass suicides in 1945 Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::State encouragement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1348,
"text": "The suicidal atmosphere was enhanced by the Nazis' report of numerous Soviet mass graves and other atrocities committed by the NKVD and Red Army towards the end of the war. A Nazi leaflet distributed in February 1945 in Czech territories warned German readers about the \"Bolshevik murderer-pack\" whose victory would lead to \"incredible hatred, looting, hunger, shots in the back of the neck, deportation and extermination\" and appealed to German men to \"save German women and girls from defilement and slaughter by the Bolshevik bloodhounds\". These fears, and the portrayal of \"Soviet Bolsheviks\" as sub-human monsters, led to a number of mass suicides in eastern Germany. One female clerk in the city of Schönlanke within Pomerania said, \"Out of fear of these animals from the east, many Schönlankers ended their lives. (around 500 of them) Whole families were wiped out in this way.\" The fear of Soviet occupation was so great that even people living far from Soviet lines, including a pensioner in Hamburg, killed themselves in fear of what Soviet soldiers would do to them. The behavior of Soviet troops also played a role, as many Germans committed suicide to avoid rape or out of shame at having been raped. In addition, many suicides are believed to have occurred due to depression caused or exacerbated by living in a war zone among ruins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5957493",
"title": "History of East Germany",
"section": "Section::::Creation, 1945–1949.:Division of Germany.:The Potsdam Conference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Russian soldiers systematically humiliated the Germans in 1945 by raping large numbers of women, many of them repeatedly. Soviets raped an estimated two million women and girls in East Germany alone immediately after occupation. Naimark states that not only did each victim have to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her life, it inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation that affected the acceptability of Soviet control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15524264",
"title": "Ostarbeiter",
"section": "Section::::Repatriation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "\"Ostarbeiter\" suffered from state-sanctioned stigmatisation, with special references in their passports (and the passports of their children and relatives) mentioning their time in Germany during the war. As a result, many jobs were off-limits to anyone unlucky enough to carry such a status, and during periods of repression former slave labourers would often be ostracised by the wider Soviet community. Many victims have testified that since the war they have suffered a lifetime of abuse and suspicion from their fellow countrymen, many of whom have accused them of being traitors who helped the Germans and lived comfortably in the Third Reich while Ukraine burned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fognqu
|
Is the optic nerve stretchy or is there some slack to let your eye move?
|
[
{
"answer": "The optic nerve in an adult has about 8mm of slack to allow the eye to move. \n\nNerves in general do not stretch very much, and the optic nerve in particular cannot stretch at all. That's because it is part of the central nervous system. \n\nBecause the nerve connects directly to the brain, it is covered in an extension of the brain's protective membrane envelope. Those membranes are called the \"meninges,\" and consist of three layers: the dura, the arachnoid, and the pia mater. The dura is the outermost layer. It's relatively thick and consists of tough, fibrous, connective tissue, to protect the other membrane layers and the underlying nerve itself. It doesn't stretch significantly, and that means the whole bundle has to stay a pretty much constant length.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3934834",
"title": "Inferior gluteal nerve",
"section": "Section::::Injury.:From hip replacement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The nerve enters the deep surface of the muscle and is not easily visualised and differentiated from other structures running with it, such as the blood vessels. Parting the muscle damages the nerve further by stretching or even rupturing its branches which run superiorly on its deep surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "545782",
"title": "Muscle spindle",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Stretch reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "When a muscle is stretched, primary type Ia sensory fibers of the muscle spindle respond to both changes in muscle length and velocity and transmit this activity to the spinal cord in the form of changes in the rate of action potentials. Likewise, secondary type II sensory fibers respond to muscle length changes (but with a smaller velocity-sensitive component) and transmit this signal to the spinal cord. The Ia afferent signals are transmitted monosynaptically to many alpha motor neurons of the receptor-bearing muscle. The reflexly evoked activity in the alpha motoneurons is then transmitted via their efferent axons to the extrafusal fibers of the muscle, which generate force and thereby resist the stretch. The Ia afferent signal is also transmitted polysynaptically through interneurons (Ia inhibitory interneurons), which inhibit alpha motorneurons of antagonist muscles, causing them to relax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300182",
"title": "Flexibility (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Stretch Receptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Stretch receptors have two parts: Spindle cells and Golgi tendons. Spindle cells, located in the center of a muscle, send messages for the muscle to contract. On the other hand, Golgi tendon receptors are located near the end of a muscle fiber and send messages for the muscle to relax. As these receptors are trained through continual use, stretching becomes easier. When reflexes that inhibit flexibility are released the splits then become easier to perform. The splits use the body's complete range of motion and provide a complete stretch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033060",
"title": "Type Ia sensory fiber",
"section": "Section::::Types of sensory fibers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The first of the two main groups of stretch receptors wrapping the intrafusal fibers are the Ia fiber, which are the largest and fastest fibers, and they fire when the muscle is stretching. They are characterized by their rapid adaptation, because as soon as the muscle stops changing length, the Ia stop firing and adapt to the new length. Ia fibers essentially supply proprioceptive information about the \"rate of change\" of its respective muscle: the derivative of the muscle's length (or position).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4527929",
"title": "Long ciliary nerves",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The long ciliary nerves provide sensory innervation to the eyeball, including the cornea. In addition, they contain sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion to the dilator pupillae muscle. The sympathetic fibers to the dilator pupillae muscle mainly travel in the nasociliary nerve but there are also sympathetic fibers in the short ciliary nerves that pass through the ciliary ganglion without forming synapses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6579618",
"title": "Retinal nerve fiber layer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) or nerve fiber layer, stratum opticum, is formed by the expansion of the fibers of the optic nerve; it is thickest near the optic disc, gradually diminishing toward the ora serrata.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6166019",
"title": "Orbitalis muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The muscle forms an important part of the lateral orbital wall in some animals and can act to change the wall's volume in lower mammals, while in humans it is not known to have any significant function, but its contraction may possibly produce a slight forward protrusion of the eyeball. Several sources have suggested a role in the autonomic regulation of the vascular system due to the pattern of innervation of the orbitalis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vnm69
|
Would inhabitants of the ISS be able to see with their bare eyes if a nuclear war started on earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "oh yeah, no doubt they could see it and the fires burning after.. \n\ntalking about things which explode brighter than the sun.. \n\nISS is only 350 kilometers up or so.. not very far \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most definitely. A nuclear fusion bomb is orders of magnitude hotter than the sun, so is much brighter. The mushroom cloud is also full of burning gas, so would be clearly visible from space. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depending on the intended target, high-altitude nuclear explosions could be used to generate an EMP. Would likely be very visible to someone on the ISS.\n\nFrom [wiki](_URL_1_):\n\"The worst effects of a Soviet high-altitude test occurred on 22 October 1962 (during the Cuban missile crisis), in ‘Operation K’ (ABM System A proof tests) when a 300 kt missile-warhead detonated near Dzhezkazgan at 290-km altitude. The EMP fused 570 km of overhead telephone line with a measured current of 2,500 A, started a fire that burned down the Karaganda power plant, and shut down 1,000-km of shallow-buried power cables between Aqmola and Almaty.\"\n\n\nTests were conducted anywhere between 22 and 540 km altitude.\n\nAs an example of how visible they were, [here](_URL_0_) is a photo taken 1300 km away from the detonation of the Starfish Prime test (detonation was 400 km up from the surface)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Absolutely, because astronauts regularly see lightning from space, which I'd imagine is MUCH, MUCH dimmer than a nuclear explosion.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a video showing what it looks like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost certainly yes. NASA has published many photos taken by astronauts of forest fires on earth, much smaller in scale and size than the detonation of 100 kiloton+ class nuclear weapons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7399444",
"title": "Yelena Serova",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Speaking at the plenary meeting of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe on 8 July 2019, she stated that “On the board of the International Space Station, [she and other astronauts] had a chance to see with naked eyes how bombs and shells exploded in Donbass and Luhansk. And they flew from the location of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Meanwhile, unarmed people died there. ” According to cosmonaut Yuri Baturin, such military operations are unlikely to be visible without special surveillance tools from the ISS. The altitude of the ISS above the ground ranges from 411.5 to 430.3 kilometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36123981",
"title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
"section": "Section::::Existing long-duration flight occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The second case of visual changes during long-duration spaceflight on board the ISS was reported approximately 3 months after launch when the astronaut noticed that he could now only see Earth clearly while looking through his reading glasses. The change continued for the remainder of the mission without noticeable improvement or progression. He did not complain of transient visual obscurations, headaches, diplopia, pulsatile tinnitus or visual changes during eye movement. In the months since landing, he has noticed a gradual, but incomplete, improvement in vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352841",
"title": "Soyuz 22",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The crew also performed several biological experiments. They ran a small centrifuge in the orbital module to see how plants grew in artificial gravity. They also investigated the effects of cosmic rays on human vision. This effect had first been reported by Apollo astronauts who described bright flashes when they closed their eyes. This was due to cosmic rays passing through the eye. Soyuz 22 also carried a small aquarium so that the crew could watch the behavior of fish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Human health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "In addition, after long space flight missions, astronauts may experience severe eyesight problems. Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a manned mission to the planet Mars. Exposure to high levels of radiation may influence the development of atherosclerosis also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36123981",
"title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
"section": "Section::::Existing long-duration flight occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The third case of visual changes while on board the ISS had no changes in visual acuity and no complaints of headaches, transient visual obscurations, diplopia or pulsatile tinnitus during the mission. Upon return to Earth, no eye issues were reported by the astronaut at landing. Fundus examination revealed bilateral, asymmetrical disc edema. There was no evidence of choroidal folds or cotton-wool spots, but a small hemorrhage was observed below the optic dics in the right eye. This astronaut had the most pronounced optic-disc edema of all astronauts reported to date, but had no choroidal folds, globe flattening or hyperopic shift. At 10 days post landing, an MRI of the brain and eyes was normal, but there appeared to be a mild increase in CSF signal around the right optic nerve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27319586",
"title": "Artificial structures visible from space",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical Calculation of Visibility from the ISS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "The human naked eye has an angular resolution of approximately 0.00028 radians, and the ISS targets an altitude of 400km. Using basic trigonometric relations, this means that an astronaut on the ISS with 20/20 vision could potentially detect objects that are 112m or greater in all dimensions. However, since this would be at the absolute limit of the resolution, objects on the order of 100m would appear as unidentifiable specs, if not rendered invisible due to other factors, such as atmospheric conditions or poor contrast. For readability from the ISS, using the same trigonometric principles and an assumed legibility requirement of 18 arcminutes, each letter would need to be approximately 2km tall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36123981",
"title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
"section": "Section::::Existing long-duration flight occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The seventh case of visual changes associated with spaceflight is significant in that it was eventually treated postflight. Approximately 2 months into the ISS mission, the astronaut reported a progressive decrease in his near and far acuity in both eyes. The ISS cabin pressure, CO and O levels were reported to be within normal operating limits and the astronaut was not exposed to any toxic substances. He never experienced losses in subjective best-corrected acuity, color vision or stereopsis. A fundus examination revealed a grade 1 bilateral optic-disc edema and choroidal folds (Figure 15).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1evxvc
|
How does your brain know how to assemble the signals from the individual cells in your retina into a spatial image?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is both hard-wired and partly plastic.\n\nThe basic organization is hard-wired, particularly in the crossing of some neurons from the right eye to the left side of the brain and some neurons from the left eye to the right side of the brain (while some from the right eye stay on the same side of the brain, and the same for the left!). The visual field is broken down into small areas and organized in a visuotopic map in the primary visual cortex, by which a particular area of the visual field is always handled by the same area of the brain. A great deal of this is organized based on orientation - close areas of the visual field are represented nearby in the visual cortex. These areas in the visual cortex are organized into columns in the outside layer of the brain, the gray matter, in the occipital lobe.\n\nBut there are some complications. For instance, much of the visual field can be seen with both eyes simultaneously. In these instances, the two areas of the retina corresponding to a particular point in the visual field - one from each eye - are mapped to adjacent areas in the visual cortex. So you have patterns of columns that are organized so that the areas of the visual field are mapped to columns that are adjacent to each other or very nearby.\n\nBut this basic organization is also somewhat plastic - it can be changed, particularly if there is a problem with the eyes at a very young age. If one eye is faulty or destroyed very early in life, we see that the columns of the visual cortex for the normal eye will expand, \"eating into\" the areas for the damaged eye (which are not receiving meaningful input). The later in life this happens, the less the brain is able to repurpose the unused portions of the visual cortex.\n\nEdit: But despite all this hard-wiring, the human brain can, amazingly, adapt to functioning in a world that is completely inverted, for instance, even if the inversion happens well into adulthood. All day, every day, George Stratton wore glasses that inverted the world - everything was upside down. By the 5th day, the inverted images appeared to be upright to him, and it was only when he concentrated that he was able to tell that they were inverted. His brain had seemingly reorganized its interpretation of the visual field to account for the change in orientation so that his mental image _seemed_ correct, even though it was inverted relative to the normal way light waves strike the retina.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26846987",
"title": "Parasol cell",
"section": "Section::::Parasol ganglion cells in the Magnocellular pathway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Eventually, the information these cells collect in the retina is sent to various parts of the visual cortex, including the posterior parietal cortex and area V5 through the dorsal stream, and the inferior temporal cortex and area V4 through the ventral stream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69832",
"title": "Saccade",
"section": "Section::::Saccades and vision.:Spatial updating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "When a visual stimulus is seen before a saccade, subjects are still able to make another saccade back to that image, even if it is no longer visible. This shows that the brain is somehow able to take into account the intervening eye movement. It is thought that the brain does this by temporarily recording a copy of the command for the eye movement, and comparing this to the remembered image of the target. This is called spatial updating. Neurophysiologists having recorded from cortical areas for saccades during spatial updating have found that memory-related signals get remapped during each saccade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305136",
"title": "Visual system",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Eye.:Retina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which will then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2676126",
"title": "Retinotopy",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "In many locations within the brain, adjacent neurons have receptive fields that include slightly different, but overlapping portions of the visual field. The position of the center of these receptive fields forms an orderly sampling mosaic that covers a portion of the visual field. Because of this orderly arrangement, which emerges from the spatial specificity of connections between neurons in different parts of the visual system, cells in each structure can be seen as contributing to a map of the visual field (also called a retinotopic map, or a visuotopic map). Retinotopic maps are a particular case of topographic organization. Many brain structures that are responsive to visual input, including much of the visual cortex and visual nuclei of the brain stem (such as the superior colliculus) and thalamus (such as the lateral geniculate nucleus and the pulvinar), are organized into retinotopic maps, also called visual field maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832632",
"title": "David H. Hubel",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Still other neurons, which they termed complex cells, detected edges regardless of where they were placed in the receptive field of the neuron and could preferentially detect motion in certain directions. These studies showed how the visual system constructs complex representations of visual information from simple stimulus features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48334",
"title": "Retina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In vertebrate embryonic development, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, specifically the embryonic diencephalon; thus, the retina is considered part of the central nervous system (CNS) and is actually brain tissue. It is the only part of the CNS that can be visualized non-invasively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8297063",
"title": "Spatial view cells",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Spatial view cells are used by primates for storing an episodic memory that helps with remembering where a particular object was in the environment. Imaging studies have shown that the hippocampus plays an important role in spatial navigation and episodic memories. Also, spatial view cells enable them to recall locations of objects even if they are not physically present in the environment. The neurons associated with remembering the location and object are often found in the primate hippocampus. These spatial view cells do not only recall specific locations, but they also remember distances between other landmarks around the place in order to gain a better understanding of where the places are spatially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a9x19
|
Did any countries in the Middle East play any roll in WWI or WWII? If so, what?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were a number of allied invasions in the region during 1941, as Britain pre-emptively dealt with potential threats to their oil supplies and lines of communications. At the time, the British position in North Africa was looking somewhat dire, as German forces under Rommel started to advance into Egypt itself.\n\nIran (formerly Persia) was occupied by Britain and the USSR from 1941 through the end of the war, and the Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son. Iraq was also invaded by Britain in 1941 after a military coup there lead the British to worry about the safety of the oil supply. During that conflict, German and Italian aircraft were given permission to aid Iraq by staging through the Vichy French territories of Lebanon and Syria, leading to an allied invasion of those two.\n\n[edit] I missed the fact that you were also asking about WWI. My mistake. As others have already covered that, I'll leave it at that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Ottoman Empire was one of the [major belligerents in WWI](_URL_2_). There was a lot of fighting on various fronts, ranging from a British-French-Anzac attempted invasion of the Dardanelles (the sea route to Istanbul, connecting, ultimately, the Mediterranean to the Russia Black Sea ports), the Russian invasion of Eastern Anatolia, and [Arab nationalist revolt](_URL_3_) against the Ottoman Empire sponsored by France and especially Britain (this is where T. E. Lawrence, \"Lawrence of Arabia\", got famous). [Wikipedia puts it this way](_URL_2_):\n\n > There were five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, and the Gallipoli Campaign. There were the minor North African Campaign, the Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign. \n\nTurkey stayed neutral in WWII, until the very end. Iran was neutral, but was [invaded](_URL_4_) by the British and the Soviets to make sure it stayed out of the war, because it had a leader who sympathized with the Axis powers. Much of the rest of the Middle East was under French or British mandates so these were not that many independent countries that could play independent roles, really. [*edit*: Egypt and Iraq were independent, but I believe both of their military affairs were forcefully taken over by Britain]. There was a good bit of fighting in North Africa, famously featuring the [Afrkia Korps](_URL_1_) commanded by [Erwin Rommel](_URL_0_) (\"the Desert Fox\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During WW1, Max Freiherr von Oppenheim led the Intelligence Bureau for the East and was closely associated with German plans to initiate and support a rebellion in India and in Egypt.\n\nLast year, two books about him were published in Germany, but I could not google any English language sources. \n\nAlexander Will: Kein Griff nach der Weltmacht. Geheime Dienste und Propaganda im deutsch-österreichisch-türkischen Bündnis 1914-1918. Köln: Böhlau 2012, 339 S.\n\nStefan M. Kreutzer: Dschihad für den deutschen Kaiser. Max von Oppenheim und die Neuordnung des Orients (1914–1918). Graz: Ares 2012, 191 S.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Middle East had already started to become a key oil territory by World War I through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (which later became BP). As the main supplier of oil to the Royal Navy, the Allies, the Germans and Ottomans all saw the region as a key strategy territory - probably the first time that oil supply became a vital war aim. \n\nThe Brits launched a pre-emptive strike against the Ottomans, landing at Basra, mainly to protect the pipeline out to the Euphrates and the weakest point in their war supply chain. \n\nHad they lost this, the Brits wouldn't have been able to supply oil to the navy which had been converted from coal to oil only a few years earlier. There would have been no way the Royal Navy could then have maintained itself against the German, coal burning, High Seas Fleet .\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24098280",
"title": "Mindfighter",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The premise of the game is a prophecy by Nostradamus that at the end of the 20th century there would be a major world war, beginning somewhere in the Middle East. The game was produced at a time of escalating violence in the Persian Gulf due to the Iran–Iraq War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3093402",
"title": "Middle Eastern theatre of World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I saw action between 29 October 1914 and 30 October 1918. The combatants were, on one side, the Ottoman Empire (including Kurds and some Arab tribes), with some assistance from the other Central Powers; and on the other side, the British (with the help of Jews, Greeks, Assyrians and the majority of the Arabs, along with Indians under its empire), the Russians (with the help of Armenians) and the French from among the Allied Powers. There were five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, and the Gallipoli Campaign. There were also several minor campaigns: the Senussi Campaign, Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4785384",
"title": "War in Europe (game)",
"section": "Section::::Scenarios.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "\"War in the West\" includes a four-turn introductory scenario on Poland 1939, as well as scenarios for France 1940, North Africa 1942 (from Gazala to Tunis), Italy 1943, and France 1944. \"War in the East\" includes a scenario for each of the years 1941, 1942, 1943, and 1944. The complete \"War in Europe\" contains a single scenario for the fall of Germany, beginning in December 1944 with the Battle of the Bulge. The full game can be played by two or three players (the Soviets have separate victory conditions, based on control of territorial objectives, from the Western Allies), but is also playable solitaire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4394126",
"title": "Gibraltar national cricket team",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The game was flourishing in the 1930s, with Gibraltar producing many locally born players. However, the Second World War meant a cut back in the game, with many cricket fields giving way to the military, one even being converted into an airfield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639116",
"title": "Middle East Theatre of World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The Middle East Theatre of World War II is defined largely by reference to the British Middle East Command, which controlled Allied forces in both Southwest Asia and eastern North Africa. From 1943, most of the action and forces concerned were in the adjoining Mediterranean Theatre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9025852",
"title": "Cheshire County League",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the league being split into Eastern and Western sections, with the winners of each playing for the overall championship in 1939–40, with the league then closing down for the duration of the combat until restarting in 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4439374",
"title": "War in Middle Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "War in Middle Earth is a real-time strategy game released for the ZX Spectrum, MSX, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, MS-DOS, Commodore Amiga, Apple IIGS, and Atari ST in 1988 by Australian company Melbourne House.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
63uzc2
|
why is everyone blaming the current ad revenue problems on youtube on youtube itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a very complicated subject to be honest.\n\nYoutube is responsible to where those ads will be put on. If an ad is put on a video promoting violence, then it's the responsibility of youtube. The advertisers had confidence in youtube that their ads won't be used on inappropriate video. \n\nThat said. There is a lot going on behind the curtain and everybody want to take advantage of the situation. Basically, youtube have blood in the sea and a lot of shark are going after it now.\n\nConventional media : They are losing audience and ad revenue because of youtube. Hurting youtube credibility and advertiser will spend the money they use to spend on youtube in other platform like in conventional media. So those media are putting more attention against youtube, even changing facts of some story to fit their agenda.\n\nMedia Advertiser and competition of youtube : The first and biggers advertiser to stop using youtube are media telecom. Compagnies like AT & T, Verizon, etc. Those company are competitor to youtube. Those own media company like HBO, TNT, TBS, Warner bros, CNN. Right now, those company need to put add on youtube if they want to reach a larger public. But if they hurt enough youtube, their own company could take the place of youtube.\n\nI also heard of Eric Feinberg. Some people think that he have a big part to play into all of this. He believe that the only way youtube can fix the problem is with AI to identify video that shouldn't get ads on, but he also believe that youtube can't achieve that would either violating his patent in AI technology or buying the AI product from his own company. He made several media appearance that started this whole thing.\n\nBasically, youtube have problems controlling on which video ads go so there is some situation where ads go in inappropriate video. That should be negotiate between youtube and their clients, but a lot of actors have to gain with this so they go public with it and embellish the situation so much that now advertiser without anything to gain in this are forced to remove their ads from youtube because they fear for their public image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14181749",
"title": "History of YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Advertising is YouTube's central mechanism for gaining revenue. This issue has also been taken up in scientific analysis. Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams argue in their book \"Wikinomics\" that YouTube is an example for an economy that is based on mass collaboration and makes use of the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5339378",
"title": "Censorship by Google",
"section": "Section::::YouTube.:Advertiser-friendly content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "In March 2017, a number of major advertisers and prominent companies began to pull their advertising campaigns from YouTube, over concerns that their ads were appearing on objectionable and/or extremist content, in what the YouTube community began referring to as a 'boycott'. YouTube personality PewDiePie described these boycotts as an \"adpocalypse\", noting that his video revenue had fallen to the point that he was generating more revenue from YouTube Red subscription profit sharing (which is divided based on views by subscribers) than advertising. On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced planned changes to its Partner Program, restricting new membership to vetted channels with a total of at least 10,000 video views. YouTube stated that the changes were made in order to \"ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Community policy.:Controversial videos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "In March 2017, the government of the United Kingdom pulled its advertising campaigns from YouTube, after reports that its ads had appeared on videos containing extremist content. The government demanded assurances that its advertising would \"be delivered in a safe and appropriate way\". \"The Guardian\" newspaper, as well as other major British and U.S. brands, similarly suspended their advertising on YouTube in response to their advertising appearing near offensive content. Google stated that it had \"begun an extensive review of our advertising policies and have made a public commitment to put in place changes that give brands more control over where their ads appear\". In early April 2017, the YouTube channel h3h3Productions presented evidence claiming that a \"Wall Street Journal\" article had fabricated screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing Johnny Rebel music overlaid on a Chief Keef music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had actually been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4251631",
"title": "GEMA (German organization)",
"section": "Section::::Revenues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "These numbers illustrate that, since the appearance of YouTube on February 15, 2005, absolutely no negative effects on earnings from usage rights can be detected to date. On the contrary, there has even been a considerable increase in income since 2005 (see Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60898024",
"title": "Advertising revenue",
"section": "Section::::Notable platforms.:YouTube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Another online advertising giant owned by Alphabet Inc. is video sharing website YouTube. In 2006, Google bought YouTube for $1.65 billion. In 2015, Bloomberg estimated YouTube to be worth approximately $70 billion, with over 30 million average daily visitors. YouTube content creators who publish and share their own videos can monetize them. In certain cases, YouTube will pay creators a percentage of the advertising revenue for advertisements that are placed within and before or after videos. The approximate share of advertising revenue paid to the creators of monetized videos is reported to be 55%; in 2013, the average creator's income was estimated to be $7.60 per thousand views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14181749",
"title": "History of YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Some industry commentators have speculated that YouTube's running costs (specifically the network bandwidth required) might be as high as 5 to 6 million dollars per month, thereby fuelling criticisms that the company, like many Internet startups, did not have a viably implemented business model. Advertisements were launched on the site beginning in March 2006. In April, YouTube started using Google AdSense. YouTube subsequently stopped using AdSense but has resumed in local regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Revenue.:Revenue to copyright holders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Much of YouTube's revenue goes to the copyright holders of the videos. In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue. In May 2013, Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games. In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mhwy8
|
how can a [computer] screen keep track of each and every pixel? how can it be this specific?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea, or perhaps model, is that every pixel on your screen can be identified with its own address. For pixels, addresses are usually in the form of coordinates. A bit (or a lot) as how points are identified in a mathematical graph.\n\nIt is customary to assign one of the four corners of your screen device the coordinates (x=0, y=0) and address all other pixels on your screen relative to that. Let us assume that the lower left corner is (0,0) and your screen resolution is x*y = 1080*1920. A point somewhere near the middle of your screen would have coordinates (x=539, y=959).\n\nSo far, all the coordinates I spoke of are *physical* coordinates. You can take a ruler to your display device, and provided it has a proper scale, use it to identify the individual pixels.\n\nNow, the software that is responsible for rendering an image on your display device has a region of computer memory dedicated to mirror the actual physical pixels of your display device.\n\nLet us say your program wants the pixel at coordinate (33, 22) set to an intense red. It instructs the *driver* (the bit of program that actually controls your display device) to set a certain value in a certain memory location. The value being \"intense red\" and the memory location coresponding to the pixel located at (33,22) on your display device.\n\nThis is how things are aranged on the threshold between your program and the driver for your display device.\n\nNow, how does the driver drive the display device? Here we enter into the realm of hardware. Physically, the pixels in colour displays have three distinct settings, being the amount of red, blue and green light they emit. By varying the relative amounts of these three primary colours, you can pretty much create the illusion of any other colour. At least good enough to fool a human eye.\n\nSo what the driver program does to drive the display hardware is it says \"for the pixel at (33,22) I want the settings to be 80% green, 4% blue and 76% red\".\n\n*How* exactly the driver program manages to convey this message to the display device is a whole different kind of magic. The ususal scheme is that you send the information from the driver program to the display device at a pace that is fixed in time. So at 0.01 milliseconds you send the info for pixel (x=0, y=0) and at 0.02 milliseconds you send the info for the next pixel at (x=0, y=1).\n\nClearly, the driver program and the display device somehow must agree on when the sequence starts, so that both understand that a certain set of (red green blue) values is meant for a certain physical pixel. Rather than having each computer and/or display device manufacturer think up their own original way of getting synchronized, industry standards have been layed down.\n\nAlso, sending data to be displayed on a device is not a static activity. When you are watching a video, movie or playing a game, you expect what you see to change from moment to moment. This is accomplished by continuously updating the information sent from the driver program to the display device. In general, the speed and smoothness that this happens with is refferred to as \"frames per second\".\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2274628",
"title": "Optacon",
"section": "Section::::Development of the Optacon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1817,
"text": "When a single column of 24 pixels is scanned across a line of text, all of the information is acquired. However, with the sense of touch, people are capable of perceiving two dimensional images. Bliss wondered if the reading rate would be higher if more than one column of 24 pixels were used, and if so, how many columns would be appropriate? Experiments with the computer simulation determined that reading rate increased dramatically up to 6 columns, which was a window width of about one letter space and this was about the maximum number of columns that could be placed on one finger. Jon Taenzer, one of Bliss’ Stanford graduate students, ran visual reading experiments on the same computer simulation and determined that for visual reading, reading rates continued to increase up to a window width of up to about 6 letter spaces. This led to a number of experiments toward trying to increase the tactile reading rate by increasing the number of columns in the tactile screen so more than one letter would be in view at a time. Instead of moving the text across only the index fingertip, tests were run with a screen wide enough for both the index finger and the middle finger to be used so two letters could be simultaneously tactually sensed. In another experiment the moving belt of text was run down the length of the fingers, rather than across them. The only approach that showed any promise of increasing the reading rate was when both index fingers were used, rather than the index finger and the adjacent middle finger. However, the use of both index fingers was incompatible with the design concept of using one hand to control the camera while the other hand sensed the tactile screen. The Optacon design was therefore based on an array of 24-by-6 pixels in both the camera retina and bimorph array.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7681",
"title": "ClearType",
"section": "Section::::How ClearType works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer’s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible pixels, each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent \"subpixels,\" each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7681",
"title": "ClearType",
"section": "Section::::How ClearType works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335157",
"title": "Memory-mapped I/O",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Assuming the fourth register of the video controller sets the background colour of the screen, the CPU can set this colour by writing a value to the memory location A003 using its standard memory write instruction. Using the same method, graphs can be displayed on a screen by writing character values into a special area of RAM within the video controller. Prior to cheap RAM that enabled bit-mapped displays, this character cell method was a popular technique for computer video displays (see Text user interface).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63429",
"title": "Atari 8-bit family",
"section": "Section::::Design.:ANTIC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Since each row can be specified individually, the programmer can create displays containing different text or bitmapped graphics modes on one screen, where the data can be fetched from arbitrary, non-sequential memory addresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19877",
"title": "Map",
"section": "Section::::Map types.:Electronic maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "BULLET::::3. enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23665",
"title": "Pixel",
"section": "Section::::Technical.:Resolution of computer monitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads, with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that are equally well supported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ybqnh
|
how do refrigerants like hfcs and hfos work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Think of it like a cup of steaming hot water in an insulated cup. As long as the lid is on, the heat is contained, it stays in the cup. Not harming anything.\n\nBut take the lid off and now the heat is escaping into the air.\n\nIt's the same concept, the heat gets absorbed, then it wants to be released again, except these gasses have more capacity and conductivity than just water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way they absorb heat to act as greenhouse gases (absorption of infrared radiation) and the way they absorb heat to act as refrigerants (phase change at convenient temperatures and pressures) are unrelated to each other. They don't correlate because there is no reason for them to correlate.\n\nMany substances are good at absorbing heat during phase changes. But most of them do so at temperatures or pressures which aren't practical to use in everyday refrigeration. Or, they are toxic, explosive, or corrosive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I don’t understand why, on an atomic level, HFCs / HFOs absorb heat better than other substances.\n\nThey don't, necessarily. \n\nIn fact, water is a fantastic refrigerant. Just not at the temperatures we would want to exploit phase changes. \n\nA refrigerant is chosen for the desired temperature. You want to choose a chemical that condenses and evaporates at temperatures that best result in your desired refrigeration temperature. \n\nFor humans, that means you want something that best produces 70 F. For a -20 C freezer you would use a different refrigerant. For a -80 C you would often use two distinct refrigerants in a sequence. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Note their big issue and CFCs even more wasnt their greenhouse gas property. Its that when in the upper atmosphere they degrade into smaller components. The Chlorine atoms break off as free radicals from these compounds. They then act as a catalyst in the degradation of ozone. Rather than get consumed though because they are a catalyst they just break down the ozone but stay for many many years",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4702515",
"title": "Vapor-compression refrigeration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Vapor-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7221088",
"title": "Air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Installation types.:Portable units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1826695",
"title": "Coolant",
"section": "Section::::Two-phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Refrigerants are coolants used for reaching low temperatures by undergoing phase change between liquid and gas. Halomethanes were frequently used, most often R-12 and R-22, often with liquified propane or other haloalkanes like R-134a. Anhydrous ammonia is frequently used in large commercial systems, and sulfur dioxide was used in early mechanical refrigerators. Carbon dioxide (R-744) is used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, commercial refrigeration, and vending machines. Many otherwise excellent refrigerants are phased out for environmental reasons (the CFCs due to ozone layer effects, now many of their successors face restrictions due to global warming, e.g. the R134a).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57169",
"title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Air conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46238",
"title": "Refrigeration",
"section": "Section::::Current applications of refrigeration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for refrigeration. Refrigeration is used to liquefy gases – oxygen, nitrogen, propane, and methane, for example. In compressed air purification, it is used to condense water vapor from compressed air to reduce its moisture content. In oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to maintain certain processes at their needed low temperatures (for example, in alkylation of butenes and butane to produce a high-octane gasoline component). Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery. When transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by trucks, trains, airplanes and seagoing vessels, refrigeration is a necessity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46238",
"title": "Refrigeration",
"section": "Section::::Methods of refrigeration.:Cyclic refrigeration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "A \"refrigeration cycle\" describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the \"process\" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34058884",
"title": "Hydrofluoroolefin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "HFO refrigerants are categorized as having zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and low global warming potential (GWP) and so offer a more environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. Many refrigerants in the HFO class is inherently stable chemically and inert, non toxic, and non-flammable or mildly flammable. Many HFOs have the proper freezing and boiling points to be useful for refrigeration at common temperatures. They also show promise as blowing agents, i.e. in production of insulation foams, food industry, construction materials, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2v2a28
|
what is the difference between weapons grade and non-weapons grade nuclear material?
|
[
{
"answer": "Weapons grade fuels have high enrichment, power-grade fuels are low enrichment.\n\nEnrichment is what % of the nuclear material is capable of a chain reaction on its own. Power reactor fuel is < 5% Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239. The other 95% is a filler material. \n\nWeapons grade fuel is > 90% Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239. \n\nIf the enrichment is low ( < 10%) it is virtually impossible to make a nuclear bomb, because there's just not enough fuel there to do it. But it does a hell of a good job boiling water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "99% of naturally occurring uranium is U-238, which is not suitable for weapons or power generation. Less than 1% is U-235, and that is the stuff you want. \n\nFor a chunk of uranium to be useful, it has to be enriched, essentially getting rid of the U-238 to a greater portion of the U-235 is present.\n\nPower generation grade requires moderate enrichment. Weapons grade requires high enrichment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4148957",
"title": "Weapons-grade nuclear material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Weapons-grade nuclear material is any fissionable nuclear material that is pure enough to make a nuclear weapon or has properties that make it particularly suitable for nuclear weapons use. Plutonium and uranium in grades normally used in nuclear weapons are the most common examples. (These nuclear materials have other categorizations based on their purity.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4132198",
"title": "Tactical nuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "There is no precise definition of the \"tactical\" category, neither considering range nor yield of the nuclear weapon. The yield of tactical nuclear weapons is generally lower than that of strategic nuclear weapons, but larger ones are still very powerful, and some variable-yield warheads serve in both roles, for example the W89 200 kiloton warhead was intended to arm both the tactical Sea Lance anti-submarine rocket propelled depth charge and the strategic bomber launched SRAM II stand off missile. Modern tactical nuclear warheads have yields up to the tens of kilotons, or potentially hundreds, several times that of the weapons used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Specifically on the Korean peninsula with a nuclear armed North Korea facing off against a NPT compliant South Korea there have been calls to request a return of US owned and operated short range low yield nuclear weapons, nomenclatured as tactical by the US military, to provide a local strategic deterrent to the North's growing domestically produced nuclear arsenal and delivery systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201690",
"title": "Joint Direct Attack Munition",
"section": "Section::::Similar systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- B61 Mod 12 (also called a B61-12) – United States nuclear freefall bomb with a JDAM type guidance kit added. The higher accuracy allows a hardened target to be destroyed with a smaller nuclear weapon in terms of yield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "592479",
"title": "Conventional weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The terms conventional weapons or conventional arms generally refer to weapons whose ability to damage comes from kinetic or incendiary, or explosive energy and exclude weapons of mass destruction (\"e.g.\" nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons). Any armament used in crimes, conflicts or wars are categorized as conventional weapons and includes small arms, defensive shields and light weapons, sea and land mines, as well as (non-weapons of mass destruction) bombs, shells, rockets, missiles, cluster munitions, human rights violations, domestic and transnational crime etc.These weapons use explosive material based on chemical energy, as opposed to nuclear energy in nuclear weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4132198",
"title": "Tactical nuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "A tactical nuclear weapon (TNW) or non-strategic nuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations mostly with friendly forces in proximity and perhaps even on contested friendly territory. Generally smaller in explosive power, they are defined in contrast to strategic nuclear weapons: which are designed to be mostly targeted in the enemy interior away from the war front against military bases, cities, towns, arms industries, and other hardened or larger-area targets to damage the enemy's ability to wage war. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14960344",
"title": "R&D intensity",
"section": "Section::::Among sectors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "R&D intensity differs between different sectors: high-tech sectors (such as aircraft & spacecraft, electrical equipment, and pharmaceuticals) are characterized by the highest R&D intensity, while low-tech sectors (such as food products, iron and steel, and textiles) usually have low R&D intensity. In fact, R&D intensity could be used as the sole indicator to identify high-tech sectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22804",
"title": "Operational amplifier",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for example: the LM301 is the commercial grade version of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version). This may define operating temperature ranges and other environmental or quality factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c0kfsw
|
If all ship's radars operate on the same frequency (S & X band), why don't they interfere with one another?
|
[
{
"answer": "They generally would. Though specific bands are rather large, antennas/radars can operate in narrow frequency ranges within a band, and the frequency space required to prevent interference between two bands can be, by design, very narrow (you could have a radar operating at 9.985 GHz and another at 9.920 GHz). The amount of received power drops off dramatically as the received frequency deviates from an antenna's designed frequency.\n\nFurther, antennas on radars are frequently highly directional, both focusing energy emitted in one direction and highly attenuating energy received from directions other than the intended receiving direction.\n\nFurther, advanced radars can encode their transmissions using algorithms such as Binary Phase Shift Keying. This allows the receiver to filter out noise from its own signals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22984933",
"title": "Frequency agility",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Other advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Frequency agile radars can offer the same advantages. In the case of several aircraft operating in the same location, the radars can select frequencies that are not being used in order to avoid interference. This is not as simple as the case of a cell phone, however, because ideally the radars would change their operating frequencies with every pulse. The algorithms for selecting a set of frequencies for the next pulse cannot be truly random if one wants to avoid all interference with similar systems, but a less-than-random system is subject to ELINT methods to determine the pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22984933",
"title": "Frequency agility",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Jamming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Radar systems generally operate by sending out short pulses of radio energy and then turning off the broadcaster and listening for the returning echoes from various objects. Because efficient signal reception requires careful tuning throughout the electronics in the transceiver, each operating frequency required a dedicated transceiver. Due to the size of the tube-based electronics used to construct the transceivers, early radar systems, like those deployed in World War II, were generally limited to operating on a single frequency. Knowing this operating frequency gives an adversary enormous power to interfere with radar operation or gather further intelligence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645554",
"title": "Synthetic-aperture radar",
"section": "Section::::Existing spectral estimation approaches.:Ultra-wideband SAR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Conventional radar systems emit bursts of radio energy with a fairly narrow range of frequencies. A narrow-band channel, by definition, does not allow rapid changes in modulation. Since it is the change in a received signal that reveals the time of arrival of the signal (obviously an unchanging signal would reveal nothing about \"when\" it reflected from the target), a signal with only a slow change in modulation cannot reveal the distance to the target as well as can a signal with a quick change in modulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2825400",
"title": "U-NII",
"section": "Section::::5 GHz (802.11a/h/j/n).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "In 2007, the FCC began requiring that devices operating in channels 52, 56, 60 and 64 must have Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) capabilities. This is to avoid communicating in the same frequency range as some radar. In 2014, the FCC issued new rules for all devices due to interference with government weather radar systems. Fines and equipment seizure were listed as punishment for non-compliance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89547",
"title": "Water vapor",
"section": "Section::::In Earth's atmosphere.:Radar and satellite imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience the same effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1694703",
"title": "Over-the-horizon radar",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Ground wave systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "A second type of OTH radar uses much lower frequencies, in the longwave bands. Radio waves at these frequencies can diffract around obstacles and follow the curving contour of the earth, traveling beyond the horizon. Echos reflected off the target return to the transmitter location by the same path. These \"ground waves\" have the longest range over the sea. Like the ionospheric high-frequency systems, the received signal from these ground wave systems is very low, and demands extremely sensitive electronics. Because these signals travel close to the surface, and lower frequencies produce lower resolutions, low-frequency systems are generally used for tracking ships, rather than aircraft. However, the use of bistatic techniques and computer processing can produce higher resolutions, and has been used beginning in the 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50893060",
"title": "Nuclear blackout",
"section": "Section::::Blackout and missile defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Radar blackout further confuses these issues. Inherent to the formula above is the fact that higher frequencies are blacked out for shorter times. This suggests long-range radars should use as high a frequency as possible, although this is more difficult and expensive. The US PAR was initially designed to operate in the VHF region to allow it to be extremely powerful while also relatively low-cost, but during the design stage, it moved to the UHF region to help mitigate this effect. Even then, it would be heavily attenuated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32y5bz
|
how all the counting numbers can be interesting at once
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, you've simply created a paradox for yourself. By defining 'the first boring' as 'interesting' you've created an unbreakable loop, where your two classifications refute one another. \n\nIf it's the first boring number, it's not interesting. But if that makes it interesting, it's not the first boring number.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "'X' would be \"the first OTHERWISE uninteresting number\": we're saying that it's interesting because it has nothing else interesting about it. Then Y would be \"the second otherwise uninteresting number\"; and so on.\n\nIf something being boring is a reason for it to be interesting, you can't use \"boring\" as an adjective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10779",
"title": "Frequency",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Counting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "If the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to measure the time interval for a predetermined number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a specified time. The latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count. This is called \"gating error\" and causes an average error in the calculated frequency of formula_11, or a fractional error of formula_12 where formula_13 is the timing interval and formula_14 is the measured frequency. This error decreases with frequency, so it is generally a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts N is small.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209103",
"title": "List of numbers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "This is a list of articles about numbers. Due to the infinitude of many sets of numbers, this list will invariably be incomplete. Hence, only particularly notable numbers will be included. Numbers may be included in the list based on their mathematical, historical or cultural notability, but all numbers have qualities which could arguably make them notable. Even the least \"interesting\" number is paradoxically interesting for that very property. This is known as the interesting number paradox. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239699",
"title": "Quater-imaginary base",
"section": "Section::::Converting into quater-imaginary.:Example: Real number.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "As an example of an integer number we can try to find the quater-imaginary counterpart of the decimal number 7 (or 7 since the base of the decimal system is 10). Since it is hard to predict exactly how long the digit string will be for a given decimal number, it is safe to assume a fairly large string. In this case, a string of six digits can be chosen. When an initial guess at the size of the string eventually turns out to be insufficient, a larger string can be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4252019",
"title": "Scale factor (computer science)",
"section": "Section::::Picking a Scale Factor.:Picking a better Scale Factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "As we already knew, they all fit in 8 bits. Scaling these by 1/16 is the same as dividing by 16, which is the same as shifting the bits 4 places to the right. All that really means is inserting a binary point between the first four and last four bits of each number. Conveniently, that's the exact format of our fixed point fields. So just as we suspected, since all these numbers don't require more than 8 bits to represent them as integers, it doesn't have to take more than 8 bits to scale them down and fit them in a fixed point format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "683368",
"title": "Young tableau",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Tableaux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In other applications, it is natural to allow the same number to appear more than once (or not at all) in a tableau. A tableau is called semistandard, or \"column strict\", if the entries weakly increase along each row and strictly increase down each column. Recording the number of times each number appears in a tableau gives a sequence known as the weight of the tableau. Thus the standard Young tableaux are precisely the semistandard tableaux of weight (1,1...,1), which requires every integer up to to occur exactly once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567292",
"title": "Mental calculation",
"section": "Section::::Methods and techniques.:Estimation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "While checking the mental calculation, it is useful to think of it in terms of scaling. For example, when dealing with large numbers, say 1531 × 19625, estimation instructs you to be aware of the number of digits expected for the final value. A useful way of checking is to estimate. 1531 is around 1500, and 19625 is around 20000, so a result of around 20000 × 1500 (30000000) would be a good estimate for the actual answer (30045875). So if the answer has too many digits, a mistake has been made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "563662",
"title": "Stooge sort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 386,
"text": "It is important to get the integer sort size used in the recursive calls by rounding the 2/3 \"upwards\", e.g. rounding 2/3 of 5 should give 4 rather than 3, as otherwise the sort can fail on certain data. However, if the code is written to end on a base case of size 1, rather than terminating on either size 1 or size 2, rounding the 2/3 of 2 upwards gives an infinite number of calls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
1b78bo
|
A couple of rudimentary physics questions my teachers never could really answer, for some reason or another, that I'd like to still know. [Big post warning]
|
[
{
"answer": "1) Light has no *rest* mass but has momentum based on it's frequency. Newton's laws don't describe it as it wasn't discovered yet. Newtonian laws only apply to Newtonian physics.\n\n2) They would repel one another as a function of distance squared.\n\n3) Falling into a black hole is not destruction but compaction. At high enough energies non-fundamental particles can be broken down into their constituent particles by breaking the nuclear bonds that hold them together.\n\n4) This is called a degenerate gas. It exists at the core of White Dwarf stars.\n\n5) The time delay is the absorption and emission not the indirect path. The clarity depends on the composition of the material and whether the light is reflected/refracted (and at what angle) internally.\n\n6) The nature of matter at the center is unknown, but the black holes still bends space so we assume the matter is still there and take the center of mass to do calculations.\n\n7) Yes. From some frames of reference the Sun hasn't gone out and from others it has. Either one could be considered correct. This is called the relativity of simultaneity and it is indeed relative if the events are not causal.\n\n8) Gravity bends space and light travels through space.\n\n9) He would only have a few seconds to do anything in his spaceship.\n\n10) If they apply the scientific method yes. If they count how many shrimp are in a bucket of water for fun then no.\n\n11) The one that was farther away would be moving faster with respect to the surface, but colliding with something is equivalent to \"seeing\" outside.",
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"answer": " > 1) If light can literally push an object, but it in on it self doesn't have any mass and moves at the speed of light, how would that pushing actually happen especially without breaking Newton's third law of motion. How and what gets pushed back at the instant the force is applied?\n\nLight has energy and momentum. (Things can have energy and momentum without having mass.) And Newton's second law in its full form says that force is the rate of change in momentum. Now, Newton's laws don't apply perfectly to light, but they work well enough that you can consider a force acting on the light beam, and the effect of that force is to change its momentum.\n\n > 2) If two electrons suddenly came into existence near each other having initial relative speed to one another at 0. What would their path of motion look like and how would the magnetic field lines come into play when they start moving if there were no third frame of reference to observe it from. Can the change of initial distance cause wildly different results or would it just be the same with just less energy involved(?), if so what is the cause?\n\nThere is always a third frame of reference. There are always an infinite number of frames of reference - they're basically just coordinate systems. In any case, if you put two electrons near each other and release them from rest, they will simply push each other apart. The closer they are, the faster they'll wind up moving, but nothing weird will happen at any particular distance.\n\n > 3) I was told that every particle can be destroyed if the energy is high enough. Can you do this to an electron too without breaking the conservation of charge and if not what would happen if a large group of electrons only were to fall into a blackhole? Wouldn't that break the universe?\n\nUh, I'm not sure about particles being destroyed. Particles can react and turn into other particles, but I wouldn't call that destruction. (Maybe you would, in which case yes, particles can be destroyed.) However, electric charge (and some other kinds of charges) will always be conserved in these reactions.\n\nIf you drop a lot of electrons into a black hole, eventually the black hole will accumulate enough charge that it repels any further electrons which would fall into it. A black hole with such a strong charge is called an extremal black hole.\n\n > 4) Another electron question: If neutron stars are a real thing, could you pack a bunch of electrons tight enough together for it to form a some kind of....solid....liquid or gas? If so, what would that actually look like if at all?\n\nJust electrons? No, they'd fly apart as soon as you put them near each other. (Well, technically yes you can pack them together, but they won't stay packed.) But if you have other things to balance out the negative charge in the same region of space, like atomic nuclei for instance, then yes, electrons can constitute a gas, or even a somewhat liquid-like system known as a superfluid. (I think. That last one is out of my specialty, I just happened to hear a talk on it today.)\n\n > 5) If the speed of light is slower in a medium because it is absorbed and re-emitted randomly, taking an indirect path contributing to the time delay, how can an image travelling through a thick chunk of glass still be coherent and not completely scrambled up?\n\nIt's not _really_ because light is absorbed and re-emitted. That's just a toy model people use to make it seem plausible that light can slow down inside a material, but the true story is much more complicated, involving quantum mechanics and electromagnetic waves.\n\n > 6) If blackholes curve spacetime so much that literally nothing can ever come out or interact with anything outside of the event horizon ever again, how can matter still be said to exist in its center (everyone keeps telling it is still there) and how can it have an influence on anything outside....if not even information can travel through the horizon?\n\nWe don't really know anything about the center of a black hole. Maybe the matter doesn't exist anymore. However, when it collapses into the black hole it leaves behind a gravitational \"echo\" which we see as the event horizon and the gravity well around it. (I've glossed over a lot of subtleties here. Black holes are _highly_ counterintuitive.)\n\n > 7) I keep hearing this everywhere I go: \"we only see the images of the PAST when we look at the edges of the visible universe\", wouldn't that imply that there is an absolute frame of reference outside the universe?\n\nNo.\n\n > I'm being told that time, motion and even the timing of various events is only relative to how you are moving, where you are and what kind of gravitational field you are in, in relation to everything else...doesn't that mean that when something travels at the speed of light at us (light from a supernova or the cosmic microwave background radiation), it is literally and practically happening then and right then to us and not in any other time in the \"past\"? What I mean by this is: if the Sun suddenly vanished, wouldn't it practically and literally happen to us instantly when we actually see it vanish?\n\nSure, I guess you could say that, but it's not as useful for calculations as saying that it happened 8 minutes ago and the light just took 8 minutes to get to us.\n\n > Because if you say: \"it really happened in the past it just took time to get to us\", isn't that invoking some kind of an absolute frame of reference that everything ticks by at regardless of relativity?\n\nIn your example of the sun going out, it's understood that the time it takes the light to get to us is measured in a reference frame where the Sun and Earth are pretty much at rest. When people talk about seeing images from X years in the past when they look toward the edge of the visible universe, it's understood that they're talking about a reference frame in which all the matter of the universe is more or less at rest.\n\n > 8) If gravitational lensing actually bends light, physically interacts with it as it is said in pretty much everywhere, with what does it interact with it with?\n\nThe metric tensor field which describes the curvature of spacetime. You can think of this field as spacetime itself, as long as you're not getting too technical. The massive object \"tugs\" on the spacetime it's in and bends it a little bit, and that bending of spacetime causes the spacetime just a little further out to bend, which causes the spacetime just a little further out to bend, and so on like a wave propagating through space. (Actually it _is_ a wave.) Then you have this whole region of slightly bent spacetime. Later on some light travels through it and follows the curve of the spacetime.\n\n > Wouldn't light then also cause a gravitational pull on the object bending it? How would that even work?\n\nYeah, just a tiny bit. It's the same process in reverse.\n\n > 9) I'm being told that if something moves near the speed of light relative to you, you'd see its time slow down as it travels. How can this be possible if the object was coming towards you instead of away? I tried explaining to the teacher that if a ship sent out a flash of light when it was launched from Andromeda towards us and instantly accelerated to near c, wouldn't he appear to reach me just a few seconds after the initial flash from the launch from my point of view and wouldn't I have to see everything he did in that time he was travelling compressed into that few second difference?\n\nYou have to correct for the time it takes light to travel from the spaceship to you. After that's done, then you would notice the spaceship's time running slower than your own.\n\n > 10) Is biology technically a science?\n\nYes. Biology is one of what many people would consider to be the \"big three\" branches of science, the others being physics and chemistry. But of course there are many others, no less important.\n\n > 11) I was told you can't know if you are orbiting an object if you couldn't see outside of your spaceship. How can this be true if I placed four apples at the opposite ends of the ship along each axis, if one of them was closer to the gravitational well wouldn't that one have the shortest orbital period and move faster around the well than the rest...eventually colliding with something first?\n\nYou're right. The precise statement is that, if you're orbiting an object _and your spaceship is small enough to be considered a single point_, you can't tell the difference between orbiting and floating in empty space. But if you are able to compare the behavior of objects at different points in space, you can tell the difference. The smaller your spaceship is, the more precisely you will have to measure the apples' behavior to determine whether you are orbiting or floating. (If you want some buzzwords: the precise statement is that a locally inertial reference frame exists at every point. \"Locally\" is the key word here, it basically means \"over some region of negligible spatial extent.\")",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9892",
"title": "Expert",
"section": "Section::::Expertise.:Related research.:In problem solving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "One of the most cited works in this area, Chi et al. (1981), examines how experts (PhD students in physics) and novices (undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics) categorize and represent physics problems. They found that novices sort problems into categories based upon surface features (e.g., keywords in the problem statement or visual configurations of the objects depicted). Experts, however, categorize problems based upon their deep structures (i.e., the main physics principle used to solve the problem).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8460057",
"title": "Arthur Gordon Webster",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Dear Gordon: This is the only way. For years I have been a failure - my research is worth nothing. Everyone else knows it, and S.N. physics has got away from me and I cannot come back. Everything I have started has stalled. Students will not come and they will put me out. Your mother will not see. She will get over this. Take care of her. I am sorry for the trouble I have caused you. Am sorry to make so much trouble. Do your best and tell the truth. With my best love, \"Papa\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23272775",
"title": "James Westphal",
"section": "Section::::Caltech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Former graduate student Richard Terrile remembers that Westphal \"not only taught me about astronomy and science, but also about more down-to-earth topics like self-reliance, dealing with people, and how to keep focused when things go bad. Jim had a wonderful way of reducing a problem to its most basic form. He said, 'There are always two ways to deal with a problem: You can get angry and upset and then try and fix it, or you can just fix it. Which way would you rather work on it?'\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1195175",
"title": "American Regions Mathematics League",
"section": "Section::::Competition format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::- A power question, where the entire team has one hour to solve a multiple-part (usually ten) question requiring explanations and proofs. This is usually an unusual, unique, or invented topic so students are forced to deal with complex new mathematical ideas. Each problem is weighted for a possible 50 points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652248",
"title": "Bogdanov affair",
"section": "Section::::Media reports and comments from scientists.:Pre- and post-publication official commentary on the journal articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
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"text": "Not all review evaluations were positive. Eli Hawkins, acting as a referee on behalf of the \"Journal of Physics A\", suggested rejecting one of the Bogdanovs' papers: \"It is difficult to describe what is wrong in Section 4, since almost nothing is right. [...] It would take up too much space to enumerate all the mistakes: indeed it is difficult to say where one error ends and the next begins. In conclusion, I would not recommend that this paper be published in this, or any, journal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "45316265",
"title": "Instructional rounds",
"section": "Section::::Description of common practice.:Observation debrief.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "At the prediction stage observers answer to the following question, “If you were a student in these classes today and you did everything the teacher asked you to do, what would you know and be able to do?” This question is asked to see what students could learn as a result of the completed assignments and tasks in the class. The responses of the observers could be: Learners will be able to solve mathematical problems, recall information, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36532984",
"title": "United States Invitational Young Physicists Tournament",
"section": "Section::::Teacher education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Unusual among science competitions, the USIYPT aims to improve physics teaching skills as well as student understanding of the subject. High school teachers are participating members of each school's research team. The sponsoring organization chooses problems for each tournament that are \"nontrivial, but not impossible,\" whose solutions are not necessarily unknown to practicing professional physicists, but are generally new to high school teachers and students. Research is expected to be conducted primarily in each team's school, with direction and assistance from a teacher at that school.\n",
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] | null |
jt3r4
|
the plot of atlas shrugged
|
[
{
"answer": "There are only about 15 people (I am guestimating) in the entire world who are able to do anything good. These people are the captains of industry because they worked hard, made themselves extremely smart, and earned every single penny they ever got. They also hate being forced to help people, because those that want to make them help people are only trying to take away what they earned for themselves. So these 15 people run away to a special little town in Colorado where they use their exceptional skills to live happily while teaching society a lesson: that the world cannot live without them, so they need to let them do whatever they want and accumulate unchecked masses of wealth.\n\nAlso, all of the men in the special little town have sex with Dagny Taggart.",
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"answer": "This has [already been done for you](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "Wow. I'm looking at thirteen complete non-answers right now. I'll try to add something constructive, but no promises.\n\nThe basic plot of the book is actually in the title. Atlas (yeah, like the book full of maps) is a figure from Greek mythology. He's what's called a Titan, a race of very old, very powerful god-like figures. They gave birth to another generation of god-figures called the Olympians. The Olympians fought a war against the Titans, and won. Atlas, for his part in the war, was sentenced to stand at the edge of the world and hold the sky on his shoulders. That was his punishment for being on the losing side.\n\nExcept in art, over the past few thousand years, Atlas has often been depicted as holding the *Earth* on his shoulders. This isn't really what the original myths said, but it's become so widely recognized that it's how Atlas is generally thought of today.\n\nWell, the title of the book is \"Atlas Shrugged.\" Which, if you imagine a god holding the world on his shoulders, should be a pretty evocative image.\n\nAs far as the details go, the book is set in a world that's running down. Industries are being nationalized, people are apathetic and unambitious. But a couple people aren't happy about that. There's Dagny Taggart, who runs a railroad, and Hank Reardon, who runs a steel foundry. They both feel really strongly that people should work hard and do important things. Dagny wants to expand her railroad to move freight around the country, and Hank has just invented a new metal alloy that's going to make really good rails for trains to run on. But each of them encounters resistance along the way from people who resent their ambition and their drive, and they have a hard time of it.\n\nEventually, prominent industrialists and business leaders start to disappear. Like literally disappear: it's like they've been kidnapped or something. Their companies are gutted, their business commitments abandoned … it reaches the point of being a real national crisis. Imagine if the heads of companies like Wal Mart and UPS and Home Depot and a bunch more just shut down their companies all on the same day, and left millions of people out of work. It'd be a catastrophe a lot like the one depicted in the book.\n\nDagny and Hank end up stumbling across an abandon invention. I forget the details, but it's something really important, like a perpetual-motion machine or something. Just left laying in the corner of some abandoned factory. They start to wonder what the hell's been going on, and whether this has anything to do with the disappearing business and industry leaders. So they go on a hunt. This part of the book is basically a mystery story, as Dagny and Hank try to track down the person who invented the perpetual-motion machine, and see if they can get to the bottom of the disappearances.\n\nDagny follows the trail of clues, but ends up crashing her small plane in a valley way up high in the mountains. There, to her surprise, she finds all the \"kidnapped\" business leaders, and more. Scientists, artists, engineers, all kinds of brilliant, ambitious people. They've all created this new town there, organized by a guy named John Galt. Galt explains to Dagny that he got fed up with the way the world is going, so he decided to try to do something about it. He went, quietly, to all these smart people and persuaded them to quit. Just quit. Just walk out on their jobs, their companies, their families, everything, and come start this new town with him.\n\nSee, Galt figured that most of the good things that go in the world are the result of the hard work of a pretty small number of people. It's what they sometimes call the \"80/20 rule.\" Eighty percent of the work gets done by twenty percent of the people, that kind of thing. Well, Galt didn't think that was a very good idea, so he decided to change it. His plan was to get all of those \"twenty percent\" people to join him in withdrawing from society. Once all those people quit, the world would just grind to a halt, because everybody who was making important things happen would've stopped. After everything collapsed, Galt and his friends would come out and start building from scratch, with the intention of creating a more just world where everybody contributes and nobody slacks off.\n\nSo that's what he did. He convinced all these smart people to \"go on strike.\" Only it gets ugly. The government, panicked at the economic disaster, starts trying to nationalize industries. They seize companies, force inventors to give over their ideas, basically try all these completely wrongheaded ideas, never understanding the real cause of the problem. Eventually they track Galt down and arrest him. They torture him to try to get him to call off the strike, but he doesn't give in, until his friends manage to rescue him and take him back to the valley.\n\nAnd then everything just goes downhill. The big turning point in the book is the moment, right at the end of the story, where the electricity supply finally quits, because there was nobody to keep the generators running. And all at once, the lights of New York City go out.\n\nSometime later, having weathered the collapse in their valley, Galt and his friends decide it's time to go back out into the world and start rebuilding.\n\nPeople love to complain about the book and make fun of it for political reasons. I always wonder whether the people who do have ever actually read it. Cause while it's got flaws, overall it's a really cool story.",
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"answer": "You really want those damn cookies. For some reason, Mom isn't going to just give them to you. She sets up something called an \"allowance\". For every house carpet you clean, you get 2$. Your older brother, who wants an RC car, has the same deal. So you guys get to work - you work hard, cleaning every carpet in the house. At the end of the day, Mom gives you 6$ and your brother 8$ (he's older, so he's able to clean a bit faster). Everything is great: the house is clean, and you and your brother have what you wanted (cookies! rc car!)\n\nBut your younger sisters (two of them), don't want to work. Don't want to do their chores. But they still want things (root beer! basketball!) They complain to Dad that the competition is unfair; they're too little too compete with you and your brother. So Dad, always the generous, makes it easier for your sisters: For every carpet they clean, they get 4$, *and*, after a little haggling, get a minimum of 2$ a day.\n\nAt the same time, your brother, a smart one, builds a more efficient vacuum cleaner. He's able to clean carpets twice as fast, and guess what, he even goes over to the neighbors' houses and cleans them too. Wow! He's working hard, and he's making 20$ a day!\n\nThe little sisters hate this. They tell Dad it's not fair that your brother makes so much. Eventually, Dad starts imposing a limit to how much your brother can make. Anything over 15$ goes to the sisters. Also, he must share his super-awesome vacuum cleaner with them whenever they like. The brother, who just wants to work hard and make a dime, decides to run away and live under a bridge selling lemonade. \n\n/ELI5\n\nEssentially, that's the gist of Atlas Shrugged. Dagny Taggert is the brilliant, hardworking railroad runner, and the \"looters\" (the government, various slouches) want to take everything from her and the other hardworking innovators and make it \"fair\". Eventually, the entire system breaks down; there is no incentive for people to innovate if they can't capitalize monetarily, and the slouchers just get lazier. So essentially, no one's doing anything. These enlightened just say \"screw it\" and go start their own country in Colorado - based on the principles of laissez-faire capitalism.\n\n*disclaimer: not an expert in oboectivism, only read atlas shrugged once. please correct if there's something missing or wrong.",
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"answer": "Not for a 5 year old:\n\n**Atlas Shrugged TL;DR:\nThe purpose of our lives is to achieve happiness. The way the author suggests we do this as individuals and as a society is to be productive individuals who pursue self-interest.**\n\nExample: A long time ago the combustion engine was created. Think about all the benefits this engine gave society as a whole. It made everyones life much, much easier. We could travel great distances in short times, transport goods, and more. The author thinks the creator of that engine deserves all the wealth he can get from the product, for the highest price people are willing to pay for it. The author also thinks that no one has the right to remove that wealth for any reason (taxing).\n\nWhen we are very productive we innovate, create, invent, and this will make life easier. No longer do we toil crops by hand under the sun; we invented engines and tractors to farm large areas of land by just one person. This means we have more time to find fulfillment and happiness. This means life will be easier for all of us.\n\nThe heroes of the tale are the most productive members of society and have worked hard to earn their success. The are very happy from their work. Their work is in itself - the means to their happiness. They don't make things with the primary intention to help others. The first thought is self-interest, how to make *their* life easier. In most cases though, the benefit to society would be or is pretty staggering. \n\nONTO THE PLOT\n\nThere is one man who created something very groundbreaking. He created a machine while he worked for a company. However, the company introduced a policy that said, \"From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Need.\" This means that every person should contribute to society to the best of his or her ability and consume from society in proportion to his or her needs (communism). This kind of means we're all equal. The author disagrees and says no, some people are way smarter, some really stupid. The smart people who are productive deserve all the wealth they earn. The creator of the groundbreaking thing, opposes this policy goes on strike that day. He claims infront of all the employees (who are angry at him - the only opposer) that he will find the motor of the world and shut if off. The creation is destroyed and the creator vanishes. The company falls into self-destruction and is like a ghost town after all is done. Just ruins, poverty, and looking like Detroit. \n\nThen over many months and years - producers of industries (those happy productive leaders) begin to vanish. The hero is taking them away (but no one knows this). They come from all callings and industries: philosophers, bankers, actors, steel, railroads, shipping and more. The hero is doing this because to him he is just speeding things up. He realizes that the country/world has adopted the policy: \"From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Need.\" And the country/world will collapse just like the old company, but if no one went on strike it could take a 1000 years or more but it would put the world into another dark-ages (period after Rome and before the Renaissance where shit did not get done). So the hero would put the world into darkness faster - and be there to lead it into the light (which we dont see).\n\nThe title Atlas Shrugged comes to mean that as another leader of industry vanishes, the weight of keeping the world functioning (the motor running) gets put on the shoulders of the next leader of industry until they vanish (shrug). This weight gets more and more as leaders vanish. And it's not easy for them at first to shrug because they give a fuck. However, the government or someone eventually does something to these Atlases that is basically a giant FUCK YOU. And the Atlases respond with a \"Fuck this shit,\" and finally shrug. We find that the motor of the world is production. He removes the most productive leaders to stop the motor. \n\nThe government does indeed try to replace them with other \"leaders\" but they are all phonies and all the companies the government takes over fail terribly. Also, the Hero makes a speech on the radio that causes controversy. Not everyone is a genius leader of industry, but regular joe's who are productive (happy) in their craft also go on strike from this speech. That means that all productive labor vanishes too. Only incompetent people are left to run the world. This causes a lot of accidents, deaths, and destruction. Stuff goes down hill and the world is covered in darkness. \n\nAt the end the author suggests the way to prevent this from happening in the future is to separate economics and state, just like their is a separation of religion and state. A leader of law at the end of the tale, modifies the constitution to include the separation of economics and state.",
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"answer": "After reading some of the responses here, I have to ask: Do you guys recommend Atlas Shrugged?",
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"answer": "While Rand is a controversial figure, and quite extreme in some of her ideas, you should read Atlas Shrugged. Especially with what is going on in the world right at this very moment. ",
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{
"answer": "There are only about 15 people (I am guestimating) in the entire world who are able to do anything good. These people are the captains of industry because they worked hard, made themselves extremely smart, and earned every single penny they ever got. They also hate being forced to help people, because those that want to make them help people are only trying to take away what they earned for themselves. So these 15 people run away to a special little town in Colorado where they use their exceptional skills to live happily while teaching society a lesson: that the world cannot live without them, so they need to let them do whatever they want and accumulate unchecked masses of wealth.\n\nAlso, all of the men in the special little town have sex with Dagny Taggart.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This has [already been done for you](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Wow. I'm looking at thirteen complete non-answers right now. I'll try to add something constructive, but no promises.\n\nThe basic plot of the book is actually in the title. Atlas (yeah, like the book full of maps) is a figure from Greek mythology. He's what's called a Titan, a race of very old, very powerful god-like figures. They gave birth to another generation of god-figures called the Olympians. The Olympians fought a war against the Titans, and won. Atlas, for his part in the war, was sentenced to stand at the edge of the world and hold the sky on his shoulders. That was his punishment for being on the losing side.\n\nExcept in art, over the past few thousand years, Atlas has often been depicted as holding the *Earth* on his shoulders. This isn't really what the original myths said, but it's become so widely recognized that it's how Atlas is generally thought of today.\n\nWell, the title of the book is \"Atlas Shrugged.\" Which, if you imagine a god holding the world on his shoulders, should be a pretty evocative image.\n\nAs far as the details go, the book is set in a world that's running down. Industries are being nationalized, people are apathetic and unambitious. But a couple people aren't happy about that. There's Dagny Taggart, who runs a railroad, and Hank Reardon, who runs a steel foundry. They both feel really strongly that people should work hard and do important things. Dagny wants to expand her railroad to move freight around the country, and Hank has just invented a new metal alloy that's going to make really good rails for trains to run on. But each of them encounters resistance along the way from people who resent their ambition and their drive, and they have a hard time of it.\n\nEventually, prominent industrialists and business leaders start to disappear. Like literally disappear: it's like they've been kidnapped or something. Their companies are gutted, their business commitments abandoned … it reaches the point of being a real national crisis. Imagine if the heads of companies like Wal Mart and UPS and Home Depot and a bunch more just shut down their companies all on the same day, and left millions of people out of work. It'd be a catastrophe a lot like the one depicted in the book.\n\nDagny and Hank end up stumbling across an abandon invention. I forget the details, but it's something really important, like a perpetual-motion machine or something. Just left laying in the corner of some abandoned factory. They start to wonder what the hell's been going on, and whether this has anything to do with the disappearing business and industry leaders. So they go on a hunt. This part of the book is basically a mystery story, as Dagny and Hank try to track down the person who invented the perpetual-motion machine, and see if they can get to the bottom of the disappearances.\n\nDagny follows the trail of clues, but ends up crashing her small plane in a valley way up high in the mountains. There, to her surprise, she finds all the \"kidnapped\" business leaders, and more. Scientists, artists, engineers, all kinds of brilliant, ambitious people. They've all created this new town there, organized by a guy named John Galt. Galt explains to Dagny that he got fed up with the way the world is going, so he decided to try to do something about it. He went, quietly, to all these smart people and persuaded them to quit. Just quit. Just walk out on their jobs, their companies, their families, everything, and come start this new town with him.\n\nSee, Galt figured that most of the good things that go in the world are the result of the hard work of a pretty small number of people. It's what they sometimes call the \"80/20 rule.\" Eighty percent of the work gets done by twenty percent of the people, that kind of thing. Well, Galt didn't think that was a very good idea, so he decided to change it. His plan was to get all of those \"twenty percent\" people to join him in withdrawing from society. Once all those people quit, the world would just grind to a halt, because everybody who was making important things happen would've stopped. After everything collapsed, Galt and his friends would come out and start building from scratch, with the intention of creating a more just world where everybody contributes and nobody slacks off.\n\nSo that's what he did. He convinced all these smart people to \"go on strike.\" Only it gets ugly. The government, panicked at the economic disaster, starts trying to nationalize industries. They seize companies, force inventors to give over their ideas, basically try all these completely wrongheaded ideas, never understanding the real cause of the problem. Eventually they track Galt down and arrest him. They torture him to try to get him to call off the strike, but he doesn't give in, until his friends manage to rescue him and take him back to the valley.\n\nAnd then everything just goes downhill. The big turning point in the book is the moment, right at the end of the story, where the electricity supply finally quits, because there was nobody to keep the generators running. And all at once, the lights of New York City go out.\n\nSometime later, having weathered the collapse in their valley, Galt and his friends decide it's time to go back out into the world and start rebuilding.\n\nPeople love to complain about the book and make fun of it for political reasons. I always wonder whether the people who do have ever actually read it. Cause while it's got flaws, overall it's a really cool story.",
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"answer": "You really want those damn cookies. For some reason, Mom isn't going to just give them to you. She sets up something called an \"allowance\". For every house carpet you clean, you get 2$. Your older brother, who wants an RC car, has the same deal. So you guys get to work - you work hard, cleaning every carpet in the house. At the end of the day, Mom gives you 6$ and your brother 8$ (he's older, so he's able to clean a bit faster). Everything is great: the house is clean, and you and your brother have what you wanted (cookies! rc car!)\n\nBut your younger sisters (two of them), don't want to work. Don't want to do their chores. But they still want things (root beer! basketball!) They complain to Dad that the competition is unfair; they're too little too compete with you and your brother. So Dad, always the generous, makes it easier for your sisters: For every carpet they clean, they get 4$, *and*, after a little haggling, get a minimum of 2$ a day.\n\nAt the same time, your brother, a smart one, builds a more efficient vacuum cleaner. He's able to clean carpets twice as fast, and guess what, he even goes over to the neighbors' houses and cleans them too. Wow! He's working hard, and he's making 20$ a day!\n\nThe little sisters hate this. They tell Dad it's not fair that your brother makes so much. Eventually, Dad starts imposing a limit to how much your brother can make. Anything over 15$ goes to the sisters. Also, he must share his super-awesome vacuum cleaner with them whenever they like. The brother, who just wants to work hard and make a dime, decides to run away and live under a bridge selling lemonade. \n\n/ELI5\n\nEssentially, that's the gist of Atlas Shrugged. Dagny Taggert is the brilliant, hardworking railroad runner, and the \"looters\" (the government, various slouches) want to take everything from her and the other hardworking innovators and make it \"fair\". Eventually, the entire system breaks down; there is no incentive for people to innovate if they can't capitalize monetarily, and the slouchers just get lazier. So essentially, no one's doing anything. These enlightened just say \"screw it\" and go start their own country in Colorado - based on the principles of laissez-faire capitalism.\n\n*disclaimer: not an expert in oboectivism, only read atlas shrugged once. please correct if there's something missing or wrong.",
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"answer": "Not for a 5 year old:\n\n**Atlas Shrugged TL;DR:\nThe purpose of our lives is to achieve happiness. The way the author suggests we do this as individuals and as a society is to be productive individuals who pursue self-interest.**\n\nExample: A long time ago the combustion engine was created. Think about all the benefits this engine gave society as a whole. It made everyones life much, much easier. We could travel great distances in short times, transport goods, and more. The author thinks the creator of that engine deserves all the wealth he can get from the product, for the highest price people are willing to pay for it. The author also thinks that no one has the right to remove that wealth for any reason (taxing).\n\nWhen we are very productive we innovate, create, invent, and this will make life easier. No longer do we toil crops by hand under the sun; we invented engines and tractors to farm large areas of land by just one person. This means we have more time to find fulfillment and happiness. This means life will be easier for all of us.\n\nThe heroes of the tale are the most productive members of society and have worked hard to earn their success. The are very happy from their work. Their work is in itself - the means to their happiness. They don't make things with the primary intention to help others. The first thought is self-interest, how to make *their* life easier. In most cases though, the benefit to society would be or is pretty staggering. \n\nONTO THE PLOT\n\nThere is one man who created something very groundbreaking. He created a machine while he worked for a company. However, the company introduced a policy that said, \"From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Need.\" This means that every person should contribute to society to the best of his or her ability and consume from society in proportion to his or her needs (communism). This kind of means we're all equal. The author disagrees and says no, some people are way smarter, some really stupid. The smart people who are productive deserve all the wealth they earn. The creator of the groundbreaking thing, opposes this policy goes on strike that day. He claims infront of all the employees (who are angry at him - the only opposer) that he will find the motor of the world and shut if off. The creation is destroyed and the creator vanishes. The company falls into self-destruction and is like a ghost town after all is done. Just ruins, poverty, and looking like Detroit. \n\nThen over many months and years - producers of industries (those happy productive leaders) begin to vanish. The hero is taking them away (but no one knows this). They come from all callings and industries: philosophers, bankers, actors, steel, railroads, shipping and more. The hero is doing this because to him he is just speeding things up. He realizes that the country/world has adopted the policy: \"From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Need.\" And the country/world will collapse just like the old company, but if no one went on strike it could take a 1000 years or more but it would put the world into another dark-ages (period after Rome and before the Renaissance where shit did not get done). So the hero would put the world into darkness faster - and be there to lead it into the light (which we dont see).\n\nThe title Atlas Shrugged comes to mean that as another leader of industry vanishes, the weight of keeping the world functioning (the motor running) gets put on the shoulders of the next leader of industry until they vanish (shrug). This weight gets more and more as leaders vanish. And it's not easy for them at first to shrug because they give a fuck. However, the government or someone eventually does something to these Atlases that is basically a giant FUCK YOU. And the Atlases respond with a \"Fuck this shit,\" and finally shrug. We find that the motor of the world is production. He removes the most productive leaders to stop the motor. \n\nThe government does indeed try to replace them with other \"leaders\" but they are all phonies and all the companies the government takes over fail terribly. Also, the Hero makes a speech on the radio that causes controversy. Not everyone is a genius leader of industry, but regular joe's who are productive (happy) in their craft also go on strike from this speech. That means that all productive labor vanishes too. Only incompetent people are left to run the world. This causes a lot of accidents, deaths, and destruction. Stuff goes down hill and the world is covered in darkness. \n\nAt the end the author suggests the way to prevent this from happening in the future is to separate economics and state, just like their is a separation of religion and state. A leader of law at the end of the tale, modifies the constitution to include the separation of economics and state.",
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"answer": "After reading some of the responses here, I have to ask: Do you guys recommend Atlas Shrugged?",
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"answer": "While Rand is a controversial figure, and quite extreme in some of her ideas, you should read Atlas Shrugged. Especially with what is going on in the world right at this very moment. ",
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"title": "Atlas Shrugged",
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"text": "Atlas Shrugged is a 1957 novel by Ayn Rand. Rand's fourth and final novel, it was also her longest, and the one she considered to be her \"magnum opus\" in the realm of fiction writing. \"Atlas Shrugged\" includes elements of science fiction, mystery, and romance, and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction.\n",
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"title": "Ayn Rand",
"section": "Section::::Life.:\"Atlas Shrugged\" and Objectivism.\n",
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"text": "\"Atlas Shrugged\", published in 1957, was considered Rand's \"magnum opus\". Rand described the theme of the novel as \"the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest\". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as \"stopping the motor of the world\" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery, romance, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in the form of a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2327058",
"title": "Randian hero",
"section": "Section::::Specific instances.:Dagny Taggart.\n",
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"text": "The protagonist of \"Atlas Shrugged\" is Dagny Taggart, described by Rand as \"the feminine Roark\". \"Atlas Shrugged\" introduces several Randian heroes, both in the backstory and in the primary narrative. In the story, they personify the intellect—their withdrawal from the world under the leadership of John Galt parallels the world's gradual collapse.\n",
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"title": "Atlas Shrugged: Part II",
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"text": "Atlas Shrugged: Part II (or Atlas Shrugged II: The Strike) is a film based on the novel \"Atlas Shrugged\" by Ayn Rand. It is the second installment in the \"Atlas Shrugged\" film series and the first sequel to the 2011 film \"\", continuing the story where its predecessor left off.\n",
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"title": "Atlas Shrugged",
"section": "Section::::History.:Title and chapters.\n",
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"text": "The working title throughout its writing was \"The Strike\", but thinking this title would have revealed the mystery element of the novel prematurely, Rand was pleased when her husband suggested \"Atlas Shrugged\", previously the title of a single chapter, for the book. The title is a reference to Atlas, a Titan of Greek mythology, described in the novel as \"the giant who holds the world on his shoulders\". The significance of this reference appears in a conversation between the characters Francisco d'Anconia and Hank Rearden, in which d'Anconia asks Rearden what advice he would give Atlas upon seeing \"the greater [the titan's] effort, the heavier the world bore down on his shoulders\". With Rearden unable to answer, d'Anconia gives his own advice: \"To shrug\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "38405560",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?",
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"text": "Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt? is a 2014 American science fiction drama film based on Ayn Rand's novel \"Atlas Shrugged\". It is the third installment in the \"Atlas Shrugged\" film series and the sequel to the 2012 film \"\", continuing the story where its predecessor left off. The release, originally set for July 4, 2014, occurred on September 12, 2014. The film used a completely different cast and crew than the second film, which itself used a completely different cast than the first film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9034057",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged: Part I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Atlas Shrugged: Part I (referred to onscreen as simply Atlas Shrugged) is a 2011 American political science fiction drama film directed by Paul Johansson. An adaptation of part of Ayn Rand's controversial 1957 novel of the same name, the film is the first in a trilogy encompassing the entire book. After various treatments and proposals floundered for nearly 40 years, investor John Aglialoro initiated production in June 2010. The film was directed by Paul Johansson and stars Taylor Schilling as Dagny Taggart and Grant Bowler as Hank Rearden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gonw4
|
Is there really no way to know whether or not a shelter dog has rabies until/unless symptoms arise?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yup. Only way to test for rabies is observation in quarantine or brain tissue. And the latter is the only real, definitive way. \n\n > The shelter giving my dog the regular rabies vaccine for dogs wouldn't do anything if he was already infected with rabies, right?\n\nDepends on progression of the disease. \n\n\nIdeally, the shelter should do quarantine before putting animals up for adoption, but it's a 90 day quarantine for an unowned, unvaccinated animal, so it's not really feasible. It's kind of...'assumed' that the dog doesn't have rabies though, since it's relatively rare in the grand scheme of things. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3304092",
"title": "Dog bite",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Local animal control agencies or police are sometimes able to capture the animal and determine whether or not it is infected with rabies. This is important if the dog appears sick or is acting strangely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6090525",
"title": "Neglected tropical diseases",
"section": "Section::::List of diseases.:Rabies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "It can be prevented in dogs by vaccination, and cleaning and disinfecting bite wounds (post-exposure prophylaxis). Rabies is undiagnosable before symptoms develop. It can be detected through tissue testing after symptoms develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249779",
"title": "Camberley",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In 1969 there was an outbreak of rabies when a dog, just released from a sixth month quarantine after returning from Germany, attacked two people on Camberley Common. The scare resulted in restriction orders for dogs and large-scale shoots to carry out the destruction of foxes and other wildlife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10035575",
"title": "Project POOCH",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Dogs from local animal shelters are taken in by Project POOCH and paired with young offenders, most of whom have been convicted of serious crimes such as murder and sexual assault. The dogs often have behavioral problems, including excessive barking or aggression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53984662",
"title": "Rabies in Haiti",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The number of rabid dogs detected by the MARNDR, MSPP, and CDC is a huge risk to people and is not accurately reflected in their surveillance figures. Although international support is common in both technical help and donations, it is not comprehensive. In addition, the MARNDR, MSPP, and other actors do not communicate effectively because of human resource limitations. That being said, the 2015 elimination goal in the region was compromised and control of the disease could not yet be achieved, despite the efforts of resolute national officials. In conclusion, rabies in the dog population is still a problem and major threat to the Haitian population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32653",
"title": "Vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Veterinary medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law. Other canine vaccines include canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus-2, leptospirosis, bordatella, canine parainfluenza virus, and Lyme disease, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17100463",
"title": "Chinese Animal Protection Network",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Chinese Companion Animal Protection Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "CCAPN's website in 2014 offers information on controlling rabies in dog populations through vaccination rather than culling, information on controlling domestic cat populations in urban areas through trap-neuter-return rather than culling, and how to create an animal protection agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2r91i0
|
Were there other attempts at peace during World War 1?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were two notable attempts by the papacy to broker a peace deal. In January of 1915, Benedict XV sent a papal diplomat as an envoy to Austrian emperor Franz Joseph. That diplomat was Eugenio Pacelli (who in 1939 would be elected pope and would take the name Pius XII). The goal was to try to keep Italy out of the war by having Austria agree to Italian territorial demands. This initiative was a failure. \n\nIn 1917, Pacelli was again selected to try to get Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany to agree to Benedict XV's 7-point peace plan. As Robert Ventresca says, \n\n > [i]n the end, the discussions of the summer of 1917 went nowhere. Benedict XV's peace plan was effectively dead in the water. Despite some promising starts made by Pacelli in his first meeting with the German chancellor, the German military high command was in no mood for the concessions Bethmann-Hollweg had seemed ready to accept earlier that summer. (*Soldier of Christ*: The Life of Pope Pius XII*, pg 48)\n\nSo, early papal efforts to call for peace and keep the war from expanding were unsuccessful, as was the 1917 7-point proposal by Benedict XV.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Woodrow Wilson made a number of attempts to mediate some sort of peace agreement between the Entente and the Central Powers. This ran into obstruction and denial of varying levels from both sides. Wilson (never a fan of Britain or placing much emphasis on US-UK relations) abandoned any hope of constructing peace on a basis of close relations with the UK and apparently even toyed with an alliance with Germany simply to fight the UK.\n\nLloyd George also attempted to make peace a number of times over the course of his wartime coalition government, but never with Germany. Instead, given his preference for attempting to avoid bloodshed on the western front as much as possible to preserve the state of the British arm for the final, victorious campaign, he hoped constantly to sway Bulgaria, or the Ottoman Empire, or Austria-Hungary to make peace. In this he was obviously unsuccessful. However, at times the British (largely the Foreign Office, of whom Ll.G. tended to act independently as he loathed diplomats) still considered peace with Germany, sometimes on the basis of accepting (some) German territorial claims in the east (such as Latvia and Lithuania but not Estonia or Finland) in return for ceding Alsace-Lorraine back to the French.\n\nSource: *British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914-1918*, Victor H. Rothwell.\n\nUltimately, the nature of coalition warfare means that coalitions tend to fail only when their strongest member capitulates. In WW1, that was Germany for the Central Powers and Germany was only willing to capitulate (rather than impose terms) after the hundred days and the collapse of the German army in autumn 1918.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may not be quite what you mean, but there were attempts to *avoid* the first world war by diplomats on both sides of the conflict. The time between the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and the cascading of war declarations in August is known as the July Crisis. During the July Crisis, efforts were made by Edward Grey, the British foreign secretary, to mediate the Austro-Serbian dispute. He proposed that Austria-Hungary occupy Belgrade as a temporary solution without declarations of war or ultimatums. He also was hoping for international cooperation in this. \n\nSource: *Great Power Diplomacy*, Norman Rich",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1956458",
"title": "Separate peace",
"section": "Section::::Legal obligations not to conclude separate peace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The obligation to refrain from separate peace was also made during the Second World War in both camps. The Tripartite Pact between the German, Italian and Japanese governments committed the three to prosecute the war together. On the Allied camp, that obligation was contained in the United Nations Declaration of January 1, 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38072780",
"title": "January 1917",
"section": "Section::::January 22, 1917 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "BULLET::::- U.S. President Woodrow Wilson made his famous \"peace without victory\" speech before a joint session with U.S. Congress, maintaining what while the United States would remain neutral during World War One, it could play a role as a major peace broker in the near future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29738695",
"title": "National Association for Women's Suffrage (Sweden)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Actions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1394,
"text": "During World War I, the LKPR took the initiative for a peace organisation formed by women of the neutral countries with the aim to form pressure on the neutral governments to act as mediators between the warring parties. The Peace Movement was formed by the LKPR with members also from Fredrika Bremer Association, KFUK, the Social Democratic women's organisations (the Stockholms allmänna kvinnoklubb and its local branches) among others, with Anna Whitlock, Emilia Broomé and Kerstin Hesselgren as leading members. A great peace manifestation was to take place 19February 1915 organized by the Swedish women with support and participation also from the women of Denmark and Norway. On 18February, however, Agda Montelius was called to the Queen, Victoria of Baden, who demanded a stop to \"The foolish presumption of women\" to be involved in politics. King Gustav V of Sweden interrupted and said that women were of course entitled to present demands to the government, but that the situation made it difficult, and referred to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who warned them that such an action could damage Swedish neutrality. The action was therefore silenced in both Sweden, Denmark and Norway, and the women involved placed the blame on Victoria of Baden. The Swedish Peace Movement did, however, send 16 delegates to the international women's peace movement in the Hague in April 1915.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59376386",
"title": "Peace in Their Time",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 2167,
"text": "\"Peace in Their Time\" examines the state of international diplomacy and the conditions in the years immediately after World War I which led to the Kellogg-Briand Pact, a treaty between the war's major combatants which was intended to prevent any such destructive conflagration from happening again. Although the treaty would eventually be signed by many nations, the two countries most responsible for its development were France and the United States. Ferrell details the complex discussions between the respective French and American diplomats, noting that the pact was influenced not only by the competing national interests of the main signatories, but the increasingly vocal pacifist movements that emerged after WWI, concluding that the pact \"was the peculiar result of some very shrewd diplomacy and some very unsophisticated popular enthusiasm for peace.\" The agreement, in its early version, was presented by French foreign minister Aristide Briand as a bilateral antiwar treaty between France and the United States known as the \"Pact of Perpetual Friendship.\" Although one of the victors of WWI, France's postwar position was \"precarious,\" Ferrell writes, since its former enemy Germany had twice its population and considerable industrial capacity which could (and would) eventually be turned towards military production. Hence, the French sought alliances with other nations, and with the Pact of Perpetual Friendship, Briand hoped to secure either an American alliance or at least a guarantee of neutrality. The U.S. government, still isolationist, was resistant to becoming too embroiled in European politics, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg counterproposed a multilateral treaty renouncing war in general terms. Neither the French or American governments truly wanted a multilateral pact, writes Ferrell, but the French felt forced into accepting it lest they seem to reject their own stated aim for universal peace. And the pressure brought on by the popularity of worldwide peace movements increased pressure on diplomats to make the pact happen, even as they felt that it was little more than, in Castle's words, \"a big, peaceful gesture.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15685361",
"title": "Treaty battleship",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "After World War I ended in 1918, a large number of treaties aiming to ensure peace were signed. According to historian Larry Addington it was \"the greatest effort to that time to control armaments and to discourage war through treaty\". These treaties ranged from the Treaty of Versailles, which contained provisions were intended to make the \"Reichswehr\" incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament, to the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928, in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve \"disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them\". Specific naval treaties that emerged during this era include the Washington Naval Treaty in 1921 and the London Naval Treaty in 1930.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391190",
"title": "Right of conquest",
"section": "Section::::Conquest and military occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "In post-World War II times, when the international community frowned on wars of aggression, not all wars involving territorial acquisitions ended in a peace treaty. For example, the fighting in the Korean War ended in an armistice, without any peace treaty covering it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "487563",
"title": "State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs",
"section": "Section::::Creation.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "On 14 September 1918, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Burián issued a statement advocating a settlement of World War I by peace treaty and it became apparent that the war was coming to an end. By early October, the Slovene-Croat-Serb movement were planning to set up a National Assembly. Svetozar Pribićević, the leader of the Croat-Serb Coalition, confronted Srđan Budisavljević, one of the leaders of this movement, in an effort to determine whether these plans were meant to undermine the Coalition, and the two reached an understanding whereby the Coalition would be invited to join any future National Council before a National Assembly was formed. At the same time, the organizers obtained support from the Croatian People's Peasant Party and the Serb People's Radical Party. On 5 and 6 October, a provisional assembly was convened and the formation of executive committees begun. Seats were apportioned to members of all parties, but not without acrimony over the \"ad hoc\" nature of the proceedings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rf5xm
|
What causes the pale greenish tint we get when we are nauseous?
|
[
{
"answer": "I googled that and got the answer pretty fast. it apparently has to do with the blood leaving your face leaving you with the yellow of your skin and the blue of your capillaries. \n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2076669",
"title": "Leukorrhea",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Inflammatory leukorrhea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "It may also result from inflammation or congestion of the vaginal mucosa. In cases where it is yellowish or gives off an odor, a doctor should be consulted since it could be a sign of several disease processes, including an organic bacterial infection (aerobic vaginitis) or STD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3724818",
"title": "Blue diaper syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "It is caused by a defect in tryptophan absorption. Bacterial degradation of unabsorbed tryptophan in the intestine leads to excessive indole production and thus to indicanuria which, on oxidation to indigo blue, causes a peculiar bluish discoloration of the diaper (indoluria). Symptoms typically include digestive disturbances, fever and visual problems. Some may also develop disease due to the incomplete breakdown of tryptophan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2076669",
"title": "Leukorrhea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249270",
"title": "Minocycline",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Minocycline may cause upset stomach, diarrhea, dizziness, unsteadiness, drowsiness, mouth sores, headache, and vomiting. It increases sensitivity to sunlight, and may affect the quality of sleep and rarely causes sleep disorders. It has also been linked to cases of lupus. Prolonged use of minocycline can lead to blue-gray staining of skin, fingernails, and scar tissue. This staining is not permanent, but can take a very long time for the skin color to return to normal; however, a muddy brown skin color in sun-exposed areas is usually permanent. Permanent blue discoloration of gums or teeth discoloration may also occur. Rare but serious side effects include fever, yellowing of the eyes or skin, stomach pain, sore throat, vision changes, and mental changes, including depersonalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19719185",
"title": "Pus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Although pus is normally of a whitish-yellow hue, changes in the color can be observed under certain circumstances. Pus is sometimes green because of the presence of myeloperoxidase, an intensely green antibacterial protein produced by some types of white blood cells. Green, foul-smelling pus is found in certain infections of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The greenish color is a result of the bacterial pigment pyocyanin that it produces. Amoebic abscesses of the liver produce brownish pus, which is described as looking like \"anchovy paste\". Pus from anaerobic infections can more often have a foul odor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909299",
"title": "Santonin",
"section": "Section::::Hazards and difficulty of use of santonin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "Santonin often produces a singular effect upon the vision, causing surrounding objects to appear discolored, as if they were yellow or green, and occasionally blue or red; it also imparts a yellow or green color to the urine, and a reddish-purple color if that fluid be alkaline. Prof. Giovanni was led to believe that the apparent yellow color of objects observed by the eye, when under the influence of santonin, did not depend upon an elective action on the optic nerves, but rather to the yellow color which the drug itself takes when exposed to the air. Santonin colored by the air does not produce this effect, which only follows the white article. The air gives the yellow color to santonin, to passed urine containing it, and to the serum of the blood when drawn from a vein, and, according to Giovanni, it is owing to its direct action upon the aqueous humor, where it is carried by absorption, that objects present this color. The view now held, however, is that of Rose, that the alkaline serum dissolves the santonin, which then acts upon the perspective centers of the brain, producing the chromatopsia or xanthopsia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1761982",
"title": "Phenazopyridine",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Phenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a depressed excretion via the kidneys causing a buildup of the medication in the skin, and normally indicates a need to discontinue usage. Other such side effects include fever, confusion, shortness of breath, skin rash, and swelling of the face, fingers, feet, or legs. Long-term use may cause yellowing of nails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cpdws
|
how did letters like g and j, or c and k, come about? why do they share a common sound?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it's best expressed by a quote from James Nicoll:\n\n*The problem with defending the purity of the English language is that English is about as pure as a cribhouse whore. We don't just borrow words; on occasion, English has pursued other languages down alleyways to beat them unconscious and riffle their pockets for new vocabulary.*\n\nBottom line, some of the languages we've beaten unconscious used C, and others used K. Some used G, and some used J. When they all were brought together in the English language, there was a bit of redundancy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5433712",
"title": "Czech orthography",
"section": "Section::::Orthographic principles.:Voicing assimilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "For historical reasons, the consonant is written \"k\" in Czech words like \"kde\" ('where', Proto-Slavic *kъdě) or \"kdo\" ('who', Proto-Slavic *kъto). This is because the letter \"g\" was historically used for the consonant . The original Slavic phoneme changed into in the Old-Czech period. Thus, is not a separate phoneme (with a corresponding grapheme) in words of domestic origin; it occurs only in foreign words (e.g. \"graf\", \"gram\", etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198118",
"title": "Welsh orthography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The letter \"j\" was only relatively recently accepted into Welsh orthography for those words borrowed from English in which the sound is retained in Welsh, even where that sound is not represented by \"j\" in English spelling, as in (\"garage\") and (\"fridge\"). Older borrowings of English words containing resulted in the sound being pronounced and spelt in various other ways, resulting in occasional doublets such as and (\"Japan\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5255569",
"title": "J̌",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "J̌ (minuscule: ǰ) is a letter of the Latin alphabet, derived from J with the addition of a háček. It is used in some phonetic transcription schemes, e.g. ISO 9, to represent the sound . It is also used in the Latin scripts or in the romanization of various Iranian and Pamir languages (Avestan, Pashto, Yaghnobi, and others), Armenian, Georgian, Berber/Tuareg, and Classical Mongolian. The letter was invented by Lepsius in his Standard Alphabet on the model of \"š\" and \"ž\" to avoid the confusion caused by the ambiguous pronunciation of the letter \"j\" in European languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4486459",
"title": "Silent k and g",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In English orthography, the letter ⟨k⟩ normally reflects the pronunciation of [] and the letter ⟨g⟩ normally is pronounced or \"hard\" , as in \"goose\", \"gargoyle\" and \"game\"; or \"soft\" , generally before or , as in \"giant\", \"ginger\" and \"geology\"; or in some words of French origin, such as \"rouge\", \"beige\" and \"genre\". However, silent ⟨k⟩ and ⟨g⟩ occur because of apheresis, the dropping of the initial sound of a word. These sounds used to be pronounced in Old and Middle English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1769180",
"title": "Ayin",
"section": "Section::::Arabic ʿayn.:Pronunciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "As in Hebrew, the letter originally stood for two sounds, and . When pointing was developed, the sound was distinguished with a dot on top (), to give the letter \"ghayn\". In Maltese, which is written with the Latin alphabet, the digraph għ, called \"ʿajn\", is used to write what was originally the same sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2961804",
"title": "Lj (digraph)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Lj (lj in lower case) is a letter present in some Slavic languages, such as the Latin version of Serbo-Croatian and in romanised Macedonian, where it represents a palatal lateral approximant . For example, the word \"ljiljan\" is pronounced . Most languages containing the letter in the alphabet are phonemic, which means that every symbol represents one sound, and is always pronounced the same way. In this case, joining the letters \"L\" and \"J\" creates a new letter or a sound. Like its Latin counterpart, the Cyrillic alphabet has a specific symbol for the same sound: Љ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33545",
"title": "Welsh language",
"section": "Section::::Orthography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The letter \"j\" was not used traditionally, but is now used in many everyday words borrowed from English, like \"jam\", \"jôc\" \"joke\" and \"garej\" \"garage\". The letters \"k\", \"q\", \"v\", \"x\", and \"z\" are used in some technical terms, like \"kilogram\", \"volt\" and \"zero\", but in all cases can be, and often are, replaced by Welsh letters: \"cilogram\", \"folt\" and \"sero.\" The letter \"k\" was in common use until the 16th century, but was dropped at the time of the publication of the New Testament in Welsh, as William Salesbury explained: \"C for K, because the printers have not so many as the Welsh requireth\". This change was not popular at the time.\n",
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"meta": null
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4xjphh
|
how do sports commentators know all the players and their backgrounds so readily? i realize they are fed the info beforehand but they seem to spit out the info at appropriate times and so easily.
|
[
{
"answer": "They typically have notes on hand during the broadcast, additionally they have a producer in the truck feeding them information.",
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"answer": "They get very well organized packets before a game and they are also being fed stats throughout the game that are applicable to the current game state",
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"answer": "That's their job... The best commentators are the most prepared and skilled at referencing the most relevant info at the best times. ",
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"answer": "As mentioned, it's their job to know names/numbers. \n\nThere was a post in /r/nba that had a cheat sheet the announcers get before a game. It had obscure facts and stories for each player. It was a few pages long and actually quite interesting. Here's the post _URL_0_\n\nAs for in-game stats, those are fed to them throughout the game by people keeping stats. \n\n",
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"answer": "I'm sure they have helpful material but also they're extremely knowledgeable. My sister is an absolute monster at sports commentary/facts - mainly football but baseball and soccer are easy for her as well. We use to laugh because she'd tell us a funny story about some NFL guys high school career and then the commentator moments later would repeat the same story. Happens a lot. ",
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"answer": "They have a real-time touchscreen system feeding them anything they want: _URL_0_. I've seen it, its pretty cool and super easy to use.\n\n > The results systems are available across the Olympic Venues, in the Main Press Center, the International Broadcasting Center and even remotely in the studios of the broadcasters to support the media in telling their story as it happens: \n\n > CIS: Managed centrally from the Technology Operations Centre, the Commentator Information System provides commentators and journalists with touch-screen technology that gives results in real time, so quick they can see the results before they hear the roar of the crowd. It is also the first time broadcasters will have access to the system for all Olympic and 12 Paralympic sports.\n\n > myInfo+: An internet application that enables accredited media, sports officials and athletes to access information available to them. For the first time live results will be available for the first time for all Olympic and Paralympic sports. It also provides information on competition schedules, medal ranking tables, transport news and sports records. All is available via laptops with users able to tailor their homepage so that it highlights the countries that they want to follow during the Games.",
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"answer": "60 minutes did a feature on Chris Collinsworth a couple years ago. He does not just show up and announce the game. He spent over 60 hours a week preparing for the game he was going to call by watching every game that both team has played, sometimes multiple years worth, interviewing with players and coaches etc. In his broadcasts you'll often here him say \"When I talked to X, he felt they really had to get pressure on the qb early in this game\" or something to that effect. That's what he was doing during the week.",
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"answer": "Others have made great points, but I wanted to point out another key to being able \"to spit out the info at appropriate times and so easily\": **Practice**. \n\nOlympic and major league sports announcers are often the best in the business (with a few notable exceptions, obviously). They've often been doing it for dozens of years, and they got their start in front of much smaller audiences. \nHave you ever heard a minor league baseball game or a D2 football game on the radio? It can be painful. ",
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"answer": "They can also youtube it. Joe Rogan does this for debuting fighters. He checks their fights on youtube and makes his analysis based off of that.. \"He likes to throw a right leg kick when his opponent rushes him\" shit like that",
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"answer": "Well: I don't know any sports commentators but my boyfriend is a huge tennis fan. He often comments on the games and a few minutes later the commentator says the same thing. He knows all players including background and can even remember all scores ( including games) for like the last 20 years. Maybe if you love something it's not hard to remember this stuff.",
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"answer": "A couple of different thibgs. First off the commentators work hard during the week to prepare. Study rosters, memorize numbers. They will watch old games, and breakdown stoeylines. They will always interview the coaches and key players beforehand for insight. Usually the night before the game. On game day they have production meetings and research teams to prep them. For in game stats and around the leafue stats that is given to them by a producer or stat researcher. \n\nThese guys are pros and this is their job. So take the NFL the game is 3 hours per week so in a typical job you work 40 hours per week which leaves 37 for prep and review after the game.\n\nI did some broadcasting as a student in university. For that probably spent 5 hours per game on prep on play by play. It takes time. But we interviewed coaches and when we could watxhed old games. And spent time memorizing rosters.",
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"answer": "They say it effortlessly and at the right time because it's their job to speak on television",
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"answer": "[Here's an example of a cheat sheet for a commentator commentating a football/soccer game](_URL_0_)\n\nThere's also the fact that they're often commentating on a sport that they've adored since a young age and followed for decades both in a personal and a professional way. If you spend 9-5 on keeping up with the industry you ought to know who's done what and when off the top of your head\n\nExcept for Michael Owen, who for some reason gets paid to say meaningless tautologies every 8 minutes",
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"answer": "Big announcers like Mike Emerick will prep with notes before a game. \n\nPierre McGuires is a huge hockey nerd.\n\nI met someone who does F1 stats behind the US speed and now NBC team, and is basically the information feeder and timekeeper. He could name the winner to f1 races over twenty years ago. Course records, ect. He never speaks live on TV but he was super interesting to listen to. ",
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{
"answer": "Because the Vin Scullys, Al Michaels, Bob Costases and even the hated Joe Buck are actually very good at what they do and know a lot about the teams and players. This is doable thanks to the local guys who tell them \"this guy is having a great season after breaking a bone his last year in college, we picked the best player in the draft for sure!\" \n\nHow much do you know about people you've never met? Phelps? Ichiro? Trump? Hillary? There actually is a bit of journalism done by broadcasters. I know a lot of responses are saying it's all notes on computers, but trust me, they had to start somewhere when they didn't have that stuff. It's mostly pretty easy to absorb stuff, too. Especially when they meet the player and put a face, voice, and mind to the bio/stats. \n\nI'm sure it's not an easy job. That's why we know a great one at work. Vin Scully has called Dodger games on radio/tv mostly by himself since 1950. I just don't think you can thank a computer for what he has done since the typewriter.",
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},
{
"answer": "I worked at a bookstore in St Louis in the nineties. Bob Costas used to come in with his kids. There was frequently some asshole who'd corner him and try to beat him in a sports trivia pissing contest. Dumb shit like who do you think was the greatest left handed third baseman born in Canada? And then Bob would say, there's only two, and even though he only batted .198 I'd say Harvey Dungelmunch, because the reason he played left handed was because in June 1972 when he was 14 years old he injured his shoulder while saving a rodeo clown who had a heart attack in the middle of a performance in Manitoba. And that rodeo clown, funny thing, his grandson is Bobby De La Mar, who plays third base for the Blue Jays.\n\nAnd the asshole would come away, not feeling spanked or humiliated, but feeling like he'd just made a friend.",
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{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n\nGood look into how Doc Emrick does it, in my humble opinion he's the best in the business.",
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"answer": "My ex knew the college, background, and stats for most football players. He could break any number (phone #, time, etc) down into specific players' numbers and would never forget. It was impressive. \nHope he now remembers to keep his girlfriends away from each other. Asshole.",
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"answer": "I think people often underestimate just how much prep goes into their trade of work. Like with any profession, they study, a LOT. They often have piles or even binders full of information beforehand, to the point they can recognize players and plays no matter what the circumstances are. In short, the answer is: TONS of prep work.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26161381",
"title": "Sports analyst",
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"text": "As a sports analyst you can go on different career paths within the field and even hold more than one position at once. First we have a sports journalist who reports to the public in the form of writing and includes information about sporting topics, events, and competitions. A sports commentator and sportscaster will give play by play details of a specific sporting event and game. They will also relay information necessary in order to understand the context of that specific sport. Sport commentator examples include Joe Buck, Brent Musburger, and Max Kellerman.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1260585",
"title": "Color commentator",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
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"text": "In some countries, the two-person commentating team is not used as much as elsewhere. In Germany, most broadcasts of sports matches traditionally feature a single play-by-play announcer who also provides commentary, background information, and statistics. If the broadcast is on TV, the announcer will usually not comment on visually obvious things. A two-person commentating team is used more often for sports where understanding of events depends more on details and subtle visual cues that not everybody might instantly get or might need extra information in order to reasonably understand – for example in auto racing or winter sport. In those cases, a current or former athlete or coach is often used as co-commentator or \"Experte\" (expert).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1700192",
"title": "Pundit",
"section": "Section::::Current use in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 252,
"text": "In sports commentating, a \"pundit\" or color commentator may be partnered with a play-by-play announcer who will describe the action while asking the pundit for analysis. Alternatively, pundits may be asked for their opinions during breaks in the play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1260585",
"title": "Color commentator",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Canada and the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Commentary teams typically feature one professional commentator describing the passage of play, and another, usually a former player or coach, providing supplementary input as the game progresses. The color commentator will usually restrict his input to periods when the ball or puck is out of play or there is no significant action on the field and will defer to the main commentator whenever there is a shot on goal or other significant event, sometimes resulting in their being talked-over or cut short by the primary commentator. Additionally, former players and managers appear as pundits, carrying out a similar role to the co-commentator during the pre-game show preceding a given contest and the post-game show following it. In American motorsports coverage, there may be as many as two color commentators in the booth for a given broadcast. A rules analyst, typically a former official, may comment on rules enforcement and replays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1662121",
"title": "Sports commentator",
"section": "Section::::Types of commentators.:Analyst/color commentator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "The \"analyst or color commentator\" provides expert analysis and background information, such as statistics, strategy on the teams and athletes, and occasionally anecdotes or light humor. They are usually former athletes or coaches in their respective sports, although there are some exceptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "27978221",
"title": "Business chess",
"section": "Section::::Spectators.:Focus on chess.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "During the game, spectators are able to hear and see team discussions: what information and in what scope the players analyze, how much and what options are offered for continuation, at what depth they are calculated, how the evaluations of positions changes during the passing and what final decisions are taken as a result. For the first time this becomes available for spectators' assessment directly, rather than via expert analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6571110",
"title": "Tipster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Tipsters are sometimes insiders of a particular sport able to provide bettors with information not publicly available. There are other tipsters who provide equally respectable results through analysis of commonly accessible information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
1tw16s
|
During the Cold War, why was it necessary for the USA and the USSR to build arsenals of literally thousands of nuclear weapons, enough to destroy all human life multiple times over?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is more of a question about nuclear war strategy than history but here goes:\n\nThe buildup has to do with theories on nuclear war that require establishing enough of a strategic nuclear force to ensure a second strike capability. Theoretically, one side would attempt a counter-force first strike to nullify enemy strategic nuclear assets, which would leave the enemy country at the mercy of the aggressor. As a result, each side would have to build up enough of a strategic deterrent, through land based silos, SLBMs, and strategic bombers, to ensure that it would be able to reciprocate to any first strike with massive nuclear retaliation, hence the second strike. Since building up additional nuclear assets would require additional weapons to destroy them, both sides were caught in an arms race that resulted in many thousands of nuclear weapons. Arsenals basically kept growing until the introduction of the SALT I (1972) and SALT II (Effectively 1979) treaties and eventually the START (1991) treaties. You should keep in mind that the vast majority of nuclear warheads are tactical warheads which would be deployed on the tactical or operational level rather than the strategic warheads equipped on the ICBMs. ",
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"answer": "CountrySteakSauce captured a major strategic driver for the arms race, but there a number of other factors worth highlighting:\n\n* It's important to realize that nuclear weapons are not weapons of absolute destruction, contrary to many people's impression. It can actually be much harder to destroy a specific target than you might expect. CountrySteakSauce mentioned that the vast majority of warheads were tactical--one reason is that it takes a lot of weapons if you are trying to destroy tank units. Of course, using that many weapons on the battlefield introduces a lot of other operational and strategic issues that the US never solved, but the US built a sizeable tactical arsenal by the time folks began to internalize that.\n\n* At a strategic level, weapon effects, targeting strategies and technical factors also drive what we know as overkill. Again, to dramatically over-simplify--Say you have three command bunkers around Moscow. Military planners might determine each requires a direct hit to destroy. Given US missile accuracy, you might need to target two warheads against each bunker to enusre one direct hit. The Soviets have missile defense around Moscow that will destroy half of the incoming warheads--now you need four against each target. Say that this warhead has a reliability problem, so only 2/3 of them will reach the target. Now you need 6 against each target. So now we're firing 18 warheads at Moscow to destroy three targets. Maybe planners want the option to choose between ICBMs, submarine-launched missiles and bombers to attack the target. That might mean buiilding 54 warheads, even when you only plan to launch 18 to ensure that three land exactly where you want them to.\n\n* Institutional factors--such as inter-service rivaleries, the nuclear development complex, Soviet bureaucratic politics, etc--also drove weapons production, as well as domestic politics (the non-existant \"missile gap\" for example). \n\nAgain, it's known as \"overkill\" for a reason and many recognized early on that the numbers were absurd. But most of the decisions at the time that led to the increases had specific justifications that seemed sensible to those making the choices.\n\nEdit: [Origins of Overkill](_URL_0_) is a good history of US nuclear planning in the '50s available for free on JSTOR that covers how strategic thinking, operational planning and institutional factors interacted to drive the growth of the US arsenal. If any has anything similar for the Soviets, I'd love to read it.",
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"answer": "The calculation for how many nuclear weapons one needs works roughly like this:\n\n* Let _A_ be the total number of strategic or military targets. How many there are depends on the adversary in question, and what one defines as a strategic or military target. Some options include the obvious ones like centers of population, centers of industrial or military production, or bombers/ICBM bases whose destruction would reduce the total retaliatory capability. Less-obvious but perhaps important options would include forward radar bases, SAM sites, communications centers, or bunkers full of politicians. At different points in the Cold War, US policy embraced some of these options more than others. As a rough estimate for how many targets there might be, in the late 1950s the US war plans considered there to be roughly 1,000 strategic/military targets in the USSR and China that would be hit in an all-out nuclear war. \n\n* Let _B_ be the percentage of weapons that you think will not get to their target, not detonate correctly over the target, or be destroyed before launching.\n\n* Let _C_ be any other tactical weapons you may want to use in the field against troops, tanks, etc.\n\nSo your final, minimum warhead count looks something like: \n\n* A * (1/B) + C \n\nSo with some example numbers, let's say that we assume we have 1,000 targets, that we assume that only one half of the warheads will successfully detonate over their targets. Plugging those numbers in, we get 2,000 strategic weapons as a minimum strategic requirement, which is a sensible number for a US-USSR all-out nuclear confrontation. During the Cold War, the US fielded between 1,000-2,100 strategic bombers or missiles, though note that by the later Cold War both could carry multiple bombs or warheads, so their total destructive power could be a multiple of those numbers. \n\nAs for tactical weapons needed, it depends on the scenario. During the late 1960s the US had many thousands of tactical weapons. Today it has very few in a tactical role. \n\nYou might feel that these numbers are far lower than the traditional \"total numbers of warheads\" cited. This is because not all warheads are fielded. Many are kept in storage, not ready for use. Total warheads possessed _is_ a meaningful number, because it does tell you about capabilities and intent, but it does not tell you how many would _actually be used_ in a nuclear war.\n\nEven so, the US deployed nuclear forces are pretty overkill. There are many historical reasons for this, including inter-service rivalry (the Air Force, Army, and Navy each had their own nuclear arsenals that were redundant and not coordinated), overly pessimistic estimates of the USSR's capabilities (the US was notorious for over-estimating Soviet military strength), and theoretical models that assumed a much higher rate of failure than was likely, among other factors. \n\nBut I would note that while the layman might think that one or two nukes, much less a hundred, much less many thousands, would be enough to deter an enemy, this isn't how a military planner thinks of it. They really think that you have to plan to _use_ the weapons, and that means not just blowing up one or two major population centers but possibly waging an all-out, destroy-all-infrastructure war of strategic attrition. They also really believe that the difference between an 80% confidence level and a 90% confidence level could mean the difference between war and peace. (This applies even today — I have had military analyst types tell me that whether they think North Korea had a 60% chance of being able to nuke Seoul or a 80% chance would really, really affect how they dealt with them, whereas I think most people would, like myself, think that even a 25% chance to lose a city of 10 million would be too high to mess with.)\n\nIf you want to see some of the logic played out \"in real time,\" as it were, I have found [the document I uploaded here](_URL_0_) to be a good, rare glimpse into actual military reasoning about the number of nuclear arms to have, even though it is quite early. Things get much more complicated when you take into account tactical weapons, hard and soft military targets, submarines, ICBMs, \"use it or lose it\" tactical weapons, and so forth.",
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"answer": "Just for general knowledge:\n\nThe first legitimate policy of this was seen during Eisenhower's presidency with his doctrine of \"massive retaliation.'\n\nIn time, this policy became know as \"Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD),\" which was used as nuclear deterrence under the presidency's of Kennedy to Carter.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1336707",
"title": "Military history of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Practical deployment of the Soviet military.:The Cold War and nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
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"text": "At one time, the Soviet Union maintained the world's largest nuclear arsenal in history. According to estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council, the peak of approximately 45,000 warheads was reached in 1986. Roughly 20,000 of these were believed to be tactical nuclear weapons, reflecting the Red Army doctrine that favored the use of these weapons if war came in Europe. The remainder (approximately 25,000) were strategic ICBMs. These weapons were considered both offensive and defensive in nature. The production of these weapons is one of the factors that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "585704",
"title": "Nuclear arms race",
"section": "Section::::Early Cold War.:Warhead Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "Behind the scenes, the Soviet government was working on building its own atomic weapons. During the war, Soviet efforts had been limited by a lack of uranium but new supplies in Eastern Europe were found and provided a steady supply while the Soviets developed a domestic source. While American experts had predicted that the Soviet Union would not have nuclear weapons until the mid-1950s, the first Soviet bomb was detonated on August 29, 1949, shocking the entire world. The bomb, named \"First Lightning\" by the West, was more or less a copy of \"Fat Man\", one of the bombs the United States had dropped on Japan in 1945.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1336707",
"title": "Military history of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Practical deployment of the Soviet military.:The Cold War and nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
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"text": "Though the Soviet Union had proposed various nuclear disarmament plans after the U.S. development of atomic weapons in the Second World War, the Cold War saw the Soviets in the process of developing and deploying nuclear weapons in full force. It would not be until the 1960s that the United States and the Soviet Union finally agreed to ban weapon buildups in Antarctica and nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "84237",
"title": "Space Race",
"section": "Section::::Early rocket development.:Cold War missile race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
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"text": "For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941, the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste to its cities and military centers. Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "36880",
"title": "Nuclear warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:1940s.:Immediately after the Japan bombings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "With the monopoly over nuclear technology broken, worldwide nuclear proliferation accelerated. The United Kingdom tested its first independent atomic bomb in 1952, followed by France in 1960 and then China in 1964. While much smaller than the arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union, Western Europe's nuclear reserves were nevertheless a significant factor in strategic planning during the Cold War. A top-secret White Paper, compiled by the Royal Air Force and produced for the British Government in 1959, estimated that British bombers carrying nuclear weapons were capable of destroying key cities and military targets in the Soviet Union, with an estimated 16 million deaths in the Soviet Union (half of whom were estimated to be killed on impact and the rest fatally injured) \"before\" bomber aircraft from the U.S. Strategic Air Command reached their targets.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "198076",
"title": "International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Although the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the US and Russia retained thousands of nuclear weapons ready to launch at a moment's notice. Proliferation and the threat of nuclear terrorism have added to the nuclear danger in the post-Cold-War world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5445842",
"title": "Operation Dropshot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "At the time the US nuclear arsenal was limited in size, based mostly in the United States, and depended on bombers for delivery. Dropshot included mission profiles that would have used 300 nuclear bombs and 29,000 high-explosive bombs on 200 targets in 100 cities and towns to wipe out 85 percent of the Soviet Union's industrial potential at a single stroke. Between 75 and 100 of the 300 nuclear weapons were targeted to destroy Soviet combat aircraft on the ground.\n",
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1z414c
|
What is the "speed limit" beyond the event horizon of a black hole?
|
[
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"answer": "In classical general relativity (ignoring all the recent business with firewalls), nothing special happens as you cross the event horizon from the point of view of an observer falling in. The laws of relativity don't disappear, so you still cannot travel locally faster than light.",
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"answer": " > if light crosses the event horizon of a black hole, does it speed up beyond the speed of light on its way to the center?\n\nNot really. What happens is that past the event horizon, the escape velocity (think: how fast would something, say, a rocket, need to go to \"lift off\") becomes faster than the speed of light. The photon itself won't speed up. It just can't escape the gravity.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "456715",
"title": "Kerr metric",
"section": "Section::::Ergosphere and the Penrose process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
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"text": "A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "151013",
"title": "T-symmetry",
"section": "Section::::Macroscopic phenomena: black holes.\n",
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"text": "The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3072290",
"title": "Photon sphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "where is the gravitational constant, is the black hole mass, and is the speed of light in vacuum and is the Schwarzschild radius (the radius of the event horizon) - see below for a derivation of this result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Interacting with an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "In the case of the horizon around a black hole, observers stationary with respect to a distant object will all agree on where the horizon is. While this seems to allow an observer lowered towards the hole on a rope (or rod) to contact the horizon, in practice this cannot be done. The proper distance to the horizon is finite, so the length of rope needed would be finite as well, but if the rope were lowered slowly (so that each point on the rope was approximately at rest in Schwarzschild coordinates), the proper acceleration (G-force) experienced by points on the rope closer and closer to the horizon would approach infinity, so the rope would be torn apart. If the rope is lowered quickly (perhaps even in freefall), then indeed the observer at the bottom of the rope can touch and even cross the event horizon. But once this happens it is impossible to pull the bottom of rope back out of the event horizon, since if the rope is pulled taut, the forces along the rope increase without bound as they approach the event horizon and at some point the rope must break. Furthermore, the break must occur not at the event horizon, but at a point where the second observer can observe it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9223226",
"title": "Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Speeds of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The black hole event horizon is teleological in nature, meaning that we need to know the entire future space-time of the universe to determine the current location of the horizon, which is essentially impossible. Because of the purely theoretical nature of the event horizon boundary, the traveling object does not necessarily experience strange effects and does, in fact, pass through the calculatory boundary in a finite amount of proper time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9223226",
"title": "Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Motion of raindrop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "BULLET::::- Inside the event horizon, formula_19 the speed increases as the raindrop gets ever more closer to the singularity. Eventually, the speed becomes infinite at the singularity. As shown below the speed is always less than the speed of light. The results may not be correctly predicted by the equation at and very near the singularity since the true solution may be quite different when quantum mechanics is incorporated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29f45q
|
What was the Value of a Knight and other warriors?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main issue with your question is the range. The medieval time period lasted a LONG time. Also, the quality and locaton of the armor and knight affected a lot. Europe had many vast economies. If you could narrow down the question, I'm sure the question could be answered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a very complicated question to answer, and there isn't really a definitive price-list for armor and weapons. I'm not sure that there is an answer at all for the Viking, as we don't really have financial records from Vikings. \n\nFor the knight, the availability of materials and quality of materials and craftsmanship would factor into the price quite heavily. There was new armor intended to be sold to average soldiers and old armor that was still being worn second-hand, and these could be quite cheap. On the other hand, the fine parade armor worn for display by the kings and great magnates of Europe was incredibly expensive. The type and amount of armor that you've described here would have been at the high end of armor intended for use in battle, which means that it would be quite expensive.\n\nThat said, it's nearly impossible to provide an itemized accounting of how much these items would have cost. This is because usually if we have records for how much somebody spent on armor, it's all jumbled into one amount. So it's not very easy to tease out what the individual pieces cost. Take for example Joinville's accounting of how much his armor cost. He remarks in the *Life of Louis* that he would need 800 pounds to mount and arm himself and feed himself and two knights. A livre is a monetary unit like a dollar or a pound. However, this doesn't really help us figure out how much the armor itself or any particular piece actually cost! It's not easy to find the range of the cost of armor, either, but I can try to give you some touch-stones.\n\nFirst, a word on currency. Medievalists work in solidi, pounds, and livres for the most part. These are all kind of sort of equivalent such that a livre in France in 1350 was probably roughly worth a pound in England in 1350. It's a lot harder to account for inflation/deflation across time.\n\nIt's easiest to tease out numbers on the horse. In the fourteenth century, a good horse fit for battle would cost around 25 pounds. On the other hand, in the mid 13th century Joinville remarks that Louis wouldn't give him the horse of a disgraced knight because it was still worth \"eighty to a hundred pounds, which was no small sum.\" In 1337 Edward III paid 168 pounds for a warhorse, and that seems to be at the very high end.\n\nThe average knight would have purchased a hauberk or mail shirt, a sword, and a horse in preparation for battle, along with other necessary items. Andrew Ayton estimates that the average cost for a simple knight to outfit himself during the hundred year's war was approximately 40 to 50 pounds. The list of armor you've given far exceeds this. It would probably cost, including the horse and horse's armor, between 100 and 150 pounds, at the low end.\n\nNow, the final part of your question is the hardest! It's nearly impossible to calculate an exchange rate between medieval currency and modern currency. Too many economic and social factors have changed. Instead, we tend to make comparisons to things like income from land (via rents). So, the 40 pounds that it would take the average knight to equip himself is actually roughly equal to the amount of income the average knight would receive from land rent in a year! You could think of this like the average middle class person in the US going to buy a new, mid-range mercedes. It's going to cost them their entire salary for the year so they'll either have to save up for it or take out a loan. Comparatively, a peasant family would earn somewhere around 2 pounds per year, and could never afford a war horse or armor.\n\nOf course, some knights were wealthier and therefore could afford more expensive sets of armor. There was a trial by combat in 1386 between a knight and a squire, and we know that the knight had a set of armor similar to what you've described. Although we don't know how much the knight's armor cost, we do know that his estates produced roughly 400 to 500 livres in a year. That's ten times what the average knight would earn and more that 200 times what the average peasant family would!\n\nsources:\n\n[Memoirs of the Crusades](_URL_0_) by Jean de Joinville and Geoffroi de Villehardouin\n\n[Medieval Warfare: A History](_URL_3_) by Maurice Keen. I especially quoted from Andrew Ayton's article *Arms, Armour, and Horses*.\n\n[Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of their Impact](_URL_2_) by Kelly DeVries and Robert D Smith.\n\n[The Last Duel: A True Story of Crime, Scandal, and Trial by Combat in Medieval France](_URL_1_) by Eric Jager.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29673282",
"title": "Thomas Knight (MP for Canterbury)",
"section": "Section::::Later life and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Knight was described as \"a gentleman, whose eminent worth is still remembered by many now living; whose high character for upright conduct and integrity, rendered his life as honorable as it was good, and caused his death to be lamented by every one as a public loss\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4871",
"title": "Bob Knight",
"section": "Section::::In the media.:Film and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Knight has appeared or been featured in numerous films and television productions. In 1994 a feature film titled \"Blue Chips\" featured a character named Pete Bell, a volatile but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after a sub-par season. It starred Nick Nolte as Bell and NBA star Shaquille O'Neal as Neon Bodeaux, a once-in-a-lifetime player that boosters woo to his school with gifts and other perks. The coach's temper and wardrobe were modeled after Knight's, though at no time had Knight been known to illegally recruit. Knight himself appears in the movie and coaches against Nolte in the film's climactic game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "275009",
"title": "Culture of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Politics and Government.:Honours system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Historically a knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior. An example of warrior chivalry in medieval literature is Sir Gawain (King Arthur's nephew and a Knight of the Round Table) in \"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight\" (late 14th century). Since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the UK is damehood. The ceremony often takes place at Buckingham Palace, and family members are invited to attend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors. During the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior. Often, a knight was a vassal who served as an elite fighter, a bodyguard or a mercenary for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback. Knighthood in the Middle Ages was closely linked with horsemanship (and especially the joust) from its origins in the 12th century until its final flowering as a fashion among the high nobility in the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of \"chivalry\", \"cavalier\" and related terms. The special prestige accorded to mounted warriors in Christendom finds a parallel in the \"furusiyya\" in the Muslim world, and the Greek \"hippeis\" (ἱππεῖς) and Roman \"eques\" of classical antiquity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19408793",
"title": "List of Merlin characters",
"section": "Section::::V.:Valiant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 307,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 307,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Knight Valiant (portrayed by Will Mellor) was a knight from the Western Isles, who came to Camelot to battle in the annual sword-fighting tournament. Unknown to others, he was cheating by using a magical shield (acquired from a sorcerer named Devlin, that he then killed) covered with painted snakes, which came to life at Valiant's command. He planned to kill Prince Arthur with the snakes, take the title of champion and win the heart of Morgana. However, his use of magic was revealed by Merlin and Arthur killed Knight Valiant in the finale of the tournament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3947729",
"title": "Jesse Knight",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "Knight is significant in Western American mining and entrepreneurial history because in several important ways he differed from the typical \"robber baron\" capitalists of the late-nineteenth century Gilded Age. His success, like theirs, depended upon the skillful acquisition and management of such business variables as claims, labor, capital, technology, and government services, and also upon the development of cost-efficient integrated enterprises, such as the Knight Investment Company. However, he also owned more patented mining claims in the Intermountain West than did his counterparts, and he was not inclined to engage in stock manipulation like many other mining entrepreneurs and railroad barons. Moreover, his business methods, especially when dealing with his working men, were far more paternalistic and benevolent than those of the typical big businessmen of the era. While other company town and mine owners often exploited their workers, Knight treated his workers very fairly in his company town of Knightsville, Utah, which he equipped with a meetinghouse, amusement hall, and school instead of the usual hedonistic establishments of mining camp life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33392723",
"title": "Chivalry: Medieval Warfare",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Knight: Knights are the heaviest of all classes. They use large, two-handed weapons, such as the longsword and battleaxe. They can also use bigger shields than the other classes. Sacrificing speed for armor, they are the slowest class in the game, as they move very slowly and their attacks leave them open for longer periods of time than other classes. The unique skill of the Knight allows him to wield a main sword (but not the axes or hammers) in a single hand, use a shield, or increase his speed at the expense of base damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45zunb
|
why do even numbers feel safer and more pleasing than odd numbers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it is more familiar to you. You have 10 fingers, 10 toes, two eyes, two ears, two arms, two legs, etc. Yes, you have one nose and one mouth but the number two satisfies your natural sense of symmetry more easily. The reason that five is comfortable is because of five fingers and five toes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi, sorry for bothering but the alarm of my OCD detector went on and the signal is coming from here..",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You've been conditioned to think this way.\n\nGrowing up, you learned a certain kind of math, and you learned it in such a way that even numbers were always easier to understand.\n\n* 1 (odd) x 2 (even) = 2 (even)\n* 2 (even) x 2 (even) = 4 (even)\n* 3 (odd) x 2 (even) = 6 (even)\n* 4 (even) x 2 (even) = 8 (even)\n* 5 (odd) x 2 (even) = 10 (even)\n* ...\n\nodd/even x even = even. Everything comes out even. BOOM! You learned that quick shit and have it on lock. Piece of cake. \n\nThen they throw this curve ball at you.\n\n* 1 (odd) x 3 (odd) = 3 (odd)\n* 2 (even) x 3 (odd) = 6 (even)\n* 3 (odd) x 3 (odd) = 9 (odd)\n* 4 (even) x 3 (odd) = 12 (even)\n* 5 (odd) x 3 (odd) = 15 (odd)\n* ...\n\nWell now evens and odds multiply out differently... uh oh. Shits not so simple. odds x even/odd = even/odd?!\n\nThen 5 comes along and he's your bro. He's got your back. He's like, I'm going to be easy for you. I'm half way to 10. 10's your baseline for everything. You mult me, add me, anything, you know I'm going to work with 10's real well.\n\n* 5 * 1 = 5\n* 5 * 2 = 10\n* 5 * 3 = 15\n* 5 * 4 = 20\n* 5 * 5 = 25\n* 5 * 6 = 30\n*....\n\nAdd me up. 5 + 8 = 13... because 8 is just 5+3 and 5+5 = 10... so you add 3+10... 13. Simple.\n\nMult me. 9 * 5... That's just 10 * 5 - 5. You know 10 5's 50... thats easy, now step back 5. 45. This is crazy simple.\n\nMult me a different way. 5 * 6. 5 is half of 10. So 6 * 10 = 60... half of that is 30. 10's and 5's are your bros.\n\nDo that with 7 and its not so easy. 7 is 7/10ths of 10... so thats some weird fraction stuff that doesn't work in your head so easy. 7 * 6... well 7 * 5 = 35 ... add 7... 42. But check that... you got there with 5 being your bro. He's always got your back.\n\n\nIf you learned your math a different way, like todays math, you would not be taught to add/mult in this way, and your affinity to even numbers/5 may not be a part of your life. How you learned:\n\n36 * 24 | | | |\n---|---|---|---\n4 * 6 | 24\n4 * 3 | 12 + 2 from above | 14 and tack on that top 4|144\n2 * 6 | 12\n2 * 3 | 6 + 1 from above | 7 and tack on that 2 | 72, but this was the number in the 10 spot, so put a 0 at the end... so its really 720\nAdd dat shit | not here | not here either | **864**\n\nHow kids today learn math:\n\n36 * 24| | \n---|---|\n20 x 30 | 600 \n20 * 6 | 120\n4 * 30 | 120 \n4 * 6 | 24\nAdd dat shit | **864**\n\nSee how much more dependent on 10's they are? 10's are easy to deal with, twice as easy as 5s.\n\n_____________________________________\n\n**Stop here for the ELI5 answer - we going to crazyville now! CHOO CHOO!!!**\n\n_____________________________________\n\nNow there's an even crazier number system called base 12. Base 12 adds 2 numbers at the end of 10 and asks you to use them as the new 10. Whaaaat? Crazy right. \n\nBase 10| | | | | | | | | |\n---|---|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----\n0| 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9 \n10| 11| 12| 13| 14| 15| 16| 17| 18| 19\n\nBut using base 12:\n\nBase 12| | | | | | | | | | ||\n---|---|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----\n0| 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9 |Dec|El\nDo| Do1| Do2| Do3| Do4| Do5| Do6| Do7| Do8| Do9|1Dec|1El\n\nSeems crazy right... but lets look at a multiplication table:\n\n\nmult | result | pattern\n---|---|----\n4x0 = 0 | 0|\n4x1 = 4 | 4 |\n4x2 = 8 | 8 |\n4x3 = 12 | 12 |\n4x4 = 16 | 16 |\n4x5 = 20 | 0 | Reset Pattern\n4x6 = 24 | 4 |\n4x8 = 28 | 8 |\n\nNow do it with base 12:\n\nmult | result | pattern\n---|---|----\n4x0 = 0 | 0|\n4x1 = 4 | 4 |\n4x2 = 8 | 8 |\n4x3 = 12 | Do | Reset Pattern\n4x4 = 16 | Do4 |\n4x5 = 20 | Do8 |\n4x6 = 24 | 2Do | Reset Pattern\n4x8 = 28 | 2Do8 | \n\nEasier pattern, happens more often. \n\nBut fractions gets amazeballs. \n\nBase 10| result\n---|---\n1/1 | 1\n1/2 | .5\n1/3 | .3333....\n1/4 | .25\n1/5 | .2\n1/6 | .16666... \n1/7 | .142857\n1/8 | .125 \n\nBase 12 | fraction | result\n---|---|---\n1/1 | Do/Do | 1\n1/2 | 6/Do| .6\n1/3 | 4/Do| .4\n1/4 | 3/Do| .3\n1/5 | 5/Do| .25\n1/6 | 2/Do| .2\n1/7 | 7/Do| 0.186\n1/8 | 8/Do| 0.16\n\nThere's lots of easy to understand splits there. Remember how useful splits are with even numbers and 5's? If you grew up with this system, you might have more numbers that work into the way you think, and you would have more numbers to create a pattern you could use/see more clearly. Crazy right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is funny I used to be like this when I was younger, I remember playing Ocarina of Time and shooting extra arrows to have the stack end in 5 or 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a weird affinity for numbers divisible by 3. I think it's because I think it's cool that the sum of their digits is also divisible by 3. This doesn't directly answer your question except to point out that I think it's different for all people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Certain numbers \"feel\" right, I suppose. I, too, often feel more comfortable with even numbers, but I also usually do things that involve multiples of 3. Like, if I'm adjusting the radio volume, I'll put it at 15, or 21, or 24, because those numbers just feel \"better\" to me than 17, 23, or 31. \n\nI don't know what it is, but I do know that cultures have been obsessed with numbers for as long as cultures have existed. Different cultures have valued different numbers. The ancient Mesopotamians had a counting system based around 60 (and giving us the basis for minutes and hours), while the Bible often mentions the number 40. In more modern times, of course, the decimal system revolves around 10, so that number has come to accrue a psychological powerful, sound amount. (i.e. Top 10 lists, things like that).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A professor in art school years back told me his personal theory about this, and it seemed sound to me. He felt that even numbers were \"resolved\" and odd numbers \"dynamic\". He explained it like this: say you and a friend were to share a box of donuts . If there are an even amount, you simply divvy them up equally and that's that. If there are an odd number, the debate between the two of you over who gets the odd one is never-ending. (I think that he may just have been really hungry, though.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I prefer prime numbers for things like these. It's so much fun to see how uncomfortable it makes some people to set the volume on 17 or 31!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the T.V. volume. I go crazy when it's on an odd number. To this day, I still don't know why. But only T.V. volume.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3821872",
"title": "Friendly number",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "For an example of odd numbers being friendly, consider 135 and 819 (\"abundancy\" 16/9). There are also cases of even being \"friendly\" to odd, such as 42 and 544635 (\"abundancy\" 16/7). The odd \"friend\" may be less than the even one, as in 84729645 and 155315394 (\"abundancy\" 896/351).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13259237",
"title": "Parity of zero",
"section": "Section::::Numerical cognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "This strong dependence on familiarity again undermines the mental calculation hypothesis. The effect also suggests that it is inappropriate to include zero in experiments where even and odd numbers are compared as a group. As one study puts it, \"Most researchers seem to agree that zero is not a typical even number and should not be investigated as part of the mental number line.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "271723",
"title": "Off-by-one error",
"section": "Section::::Fencepost error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In larger numbers, being off by one is often not a major issue. In smaller numbers, however, and specific cases where accuracy is paramount committing an off-by-one error can be disastrous. Sometimes such an issue will also be repeated and, therefore, worsened, by someone passing on an incorrect calculation if the following person makes the same kind of mistake again (of course, the error might also be reversed).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988410",
"title": "Nice (Unix)",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "This is why the \"nice\" number is usually called \"niceness\": a job with a high niceness is very kind to the users of your system (i.e., it runs at low priority), while a job with little niceness utilises more of the CPU. The term \"niceness\" could be considered awkward. Unfortunately, it's the only term that is both accurate (\"nice\" numbers are used to compute the priorities but are not the priorities themselves) and avoids horrible circumlocutions (\"increasing the priority means lowering the priority...\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273831",
"title": "Weber–Fechner law",
"section": "Section::::Other applications.:Numerical cognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Psychological studies show that it becomes increasingly difficult to discriminate between two numbers as the difference between them decreases. This is called the \"distance effect\". This is important in areas of magnitude estimation, such as dealing with large scales and estimating distances. It may also play a role in explaining why consumers neglect to shop around to save a small percentage on a large purchase, but will shop around to save a large percentage on a small purchase which represents a much smaller absolute dollar amount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21137",
"title": "Numerology",
"section": "Section::::Chinese numerology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Some Chinese assign a different set of meanings to the numbers and certain number combinations are considered luckier than others. In general, even numbers are considered lucky, since it is believed that good luck comes in pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5851711",
"title": "Superstitions of Malaysian Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Examples of superstitions.:Numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "BULLET::::- 9 is considered lucky because in both Mandarin and Cantonese it sounds like the word \"longevity\". 6 is considered auspicious because it is a homonym for the word \"flow.\" The pronunciation for the number 6 is “liu” and it means smooth in English. Therefore, Chinese people often use 6 when they start a new business. 8 is considered lucky in Mandarin because it sounds like the word for \"Prosperity\" and \"Wealth\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ec826u
|
how do latrines flush away stool but get blocked because of tissie/toilet paper?
|
[
{
"answer": "Toilets have pipes. A lot of paper will be difficult to compress and fit through those pipes. Turds, meanwhile, are relatively small and squishy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "239932",
"title": "Flush toilet",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance and hygiene.:Clogging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "If clogging occurs, it is usually the result of an attempt to flush unsuitable items, or too much toilet paper. Clogging can occur spontaneously due to limescale fouling of the drain pipe, or by overloading the stool capacity of the toilet. Stool capacity varies among toilet designs and is based on the size of the drainage pipe, the capacity of the water tank, the velocity of a flush, and the method by which the water attempts to vacate the bowl of its contents. The size and consistency of the stool is a hard-to-predict contributory factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17608149",
"title": "Close stool",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "A close stool was an early type of portable toilet, made in the shape of a cabinet or box at sitting height with an opening in the top. The external structure contained a pewter or earthenware chamberpot to receive the user's excrement and urine when they sat on it; this was normally covered (closed) by a folding lid. \"Stool\" has two relevant meanings: as a type of seat and as human feces. Close stools were used from the Middle Ages (the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" gives the first citation as 1410) until the introduction of the indoor flush toilet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37993",
"title": "Toilet paper",
"section": "Section::::Installation.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Children and cats have taken to unrolling an entire roll of toilet paper by spinning it until it completely unravels on the floor, or as a game by children wadding up one end, putting it in the toilet bowl without tearing it and then using the flushing of the toilet to pull new paper into the toilet, with the objective of flushing the entire roll down the toilet section at a time without the toilet paper breaking. Special toilet paper insert holders with an oblong shape were invented to prevent continuous unrolling without tearing to discourage this practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168509",
"title": "Constipation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Voluntary withholding of the stool is a common cause of constipation. The choice to withhold can be due to factors such as fear of pain, fear of public restrooms, or laziness. When a child holds in the stool a combination of encouragement, fluids, fiber, and laxatives may be useful to overcome the problem. Early intervention with withholding is important as this can lead to anal fissures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "675677",
"title": "Litter box",
"section": "Section::::Types of litter box filler.:Clumping litter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Clumping litter usually also contains quartz or diatomaceous earth (sometimes called diatomaceous silica, which causes it to be mistakenly confused with silica gel litter). Because of the clumping effect, the manufacturers usually instruct not to flush clumping litters down the toilet, because it could clog it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1606040",
"title": "Fecal impaction",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "Because enemas work in 2–15 minutes, they do not allow sufficient time for a large fecal mass to soften. Even if the enema is successful at dislodging the impacted stool, the impacted stool may remain too large to be expelled through the anal canal. Mineral oil enemas can assist by lubricating the stool for easier passage. In cases where enemas fail to remove the impaction, polyethylene glycol can be used to attempt to soften the mass over 24–48 hours, or if immediate removal of the mass is needed, manual disimpaction may be used. Manual disimpaction may be performed by lubricating the anus and using one gloved finger with a scoop-like motion to break up the fecal mass. Most often manual disimpaction is performed without general anaesthesia, although sedation may be used. In more involved procedures, general anaesthesia may be used, although the use of general anaesthesia increases the risk of damage to the anal sphincter. If all other treatments fail, surgery may be necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173652",
"title": "Hemorrhoid",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Internal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless, bright red rectal bleeding during or following a bowel movement. The blood typically covers the stool (a condition known as hematochezia), is on the toilet paper, or drips into the toilet bowl. The stool itself is usually normally coloured. Other symptoms may include mucous discharge, a perianal mass if they prolapse through the anus, itchiness, and fecal incontinence. Internal hemorrhoids are usually only painful if they become thrombosed or necrotic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uom8z
|
What did knights/lancers do with their lance after a successful charge?
|
[
{
"answer": "Typically a lance is used once in a battle, you charge, the lance either becomes embedded in your target, breaks or misses, in either case you drop it and draw a sidearm for close quarters fighting. There have of course been cases where lancers or knights have wheeled around, gone back to their original starting point, rearmed and charged again but I would consider this an exception to the rule. Typically a charge was intended to be the deciding move in a battle, shattering all or a crucial part of the enemy formation and thus ending the battle. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48774",
"title": "Lance",
"section": "Section::::History of use.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were often at least 4m long, and had hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474957",
"title": "Charge (warfare)",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry charges.:European Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "However, from the dawn of the Hundred Years' War onward, the use of professional pikemen and longbowmen with high morale and functional tactics meant that a knight would have to be cautious in a cavalry charge. Men wielding either pike or halberd in formation, with high morale, could stave off all but the best cavalry charges, whilst English longbowmen could unleash a torrent of arrows capable of wreaking havoc, though not necessarily a massacre, upon the heads of heavy infantry and cavalry in unsuitable terrain. It became increasingly common for knights to dismount and fight as elite heavy infantry, although some continued to stay mounted throughout combat. The use of cavalry for flanking manoeuvres became more useful, although some interpretations of the knightly ideal often led to reckless, undisciplined charges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435800",
"title": "Tournament (medieval)",
"section": "Section::::During the High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "At some time in mid morning the knights would line up for the charge (\"estor\"). At a signal, a bugle or herald's cry, the lines would ride at each other and meet with levelled lances. Those remaining on horseback would turn quickly (the action which gave the tournament its name) and single out knights to attack. There is evidence that squires were present at the lists (the staked and embanked line in front of the stands) to offer their masters up to three replacement lances. The mêlée would tend then to degenerate into running battles between parties of knights seeking to take ransoms, and would spread over several square miles between the two settlements which defined the tournament area. Most tournaments continued till both sides were exhausted, or till the light faded. A few ended earlier, if one side broke in the charge, panicked and ran for its home base looking to get behind its lists and the shelter of the armed infantry which protected them. Following the tournament the patron of the day would offer lavish banquets and entertainment. Prizes were offered to the best knight on either side, and awarded during the meals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1422155",
"title": "Lances fournies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "A lance was usually led and raised by a knight in the service of his liege, yet it is not uncommon in certain periods to have a less privileged man, such as a serjeants-at-arms, lead a lance. More powerful knights, also known as a knight bannerets, could field multiple lances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12238690",
"title": "Jacques Le Gris",
"section": "Section::::A judicial duel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "At the marshal's signal, silence descended over the field and both knights spurred their horses and charged, their lances each striking the other's shield but not causing significant damage. Wheeling, both again struck, but failed to penetrate, scoring glancing blows on their helmets but remaining horsed. For a third time, they turned and charged and again they both struck. This time however the lances shattered, sending slivers of wood cartwheeling across the arena and nearly unseating both men. Regaining their balance, the knights closed on one another with battle axes drawn, trading furious two-handed blows. As the engagement progressed, Le Gris' superior strength began to tell and Carrouges was driven back until with a mighty swing, Le Gris' axe severed the spine of Carrouges' horse. The dying beast tumbled to the ground, Carrouges leaping clear and meeting Le Gris' charge with a side-step, allowing him to thrust his own axe's pike deep into the stomach of Le Gris' steed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29234",
"title": "Spear",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Post-classical history.:Europe.:Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about .) to make it more manageable. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist pole weapons such as the pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221562",
"title": "Jousting",
"section": "Section::::Medieval joust.:High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "From the 11th to 14th centuries when medieval jousting was still practised in connection to the use of the lance in warfare, armour evolved from mail (with a solid, heavy helmet, called a \"great helm\", and shield) to plate armour. By 1400, knights wore full suits of plate armour, called a \"harness\" (Clephan 28-29).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8fbjxh
|
how elevators know what floor to go to and how they stop perfectly *nearly* every single time
|
[
{
"answer": "A certain number of rotations of the gears causes a specific change in height of the elevator. This isn't something that has any drift to it, it's pretty constant on the kind of scale we care about.\n\nA little tuning and you have it set with all the heights. Not much to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Special operating modes.:Inspection service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1798318",
"title": "Washington Park station (TriMet)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Elevators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The elevators stop at only two levels, surface and platform level, with no intermediate stops. As a part of the station's geological theme, the signs inside the elevators refer to these two levels not by conventional floor numbers but by \"the present\" and \"16 million years ago\"—for the surface level and platform level, respectively. During ascent and descent, a moving indicator display inside each elevator shows the current position expressed as elevation above sea level in feet. The elevators allow selecting two floors, \"S\" and \"T\", for \"surface\" and \"tunnel\" (or possibly \"street\" and \"track\"). The 26-story (28 for the west elevators) equivalent ride takes about 25 seconds. Due to the hillside surface slope, the west elevators are taller than the east elevators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365441",
"title": "Elevator paradox",
"section": "Section::::Modeling the elevator problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Simply, if one is on the top floor of a building, \"all\" elevators will come from below (none can come from above), and then depart going down, while if one is on the second from top floor, an elevator going to the top floor will pass first on the way up, and then shortly afterward on the way down – thus, while an equal number will pass going up as going down, downwards elevators will generally shortly follow upwards elevators (unless the elevator idles on the top floor), and thus the \"first\" elevator observed will usually be going up. The first elevator observed will be going down only if one begins observing in the short interval after an elevator has passed going up, while the rest of the time the first elevator observed will be going up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1537611",
"title": "Mechanical floor",
"section": "Section::::Structural concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "This layout is usually reflected in the internal elevator zoning. Since nearly all elevators require machine rooms above the last floor they service, mechanical floors are often used to divide shafts that are stacked on top of each other to save space. A transfer level or skylobby is sometimes placed just below those floors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Controlling elevators.:External controls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Elevators are typically controlled from the outside by a call box, which has up and down buttons, at each stop. When pressed at a certain floor, the button (also known as a \"hall call\" button) calls the elevator to pick up more passengers. If the particular elevator is currently serving traffic in a certain direction, it will only answer calls in the same direction unless there are no more calls beyond that floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Unique installations.:Taipei 101.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 307,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 307,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The high-speed observation deck elevators accelerate to a world-record certified speed of in 16 seconds, and then it slows down for arrival with subtle air pressure sensations. The door opens after 37 seconds from the 5th floor. Special features include aerodynamic car and counterweights, and cabin pressure control to help passengers adapt smoothly to pressure changes. The downwards journey is completed at a reduced speed of 600 meters per minute, with the doors opening at the 52nd second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365441",
"title": "Elevator paradox",
"section": "Section::::More than one elevator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "In the example above, if there are 30 floors and 58 elevators, so at every minute there are 2 elevators on each floor, one going up and one going down (save at the top and bottom), the bias is eliminated – every minute, one elevator arrives going up and another going down. This also occurs with 30 elevators spaced 2 minutes apart – on odd floors they alternate up/down arrivals, while on even floors they arrive simultaneously every two minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fqe36
|
Upon launch, what kept the Space Shuttle from tilting backwards towards the orbiter?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the rocket nozzles generate a thrust that points through the center of mass of the shuttle, then it won't rotate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28189",
"title": "Space Shuttle",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Re-entry and landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The vehicle began re-entry by firing the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while flying upside down, backside first, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's velocity by about . The resultant slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital perigee down into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then flipped over, by pushing its nose down (which was actually \"up\" relative to the Earth, because it was flying upside down). This OMS firing was done roughly halfway around the globe from the landing site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19812",
"title": "Project Mercury",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft.:Pilot accommodations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Once in orbit, the spacecraft could be rotated in yaw, pitch, and roll: along its longitudinal axis (roll), left to right from the astronaut's point of view (yaw), and up or down (pitch). Movement was created by rocket-propelled thrusters which used hydrogen peroxide as a fuel. For orientation, the pilot could look through the window in front of him or he could look at a screen connected to a periscope with a camera which could be turned 360°.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179132",
"title": "Spacelab",
"section": "Section::::Components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The system had some unique features including an intended two-week turn-around time (for the original Space Shuttle launch turn-around time) and the roll-on-roll-off for loading in aircraft (Earth-transportation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454300",
"title": "Constellation program",
"section": "Section::::Missions.:International Space Station and low-Earth orbit flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Once the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and two drogue parachutes released, followed at by three main parachutes and airbags filled with nitrogen (N), which does not combust when exposed to heat, allowing the spacecraft to splashdown. The Command Module would then be returned to Kennedy Space Center for refurbishment for a later flight. Unlike the Apollo CM, which was used only for one flight, an Orion CM could theoretically be used up to ten times under normal operating conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952422",
"title": "North American DC-3",
"section": "Section::::History.:End of DC-3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "At Kennedy Space Center's 28.5 degree north latitude the situation is more complicated. Over the 90 minute orbit KSC will rotate about . Unlike the equatorial orbit case, however, letting the spacecraft stay in the inclined orbit a little longer will start taking it south of the launch site (for the most efficient launch eastward, where the orbital inclination is equal to the launch latitude, making the launch point the most northerly of its ground path), its closest point of approach being about to the southwest. A spacecraft wishing to return to its launch site will need about 300 miles of cross-range maneuverability during re-entry, and the NASA shuttle designs demanded about 450 miles in order to have some working room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12718563",
"title": "Gravity turn",
"section": "Section::::Launch procedure.:Vertical climb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The gravity turn is commonly used with launch vehicles such as a rocket or the Space Shuttle that launch vertically. The rocket begins by flying straight up, gaining both vertical speed and altitude. During this portion of the launch, gravity acts directly against the thrust of the rocket, lowering its vertical acceleration. Losses associated with this slowing are known as gravity drag, and can be minimized by executing the next phase of the launch, the pitchover maneuver, as soon as possible. The pitchover should also be carried out while the vertical velocity is small to avoid large aerodynamic loads on the vehicle during the maneuver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28189",
"title": "Space Shuttle",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1232,
"text": "Shortly after liftoff, the Shuttle's main engines were throttled up to 104.5% and the vehicle began a combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuver that placed it onto the correct heading (azimuth) for the planned orbital inclination and in a heads down attitude with wings level. The Shuttle flew upside down during the ascent phase. This orientation allowed a trim angle of attack that was favorable for aerodynamic loads during the region of high dynamic pressure, resulting in a net positive load factor, as well as providing the flight crew with a view of the horizon as a visual reference. The vehicle climbed in a progressively flattening arc, accelerating as the mass of the SRBs and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the altitude of the International Space Station is , roughly equivalent to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Station orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions going there must set orbital inclination to the same value in order to rendezvous with the station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37chy0
|
special economic zones
|
[
{
"answer": "It basically means the country or state has declared certain areas to have separate trade/regulation/economic policy than the rest of the country or state. It is typically done to encourage trade and boost their economy.\n\nHere is an example. Two islandic countries fish for widgets. Country A has a socialist economy and very high taxes and regulation on businesses. Country B is capitalist and has a free market mentality. The cost to get the widget out of country A is much higher and they cannot compete on the global market. So the country declares a special economic zone for the industry/port. The widget company now has a separate set of laws and taxation than the rest of their country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83373",
"title": "Special economic zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country. SEZs are located within a country's national borders, and their aims include increased trade balance, employment, increased investment, job creation and effective administration. To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced. These policies typically encompass investing, taxation, trading, quotas, customs and labour regulations. Additionally, companies may be offered tax holidays, where upon establishing themselves in a zone, they are granted a period of lower taxation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83373",
"title": "Special economic zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The creation of special economic zones by the host country may be motivated by the desire to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). The benefits a company gains by being in a special economic zone may mean that it can produce and trade goods at a lower price, aimed at being globally competitive. In some countries, the zones have been criticized for being little more than labor camps, with workers denied fundamental labor rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446260",
"title": "Free economic zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Free economic zones (FEZ), free economic territories (FETs) or free zones (FZ) are a class of special economic zone (SEZ) designated by the trade and commerce administrations of various countries. The term is used to designate areas in which companies are taxed very lightly or not at all to encourage economic activity. The taxation rules are determined by each country. The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) has content on the conditions and benefits of free zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342833",
"title": "Free city",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::- Special economic zone, a zone located within the national borders of, and controlled by, a sovereign country, but where business and trade laws differ from the rest of that country (and are usually less regulated).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447107",
"title": "List of free economic zones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In special economic zones business and trades laws differ from the rest of the country. The term, and a number of other terms, can have different specific meanings in different countries and publications. Often they have relaxed jurisdiction of customs or related national regulations. They can be ports or other large areas or smaller allocated areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63927",
"title": "Cartagena, Colombia",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Free zones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Free zones are areas within the local territory which enjoy special customs and tax rules. They are intended to promote the industrialization of goods and provision of services aimed primarily at foreign markets and also the domestic market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7375956",
"title": "The Old Market Autonomous Zone",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The A-Zone's core principles include a commitment to Participatory Economics (or Parecon), autonomy and solidarity, anti-colonialism \"at home\" and abroad, fair and equitable work, non-hierarchical decision-making, community economic development, and revolution .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8y246v
|
After the Stanford Prison Experiment, what happened to all the ‘prisoners’ and ‘guards’ who were involved? Did any of them sue/have long term mental health issues from what went on in there?
|
[
{
"answer": "Any interveiw sorces would be greatly appreciated if anybody has any",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although Zimbardo did not conduct an immediate debriefing, which could have uncovered harm caused by the experiment, none of the prisoners displayed long-term mental health issues. In the years following the experiment, the participants engaged in post-experimental questionnaires and interviews that (according to Zimbardo) confirms this. \n\nTo my knowledge, none of the participants sued or took any lethal action. The intense 6-day ordeal did cause signs of depression in one participant and severe emotional distress in others, but it seems that most of those involved have lived relatively obscure lives since then. \n\nSource: McLeod 2008",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's well worth pointing out here that the Stanford experiment is highly controversial among psychologists, and the high reputation it has among the general public is by no means reflected in its reception by professionals.\n\nThere are numerous critiques of the experiment from the point of view of its design and, perhaps more seriously, several recent \"exposés\", and a film, [based on interviews with participants, ](_URL_5_)which contain significant charges regarding the degree to which the results were deliberately engineered by the \"prisoners\" and \"guards\", out of boredom or mischief.\n\nIn addition, the psychologist responsible for the experiment, Zimbardo, has been attacked for [giving out incorrect information about the trial design and the conditions under which the student participants took part](_URL_2_).\n\nFnally, [an attempt by a team of British psychologists](_URL_4_) to replicate the experiment under the same conditions that Zimbardo asserts he applied [failed miserably](_URL_1_).\n\nAs a result of all this, the Stanford experiment is actually not very widely taught in psychology classes and d[oes not appear in quite a number of standard textbooks](_URL_0_).\n\nAll of these charges would tend to suggest not only that the famous experiment was, at best, severely comprised, but also that it was much less likely than you might expect to inflict long term damage on the participants. For balance, you might like to know that Stanford maintains a resource that links to both [major critiques of the study](_URL_6_), and Zimbardo's [defences of it](_URL_3_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50746458",
"title": "History of Stanford University",
"section": "Section::::World War II and late 20th century.:Stanford prison experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "In the summer of 1971 a Stanford psychology professor, Philip Zimbardo, conducted a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard which is known as the Stanford prison experiment. The experiment, which was funded by the Office of Naval Research, surprised the professor by the authoritarian and brutal reaction of the \"guards\" and the passive acceptance of abuse by the \"prisoners\". The experiment was criticized as unethical and was a partial cause of the development of ethical guidelines for experiments involving human subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26240598",
"title": "Unethical human experimentation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Psychological and torture experiments.:Academic research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In 1971, Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford prison experiment in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. The participants adapted to their roles beyond Zimbardo's expectations with prison guards exhibiting authoritarian status and psychologically abusing the prisoners who were passive in their acceptance of the abuse. The experiment was largely controversial with criticisms aimed toward the lack of scientific principles and a control group, and for ethical concerns regarding Zimbardo's lack of intervention in the prisoner abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33994346",
"title": "Social experiment",
"section": "Section::::Best-known social experiments.:Stanford prison experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The Stanford prison experiment was a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted at Stanford University on August 14–20, 1971, by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students. It was funded by the U.S. Office of Naval Research and was of interest to both the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps as an investigation into the causes of conflict between military guards and prisoners. The experiment is a classic study on the psychology of imprisonment and is a topic covered in most introductory psychology textbooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5572415",
"title": "The Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "The findings of the study were very different from those of the Stanford Prison Experiment. Specifically, (a) there was no evidence of guards conforming \"naturally\" to the role, and (b) in response to manipulations that served to increase a sense of shared identity amongst the prisoners, over time, they demonstrated increased resistance to the guards' regime. This culminated in a prison breakout on Day 6 of the study that made the regime unworkable. After this, the participants created a \"self-governing commune\" but this too collapsed due to internal tensions created by those who had organized the earlier breakout. After this, a group of former prisoners and guards conspired to install a new prisoner-guard regime in which they would be the \"new guards\". Now, however, they wanted to run the system along much harsher lines – akin to those seen in the Stanford study. Signs that this would compromise the well-being of participants led to early termination of the study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309812",
"title": "Stanford prison experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1163,
"text": "The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) was a social psychology experiment that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers. It was conducted at Stanford University on the days of August 14–20, 1971, by a research group led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students. In the study, volunteers were randomly assigned to be either \"guards\" or \"prisoners\" in a mock prison, with Zimbardo himself serving as the superintendent. Several \"prisoners\" left mid-experiment, and the whole experiment was abandoned after six days. Early reports on experimental results claimed that students quickly embraced their assigned roles, with some guards enforcing authoritarian measures and ultimately subjecting some prisoners to psychological torture, while many prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, by the officers' request, actively harassed other prisoners who tried to stop it. The experiment has been described in many introductory social psychology textbooks, although some have chosen to exclude it because its methodology is sometimes questioned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1683779",
"title": "Deindividuation",
"section": "Section::::Major empirical discoveries.:Philip Zimbardo (1971).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1791,
"text": "Now a more widely recognized study since the publication of his book, \"The Lucifer Effect\", the Stanford Prison Experiment is infamous for its blatant display of aggression in deindividuated situations. Zimbardo created a mock prison environment in the basement of Stanford University’s psychology building in which he randomly assigned 24 men to undertake the role of either guard or prisoner. These men were specifically chosen because they had no abnormal personality traits (e.g.: narcissistic, authoritarian, antisocial, etc.) The experiment, originally planned to span over two weeks, ended after only six days because of the sadistic treatment of the prisoners by the guards. Zimbardo attributed this behavior to deindividuation due to immersion within the group and creation of a strong group dynamic. Several elements added to the deindividuation of both guards and prisoners. Prisoners were made to dress alike, wearing stocking caps and hospital dressing gowns, and also were identified only by a number assigned to them rather than by their name. Guards were also given uniforms and reflective glasses which hid their faces. The dress of guards and prisoners led to a type of anonymity on both sides because the individual identifying characteristics of the men were taken out of the equation. Additionally, the guards had the added element of diffusion of responsibility which gave them the opportunity to remove personal responsibility and place it on a higher power. Several guards commented that they all believed that someone else would have stopped them if they were truly crossing the line, so they continued with their behavior. Zimbardo's prison study would have not been stopped if one of Zimbardo's graduate students, Christina Maslach, had not pointed it out to him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447842",
"title": "Human subject research",
"section": "Section::::Human subjects in psychology and sociology.:Stanford prison experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1884,
"text": "A study conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 examined the effect of social roles on college students at Stanford University. Twenty-four male students were assigned to a random role of a prisoner or guard to simulate a mock prison in one of Stanford's basements. After only six days, the abusive behavior of the guards and the psychological suffering of prisoners proved significant enough to halt the two-week-long experiment. Human subjects play a role in this experiment. This study would show whether or not prisoners and guards have conflict which make conflict inevitable. This conflict would be due to possible sadistic behavior of guards (dispositional) or due to the hostile environment of the prison (positional). Due to the fact that prisoners could lack respect for the law and guards could behave in a hostile manner due to the power structure of the social environment that are within prisons. Yet, if prisoners and guards behaved in a non aggressive way, this would support the dispositional hypothesis. If the prisoners were just to behave in the same way that people did in real life, this would support the positional hypotheses. Using human subjects for this experiment is vital because the results is based on the way a human would react, with behaviors only humans obtain. Human subjects are the best way to get successful results from this type of experiment. The results of this experiment showed that people will readily conform to the specific social roles they are supposed to play. The prison environment played a part in making the guards behavior more brutal, due to the fact that none of the participants showed this type of behavior beforehand. Most of the guards had a hard time believing they had been acting in such ways. This evidence concludes this to be positional behavior, meaning the behavior was due to the hostile environment of the prison. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l919g
|
Were there "baby boomer" generations as a result of large armies returning from battle in ancient times?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its important to remember that the Baby Boom in 1950s America was not simply caused by troops returning from WW2. Remember there was no real Baby Boom in Britain or France in response to WW2 and even within America after WW1 there was no real \"boom\" in population. David Faber in *The Age of Great Dreams* argues that the boom was more caused by availability of housing in the suburbs and widespread consumer goods in the economy which a huge amount of young couples feel confident enough to start families at the same time especially when you consider many of them came through the Great Depression. They saw the new opportunities as a great chance also considering the uncertainty in America due to the Cold War starting.\n\nI know I did exactly answer your question and I don't have much data on battles in ancient times, but I would answer no since even America's baby boom was not the result of a large army returning, that is just an oversimplification of history.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Information on the ancient period isn't available to me, so please pardon the reference to Modern History. \n\nWhile a somewhat contentious source, Simon Huntington makes reference to the demographics inherent in warfare. He draws points to the correlation between 'youth bulges' (where groups of fifteen to twenty four year old males exceed 20% of the nation's population) and ensuing warfare. For example, the collapse of the Lebanese government in the 70's is attributed to the rise in Shi'ite birthrates about 20 years before. \n\nDrawing from memory, Dupuy's *Evolution of Weapons and Warfare* refers to the boom in population following the First World War and cites it as a contributing factor to the Second. Unfortunately this book seems to have escaped from my living room after multiple rooms, but perhaps another can cite directly?\n\nInterestingly, this assertion runs contrary to your question. Baby booms may not be the result of wars, but rather a structural cause. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "94535",
"title": "Generation",
"section": "Section::::List of generations.:Western world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "BULLET::::- Baby boomers, also known as Generation W or the Me Generation, are the generation that were born mostly following World War II, typically born from 1946 to 1964. Increased birth rates were observed during the post–World War II baby boom making them a relatively large demographic cohort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239259",
"title": "Baby boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "One proposed reason why Baby Booms occur after periods of war, (like after World war 2 and the Rwandan Genocide) is because depopulation tends to free up resources for the survivors which creates an epigenetic tendency to reproduce. In other words, having children seems desirable when resources are plentiful, when there is less competition and demand for finite resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17152372",
"title": "American social policy during the Second Red Scare",
"section": "Section::::The Post–World War II \"baby boom\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In the aftermath of World War II the birth rate spiked in the United States as millions of young men were discharged from the armed forces and began to establish new households. This \"baby boom\" significantly increased the number of families in the United States. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8210419",
"title": "Mid-twentieth century baby boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The middle of the 20th century was marked by a significant and persistent increase in fertility rates in many countries of the world, especially in the West, resulting in the famous baby boomer generation. Although the baby boom traditionally considered to be the post-war phenomenon started immediately after World War II, some demographers place it earlier, at the increase of births during the war or in the late 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296627",
"title": "War children",
"section": "Section::::Amerasians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Probably more than 100,000 children have been born to Asian mothers and US servicemen in Asia. This occurred chiefly during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Some of these children were born to mothers raped by men living on several US military bases in the region since World War II. Collectively these children are known as \"Amerasians\", a term coined by the author Pearl S. Buck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239259",
"title": "Baby boom",
"section": "Section::::Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In Japan, the first baby boom occurred between 1947 and 1949。The number of births in the past three years exceeds 2.5 million every year, bringing the total number of births to about 8 million. The 2.69 million births in 1949 are the largest ever in postwar statistics. The people born in this period is called the \"baby boom generation\" (団塊の世代, dankai no sedai, means \"the generation of nodule\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47127",
"title": "Baby boomers",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Size and economic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In addition to the size of the group, Steve Gillon has suggested that one thing that sets the baby boomers apart from other generational groups is the fact that \"almost from the time they were conceived, Boomers were dissected, analyzed, and pitched to by modern marketers, who reinforced a sense of generational distinctiveness.\" This is supported by the articles of the late 1940s identifying the increasing number of babies as an economic boom, such as a 1948 \"Newsweek\" article whose title proclaimed \"Babies Mean Business\", or a 1948 \"Time\" magazine article called \"Baby Boom.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
162w76
|
Were there black KKK members?
|
[
{
"answer": "The KKK had membership rules which prohibited blacks, Jews, homosexuals, atheists and Catholics from joining. Or to be more exact, they only allowed white, protestant, Anglo-Saxon men to join. Later, in the 1920s, they did start a women's organization that allowed only WASP women to join.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > Here are Twenty Reasons WHY you should, if qualified,\njoin, aid and support the White Knights of the\nKU KLUX KLAN of Mississippi:\n\n > \\10. Because it is composed of native-born, white, gentile and protestant American citizens who are sound of mind and of good moral character.\n\n > We are looking for, and enlisting ONLY: Sober, Intelligent, Courageous, Christian, American, White men who are consciously and fully aware of the basic FACT that the physical life and earthly destiny are absolutely bound up with the Survival of this Nation, under God. Our governmental principles are precisely those of the ORIGINAL U.S. Constitution. Our members are Christians who are anxious to preserve not only their souls for all Eternity, but who are MILITANTLY DETERMINED, God willing, to save their lives, and the Life of this Nation, in order that their descendants shall enjoy the same, full, God-given blessings of True Liberty that we have been permitted to enjoy up to now.\n\n > We do not accept Jews, because they reject Christ, and, through the machinations of their International Banking Cartel, are at the root center of what we call \"communism\" today. \n\n > We do not accept Papists, because they bow to a Roman dictator, in direct violation of the First Commandment, and the True American Spirit of Responsible, Individual Liberty. \n\n > We do not accept Turks, Mongols, Tarters, Orientals, Negroes, nor any other person whose native background of culture is foreign to the Anglo-Saxon system of Government by responsible, FREE individual citizens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe. Take a look at this 1920s [application](_URL_0_)(warning, PDF) to join the order. Note question 9: \"are you of the white race or of a colored race?\" Keep in mind that these forms are for vetting members. However, the question is tantalizing when we realize that the 1920s Klan, which has received the most scholarly attention, had several auxiliaries. The only auxiliary that has received any sustained attention is the Women's Ku Klux Klan (WKKK), beginning with Blee's work. But there are references to other Klan auxiliaries. There was the Junior Ku Klux Klan, Tri-K Girls, the American Krusaders, and the Ku Klux Kiddies. However, there are also references to another Klan auxiliary, the Klan's Colored Man auxiliary. It is unclear how successful the Klan was at organizing this auxiliary. One should not take the lack of archival deposits as evidence of their inability to organize the auxiliary; the Klan was very secretive and destroyed many of their documents. There are scattered references about membership, especially secondary resources, but it is uncertain how reliable these sources are. One such compendium of references is [this](_URL_1_) Klan website (WARNING: NSFW, KLAN WEBSITE). So, I'm afraid we cannot answer your questions right now. It is a big maybe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9115311",
"title": "James Ford Seale",
"section": "Section::::Indictment, trial and conviction in 2007.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (WKKKK) operated in the Southern District of Mississippi and elsewhere, and was a secret organization of adult white males who, among other things, targeted for violence African Americans they believed were involved in civil rights activity in order to intimidate and retaliate against such individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58325",
"title": "Vigilantism",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan was formed in Pulaski, Tennessee by a group of six Confederate War veterans. The KKK or \"Klan\" sought to use extralegal force to resist Reconstruction in the post-Civil War South of the United States. The KKK became a leading agent of racist and nativist violence in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265082",
"title": "History of the United States (1918–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Roaring Twenties.:Ku Klux Klan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1544,
"text": "Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three entirely different organizations (1860s, 1920s, post 1960) that used the same nomenclature and costumes but had no direct connection. The KKK of the 1920s was a purification movement that rallied against crime, especially violation of prohibition, and decried the growing \"influence\" of \"big-city\" Catholics and Jews, many of them immigrants and their descendants from Ireland as well as Southern and Eastern Europe. Its membership was often exaggerated but possibly reached as many as 4 million men, but no prominent national figure claimed membership; no daily newspaper endorsed it, and indeed most actively opposed the Klan. Membership was verily evenly spread across the nation's white Protestants, North, West, and South, urban and rural. Historians in recent years have explored the Klan in depth. The KKK of the 1860s and the current KKK were indeed violent. However, historians discount lurid tales of a murderous group in the 1920s. Some crimes were probably committed in Deep South states but were quite uncommon elsewhere. The local Klans seem to have been poorly organized and were exploited as money-making devices by organizers more than anything else. (Organizers charged a $10 application fee and up to $50 for costumes.) Nonetheless, the KKK had become prominent enough that it staged a huge rally in Washington DC in 1925. Soon afterward, the national headlines reported rape and murder by the KKK leader in Indiana, and the group quickly lost its mystique and nearly all its members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1688046",
"title": "Civil rights movement (1896–1954)",
"section": "Section::::Criminal law and lynching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie \"Birth of a Nation\", which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999780",
"title": "History of terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Emergence of modern terrorism.:The United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "After the Civil War, on December 24, 1865, six Confederate veterans created the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). The KKK used violence, lynching, murder and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress African Americans in particular, and it created a sensation with its masked forays' dramatic nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17599355",
"title": "White",
"section": "Section::::Religion and culture.:Political movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The Ku Klux Klan is a racist and anti-immigrant organization which flourished in the Southern United States after the American Civil War. They wore white robes and hoods, burned crosses and violently attacked and murdered black Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33178",
"title": "White supremacy",
"section": "Section::::Ideologies and movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the group most associated with the white supremacist movement. Many white supremacist groups are based on the concept of preserving genetic purity, and do not focus solely on discrimination based on skin color. The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant. The KKK and other white supremacist groups like Aryan Nations, The Order and the White Patriot Party are considered antisemitic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a50gsh
|
how do sodas travel the country all carbonated but as soon as you get one alone and it shakes up, its flat?!
|
[
{
"answer": "When you shake a carbonated beverage, a bunch of the carbon dioxide which is the cause of the \"fizz\" goes out of the liquid and into the air.\n\nIf you then let it sit still for long enough, the carbon dioxide will dissolve back into the solution.\n\nSo if you shook a can of soda and let it be for a while (probably not even a day) the carbon dioxide will dissolve back into the soda and it'll be the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, you can't just drop a bottle of soda and have it be okay. Try it out if you want, but I'm warning you, do it outside. That being said, you can disturb them somewhat without losing it's fizzyness, as long as it remains sealed. \n\nLet's start with why soda is fizzy in the first place. There is dissolved gas inside the liquid. That gas doesn't like being there though. It is constantly trying to escape out into the atmosphere. In order for it to escape though, it needs two things: \n\n1) nucleation. This just means it needs to be disturbed in some way. Lot's of things can cause nucleation, such as microscopic scratches in the glass, but the most common, and the one we're concerned with is shaking and/or pouring. When you move the drink, the gas gets disturbed, and can escape, as long as it has...\n\n2) Space. This is the key to why you can shake a closed bottle a bit, and it will still be fine. Even if you disturb the gas, if the gas has nowhere to go, it can't escape. When a soda bottle is full, there is very little air in the bottle for the gas to escape to. So when the bottle is filled, a little gas will escape the drink, but once that tiny space is full, that's it, no more gas can escape until the bottle is opened.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to add that soda in its final form rarely if ever makes a cross-country trip. What happens with the big companies is they stir up the beverage base at their own place (this is JUST the flavorings and stuff), then ship *that* to the various regional bottling factories who then mix it with carbonated water, and then ship the final product out.\n\nThis is why when you see Coke and Pepsi delivery trucks, they're *always* driving a \"day cab\" semi, which doesn't have the sleeper area in the back. Don't need the sleeper area if you clock in make your rounds and clock out and go home each day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if you've done high school chem covering equilibrium, but pretty much the carbon comes from a carbonic acid that can \"transform\" into carbon dioxide and water. This transformation is set to go towards an equilibrium state within a confined space and is influenced by factors such as temperature. For example all bodies of water are actually fighting to reach an equilibrium with vapor.\n\nWater becomes vapor, and the higher the temperature, the more water will be vapor, the lower the temperature, the more vapor would be water. That's why clothes still dry when you hang them out despite it's no where near boiling temperature.\n\nInside a fixed volume such as that of the soda can, the acid won't have space to turn into carbon dioxide, therefore it won't \"fizz\". However if you get one alone and shake it up, you are stimulating the release of all of the carbon dioxide, and there will be no more acid in the soda. If the cap is on the bottle will bulge up and build up pressure, if the cap is off the gas will be released as quickly as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda siphons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Home soda siphons can carbonate flat water through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838104",
"title": "Soda fountain",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "In the Eastern Bloc countries, self-service soda fountains, located in shopping centers, farmers markets, or simply on the sidewalk in busy areas, became popular by the mid-20th century. In the USSR, a glass of carbonated water would sell for 1 kopeck, while for 3 kopecks one could buy a glass of fruit-flavored soda. Most of these vending machines have disappeared since 1990; a few remain, usually provided with an operator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838104",
"title": "Soda fountain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The term may also refer to a small eating establishment or lunch counter, common from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, often inside a drugstore or other business, where a soda jerk served carbonated beverages, ice cream, and sometimes light meals. The soda jerk's fountain generally dispensed only unflavored carbonated water, to which various syrups were added by hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31361805",
"title": "Phosphate soda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Phosphate soda is a type of beverage that has a tangy or sour taste. These beverages became popular among children in the 1870s in the United States. Phosphate beverages were made with fruit flavorings, egg, malt, or wine. In the 1900s, the beverages became popular, and fruit-flavoured phosphate sodas were served at soda fountains, before losing popularity to ice cream based treats in the 1930s. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6340",
"title": "Canadian English",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Daily life.:Food and beverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer \"pop\" over \"soda\" to refer to a carbonated beverage (though neither term is dominant in British English). \"Soft drink\" is also extremely common throughout Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39806043",
"title": "Bottled water ban",
"section": "Section::::Sub-national bans by country.:United States.:Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "On April 9, 2019, the Town Meeting of West Tisbury, Massachusetts, banned the sale of non-alcoholic carbonated beverages in single-serve plastic bottles (defined as less than 34 ounces) starting January 1, 2020. This is apparently the first such law in the United State to cover soft drinks and similar beverages. Two neighboring towns on the island, Chilmark and Aquinnah, will vote on similar measures within the following month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::History.:Popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Social drinking changed with the counter-culture movement of the 1970s and the arrival of new bottled and canned beverages in the 1980s, and soda water has declined in popularity. Soda siphons are still bought by the more traditional bar trade and are available at the bar in many upmarket establishments, but in the UK there are now only two wholesalers of soda-water in traditional glass siphons, and an estimated market of around 120,000 siphons per year (2009). Worldwide, preferences are for beverages in recyclable plastic containers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10p5hk
|
How exactly is a photograph actually stored as 1's and 0's on a computer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's talk about [bitmaps](_URL_0_). \n\nThe simplest case is a black and white bitmap (which will literally be a bit-map... the 0s will be black and the 1s will be white. And it will be 32 by 16 pixels.)\n\nYou have to tell the computer at least one thing about the bitmap:\n\n1. How many pixels wide is it\n\nSo you need to put that in a file. So there's a number at the front of the file. So the computer needs to be able to make an assumption about how big that number might be, so it knows when to stop reading \"how wide is this bitmap\" and starts reading the zeros and ones that make the picture. Maybe you and the computer agree \"the first four bytes of the file are the width\", so your file goes like this:\n\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 00100000\n\nAnd the computer says \"0h, that means 32 to me, so everything after this is the picture\". Then you want to make a white dot (because black is \"zero\" or \"none), so you set the next numbers to\n\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000\n 00000000 00001111 11110000 00000000\n 00000000 11111111 11111111 00000000\n 00000011 11111111 11111111 11000000\n 00001111 11111111 11111111 11110000\n 00111111 11111111 11111111 11111100\n 01111111 11111111 11111111 11111110\n 01111111 11111111 11111111 11111110\n 01111111 11111111 11111111 11111110\n 01111111 11111111 11111111 11111110\n 00111111 11111111 11111111 11111100\n 00001111 11111111 11111111 11110000\n 00000011 11111111 11111111 11000000\n 00000000 11111111 11111111 00000000\n 00000000 00001111 11110000 00000000\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000\n\nAnd there you have your bitmap. For this example I ordered the numbers in columns so you could see them on the screen, but to the computer they'd just be bits.\n\nNow if you want to do a color bitmap, it gets more complicated. Because there are many [ways to mix colors](_URL_2_). There's Red/Green/Blue, then there's Hue/Saturation/Brightness, and several others. So you'll need a number for each of those, to say (for \"RGB\": \"how much red, and how much green, and how much blue\") So instead of using one bit, you need to save several, for each color. Commonly bitmaps use 8 bits (or 1 byte) to measure each color. So if you made the same image using RGB, black would be\n\n [ R ] [ G ] [ B ]\n 00000000 00000000 00000000\n\nand white (or \"all the colors\") would be\n\n [ R ] [ G ] [ B ]\n 11111111 11111111 11111111\n\nSo the file becomes ~~3~~ **24** times larger. But now it can be in color. I'm not going to type out a 32-by-16 pixel RGB bitmap, because, well, that would be silly.\n\nCommonly, bitmaps can be compressed (GIF files are compressed) so that instead of writing all those 1's, you have a part at the top of the file (before the actual bits) where you say--for instance--\"any time you see 00000001 00011000, I really mean that the next 24 bytes are all 1's\", which saves you 22 bytes worth of space. So the simple way to make smaller images is to keep a list of \"shortcuts\" that you can expand out later. \n\nNow for JPEG, things get more complicated, because there it's more like a tiny program, ~~that goes over the picture and not only finds runs of things that are the same, but patterns that repeat, and it says \"this part of the picture is a lot like this other part of the picture, so we'll just save it once and refer to it later\" but it can also say \"this tiny part looks a lot like this bigger part. So throw away the bigger part to save space\" or other ways of looking at individual areas of a photo and deciding if they're alike enough to save as shortcuts. Then the computer takes all of those instructions (which are part of \"The JPEG standard\") and interprets them to reproduce something that's more or less like the original.~~ What [tugs_cub says below](_URL_1_) (Though I thought that for the results of the tiling, it would only keep one copy of each distinct tile?)\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The first thing to know (which you may know already) is that a digital image consists of a bunch of little squares, each having a single color, and each of which is called a [pixel](_URL_0_). In general, an image file (technically: a _raster_ image, as opposed to _vector_ images, which are something else entirely) stores the colors of these pixels in some defined order. But the order in which the pixels' colors are stored, as well as _how_ exactly the colors correspond to bits (1's and 0's), depends on the image format.\n\nIt's usually easy to figure out an ordering of pixels: you can just go left to right and then top to bottom, just like we read English. You can try other orderings, but you don't really gain anything by changing the ordering. This ordering will need a bit of _metadata_ (information other than the actual content of the image) to specify at least how long a row is. Accordingly, image files start off with a header section that stores any necessary metadata, including the image dimensions. But that's not the actual image content that you care about, so I won't say any more about it.\n\nThe interesting part is how to represent the colors. A method of mapping a color to a sequence of bits is called a [color space](_URL_1_). There are several common ones; the simplest is called RGB, because it represents colors as a mixture of red, green, and blue components. For each component, the amount by which it contributes to the color is represented on a scale from 0 to 255, with 0 being \"none\" and 255 being some maximum. In other words, a color in RGB is represented by three integers, giving the amounts of red, green, and blue in that color. The three integers can be written as binary numbers, giving a sequence of 24 bits that represent the color of the pixel.\n\nFor example, let's consider a small image, two pixels by two pixels:\n\n -----------------\n | red | green |\n -----------------\n | black | white |\n -----------------\n\nThe top-left pixel of this image is pure red of the maximum possible intensity. This color would be represented by having the maximum possible red component, and zero for the other components. This corresponds to the numbers (255, 0, 0), or in binary,\n\n 11111111 00000000 00000000\n\n(the spaces aren't part of the image data, I just put them in to help you parse the bits). The next pixel would be the one to the right, which is pure green of the maximum possible intensity, corresponding to the numbers (0, 255, 0), or\n\n 00000000 11111111 00000000\n\nMoving on to the next row, you have black, which has none of red, green, or blue - which makes sense because black is what you see when it's dark, i.e. when no light is reaching your retina at all. So black will be represented by the numbers (0, 0, 0), or\n\n 00000000 00000000 00000000\n\nAnd finally, white is what you see when you're looking at something that gives off all frequencies of light, so it will have all the components at their maximum: (255, 255, 255) or\n\n 11111111 11111111 11111111\n\nSo this image, in our super-simple file format, might be represented by these bits:\n\n 00000010 00000010 11111111 00000000\n 00000000 00000000 11111111 00000000\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 11111111\n 11111111 11111111\n\nThe first two groups of 8 bits represent the width and height (both 2) of the image, and the remaining ones are the color data.\n\nNaturally, a realistic image contains a _lot_ of pixels, and so if you try to store image data this way, the resulting files will be _huge_. (This is in fact roughly what the BMP format does, and if you try saving a photograph as a bitmap, you'll see that the file size is gigantic.) So it's to our advantage to try to find some way to reduce the amount of data it takes to represent an image. Now, there's not much we can do for this tiny image I used as an example, but for a larger image, it stands to reason that there might be a bunch of pixels with the same color. If this is the case, then you can \"abbreviate\" a sequence of, say, 20 green pixels in a row by encoding \"20 (0, 255, 0)\" instead of actually writing \"(0, 255, 0)\" 20 times. In binary, this might look like so:\n\n 00010100 00000000 11111111 00000000\n\nHere I've written the number 20 followed by the RGB code for green. An image file format could specify that all pixels are encoded this way: always the number of consecutive pixels of that color, followed by the color itself. If you have a lot of isolated pixels which don't share a color with their neighbors, then this could add as much as 25% to the file size compared to the simple file format from above, but it usually works out that there are enough repeated pixels that you do get a net reduction in file size. This technique is called [run-length encoding](_URL_3_) and it is used in many different image file formats.\n\nAnother thing you can do to reduce the number of bits needed is to take advantage of the fact that in the specification of each color, there is a lot of wasted data. For example, the RGB color space I've been using allows for 2^24 or 16.7 million different colors in each pixel. An image normally will only use a few of those 16.7 million possible colors. So what you can do is make a _color table_ which assigns a much smaller number to each of the few colors the image _does_ use, and instead of writing out all 24 bits of a pixel's color, you just write its index in the color table.\n\nLet's take the small sample image from above as an example. There are four colors in this image, so we will need a color table that has at least four \"slots.\" There are a couple ways to do this: we could either actually use a color table that has just as many entries as there are colors in the image, which would mean we'd also have to include the color table as metadata in the image file, or we could pick a fixed size of color table and have it be part of the image file format that the color table is always that size, and just put in dummy entries for colors we're not using. I'll demonstrate using the former method, even though the latter one finds use in a number of real image file formats.\n\nFor this small four-color sample image, we would encode the color table as follows: first the number of distinct colors in the table, which let's say will be represented by 8 bits.\n\n 00000100\n\nThen each of the individual colors involved in the table, one by one. Suppose we decided to make black the first color (index 0), then red, then green, then white. The rest of the color table would look like this:\n\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 11111111\n 00000000 00000000 00000000 11111111\n 00000000 11111111 11111111 11111111\n\nThe first three bytes encode black (0, 0, 0), the next three encode red (255, 0, 0), then green (0, 255, 0), then white (255, 255, 255). Now that the color table exists, instead of having to give three numbers from 0-255 to specify each pixel's color, we can just give a single number from 0 to 3. And that only takes two bits per pixel. The first pixel is red, index 1, or 01 in binary; the second is green, 10; the third is black, 00; and the last is white, 11.\n\n 01100011\n\nSo in this format, the image would take the form\n\n 00000010 00000010 00000100 00000000\n 00000000 00000000 11111111 00000000\n 00000000 00000000 11111111 00000000\n 11111111 11111111 11111111 01100011\n\nAgain, it begins with the width and height, then the length of the color table, then the color table itself, then the image data. Written using this format, it takes a few more bits than in the super-simple format, but hopefully you can see that for a larger image with more same-colored pixels, it could be a _lot_ smaller using this kind of encoding.\n\nSomething that can be done, and that works quite well for larger image files, is to use variable-length indices into the color table. For example, instead of each pixel being represented by two bits, we could make white be encoded by 0, red be encoded by 10, green by 110, and black by 111. This would be pretty pointless for our small example image, but for larger images, you can arrange this so that the most common colors are precisely the ones that have the shortest representation, which can cut a chunk off the file size even if there are a lot of individual colors in the image. This is called [Huffman coding](_URL_2_) and it is used in many real image formats. (to be continued)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "474813",
"title": "Color histogram",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Example 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "2. Assume the photo we take is made of 4 blocks that are adjacent to each other and we set the luminance scale for each of the 4 blocks of original photo to be 10, 100, 205, 245. Thus, the image looks like the first figure on the right. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23173647",
"title": "Motorola Krave",
"section": "Section::::Camera phone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The camera phone records pictures in JPEG format, but the Krave can also read GIF, PNG and BMP/DIB files. Thumbnails are stored individually as 9kB device-independent bitmap files (such as \"filename\"_jpg.dib, or \"filename\"_3g2.dib), occupying up to 10% more flash memory space (with 32kB clusters) than each picture itself (about 320kB at full size). The entire first video frame for each video is also stored this way (ff-\"filename\"_3g2.dib) at a resolution higher than the 320×240 of the video itself. Windows cannot read the thumbnails produced by the phone. Automatic creation of thumbnails can significantly slow browsing of photos. There is no way to bookmark, favorite, index, categorize, sort, or tag photos, such that the oldest ones require scrolling through all other photos taken since then. Large numbers of photos in the my_pix folder can cause severe slowness in capturing and browsing photos, and when a card is inserted or the phone reboots or is turned on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3231836",
"title": "MSDC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "This class as implemented in digital cameras, allows a connection between a computer and a digital camera by showing the digital camera, when connected to the computer, as a removable disk drive, temporarily attached to the computer. Pictures taken are retrieved using either cut and paste, copy and paste or drag and drop from the digital camera's picture folder onto a real hard drive or other writeable media available in the computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4252697",
"title": "Closed-circuit television camera",
"section": "Section::::Digital still cameras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Modern digital still cameras can take 500 kb snapshots in the space of 1 second, and these snapshots are then automatically downloaded by the camera software straight to the computer for storage as timed and dated JPEG files. The images themselves don't need to stay on the computer for long. If the computer is connected to the Internet, then the images can automatically be uploaded to any other computer anywhere in the world, as and when the pictures are taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3452561",
"title": "OpenDocument technical specification",
"section": "Section::::Format internals.:Pictures (directory).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Pictures is a separate folder for images included in the document. This folder is not defined in the OpenDocument specification. Files in this folder can use various image formats, depending on the format of inserted file. While the image data may have an arbitrary format, it is recommended that bitmap graphics are stored in the PNG format and vector graphics in the SVG format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2842268",
"title": "Microform",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Microfiche.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 x 14 mm. Office-size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25 in size. Microfiche are stored in open-top envelopes which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards, or fitted into pockets in purpose-made books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460736",
"title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Computer files.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "A computer file contains data, not visible, which can be converted by appropriate technical means into a screen image and into a print which exactly reproduces the original photograph from which it was derived. It is a form of copy which makes the original photograph, or a copy of it, available for viewing by a person who has access to the file. There is nothing in the Act which makes it necessary that a copy should itself be a photograph within the dictionary or the statutory definition, and if there was, it would make the inclusion of the reference to a copy unnecessary. The Court of Appeal concluded that there is no restriction on the nature of a copy, and that the data in a computer file represents the original photograph, in another form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r854y
|
irc
|
[
{
"answer": "IRC is a way for groups of people to chat to each other. \n\nFirst, you connect to an IRC network. IRC networks have many different channels on them; an IRC channel is the original \"chatroom\". Channels are named with a hash beginning them; for example, #Cars or #Politics or #Cooking. So you enter the #Cooking channel, where there are 30 other people. Everything you type is visible by those 30 people, and everything they type is visible to you. So you hold a group conversation. You can be in as many channels as you like simultaneously; each will have their own tab on your IRC program, like websites in a browser. Additionally, anybody can initiate a one-to-one chat with any other user on the network.\n\nTypically, any user can create their own channel. You could wander onto EFnet (one of the major IRC networks), and create your own #Saxopwn channel. As the creator of the channel, you have the ability to kick other users out of the channel and ban them from returning. You can also designate other users as \"operators\" or \"ops\", which function like moderators on a forum; they too can kick/ban people who act like jerks.\n\nAn IRC network can have hundreds or thousands of different channels on it, each run by different people with different ops. But there are hundreds of different IRC networks, each completely separate from the others; #Ducks on the EFnet network is totally separate from #Ducks on the DALnet network. Anybody who wants can found an IRC network and try to get people to use it; the people who run the network are called IRC Operators or \"opers\". While channel operators can ban people from specific channels, IRC operators can ban people from *the entire network*.\n\n\nLet me know if there's anything else you're wondering.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks I was curious about irc as well ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My favorite description of IRC has always been \"Multiplayer Notepad\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "well, I feel old now that people don't know what IRC is",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a more technical explanation of it, like you're five:\n\nImagine there's a lot of people you want to talk to, but they're all in different locations in the world. All of these people use their telephone and call a person we'll call the moderator (this is the IRC server). Every time someone wants to send a message, they send the message to the moderator. The moderator then sends that same message out to every other user who is telephoned in. This allows many people to speak and at once without needing to connect to each other. (That's why it's called IRC - Internet *Relay* Chat; the server relays the messages out to everyone else.) Additionally, there are sometimes multiple moderators (servers) which are linked together to further increase the capacity of the network. The moderators communicate between eachother and then to their respective callers. There are also channels, which are basically subjects which a certain group of people want to talk about. A moderator will only send messages to people if they say that they want to talk about that certain subject (joining the channel).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Relevant:\nInternational Rescue Committee....\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always seen it as just a chatroom. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here, let Numb3rs explain it\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nwait for the boat explanation",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the last few refuges of the real nerd internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember I used to download music through IRC back in the day.\n\nI wouldn't remember how to now, nor do I know if that's even a thing anymore but it made me feel pretty cool when I was younger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could someone explain the motivation behind IRC Bots which archive and distribute a large number of files?\n\nI don't mean to be a cynic, but I don't understand why so many people (especially in the anime community) have XDCC bots which are rarely fully funded by the users through donations, and the owners of the bots, I assume, end up paying for their bandwidth, which simply distributes files they already have to other people. All of the liability is on their end, and the bandwidth costs are all to them, yet these bots are virtually anonymous. Is it really something as simple as generosity from giving people? Are the bandwidth costs actually a lot smaller than I imagine them to be (one of the most popular bots has distributed 480TB to date)?\n\ntl;dr is there some motivation behind hosters of IRC bots, or are they just really generous people?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Idle Relay Chat",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know that big dry erase board in your kindergarten class. Yeah, the one with all the markers that everyone can draw on. Well an IRC is like that for grown-ups and it's on the computer. But instead of drawing, we write.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "IRC is a way for people on the Internet to talk to one another in real-time. To connect to an IRC server, you need a special program called a \"client\". This client program connects to the server and allows you to send and receive messages being sent on the server.\n\nBasically imagine it like a huge chatroom with thousands of people connected to it. Every time you type a message and press \"Send,\" it gets sent to those thousands of people.\n\nHowever, this would get confusing pretty fast if those thousands of people were trying to hold a bunch of different conversations at once! That's why IRC messages have a special prefix attached to them, a prefix we call a \"channel name\". Usually the channel names describe whatever the people in that channel are talking about. (#/r/writing, for instance, is a channel on freenode for Redditors who want to talk about writing.)\n\nWhen you first join IRC, you won't receive any messages. That's because you haven't joined a channel yet. Once you join a channel, you will receive all the messages people are sending into that channel. (Funnily enough, you do not always have to be inside a channel to send a message inside the channel! Most IRC networks make this a rule, though, because it's kind of strange otherwise.)\n\nYou can join other channels as well, and you will receive all the messages that people are sending to those channels too. If this seems confusing, don't worry! Your client will sort this out for you. Usually different channels are sorted into different tabs in your client program, so you can follow the conversation in each.\n\nOf course, such an open system like this is open to abuse. So, in each channel, some people are granted special powers to stop people from sending messages into the channel, or stop them from sending *or* receiving messages from the channel. These are called \"ops\". If there are a lot of bad people who are causing lots of trouble in all sorts of different channels, the people in charge of the IRC server will step in and boot them off the whole network!\n\nMany IRC networks will allow you to start your own channel, too. You can register a channel name and immediately become that channel's \"op,\" in charge of everything about it. You can set up the channel however you like! You can make it a public channel or a special channel that only people who get an invite from you can join. You can even set something called a \"topic,\" which is a special message the server sends to people when they join your channel. And if your channel gets really big, you can share some of your op powers with other people you trust, while still retaining the ultimate power of being able to retake your channel whenever you want.\n\nIf you'd like to test it out and you don't have an IRC client, check out [Freenode's client](_URL_0_) that runs right in your browser!",
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{
"answer": "a nerds favorite style of internet communication. think of it as a chat-room where you can use script and commands. ",
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{
"answer": "So apparently I'm the only one who thought OP was asking about the Internal Revenue Code?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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"text": "IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in August 1988 to replace a program called MUT (MultiUser Talk) on a BBS called OuluBox at the University of Oulu in Finland, where he was working at the Department of Information Processing Science. Jarkko intended to extend the BBS software he administered, to allow news in the Usenet style, real time discussions and similar BBS features. The first part he implemented was the chat part, which he did with borrowed parts written by his friends Jyrki Kuoppala and Jukka Pihl. The first IRC network was running on a single server named tolsun.oulu.fi. Oikarinen found inspiration in a chat system known as Bitnet Relay, which operated on the BITNET.\n",
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"text": "IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP and, optionally, TLS. An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. There are many client implementations, such as mIRC, HexChat and irssi, and server implementations, e.g. the original IRCd. Most IRC servers do not require users to register an account but a nick (nickname) is required before being connected.\n",
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"text": "ircII (pronounced \"i-r-c-two\" or \"irk-two\", and sometimes referred to as \"IRC client, second edition\") is a free, open-source Unix IRC and ICB client written in C. Initially released in the late 1980s, it is the oldest IRC client still maintained. Several other UNIX IRC clients, including BitchX, EPIC, and ScrollZ, were originally forks of ircII. For some, ircII set the standard of quality for IRC clients, however other clients have since overtaken ircII in terms of popularity. The application has been promoted as being \"fast, stable, lightweight, portable, and easily backgrounded\".\n",
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"text": "IRCs are often used by amateur radio operators sending QSL cards to each other; it has traditionally been considered good practice and common courtesy to include an IRC when writing to a foreign operator and expecting a reply by mail. If the operator's home country does not sell IRCs, then a foreign IRC may be used.\n",
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1gwnwf
|
AMA: Vikings
|
[
{
"answer": "As I'm sure you all know, pretty much everything we know about Norse mythology comes from Christian sources, written hundreds of years after its practices had been banned (eg. the Edda and the Codex Regius).\n\nDo you think Norse mythology as depicted in the literature we have is reflective of how the belief structure was like at the time it was actually being practiced? To what extent do you think it has been modified by Christianity (eg. Baldur as Jesus, the second-to-last verse of Völuspá)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How far the stereotype of the bearded berserker with an axe and a horned helmet is accurate ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How far east did the Vikings go? I'm aware of the Volga Vikings and their visits to Baghdad but did they go further east? How accurate is Ibn Fadlan's description of the Ship Burial he described?\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's the most surprising piece of Viking technology that has ever been found?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How accurate is the portrayal of viking culture in the History channel show \"vikings\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The *Annals of Ulster* record that in 845, Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid had the viking chieftain Turgesius drowned in a lake, and later the same High King has the rebellious petty king Cinaed of Cianacht (who hired Scandinavians to aid his rebellion) drowned in a pool as well. \n\nThese deaths were pretty much unprecedented in Christian Ireland (the entry for Cinaed's death makes this clear, and stresses the cruelty of the act and the revulsion of Irish nobles & Armagh), and I've heard it suggested that death by drowning might have been a conscious insult to pre-Christian Scandinavians, because it would have prevented them from going to Valhalla while Cinaed's execution might have been an insult by comparing him to a foreigner & a pagan. Is there any basis in that statement? Did death by drowning have any significance in Norse religion? I've literally been wondering this for a year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What did Vikings tend to think of other cultures and ethnic groups? Did they view themselves as superior to other cultures they came into contact with? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always seen Vikings associated with a particular time period (maybe 800CE-1200CE), but was there a longstanding sea-raiding culture in Scandinavia before this period? Were there \"Vikings\" or similar predecessors during Roman or pre-Roman times?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How common was the knowledge of runes? I know they were used for short messages and name tags later on, but would the average male farmer know them? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1)Did the vikings have a ritual towards manhood?Something like \"after this the boy becomes a man\". \n2)Did they have strict training regimens? \n3)what did the guys eat to be strong?did they have some \"power dish\"?(like the spartan broth) \n4)how did they prepare physically and spiritually before a battle? \n5)did they had the notion of brotherhood amongst the warriors? \n6)how did they celebrate after a great battle? \n7)How did they view aggression and blood lust? I've read about the greeks/spartans that going crazy in battle was viewed as a dishonor. \n8)did they view conquering/war/aggressiveness as part of their heritage?Did they actually enjoy these acts or where they forced by the climate/circumstances? \nI've got more,i'm really interested in this subject.I hope I didn't ask to much,good luck with the ama!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quick question, would the TV Vikings be an accurate description of viking times?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) How much better would an Ulfbert (ULFBEHRT? ULFBE+RT? I can't remember) sword be than an average sword made in Scandinavia? Would they be used in battle, or were they mainly ceremonial or for personal defence? What is the leading theory on who made them and where they came from? Is it even a real thing or just something people would scratch onto their swords because it was popular?\n\n2) What effect did they have on Scotland, specifically the east coast and lowands? Colonies, trade, conquest, etc. I've often heard they mainly left the east coast alone and concentrated on Ireland and England, but I'm not sure why (or where I heard it).\n\n3) Do we know of a real immediate ancestor to what we know as Viking culture? What was happening in Scandinavia before they built longships and started trading with half of the world?\n\n4) Were there any specific battle tactics that the Vikings often used? The Romans fought in maniples (among other things), the Greeks fought in phalanxes (among other things). What was the classic Viking battle formation?\n\n5) What was the daily (or weekly, whatever, disregarding things like annual holidays) religious life of a Norse family at home in Scandinavia? Did this differ much from Norway to Sweden to Denmark? Was their a priestly caste?\n\n6) I often hear of exotic goods from the Med or Persia being found in a Viking village, but what is the furthest afield expensive Viking artifacts have been found? Did any jewellery trickle it's way to China or India?\n\n7) Sorry for asking so many questions, but Vikings are awesome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Rebellion - Runes](_URL_0_)\n\nAs I understand it they sing about a story where odin was pierced by his own spear for 9 days, died and was reborn to discover runes or something. Is this how the story goes, where runes seen as magical ancient things or just like letters. \n\nAlso, is there any good webbsite for finding these old storys in normal english?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did the vikings bring women from raided lands back to Scandinavia? If so did they discriminate by appearence?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's the lowdown on bloodeagles? If they were used as a punishment, what sort of crimes were involved? How did they fit into the Viking view of discipline?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are viking notions of morality? Good and evil? Are they all pirates? What sort of weapons do they prefer? \n\nYes, I know little of Vikings. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In crusader kings 2, when playing as a norse nation, you have the option to hold a ceremony called a blot. As far as I can tell it was a feast with sacrifices. Can you elaborate on,exactly what a blot was and why it was held?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the Vikings visited North America, why didn't they stay there? It must've been much nicer than their homeland. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are the best historical sites to visit in Norway and western Sweden related to the viking period.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just how mighty were the Vikings? I used to always hear about how they were unstoppable warriors, second to none and striking fear into everyone. Later history professors have told me that is entirely not the case, and the Vikings were more like cowardly bandits than bloodthirsty raiders, only targeting weak, undefended villages and monasteries and fleeing at the first sign of armed resistance. I'm sure the truth is somewhere in the middle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did any vikings have elective monarchical institutions like Germanic peoples did?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. On campaign how did a viking army supply itself?\n2. How was a viking army formed? Were they very much feudal in nature?\n3. What was the social hierarchy like? How important were their priests, merchants, artisans, farmers, etc?\n4. What were the important roles of women in their society?\n5. What did the average viking eat?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How much have the Vikings influenced today's culture and how much of that is still present in the different parts of Europe?\n\nAlso, are there any good documentaries (I don't mind subtitles or French/German audio) about Vikings?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How prevalent were occupations besides raiding, farming, and skilled labor? Were there any Norse natural scientists or philosophers? How advanced was their medicine?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it true that vikings probably landed in North America about 500 years before Christopher Columbus?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "is there any indication as to how aware vikings were of their reputation as bloodthirsty raiders?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I were to be interested in learning about vikings, where would be best to start? (Like what books?)\n\nAre there any important Viking Sagas that I should read, or learn about? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i heard viking swords used crucible steel which was the strongest steel at the time and steel of equal quality would be seen for 100s of years.\n\nany truth to that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you guys think about neo-paganism, specifally Ásatrú. Do you consider it a real religion and do you think it's alright for U.S. veterans putting Mjölnir on their gravestones.\n\nBasically, do you think there is any merit to Ásatrú or do you think it's only used for a \"coolness\" factor.\n\nFollow up question: Being here on Reddit and sometimes here on r/askhistorians it seems to me that Snorri gets a lot of bad rep. Do you think he deserves it?\n\nEdit: /u/einhverfr, I assume you're using old norse here but, do you know what your username would mean in modern Icelandic?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it true that Vikings sometimes used crystals that were sensitive to the polarized light of the sky for orientation, when other means of orientation were unavailable?\n\nAlso, what was Viking religion like?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How much do we know, if anything at all, about Ragnar Lodbrok as a historical figure? I've read about him and his purported progeny only in passing, and it seemed to me there isn't much consensus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be on the periphery of the subject, but a Dr. Patricia Boulhosa has advanced the theory that the Old Covenant between Iceland and the Norwegian king was essentially a 15th century fabrication after the formation of the Kalmar Union, rather than a historical document from the 13th century. Are her observations warranted, or what's up?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do we know of any primary source or archeological evidence of Viking mead production in the early middle ages? (aside from Beowulf)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) How significant culturally and militarily was it for a man to have a hauberk of ringmail?\n\n2) Are there any cases of Vikings using partial plate or scale armour?\n\n3) Where did the (edit: incorrect) association of horned helmets with Vikings originate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are there any lasting cultural impacts of the vikings in northern Scotland? I know there are lots of linguistic carryovers from the Vikings in the British Isles, but especially in the main island, are there cultural differences because of Viking rule? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How big were Viking political units? Were there a lot of \"kings\" ruling small groups or just a few ruling large groups? Did the various Viking groups see themselves are a larger culture or was it like the gaulish celts who were basically just related by language and material culture but were different groups?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As I understand it, \"viking\" originally comes from a word meaning \"a raider or a pirate\". So, it originally referred to a *what* rather than a *who*. However, \"Viking\" evolved into a term referring more to a *who*--how correct is that? Were Vikings a homogeneous cultural and linguistic group that would have viewed *themselves* as mostly similar/related? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the strangest custom in Norse culture that you know of?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "did the Varagian Guard adopt a fighting style that was different from their kinsman back in Scandinavia?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the predominate theory of what a Berserker's 'trace' is? Why?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I understand many Norse were switching back and forth between trading and raiding. Are there any Christian sources reflecting on the possibility that christian merchants were trading with people that might very well return as raiders the following year?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fascinating reading thus far!\n\nNot quite about the Vikings but could you recommend good general reading on the Nordic bronze age and early iron age? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1.what advice would you give to someone who hopes to have a career in archeology specifically in the viking age?\n\n2.A mod for a game i play called Vikingr depicts the seax being worn on the back of the outfit, the creators of the mod strive for historical accuracy, but books i have read depict the seax being worn on the front which depiction is correct, or more correct?\n\n3.\n What books would you say contain the most accurate information that a regular person would be able to buy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How culturally similar was early midieval Viking society, to early medieval society in general in the former western half of Roman Empire?\n\nWhat are the earliest intact pieces of norse literature? How does Beowulf relate to earlier norse myths and what does it say about how the English in that period saw themselves in relation to the norse?\n\nHow did the norse interact socially with the Irish when they had their long ports their?\n\nSuggestions of books on early medieval norse, and any age related to them before that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After a lot of the Scandanavian lands became Christian, did people try to retain their Viking heritage and culture, and remained fearless warriors?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why did Norse religion fall? Is there still people who practice it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are, in your opinion(s), the best introductory-ish texts to Viking history? I see the sidebar has Brink's *The Viking World* and Hall's *Exploring the World of The Vikings*, but are there any others that you'd recommend? I'm not a historian (but still an academic) and so semi-difficult texts are welcome.\n\nAlso on that note: could you recommend some of the best translations for the key texts, e.g. the Eddas? By \"best\" I have in mind not only readability but also commentary, notes, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As the Varangian guard was made almost exclusivly of Scandinavians, how common was it for young men to leave home with the intention to join up with the Varangians, and was there ever any attempts to stop this practice? \nAfter all, Scandinavia was not very densely populated, and it is not hard to understand how even small groups of men leaving could damage smaller communities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once heard the claim that Tir was a god of ritualized battle whereas Thor was largely a god of disorderly battle and raiding. It was claimed that Tir used to be the most popular god of battle, but that he fell out of favor during the viking age.\n\nIs there any evidence to support this claim?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Did the Vikings ever raid the Arab world? If so, how did they fare against the local tactics and weapons? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can you point me in the direction of where to find a Viking period mead recipe? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do we know what kind of interaction the vikingr had with the sami people? (trade/warfare)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Harold R Foster's comic book Prince Valiant, there's a native american woman traveling with a group of Vikings. I know they landed on North America, but are there any evidence that they \"brought home\" some native american people with them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A question for every one of you in the panel; What is your favorite book in relation to your topic, and where would it be found? (I've noticed it's incredibly hard to find books on the subjects of Vikings and mythology of that area of the world) .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for doing this AMA!\n\n\n* In Scandinavia, surnames like Eriksson and Svensson have been common through history. Was it common back in the Viking age as well? Did surnames have the same role as today?\n\n\n* I live in Sweden and my family have lived here for centuries. I have traced the family history as far as the 1400's. How likely is it that I have Viking-age heritage? \n\n\n* How common was it to be able to read runes? Did they serve any political purpose?\n\n\n* Were there any ethnical/cultural differences between Svear, Geats and Danes?\n\n\n* Was pagan priests common at the time? Did they hold any political power?\n\n\n* Scandinavia is known for being one of the least religious regions today. Was it common for people in the Viking-age to be atheists/not believing in the gods? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is my kind of AMA.\n\nI don't have a question, but because of my username, perhaps you could bestow upon us some informaiton about their drunking habits? Was mead really a big thing for them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to know more about the relationship between Scandinavian vikings and Estonians. \n\nA bit of back-story about a theory Lennart Meri, the late president of Estonia, had which he described in his book Hõbevalge (Hopeanvalkea in Finnish language version, means silverlight in English): \n\nAbout 3-7 thousand years ago (some studies report more recent, 7th century BC) [Kaali meteor](_URL_0_) crossed on low orbit the whole Estonia from east to west (we know because bits fell off over the course of the flight) and landed in Saaremaa, the most western island of Estonia, in the middle of the Baltic Sea. It is one of the largest meteors that has landed to Europe (especially so recently and to a populated areas) and it is considered huge. With impact energy of about 80 TJ (20 kilotons of TNT), it is comparable with that of the Hiroshima bomb blast. The largest crater it created is 110 m wide with a depth of 22 m. Vegetation was incinerated up to 6 km from the impact site. Estimated to have been heard and seen for hundreds of km-s, the dust it sent to the atmosphere is thought to have covered the sun for at least a day in the whole of Baltic Sea region. Late Estonian president Lennart Meri believed that this major event helped give birth to many aspects of the Norse mythology regarding fire, thunder, lightning and iron.\n\nThe meteorite is estimated to have been about 60-80 tonnes in total mass, but only 1.5 kg of iron has been found. On Iron Age a wall was kept around the whole crater and updated regularly. Estonians were described as very good with iron, but the only natural iron ore in Estonia is located in swamps, making it very inaccessible. Many Northern European iron artifacts have been found to be made of a meteorite origin iron. Estonia (like Gotland) has a much higher rate of silver treasures found compared to neighboring countries. He also suggested that Finno-Ugric people were a very important part of a heavily used trade route to the east through Volga river. \n\nIn Estonian mythology there's a god called Taara, which is believed to have a connection with Thor. In Norse mythology Thor travels in a flying chariot that brings brings fire, thunder and loud noise when it rides over the sky. Finnish mythology has stories that may originate with the formation of Kaali. One of them is in runes 47, 48 and 49 of the Kalevala epic: Louhi, the evil wizard, steals the Sun and fire from people, causing total darkness. Ukko, the god of the sky, orders a new Sun to be made from a spark. The virgin of the air starts to make a new Sun, but the spark drops from the sky and hits the ground. This spark goes to an \"Aluen\" or \"Kalevan\" lake and causes its water to rise. Finnish heroes see the ball of fire falling somewhere \"behind the Neva river\" (the direction of Estonia from Karelia). The heroes head that direction to seek fire, and they finally gather flames from a forest fire. \nAccording to a theory first proposed by Lennart Meri, it is possible that Saaremaa was the legendary Thule island, first mentioned by ancient Greek geographer Pytheas, whereas the name \"Thule\" could have been connected to the Finnic word *tule* (\"(of) fire\") and the folklore of Estonia, which depicts the birth of the crater lake in Kaali. Kaali was considered the place where \"The sun went to rest.\"\n\nLennart Meri based many of this ideas on the linguistic evidence and folklore he gathered while visiting the ancient native Finno-Ugric tribes, now my question is: how does this somewhat unknown and controversial theory fit in to the currently accepted history, 1) the possibility of the meteorite having a huge impact on Norse mythology and 2) Gotland and Estland (Estonia) being part of a very important a busy trade route to the east through Baltic Sea and Volga river?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can you tell me anything about traditional Viking-age tattoos? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is more of a pre-Viking question, but it fits into the establishment of Vikings and the people along the Volga river.\n\nMy question is related to the Great Migration following the collapse of the West Roman Empire and invasion of the Huns into the Balkan region. Where were the Slavs during this period, and what were their migration patterns, and what Germanic groups migrated to the east and north into the Volga region? Basically, what ethnic group inhabited the Volga during the Viking Age?\n\nFeel free to ignore/downvote if too irrelevant. It was my understanding that the Slavs were originally in the Balkan Peninsula, and I was unsure of how/when they spread up through Russia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How come Columbus has been given all the credit for discovering America in 1492, when the Vikings discovered it first?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What modern representation of the vikings in the media is the most accurate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How different are old Norse languages from modern Scandinavian languages? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would be very interested to hear an objective assessment from a non-Norwegian historian about the city of Trondheim/Nidaros and the Jarls of Lade.\n\nHow important was Nidaros in the viking age? How much power and respect did the Jarls of Lade have, were they know all across the Norse world (perhaps even as far away as Jorvik, Holmgard and Miklagard)?\n\nTrondheim as a city was founded in 997 by Olav Tryggvason but I understand that Lade and other areas pre-dates the formation of the city? For instance; Harald Fairhair was crowned King of Norway (a tradition still in use today) in Trondheim in 872?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides the character assassination of Aethelred of Merica, how accurate is Bernard Cornwell's Saxon series?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How accurate are most viking metal lyrics to viking life or more commonly mythology. Specifically Amon Amarth because I am a fan of them. [Here](_URL_1_) is a good example of Amon Amarth. [Here are the lyrics if you prefer to read them](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it true that Vikings bred dogs with short legs and stout bodies that later became the modern day Welsh Corgi?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What can you say about Viking culture and having -son tagged on to the end of your name? (Erikson, Johnson, Olson). Is this a product of that culture or just Scandinavian in general?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What really happened with the abolition of slavery in Iceland? Wikipedia gives the date as 1117. My memory is a bit sketchy but I think that I read that the law passed by the Althing was more a reflection of the state of affairs that slaves were no longer so needed than a noble and tolerant action. Earlier in the commonwealth, land for grazing or some industries more suited to slave labor was more available, but later on there was enough non-slaves to do the work. Is that correct?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be a bit obscure, but how accurate are the Hrafn Gunnlaugsson Viking films (Shadow of the Raven, The White Viking, When the Raven Flies)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As I've oft heard it, Viking is a profession, not a race! So my question is, what is the potential for non-scandinavian Vikings? \n\nFor instance, Tyrkir the German that accompanied Leif Erikson. Or- and this is what I'm really curious about- could Sami folk have potentially joined a Viking raid? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How religious were the Vikings? Were there severe laws predicated on religious beliefs?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a question I've had for a long time that I'm still trying to get answered.\n\nI'm lead to understand that sacrifice was not uncommon among the Norsemen, both of animals and of humans. What did they believe about their sacrifices and how did they practice them??",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a few questions.\n\nFirst, hungarians:\n\nLooking at maps, it seems there was about a century when both vikings and hungarians did raids in western europe. Is there evidence they ever met? If yes what kind of interaction they had?\n\nIn western europe did any source make connection between the vikings and hungarians. The totally different culture, transportation, etc. was enough to distinguish, or to put it in another way: as they might have been both seen as god's revenge for being sinful (by the way were they seen this way or is it a later addition by scholars?), was a connection made between them by western europeans?\n\nI read somewhere that a few hundred viking warriors served in Stephen I.'s court. Any of you know, whether it is true, and if yes were they bodyguards, elite soldiers or something else? How did they end up in Hungary?\n\nThe second topic is about the eastern mediterranean. Vikings reached Byzantium and Sicily. Did any group ever ventured further west/east and ended up meeting other vikings? And if yes how was the relationship between them? And in general how was the relationship between vikings from different areas meeting in far away lands? Cultural similarities were sufficient to keep an amicable relationship or to give an example, someone from Gotland seen others from the Feröes as alien as someone from Egypt?\n\nAnd a long shot for the end: was there ever a viking circumnavigation of Europe? If yes, was it an \"accident\" or a conscious decision to do it?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who and when was the last practitioner of the Norse religion? Not the new reborn one, Ásatrú.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Were there people from north Germany going on vikings as well? Would one be justified to call them vikings? Would they use the same term or is viking a word of Scandinavian origin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ah yes! I have been waiting for this. Thank you so much for doing this ama! \n\n1. How important was Charlemagne in making scandinavia poor due to charlemagne warring with countries that the norse traded with?\n2. How strong is Sverres claim to being of Harald fairhairs descent?\n3. Were the longboats as impressive as they were made out to be, or was it the crew steering them?\n4. Is the assumption about the four stages of the viking age correct(Exploration/early raids, more organized raids, settlement and colonization, unification and king raids and invasion) and when in your opinion, did each stage begin and end?\n5. When did vikings start to loose their edge militarily? At what point were they no longer considered a threat?\n6. Why did the vikings not succeed in neither conquering england, scotland or ireland considering at various points they would have been able to do so. Was the attention split that much?\n7. How much infighting was there among the vikings overseas, did they believe in the common enemy and avoided attacking eachother, or was viking towns free game aswell?\n8. The skald culture was very important, but how many skalds were there at any time, my impression is that there was only a few skalds traveling internationally(In gunnlaugssaga ælthered 'the unready' gives his cloak to gunnlaug, and i would assume he couldnt do that if there were too many). Were most simply court poets, and if so, how did they react when traveling skalds were visiting, did they envy those in higher rank much?\n9. How true is that the vikings were more clean than those they conquered, could they be compared to those living in say greece or italy?\n10. Why did the vikings never continue west further south into mainland us? Why wasnt there any more exploration sparked like it did with colombus?\n11. When did the viking age truly end in your opinion? For me i would say 1066/1067 with harald hardråde and the danish king(Cant remember his name) since after that, the vikings didnt undertake any more king raids that were significant and europe had become alot more guarded against viking attacks. \n\nThank you for the answers, hope it wasnt too much(And considering its 4am in CETland, this might not go answered :( )",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How did the general population and the ruling authorities of Scandinavia during the Viking age view Iceland?\nAnd directly related to that, when did the Scandinavian people who immigrated to Iceland start identifying themselves as Icelandic?\n\nAnd on a completely different note: Could any of you give me some examples about Vikings who joined the Varangian guard and became *væringjar*?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Really bad question but: A history told my class a story when we were about 11 to try and show how different morals and culture were in different times. \n\nShe told us that there was a myth about a Viking boy who was playing with his friend. The friend starts annoying him and says dishonourable things his family. The boy went home, picked up an axe and then beheaded his friend. Apparently most Vikings thought this was a noble thing to do. \n\nDoes anyone know the source for this story or anything about it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What weapon did the Viking use most often?\n\nWere Estonians Vikings?\n\nHow often did Vikings raid each other?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Might not be completely relevant, but I got this pendant from my dad after he went to a viking-fair and I was wondering about the historical authenticity of the design. What he was told was that it's a Thor's Hammer in the shape of an upside-down cross. It was supposedly used as a resistance symbol against the christians. Found an image: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2290253",
"title": "The Vikings (reenactment)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "\"The Vikings\" is a British-based society of re-enactors, dedicated to the study and re-enactment of the culture of the Viking Age (790–1066) and the display of authentic Dark Ages living history and combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21338788",
"title": "The Vikings Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "The Vikings - Vinland is an organization of Viking reenactors, consisting of 12 local member-groups across North America which, in 2006, were united into one governing body... The Vikings. All members of Vinland are full members of a larger society known as \"The Vikings\". Members focus on developing and presenting the reconstructed culture and lifestyle of the Norse. While the major concentration is on the 10th Century, some events are set in the wider period from 790 to 1066, with the appropriate modifications to dress and equipment used. The organization's aim is to provide an accurate and educational portrayal of the Viking period, with an equal emphasis on the daily life of the period, and on the more warlike aspects of life in what was a formative period in European history. The organization was renamed to The Vikings - Vinland in 2009 to better reflect the diverse North American membership of the group. www.vikingsvinland.org\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42344463",
"title": "Vikings (season 1)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "\"Vikings\" is a historical drama television series, written and created by Michael Hirst for the television channel History. The series broadly follows the exploits of the legendary Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok and his crew, and in later seasons those of his sons. The first season premiered on March 3, 2013 in Canada and concluded on April 28, 2013, consisting of nine episodes. It begins at the start of the Viking Age, marked by the Lindisfarne raid in 793, and follows Ragnar's quest to become Earl, and his desire to raid England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8318581",
"title": "Vikings! Of Middle England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Vikings! of Middle England (also known as Tÿrslið) is a Viking re-enactment and living history group based in Leicester, UK. They portray the people who lived, travelled to and invaded Britain in the Viking-Age. The organisation once owned a scale replica Longship called Ratatosk. Tÿrslið's aim is to entertain and educate an audience using a mix of drama, pageant, historical context, demonstration and audience participation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45461028",
"title": "Vikings (album)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Vikings is the third studio album by Danish rock band New Politics, released on August 14, 2015 via DCD2 Records and Warner Bros. Records. Three singles were released, titled \"Everywhere I Go (Kings & Queens)\", \"West End Kids\" and \"Girl Crush\". \"West End Kids\" is featured in the video game \"NHL 16\" and \"Everywhere I Go (Kings & Queens)\" is featured in the video game \"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 5\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28713537",
"title": "Thor: Vikings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Thor: Vikings is a 5-issue comic book limited series published by MAX Comics, an imprint of Marvel Comics for adult audiences, in July – November 2003. Written by Garth Ennis and illustrated by Glenn Fabry, the series follows Thor's adventures against a group of thousand-year-old zombie Vikings who attack New York City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12190363",
"title": "Puy du Fou",
"section": "Section::::Attractions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The Vikings is set in a reconstructed 1000-year-old fortress that is attacked by a Viking Longship. The story begins with a marriage in the village, just before the arrival of a Viking longboat. Special effects include the emergence of a longboat from under water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51a46z
|
'weight cutting' in combat sports
|
[
{
"answer": "Many combat sports are divided into weight classes. Being at the top of your weight class can give a slight advantage, so if you can lose a few pounds and drop into the next lower class you'll be at the top of that rather than the bottom of your original one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was asked several times in the past. Use the search function! _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fighters want as much weight as they can while staying within their weight class. They weight train to build muscle and put themselves slightly over the limit for their class. Adding and losing fat and water is a lot faster than muscle, so they then drop fat and water weight right before the fight to make weight, because they can rehydrate and eat a lot of calories between the weigh in and the match. This means that when the match starts, they're often actually a little over the weight limit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Weight in combat sports is a huge advantage. When you are on the ground, being able to put all your weight on someone makes it much harder for them submit or get out from underneath you. Having more muscle and being taller is an advantage, both of which make you heavier. So It's good to be heavy, in general.\n\nHowever, we don't want the sport to be something that only the Icelandic Giant and Brock Lesnar can participate in. So we set weight classes, which is a maximum weight you can be to compete in that weight class. So someone who is 5'10'' and 155 lbs can compete against someone of similar size, and it's about your ability, no their size.\n\nBut remember how weight is such a huge advantage? So fighters will try to lose a bunch of weight temporarily to fit into a weight class. I fighter's normal weight is called the weight they \"walk\" at. So let's say someone walks at 170 lbs. If they can lose 15 lbs in a week of water and whatnot and make 155 at just the weigh in, than jump back up to 170 lbs before the fight, they now have a 15 lbs advantage. Now, pretty much everyone does that and it's the norm. However, dehydrating and starving your body for a week is taxing, and fighters are finding, in some cases, that they aren't able to compete as well. So it's a balancing act of cutting enough weight to gain an advantage but not so much weight that they aren't able to fight well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22416689",
"title": "Catchweight",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Fighters can cut weight for a \"day before\" fight weigh-in with modern conditioning and training methods and regain the same weight on \"day of\" the fight. The purpose of a catchweight is to compensate for the ability of bigger boxers to cut weight before a \"day before\" fight weigh-in and regain the weight to exceed the specified limit (division or catchweight) on the \"day of\" the fight with little effect on performance. The catchweight aims to provide a level playing field and to prevent weight mismatches that can endanger the fighters. More importantly, the catchweight ensures the fight is not canceled due to last minute disagreement on fight time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3549164",
"title": "Weight cutting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Weight cutting is the practice of fast weight loss prior to a sporting competition. It most frequently happens in order to qualify for a lower weight class (usually in combat sports, where weight is a significant advantage) or in sports where it is advantageous to weigh as little as possible (most notably equestrian sports). There are two types of weight cutting: one method is to lose weight in the form of fat and muscle in the weeks prior to an event; the other is to lose weight in the form of water in the final days before competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1893219",
"title": "Scholastic wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Unhealthy weight loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Cutting weight is a common occurrence in the sport of wrestling. The process of cutting weight allows a wrestler to compete at a lower weight class, facing lighter opponents. The advantage is gained when the wrestler loses only water-weight and fat-weight, but retains lean body mass. The wrestler then re-hydrates himself after weighing-in but before competition begins. If done properly, a wrestler who does cut weight can gain a very significant strength and weight advantage over opponents who do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32452890",
"title": "ONE Championship",
"section": "Section::::Rules.:Weight divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The promotion banned weight-cutting by dehydration in order to promote fighter safety. Athletes are monitored in their training camps, and have urine specific gravity tests to ensure they are hydrated and healthy right up to three hours ahead of their bouts. Since the new measures took effect, there have been no further incidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "397559",
"title": "Pride Fighting Championships",
"section": "Section::::Rules.:Matches between fighters of different weight classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Pride made special provisions for fights between fighters of different weight classes or fighters with a large weight difference in the same weight class. The lighter fighter was given a choice of whether or not to permit knees or kicks to the face when in the \"four points\" position in the following cases:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24537514",
"title": "Gunnar Nelson (fighter)",
"section": "Section::::Mixed martial arts career.:Ultimate Fighting Championship.:Weight cutting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Throughout his career, Gunnar has never engaged in extensive weight cutting. His training weight is around 175–176 pounds, necessitating only a 5–6 pound weight cut. He has been a big proponent of instituting strict rules against weight cutting, arguing that the practice is dangerous to the fighters and counterproductive to the UFC, as it leads to fights being cancelled or fought at catch weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228344",
"title": "Mixed martial arts",
"section": "Section::::Strategies.:Ground-and-pound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 189,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 189,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The style is used by fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or is knocked out. Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic. It was first demonstrated as an effective technique by Mark Coleman, then popularized by fighters such as Chael Sonnen, Don Frye, Frank Trigg, Jon Jones, Cheick Kongo, Mark Kerr, Frank Shamrock, Tito Ortiz, Matt Hughes, Chris Weidman, and especially Khabib Nurmagomedov.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t0hxm
|
what is the point of the catcher in the rye?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's very debatable, but this is the gist of what I got from it. Salinger was a big fan of children, and Holden had an issue with the corruption of people. Holden struggled with the idea of preserving the innocence of society, while containing his disdain for the corruption of it. This is why he doesn't like curse words written at random places, this is why he spends his time talking to prostitutes, this is why he talks on and on about ducks at a lake, and this is why he loves his sister and is weary of her reaching for things out of her grasp. I was told once (could be a total fabrication) that the metaphor for a catcher in the rye is someone who stands in a rye field (tall for children) as children play, and prevents them from falling off a hill or what not by keeping track of where they run around in it, and catching them before they cause harm to themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There really isn't a point, if you want to know the truth. It's just this old crumby book that a whole bunch of phonies _say_ they like even though they don't really understand it for one second. You can always tell when someone's that kind of phoney 'cause they try to impress you with big talk about themes and points and morals and you know the second they start up with that crap that they can't even tell you anything about anything _real_, like a baseball glove or a talk with your sister, or where the ducks go when the lake freezes over. They go on and on about all that lousy crap instead of the _in_teresting parts, where it's nice and exciting and all, it's nice when somebody tells you about their life. But these sad old bastards, they don't have a clue about what the goddam book's about. It's pretty dumb, really, if you think about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As of right now, I am terribly disappointed in explainlikeimfive. The point of the entire book is about a young boy who is confused and lost. He wants to know where the ducks go when the pond freezes because he can relate to the ducks. The freezing of the pond is dangerous for the ducks and he is heading towards danger. He frequently mentions about how he liked the museum because NOTHING EVER CHANGED and he sees that as a means of safety. He wants to be the catcher in the rye because he wants to stop the kids from falling off the edge and getting into a situation like he is in. The book is AWESOME!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This post makes my chest hurt. Salinger beautifully captures the tension we all felt in the transition from childhood to adulthood, noticing the difficulties of life and not yet able to cope with them. Holden is heartbroken by the immense tragedies he encounters-the death of his brother- as well as the small moments of apathy in his society-the \"fuck\" scrawled on the wall of his sister's school. Holden sees the innocence of the children around him and desperately wants to protect them, hoping to save them where life failed him. He sees the adults around him as indifferent to the aspects of life that torment him. When he was pushed into reality by his brothers death, he became angry at society's refusal to devote time to tragedies of any degree, and sees the unchanged behavior of those around him as disgusting and confusing. Perhaps you are not of the right age to remember the feeling that Salinger created so spectacularly- the clawing at any remaining innocence, the inner struggle to accept the apathy of society, the desire to be seen as an equal in the eyes of adults, combined with the constant yearning for weightless childhood happiness. I fucking love this book. \nEdit: I forgot to explain it like you're five. I get excited about this book--sorry!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "382000",
"title": "Rye, East Sussex",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The name of Rye is believed to come from \"rie\", meaning a bank. Medieval maps show that Rye was originally located on a huge embayment of the English Channel called the Rye Camber, which provided a safe anchorage and harbour. Probably as early as Roman times, Rye was important as a place of shipment and storage of iron from the Wealden iron industry. The Mermaid Inn originally dates to 1156.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186258",
"title": "The Catcher in the Rye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The Catcher in the Rye is a story by J.D. Salinger, partially published in serial form in 1945–1946 and as a novel in 1951. It was originally intended for adults but is read by adolescents for its themes of angst and alienation, and as a critique on superficiality in society. It has been translated into almost all of the world's major languages. Around one million copies are sold each year, with total sales of more than 65 million books. The novel's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion. The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, and connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382000",
"title": "Rye, East Sussex",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Rye, over the centuries, has successively been an \"entrepôt\" port, a naval base, a fishing port, an agricultural centre, and a market town. Rye depends on its tourist appeal, which attracts traffic from all over the world. The old part of the town within the former town walls has shops, art galleries and restaurants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11787728",
"title": "Gimbsheim",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Coat of arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The grain has been blazoned here as rye because Parker identifies rye as being “distinguished from other grain by representing the ear drooping”. \"Heraldry of the World\", on the other hand, identifies the grain as wheat, which along with the grapes appears in the arms to represent the municipality's two main crops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46574",
"title": "Rye",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Rye is one of a number of species that grow wild in central and eastern Turkey and in adjacent areas. Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük, but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE. It is possible that rye traveled west from (Asia Minor) Turkey as a minor admixture in wheat (possibly as a result of Vavilovian mimicry), and was only later cultivated in its own right. Although archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine, Danube, and in Ireland and Britain, Pliny the Elder was dismissive of rye, writing that it \"is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation\" and spelt is mixed into it \"to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186258",
"title": "The Catcher in the Rye",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "\"The Catcher in the Rye\" has had significant cultural influence, and works inspired by the novel have been said to form their own genre. Sarah Graham assessed works influenced by \"The Catcher in the Rye\" to include the novels \"Less Than Zero\" by Bret Easton Ellis, \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\" by Stephen Chbosky, \"A Complicated Kindness\" by Miriam Toews, \"The Bell Jar\" by Sylvia Plath, \"Ordinary People\" by Judith Guest, and the film \"Igby Goes Down\" by Burr Steers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9253141",
"title": "Rye House Stadium",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The name Rye House originates from a collection of medieval buildings on an area known as the Isle of Rye due to the fact that the land was directly next door to the River Lea/Lee and in particular the Lee Navigation. When the stadium was constructed in 1935 it was put next door to Rye House on a spare plot which is where the name for the stadium came from. Rye House had been the family home for the Parr family that included Catherine in the 16th century and later a workhouse and tourist attraction in the 19th century. All that remains today of the original Rye House is the gatehouse found to the north of the stadium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kj62k
|
how it is that we exert the same gravity on earth as earth exerts on us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because gravity works both ways with any two objects. The earth is pulling on you with a force equal to your weight, and you're pulling on earth by the same amount. It's just that, even if those forces weren't cancelung eathother out, a few hundred pounds of force has a tiny effect on something as big as the earth",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your phrasing is a bit off. To be a bit precise, gravity attracts us and the Earth *to each other*. \n\nThe force of gravity between two objects is measured by three things: the mass (weight, for ease of reference) of the first object, the mass (weight) of the second, and the distance between their centres. That force **acts equally** on both objects, attracting them to each other and pulling them together. But if one object is much lighter than the other, the same force will move it more.\n\nImagine you somehow turn gravity off for a second, move three feet (1 meter) up from the Earth's surface, and then gravity back on. You two attract each other until you touch.\n\nBut the Earth is MASSIVE, so massive that the little bit of attractive force that pulls it to you is not really gonna move it at all. Instead, the force that pulls you to it brings you downward toward it because you're much lighter. You're much much easier to move, so the force more-or-less is only moving you.\n\nIf you were blown up instead so you were the exact same mass and size as the Earth, you two would move together instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The gravity of Earth, denoted by , is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from distribution of mass within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Gravitational field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within the Earth. Near the Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately . Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Specifics.:Earth's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The force of gravity on Earth is the resultant (vector sum) of two forces: (a) The gravitational attraction in accordance with Newton's universal law of gravitation, and (b) the centrifugal force, which results from the choice of an earthbound, rotating frame of reference. The force of gravity is the weakest at the equator because of the centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation and because points on the equator are furthest from the center of the Earth. The force of gravity varies with latitude and increases from about 9.780 m/s at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s at the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8599335",
"title": "Gravitational biology",
"section": "Section::::Gravity and life on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The force of gravity on the surface of the Earth, normally denoted \"g\", has remained constant in both direction and magnitude since the formation of the planet. As a result, both plant and animal life have evolved to rely upon and cope with it in various ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::From special to general relativity.:Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The equivalence between gravitational and inertial effects does not constitute a complete theory of gravity. When it comes to explaining gravity near our own location on the Earth's surface, noting that our reference frame is not in free fall, so that fictitious forces are to be expected, provides a suitable explanation. But a freely falling reference frame on one side of the Earth cannot explain why the people on the opposite side of the Earth experience a gravitational pull in the opposite direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33465773",
"title": "Exomedicine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Gravity is a fundamental force on earth that influences all biological systems at a molecular level. When biomedical research is conducted in Space, in so-called microgravity environments, certain earthbound limitations disappear, new and different findings are made, and living organisms behave very differently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51897037",
"title": "Normal gravity formula",
"section": "Section::::Normal gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The acceleration due to gravity depends on the gravity of the mass, which rests inside of the object. The gravity decreases at longer distance between centers of mass. The acceleration due to gravity furthermore is influenced by the rotation of the earth. As centrifugal force increases at longer earth's axis distance, thus centrifugal force is highest at the equator and lowest the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7bba6o
|
Were people in Victorian times actually as weak health-wise as they are portrayed in novels from the time period?
|
[
{
"answer": "I cannot speak to the actual, physical health of Victorians, but I did once write an answer on the related subject of why one shouldn't take representations of fainting in period fiction as just a reflection of what people were actually doing:\n\n[How did fainting in the Victorian era become so gendered? What social conventions led to the loss of consciousness to be so strongly identified with women?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of the answer to your question is that it really was quite easy to fall ill and die in the Victorian period, certainly in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, before the development of germ theory and well before the arrival of antibiotics. But of course this applied to every previous period – and yet we do seem to hear more about the weakness of women in Victoria's time than we did before.\n\nThe explanation for this lies in the medical theories of the age, which viewed women's bodies as especially problematic. I wrote about this in [an essay about Philippa Fawcett](_URL_0_), who astounded her contemporaries and gave many people pause for thought by becoming the first woman to take first place in the Cambridge mathematics tripos - then widely viewed as the most demanding intellectual test that could be sat anywhere in the world. The whole essay is, I hope, worth reading (and it has a nice punch-the-air conclusion), but the portion that helps to explain your observation is this one:\n\n > To be a woman in the Victorian age was to be weak: the connection was that definite. To be female was also to be fragile, dependent, prone to nerves and—not least—possessed of a mind that was several degrees inferior to a man’s. For much of the 19th century, women were not expected to shine either academically or athletically, and those who attempted to do so were cautioned that they were taking an appalling risk. Mainstream medicine was clear on this point: to dream of studying at the university level was to chance madness or sterility, if not both...\n\n > Today, the science that underpinned those views seems crackpot. To the Victorians, it was breakthrough stuff. Central to the 19th-century concept of human development was the idea that the adolescent body was a closed system; there was only so much energy available, and so a body in which resources were diverted to mental development was one in which physical development necessarily suffered. This was thought to be a particular problem for women, because their reproductive system was far more complicated than men’s and so consumed a greater proportion of the body’s resources. A young woman who studied hard during puberty was believed to be taking special risks since “the brain and ovary could not develop at the same time,” as historian Judith Walzer Leavitt points out. \n\nThe same problem very much applied to illness; women were considered to be more prone to disease than men because their bodies devoted a higher proportion of their limited energies to the demands of motherhood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130298",
"title": "English society",
"section": "Section::::Victorian era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The status of the poor is one area in which huge changes occurred. A good illustration of the differences between life in the Georgian and Victorian eras are the writings of two of England's greatest authors, Jane Austen and Charles Dickens. Both writers held a fascination for people, society and the details of everyday life but in Austen the poor are almost absent, mainly because they were still the rural poor, remote and almost absent from the minds of the middle classes. For Dickens, only a few years later, the poor were his main subject, as he had partly suffered their fate. The poor now were an unavoidable part of urban society and their existence and plight could not be ignored. Industrialisation made large profits for the entrepreneurs of the times, and their success was in contrast not only to the farm workers who were in competition with imported produce but also to the aristocracy whose landowning wealth was now becoming less significant than business wealth. The British class system created an intricate hierarchy of people which contrasted the new and old rich, the skilled and unskilled, the rural and urban and many more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738601",
"title": "Gertrude Himmelfarb",
"section": "Section::::Ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "Himmelfarb is best known as a historian of Victorian England. But she puts that period in a larger context. Her book \"The Idea of Poverty\" opens with an extended analysis of Adam Smith and Thomas Malthus, who helped shape debate and policies through much the 19th century and beyond. \"Victorian Minds\" features such eighteenth-century \"proto-Victorians\" as Edmund Burke and Jeremy Bentham, concluding with the \"last Victorian,\" John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir, whose novels depict a 20th-century imbued with Victorian values. \"The Moral Imagination\" ranges from Burke to Winston Churchill and Lionel Trilling, with assorted Victorians and non-Victorians in between. \"On Looking into the Abyss\" has modern culture and society in the forefront and the Victorians in the background, while \"One Nation, Two Cultures\" is entirely about American culture and society. \"The Roads to Modernity\" enlarges the perspective of the Age of Enlightenment, both chronologically and nationally, placing the British Enlightenment in opposition to the French and in accord with the American. Most recently, \"The Jewish Odyssey of George Eliot\" and \"The People of the Book\" focus on attitudes to Jews, Judaism, and Zionism in England from their readmission in the 17th century to the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13651606",
"title": "Jane Gardam",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "In her most recent works of fiction she has explored related themes and recounted stories from different points of view in three novels: \"Old Filth\" (2004), \"The Man in the Wooden Hat\" (2009), and \"Last Friends\" (2013). One American reviewer noted that her concern with \"the intricate web of manners and class peculiar to the inhabitants of her homeland\" does not explain why she remains less well known to an international audience than her English contemporaries. He recommended \"Old Filth\" for its \"typical excellence and compulsive readability\", written by a novelist \"at the top of her form\". \"The Spectator\" praised \"The Man in the Wooden Hat\" for its \"rich complexities of chronology, settings and characters, all manipulated with marvellous dexterity\". In 2015, a BBC survey voted \"Old Filth\" among the 100 greatest British novels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6617581",
"title": "Jacob Rees-Mogg",
"section": "Section::::Electoral history.:Writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Rees-Mogg's book \"The Victorians\", published in May 2019, was described by A. N. Wilson in \"The Times\" as \"staggeringly silly\" and \"morally repellent\". Dominic Sandbrook, reviewing the book for \"The Sunday Times\", described it as \"bad, boring and mind‑bogglingly banal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1359725",
"title": "Andrew Roberts (historian)",
"section": "Section::::Disputes and criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "In May 2019, he glowingly reviewed Jacob Rees-Mogg's new book about eminent Victorians, describing it as “a full-throated, clear-sighted, well-researched and extremely well-written exposition of the Victorians and their values”. This was a book other reviewers had described as \"staggeringly silly\" and \"absolutely abysmal\". The historian Dominic Sandbrook described the book as “terrible, so bad, so boring, so mind-bogglingly banal that if it had been written by anybody else it would never have been published”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977879",
"title": "Mrs Grundy",
"section": "Section::::Victorian heyday.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "With the fin de siècle erosion of the Victorian moral consensus, Mrs Grundy began to lose her power, and by the Twenties she was already little more than a faded laughing-stock, being mocked for example in the advice book for teens, \"Mrs Grundy is Dead\" (New York: Century, 1930).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608014",
"title": "Victorian morality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Victorian values emerged in all classes and reached all facets of Victorian living. The values of the period—which can be classed as religion, morality, Evangelicalism, industrial work ethic, and personal improvement—took root in Victorian morality. Current plays and all literature—including old classics like Shakespeare—were cleansed of naughtiness, or \"bowdlerized.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bfpbio
|
Before Einstein, did nobody else consider there was a deep relationship between gravity and space time?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/historyofscience, /r/philosophyofscience, or /r/historyofideas",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depending on how you see it, there is also no deep relationship between gravity and spacetime in General Relativity. GR is originally just a generalization of Special Relativity, such that two reference frames relate to one another by Lorentz transformation when acceleration (which means force) is involved. This means, if you switch from one point of view to another, the translation of the physical system into your new point of view is given by the Lorentz transformations.\n\nIf you use Minkowski's geometric formulation of Special Relativity, acceleration is the same as a curvature of spacetime. Regardless of what is causing the acceleration, it is necessary to formulate it as curvature in a relativistic framework.\n\nThe common interpretation is that mass \"causes\" a curvature of spacetime. But GR also works as a theory of each other interaction, if you interpreted the associated charge as causing a curvature in spacetime. To associate charge with curvature is actually also the basis for the Kaluza-Klein approach and Yang Mills theory that underlies the standard model.\n\nThe difference between GR and a Newtonian theory of gravity is just the Lorentz-invariance, which means: no speed bigger than the speed of light in all reference frames. If you calculate the Lorentz invariance out of GR, you still get the Newtonian gravity potential.\n\nThus, the big progress of Relativity is that all physical systems have to obey Lorentz transformations. The stuff with mass producing a curvature in spacetime is just an interpretation based on the mathematical formulation, so to speak taking the mathematics literally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were many speculative theories of gravity both before and after Einstein. The question is not whether people considered them (e.g., there are even electromagnetic theories of gravity that have been advocated by very intelligent people), but whether they could convince anyone else of their utility. In between Newtonian \"gravity as a force that accompanies mass that drops off as an inverse square law\" and General Relativity there were not any really competitive contenders. GR managed to both harmonize a lot of theory while at the same time providing experimentally-testable deviations from the Newtonian approach.\n\nSeparately it is worth noting that very few people were thinking about space and time as being as linked as they are in relativity theory (hence, \"spacetime\"). There were some. Henri Poincaré is often cited as someone who got very close to Einstein's ideas in this area but never made the final jumps; Einstein was himself very interested in this kind of work when he was a young man. It is a deeply unintuitive way to think about the world if you are not introduced to it at a young age, and keeping time and space quite separate was a hallmark of the Newtonian approach (because they believed there was some kind of universal \"time\"). Einstein was not the only one thinking in this area at the time, but he was the one who managed to put all of the pieces together first and in a compelling way. \n\nIf you want to read more about this, I would recommend Peter Galison's _Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps_, which does a great job of constructing what high-level thinking about this looked like at the end of the 19th century and why Einstein's approach was so radical (but also not totally \"out of context\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "In 1905, Einstein introduced special relativity (even though without using the techniques of the spacetime formalism) in its modern understanding as a theory of space and time. While his results are mathematically equivalent to those of Lorentz and Poincaré, it was Einstein who showed that the Lorentz transformations are not the result of interactions between matter and aether, but rather concern the nature of space and time itself. He obtained all of his results by recognizing that the entire theory can be built upon two postulates: The principle of relativity and the principle of the constancy of light speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57264039",
"title": "Einstein's thought experiments",
"section": "Section::::Quantum mechanics.:EPR Paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Einstein's beliefs had evolved over the years from those that he had held when he was young, when, as a logical positivist heavily influenced by his reading of David Hume and Ernst Mach, he had rejected such unobservable concepts as absolute time and space. Einstein believed: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27667",
"title": "Space",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of space.:Einstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Subsequently, Einstein worked on a general theory of relativity, which is a theory of how gravity interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a force field acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself. According to the general theory, time goes more slowly at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars, confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories, and non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Subject history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1544,
"text": "Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. At the time, Einstein believed in a static universe, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it. This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time. However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this \"cosmological constant\" to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe. The Einstein model describes a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small perturbations—it will eventually start to expand or contract. It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the cosmological principle. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann in the early 1920s. His equations describe the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Other physicists and mathematicians at the turn of the century came close to arriving at what is currently known as spacetime. Einstein himself noted, that with so many people unraveling separate pieces of the puzzle, \"the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13758",
"title": "History of physics",
"section": "Section::::20th century: birth of modern physics.:Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "In 1905 a young, 26-year-old German physicist (then a Bern patent clerk) named Albert Einstein (1879–1955), showed how measurements of time and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is being observed. To say that Einstein's radical theory of relativity revolutionized science is no exaggeration. Although Einstein made many other important contributions to science, the theory of relativity alone represents one of the greatest intellectual achievements of all time. Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by Einstein, his major contribution was the recognition that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant, i.e. the same for all observers, and an absolute physical boundary for motion. This does not impact a person's day-to-day life since most objects travel at speeds much slower than light speed. For objects travelling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity shows that clocks associated with those objects will run more slowly and that the objects shorten in length according to measurements of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the famous equation, \"E\" = \"mc\", which expresses the equivalence of mass and energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862898",
"title": "Absolute space and time",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The concepts of space and time were separate in physical theory prior to the advent of special relativity theory, which connected the two and showed both to be dependent upon the reference frame's motion. In Einstein's theories, the ideas of absolute time and space were superseded by the notion of spacetime in special relativity, and curved spacetime in general relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jkq1t
|
What causes the scars on the ocean floor?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you mean the near-perfectly straight lines, like the ones [seen in this goog map?](_URL_1_) When you're on the actual google maps site, you can [zoom in on one of those \"lines\"](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The long linear irregularities in your image look image look like what we call \"artifacts\", a direct result of the mapping techniques. Most of what we have for the vast ocean floor bathymetry is fairly low resolution, thus there is a lot of smoothing. When a ship makes a single pass through a poorly mapped area and gathers higher resolution data it creates what looks like a more rough strip.\n\nThere are plenty of natural processes which create seafloor lineations.\n\n[The mid-ocean ridge system](_URL_0_) is composed of off-set linear segments. At [Oceanic Core Complexes](_URL_1_) you get striations in the seafloor.\n\n[Ice](_URL_2_) can scour the seabed in sometimes straight lines.\n\nI really think what you are seeing is an artifact of merging data sets though.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28198",
"title": "Surfing",
"section": "Section::::Dangers.:Collisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "A large number of injuries, up to 66%, are caused by collision with a surfboard (nose or fins). Fins can cause deep lacerations and cuts, as well as bruising. While these injuries can be minor, they can open the skin to infection from the sea; groups like Surfers Against Sewage campaign for cleaner waters to reduce the risk of infections. Local bugs and disease can be risk factors when surfing around the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827851",
"title": "Marine debris",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Mitigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Marine debris is a problem created by all of us, not only those in coastal regions. Ocean debris can come from as far away as Nebraska. The places that see the most damage are often not the places that produce the pollution. For ocean pollution, much of the trash may come from inland states, where people may never see the ocean and thus may never put any thought into protecting it. The problem continues to grow in tandem with plastics usage and disposal. Steps can be taken to prevent the movement of inland plastics into the oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40630",
"title": "Beach",
"section": "Section::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.:Effects on adjacent land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Erosion of beaches can expose less resilient soils and rocks to wind and wave action leading to undermining of coastal headlands eventually resulting in catastrophic collapse of large quantities of overburden into the shallows. This material may be distributed along the beach front leading to a change in the habitat as sea grasses and corals in the shallows may be buried or deprived of light and nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615462",
"title": "Zmudowski State Beach",
"section": "Section::::Marine debris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Marine debris has been found in the Zmudowski State Beach. Marine debris is man-made solid waste material that enters the marine environment through rivers, streams, drainage, or any other source. Most marine debris is due to land-based resources, such as litter, industrial discharges, and global management. Only 20 percent of the debris found in the ocean comes from commercial fishing ships, cargo ships, or cruise ships. The other 80 percent connects back to pedestrians, motorists, and beach visitors. This clean exotic beach where people come to enjoy and relax is now shifting towards a trash zone. Trash increases the amount of pathogens and chemicals in the water, thereby hurting the water quality. Sea turtles mix up plastic for jellyfish, and grey whales have been found dead with plastic in their stomachs. As a result of marine debris, the oceanic animal population is decreasing in the Monterey Bay area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892526",
"title": "Cumbre Vieja",
"section": "Section::::Future threats.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Sonar surveys around many volcanic ocean islands including the Canary Islands, Hawaii, Réunion etc., have mapped debris flows on the sea floor. Many of these debris flows are about 100 km or about 60 miles long, and up to 2 km or about 1.25 miles thick, contain mega-blocks mixed up with finer detritus. The debris flows are now considered to be a normal process where a volcano sheds some proportion of excess material and thereby makes itself more stable. It is also known to occur on all volcanoes based on the land, in or under the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664529",
"title": "Maculopapular rash",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "This type of rash can also be a symptom of Sea bather's eruption. This stinging, pruritic, maculopapular rash affects swimmers in some Atlantic locales (e.g., Florida, Caribbean, Long Island). It is caused by hypersensitivity to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone (e.g., \"Edwardsiella lineate\") or the thimble jellyfish (\"Linuche unguiculata\"). The rash appears where the bathing suit contacts the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66152",
"title": "Sea urchin",
"section": "Section::::Relation to humans.:Injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "These are a common source of injury to ocean swimmers, especially along coastal surfaces where coral with stationary sea urchins are present. Their stings vary in severity depending on the species. Their spines can be venomous or cause infection. Granuloma and staining of the skin from the natural dye inside the sea urchin can also occur. Breathing problems may indicate a serious reaction to toxins in the sea urchin. They inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are not themselves dangerous if fully removed promptly; if left in the skin, further problems may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6gl8jv
|
what is the difference between baking powder and baking soda?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gonna just use the internet for this one. [Differences](_URL_0_)\n\nBaking soda is sodium bicarbonate only and it acts as a weak base. Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda, an acid that's usually cream of tartar and a little cornstarch.\n\n > Aka bicarbonate of soda or sodium bicarbonate. Let’s start with baking soda because it’s the most confusing. I’m going to geek out for a sec. First, baking soda is a BASE. Do you remember the science experiment we all did in school? Mixing baking soda with vinegar and watching an eruption of bubbles? Usually we did this in some sort of model volcano contraption. I know you know. When you mix baking soda (BASE) with vinegar (ACID) you get a chemical reaction (an eruption of bubbles!). A product of this reaction is carbon dioxide.\n\n > Baking powder contains baking soda. It is a mixture of baking soda, cream of tartar (a dry acid), and sometimes cornstarch. These days, most baking powder sold is double acting. This means that the first leavening occurs when baking powder gets wet– like when you combine the dry and wet ingredients in the recipe. (This is why you cannot prepare some batters ahead of time to bake later– because the baking powder has already been activated.) The second leavening occurs when the baking powder is heated.\n\n > Since baking powder already contains an acid to neutralize its baking soda, it is most often used when a recipe does not call for an additional acidic ingredient. Like my sugar cookies. However, this isn’t always the case. You can still use baking powder as the leavening agent in recipes calling for an acidic ingredient. Like my lemon cake. In my recipe development, I based my lemon cake recipe off of my vanilla cake recipe. I used buttermilk (acid) instead of regular milk for added moisture and a little tang and subbed a little brown sugar (acid) for granulated sugar– again, for added moisture. I was pleased with the rise and taste of the cake, so I did not experiment with using baking soda.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The top comment is correct, but in case it's too technical:\n\nBoth baking powder and baking soda are used to create a rise in baked goods. The chemical reaction they cause makes bubbles that puff up the dough. Baking soda needs an acid added to the dough to make that reaction happen (like your grade school volcano). Baking powder is baking soda plus an acid that activates when it gets wet. Which one you use depends on the recipe (is there an acid?) and how much rise you want (baking soda is stronger but too much of either powder can affect tastes so sometimes you want a big rise and you use both).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "155725",
"title": "Sodium bicarbonate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.:Leavening.:Baking powder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminium phosphate, or cream of tartar. Baking soda is alkaline; the acid used in baking powder avoids a metallic taste when the chemical change during baking creates sodium carbonate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155725",
"title": "Sodium bicarbonate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.:Leavening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In cooking, baking soda is primarily used in baking as a leavening agent. When it reacts with acid, carbon dioxide is released, which causes expansion of the batter and forms the characteristic texture and grain in pancakes, cakes, quick breads, soda bread, and other baked and fried foods. Acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, and vinegar. Baking soda may be used together with sourdough, which is acidic, making a lighter product with a less acidic taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155725",
"title": "Sodium bicarbonate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Baking soda is still used to soften pulses (peas, beans) before and during cooking, as in the traditional British mushy peas recipe for soaking the peas. The main effect of sodium bicarbonate is to modify the pH of the soaking solution and cooking water, that in turn softens the hard external shell, reduces cooking times and may alter the percentage of nutrients in the dish, its flavour and consistence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155725",
"title": "Sodium bicarbonate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cleaning agent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Baking soda is commonly added to washing machines as a replacement for water softener and to remove odors from clothes. It is also effective in removing heavy tea and coffee stains from cups when diluted with warm water. Also, baking soda can be used as a multipurpose odor remover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193284",
"title": "Baking powder",
"section": "Section::::Substituting in recipes.:Substitute acids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "As described above, baking powder is mainly just baking soda mixed with an acid. In principle, a number of kitchen acids may be combined with baking soda to simulate commercial baking powders. Vinegar (dilute acetic acid), especially white vinegar, is also a common acidifier in baking; for example, many heirloom chocolate cake recipes call for a tablespoon or two of vinegar. Where a recipe already uses buttermilk or yogurt, baking soda can be used without cream of tartar (or with less). Alternatively, lemon juice can be substituted for some of the liquid in the recipe, to provide the required acidity to activate the baking soda. The main variable with the use of these kitchen acids is the rate of leavening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56643734",
"title": "Alkaline pasta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1037,
"text": "A few tablespoons of ordinary baking soda are spread out in a thin layer on a cookie sheet and baked at 300° F (150° C) for an hour. Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate; by baking it, water and carbon dioxide are exuded and what is left is the alkaline soda ash—alkaline enough to cause discomfort if touched to the skin. In plain text, the chemical reaction is sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) + heat → sodium carbonate + water vapor + carbon dioxide gas. Only a very small of amount of the resultant sodium carbonate is used in the preparation of McGee's pasta dish, just 1 teaspoon of it to 1-1/2 cups of semolina flour. When preparing the pasta, the sodium carbonate is first dissolved in a small quantity of water, which is then slowly added to the semolina. Afterwards, the kneaded dough is allowed to rest for an hour and is then rolled out very thin through a pasta machine and processed into the desired form of noodles. The unused portion of the sodium carbonate can be stored in a tightly sealed bottle and kept for future use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193284",
"title": "Baking powder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid. The base and acid are prevented from reacting prematurely by the inclusion of a buffer such as cornstarch. Baking powder is used to increase the volume and lighten the texture of baked goods. It works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a batter or dough through an acid-base reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to expand and thus leavening the mixture. The first single-acting baking powder was developed by Birmingham based food manufacturer Alfred Bird in England in 1843. The first double-acting baking powder was developed by Eben Norton Horsford in America in the 1860s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
82rrv7
|
How do polarizing filters “know” the orientation of incoming photons?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to do better than this 60 Symbols video:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's not about \"knowing\" it's that if the incoming light is not perfectly polarized already then no matter what angle you choose it will have SOME component along that axis and that is the component that survives the filter, which is made of long conductive molecules that only efficiently transmit the portion of an oscillating electric field (i.e. light) that is oscillating in the direction ~~of~~ **perpendicular to** their length.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's worth noting that polarizing filters aren't exactly \"filters\" - i.e. instead of letting some photons through and others not, they actively *change* the polarization of them as they pass through.\n\nThat explains the three-filter \"spooky\" action (if you have two filters perpendicular to each other, then nothing passes through, but if you insert an *extra* filter between them at 45 degree angle, then suddenly some light starts getting through).\n\nThis - _URL_0_ - is a decent explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788642",
"title": "Polarized 3D system",
"section": "Section::::Types of polarised glasses.:Circularly polarized glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "As shown in the figure, the analyzing filters are constructed of a quarter-wave plate (QWP) and a linearly polarized filter (LPF). The QWP always transforms circularly polarized light into linearly polarized light. However, the angle of polarization of the linearly polarized light produced by a QWP depends on the handedness of the circularly polarized light entering the QWP. In the illustration, the left-handed circularly polarized light entering the analyzing filter is transformed by the QWP into linearly polarized light which has its direction of polarization along the transmission axis of the LPF. Therefore, in this case the light passes through the LPF. In contrast, right-handed circularly polarized light would have been transformed into linearly polarized light that had its direction of polarization along the absorbing axis of the LPF, which is at right angles to the transmission axis, and it would have therefore been blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4909834",
"title": "Atomic line filter",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Faraday filter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "A Faraday filter, magneto-optical filter, FADOF or EFADOF (Excited Faraday Dispersive Optical Filter) works by rotating the polarization of the light passing through the vapor cell. This rotation occurs near its atomic absorption lines by the Faraday effect and anomalous dispersion. Only light at the resonant frequency of the vapor is rotated and the polarized plates block other electromagnetic radiation. This effect is related to and enhanced by the Zeeman Effect, or the splitting of atomic absorption lines in the presence of the magnetic field. Light at the resonant frequency of the vapor exits a FADOF near its original strength but with an orthogonal polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3248054",
"title": "Polarizing filter (photography)",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Linear polarizing filters can be easily distinguished from circular polarizers. In linear polarizing filters, the polarizing effect works (rotate to see differences) regardless of which side of the filter the scene is viewed from. In \"circular\" polarizing filters, the polarizing effect works when the scene is viewed from the male threaded (back) side of the filter, but does not work when looking through it backwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40875",
"title": "Circular polarization",
"section": "Section::::Handedness conventions.:From the point of view of the receiver.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "When determining if the wave is clockwise or anti-clockwise circularly polarized, one again takes the point of view of the receiver and, while looking toward the source, against the direction of propagation, one observes the direction of the field's temporal rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533015",
"title": "Dove prism",
"section": "Section::::Rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Lesso and Padgett (1999) and Moreno et al. (2003, 2004) found that there is a change in the state of polarization of a beam of light on passing through a rotated dove prism. Polarization rotation in the infrared has been known for much longer. (Johnston 1977) The polarization-transforming properties of dove prisms are of particular interest because they can influence the signal measurement of the scientific instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3449139",
"title": "Quantum eraser experiment",
"section": "Section::::The experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Finally, a linear polarizer is introduced in the path of the first photon of the entangled pair, giving this photon a diagonal polarization (see Figure 2). Entanglement ensures a complementary diagonal polarization in its partner, which passes through the double-slit mask. This alters the effect of the circular polarizers: each will produce a mix of clockwise and counter-clockwise polarized light. Thus the second detector can no longer determine which path was taken, and the interference fringes are restored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3449139",
"title": "Quantum eraser experiment",
"section": "Section::::The experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Next, a circular polarizer is placed in front of each slit in the double-slit mask, producing clockwise circular polarization in light passing through one slit, and counter-clockwise circular polarization in the other slit (see Figure 1). This polarization is measured at the detector, thus \"marking\" the photons and destroying the interference pattern (see Fresnel–Arago laws).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jdvph
|
why are the refugees blocking the eurotunnel in callais not arrested/kicked out/processed/in france? surely they are illegally staying there too? is the french govn't just lazy or is there some technical reason?
|
[
{
"answer": "They aren't exactly tolerated - the local police break up the camps and arrest people whenever the numbers start to rise significantly, as over this last summer. The current Mayor of Calais seems determined to see something done now that numbers are rising again, and has threatened to blockade the port if the UK doesn't help with the problem.\n\nThe problem, as ever with refugees, is what to do with them if you do arrest them. Some will refuse to state which country they originated from, some will have fled a country where they are genuinely at risk. You can't lock them up without building a lot more expensive prisons, and sending them back may be a waste of money too if they will be free to return straight away. Neither of the leading political parties pretend to have an answer to this problem, while the Front National is sure that it would deport illegal immigrants (regardless of their personal safety) but as far as I can see, isn't clear on where to, how many times, or how much it would cost.\n\nThe FN says it would only deport *illegal* migrants anyway. Some of the refugees are illegally in France - they refuse to apply for asylum in France because then they'd lose the right to apply for asylum if they reached the UK - but many more are legally there, waiting for their asylum claims to be processed. They live rough around Calais simply because they have no money. There used to be a refugee camp at Sangatte for such people, but Sarkozy closed it, so he's responsible for the homeless refugee problem too. I have read that French law states that asylum seekers are entitled to accommodation, but the existing accommodation is full. So there is no room for more, even though - according to the UN refugee agency - a quarter of the refugees in Calais are children.\n\nThe local police and local authorities tolerate them because France is a country with highly centralised authority. The locals do not want these 'migrants,' and I reckon that if left to their own devices, the local authorities would quickly deal with the situation. But the PS (Parti Socialiste) are in charge in Paris, and they are to say the least, quite soft on illegals. With maybe the exception of the PM, Manuel Valls, who is largely not trusted or liked by other more leftist members if the PS. A vote of confidence in fact was held here yesterday, and Valls barely got through, with several of the left wing of his own party either abstaining or voting no. And the Verts (Greens) who are part of his coalition almost uniformly opposed him because he is seen as a right wing wolf in sheep's clothing.\n\nTHIS is why the FN are polling so well, by the way. Everyone knows that having thousands (approximately 100,000 or so illegals have crossed into Italy this year alone, with reports of another half million waiting in North Africa) are a huge social and economic problem, and yet the leading parties do not even pretend to have any answers. \n\nNature abhors a vacuum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "85468",
"title": "Calais",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century – migration issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The Calais migrant crisis led to escalating tension between the UK and France in the summer of 2015. The UK blamed France for not doing enough to stop migrants from entering the tunnel or making attempts to scale fences built along the border. The British Prime Minister David Cameron released a statement saying that illegal immigrants would be removed from the UK even if they reached the island. To discourage migrants and refugees from jumping on train shuttles at Calais, the UK government supplied fencing to be installed in the Eurotunnel where the vehicles are loaded onto train shuttles in Calais.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46415102",
"title": "European migrant crisis",
"section": "Section::::Migration.:Migrant routes, development and responses in individual countries.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Migrants entering France illegally by train from Italy were returned to Italy by French police since border controls were introduced in July 2015. Due to \"poor housing\", lower social benefits and a thorough asylum application process France is not commonly considered attractive enough to seek asylum in. Thus many of them seek to enter the United Kingdom, resulting in camps of migrants around Calais, where one of the Eurotunnel entrances is located. During the summer of 2015, at least nine people died in attempts to reach Britain, including falling from, or being hit by trains, and drowning in a canal at the Eurotunnel entrance. Migrants from the camps also attempt to enter trucks bound for the UK, with some truck drivers being threatened by migrants, and cargo being stolen or damaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5702",
"title": "Channel Tunnel",
"section": "Section::::Illegal immigration.:Diplomatic efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of the Sangatte migrant camp, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre. The United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed both the UK for its lax asylum rules, and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy. The \"cause célèbre\" nature of the problem even included journalists detained as they followed migrants onto railway property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50992504",
"title": "Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum",
"section": "Section::::Withdrawal negotiations.:Immigration concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Natasha Bouchard, the Mayor of Calais, suggests that the government of France should renegotiate the Le Touquet treaty, which allows British border guards to check trains, cars and lorries before they cross the Channel from France to Britain and therefore to keep irregular immigrants away from Britain. French government officials doubt that the trilateral agreement (it includes Belgium) would be valid after the UK has officially left the European Union and especially think that it is unlikely that there will be any political motivation to enforce the agreement. However, on 1 July 2016 François Hollande said British border controls would stay in place in France, though France suggested during the referendum campaign they would be scrapped allowing migrants in the \"Jungle\" camp easy access to Kent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60916814",
"title": "Asylum in France",
"section": "Section::::The development of French asylum policy.:Post-WWII period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "During the Europe Refugee Crisis since 2015, France responded initially and became one of the five EU members that accepted 75% of asylum seekers. However, some of the EU meausres for distributing asylum seekers were not supported by France, for example a quota system. Then in September 2015, President François Hollande announced that 24,000 refugees would be finally received by France in the next two years, he then also stressed \"Different conditions\" that would lead to a lower receiving amount of asylum seekers for France, compared to Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41847916",
"title": "Terrorism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Individual countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "In July 2014 the Government of France introduced legislation to combat terrorism by toughening surveillance, making it lawful to detain individuals linked to radical \"Islamist\" groups, and to block Internet sites that incite anti-Semitism, terrorism and hatred. The country's Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve revealed 600 French nationals were in Syria at the time or planned to go there. The bill includes a ban on foreign travel for up to six months for those believed to hold terrorist sympathies, provides for the confiscation and invalidation of passports, and prohibits airlines from allowing such individuals to fly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46415102",
"title": "European migrant crisis",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Carriers' responsibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The laws on migrant smuggling ban helping migrants to pass any national border if the migrants are without a visa or other permission to enter. This has caused many airlines to check for visas and refuse passage to migrants without visas, including through international flights inside the Schengen Area. After being refused air passage, many migrants then attempt to travel overland to their destination country. According to a study carried out for the European Parliament, \"penalties for carriers, who assume some of the control duties of the European police services, either block asylum-seekers far from Europe's borders or force them to pay more and take greater risks to travel illegally\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2g1nxx
|
Is there a reason that baldness in babies follows the same general pattern as Male Pattern Baldness?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you may have a flawed premise here. Babies generally don't follow male pattern baldness. If they have very thin hair, it is generally very uniform. \n\nMaybe someone else can give you a better answer, but I haven't been able to find a single example of a male pattern baldness newborn for about an hour now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, really disapointed right now. As the father of a 7 month I know exactly what you're talking about and was hoping someone had posted a scientific reason that answered your question, being curious about this myself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**TL:DR** - it's probably because estrogen and androgen have opposing effects, and babies experience a drop in estrogen when they leave the womb because they are no longer getting estrogen from mom (androgens cause male pattern hair loss).\n\n---\n\nBabies have hair if they get a heavy dose of [estrogen](_URL_1_) from Mom's womb. Once they leave her womb, those hormones go away and they lose the hair.\n\n Men go bald in a specific pattern [because](_URL_2_) androgens have different effects at different follicles. Women [often](_URL_0_) get baldness in the same pattern if they have shifts in estrogen/androgen ratios (so, lower estrogen would be sufficient to cause baldness in a male pattern). \n\nTestosterone and estrogen often inhibit each other in various pathways, so this isn't surprising. My educated guess is that just as androgens inhibits follicles on the hairline and crown while encouraging beard growth, estrogens encourage follicles on the hairline and crown while inhibiting beard growth. (We might know the precise mechanism concerning how that happens but I'm not going to research it. It would probably just be a lengthy description of X inhibiting Y and activating Z and so on.)\n\nIf this were true, baby's drop in estrogen would influence hormonal levers and buttons on their hair follicles in a manner comparable to androgens in a male. \n\n(This is all assuming the premise that babies have that pattern is actually true. I've admittedly never paid close attention to a baby's balding pattern.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Skin and hair.:Hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Although men grow hair faster than women, baldness is much more common in males than in females. The main cause for this is \"male pattern baldness\" or androgenic alopecia. Male pattern baldness is a condition where hair starts to get lost in a typical pattern of receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown, and is caused by hormones and genetic predisposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5165199",
"title": "Pattern hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Although primates do not go bald, their hairlines do undergo recession. In infancy the hairline starts at the top of the supraorbital ridge, but slowly recedes after puberty to create the appearance of a small forehead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13947297",
"title": "Buttocks",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Some baboons and all gibbons, though otherwise fur-covered, have characteristic naked callosities on their buttocks. While human children generally have smooth buttocks, mature males and females have varying degrees of hair growth, as on other parts of their body. Females may have hair growth in the gluteal cleft (including around the anus), sometimes extending laterally onto the lower aspect of the cheeks. Males may have hair growth over some or all of the buttocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200129",
"title": "Hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "There are two types of identification tests for female pattern baldness: the Ludwig Scale and the Savin Scale. Both track the progress of diffused thinning, which typically begins on the crown of the head behind the hairline, and becomes gradually more pronounced. For male pattern baldness, the Hamilton–Norwood scale tracks the progress of a receding hairline and/or a thinning crown, through to a horseshoe-shaped ring of hair around the head and on to total baldness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274123",
"title": "American Water Spaniel",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Additional concerns are hypothyroidism, allergies, epilepsy, diabeties and glandular disorders which may cause baldness. The hair loss occurs at around six months of age, affecting the neck, thighs and tail; however the frequency has been reduced through work conducted by the breed clubs. Hip dysplasia is seen in around 8.3% of the breed, according to surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals over a twenty five-year period between 1974 and 1999. This was one of the lower results of the sporting breeds, with Greyhounds coming lowest with 3.4%, and the related Boykin Spaniel coming in second highest at 47%. There was no evidence of elbow dysplasia found. The breed has an average life span of 10–13 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7234113",
"title": "Ossicone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Ossicones are present at birth; however, they lie flat and are not attached to the skull as to avoid injury at birth. Male and female ossicones vary in structure and purpose. Males typically have thicker ossicones that become bald on top due to frequent necking. These ossicones also add weight to the giraffe's head allowing them to deliver heavier, sometimes fatal, blows. The added weight is an evolutionary trait bred from necessity. The addition of ossicones also leads to other evolutionary adaptations like heavy hides and specialized dermal shields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4401",
"title": "Bald eagle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Bald eagles are not actually bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, \"white headed\". The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males. The beak is large and hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1iilko
|
I read about children working underground in coal mines during the Industrial Revolution. Is that accurate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Until 1842, children did work underground in substantial numbers.\n\n[An accident at Huskar Colliery in Silkstone](_URL_1_), near Barnsley in 1838 clearly shows this. A stream overflowed into the ventilation drift after violent thunderstorms causing the death of 26 children; 11 girls aged from 8 to 16 and 15 boys between 9 and 12 years of age.\n\nThe Royal Commission of Inquiry into Children’s Employment of 1842 found that over 5000 children were employed for underground work, some as young as four years old.\n\nYou can read the conclusions on employment of children in mines [here](_URL_0_)\n\n* Children (mostly boys, but also girls) did work underground from a very young age.\n\n* The youngest often worked opening and shutting ventilation doors, a job where they spend almost the entire working day alone and in the dark.\n\n* From the age of six, they would be employed hauling coal carriages, sometimes in very low tunnels.\n\n* Working days were 11 to 14 hours. The better-regulated mines had some breaks, the worst not at all and many children complained of a constant, often painful fatigue.\n\n* In case of mine accidents, young children died in explosions, were crushed under tonnes of stone or drowned. Entrusting jobs essential for mine safety to young children was actually a cause of accidents.\n\n[This list of mining accidents 1820-1839](_URL_2_) shows many teenage and younger workers killed.\n\n\n\nAll this led to the Mines and Collieries Act 1842:\n\n* No female was to be employed underground (as women miners wore trousers and shifts or even went topless, this work was an affront to Victorian sensibilities)\n\n* No boy under 10 years old was to be employed underground.\n\n* Parish apprentices between the ages of 10 and 18 could continue to work in the mines.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20267944",
"title": "Boys in the Pits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Boys in the Pits: Child Labour in Coal Mines is a 2000 book by Robert McIntosh, published by McGill-Queen's University Press. The book is about child labour in Canada in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with special reference to the history of boys, aged 8 to 15, who worked in coal mines. These boys worked underground, leading horses along subterranean roads, manipulating ventilation doors, helping miners cut and lift tons of coal, and filling wagons with freshly mined coal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38758423",
"title": "History of coal miners",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Coal mining in the 19th century.:Safety and health in the mines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Being a miner in the 19th century meant long hours of continuous hard labor in the dark mines with low ceilings. Accidents were frequent. Young boys were used outside the mine to sort coal from rocks; they were not allowed underground until age 18.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28879033",
"title": "Lancashire Coalfield",
"section": "Section::::History.:Conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1488,
"text": "At the turn of the 19th century demand for coal increased rapidly for domestic and industrial consumption: steam was used to power factories and steamships. Miners worked in intolerable conditions. Coal was got by hand, hewers using picks and shovels in mines lit by candles. Children as young as five sat in complete darkness opening ventilation doors for \"hurriers\", women and boys who hauled tubs of coal to the shaft bottom. Some coalowners used bonds, paying signing-on fees to the colliers who worked in their coal pits for a year or had to pay a considerable forfeit if the contract was broken. The coalowners used the bond system as a tool for enforcing discipline and fending off the ability of workers to join together to fight for better pay and conditions. The Combination Acts of 1799 made unions illegal. Some coal owners, including William Hulton, paid their workers with tokens or vouchers that could only be redeemed in their company shops, a practice outlawed by the Truck Act 1831. Wages were poor and coal owners introduced a system of fines to enforce discipline. The Duke of Bridgewater paid eight shillings (40p) for a six-day working week with shifts of 12 to 15 hours and fined those who were late half a crown. The wages amounted to a few pence more than given in Poor Law relief and miners worked to keep out of the workhouse. William Hulton reputedly paid the poorest wages in Lancashire and was hostile to permitting his workforce the right to free assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1212099",
"title": "Hindley, Greater Manchester",
"section": "Section::::History.:Industrial Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The first recorded coal mine was in 1528 and by the end of the 19th century there were over 20 collieries in the area. Ladies Lane Colliery belonging to the Wigan Coal and Iron Company employed 282 underground and 40 surface workers in 1896. At the start of the 20th century profitable coal seams were nearly exhausted and concerns were raised regarding the need to diversify industry and further develop the cotton mills. Peak production of coal was achieved just before the First World War. The period between the First and Second world wars was marked by the closure of most collieries and mills including Hindley Field and Swan Lane collieries in 1927, Hindley Green Colliery in 1928; Lowe Hall Colliery in 1931; Lowe Mill closing in 1934 and Worthington Mill was demolished. During the post war period the Hindley workings became part of the large colliery complexes developed at Bickershaw, Parsonage and Golborne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99721",
"title": "Wallonia",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The economically important very deep coal mining in the course of the First Industrial Revolution has required highly reputed specialized studies for mining engineers. But that was already the case before the Industrial Revolution, with an engineer as Rennequin Sualem for instance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18553707",
"title": "Mines and Collieries Act 1842",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "At the beginning of the 19th century methods of coal extraction were primitive and the workforce, men, women and children, laboured in dangerous conditions. In 1841 about 216,000 people were employed in the mines. Women and children worked underground for 11 or 12 hours a day for smaller wages than men. The public became aware of conditions in the country's collieries in 1838 after an accident at Huskar Colliery in Silkstone, near Barnsley. A stream overflowed into the ventilation drift after violent thunderstorms causing the death of 26 children; 11 girls aged from 8 to 16 and 15 boys between 9 and 12 years of age. The disaster came to the attention of Queen Victoria who ordered an inquiry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417699",
"title": "Annfield Plain",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Demand for coal increased with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, and a number of deep pits were sunk over the course of the 19th century. The village grew substantially and light industry increased, including the construction of a brewery, mill, and candle factory; as well as various services for the population, including a school, church, at least two nonconformist chapels, and a variety of shops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1paagj
|
A question on Cosmic Radiation and Electromagnetic Shielding
|
[
{
"answer": "While the earth's magnetic field does help with cosmic rays, you are forgetting the massive attenuation that occurs due to our atmosphere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987773",
"title": "Astronautical hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Radiation hazards.:Galactic cosmic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "This radiation originates from outside the solar system and consists of ionized charged atomic nuclei from hydrogen, helium and uranium. Due to its energy the galactic cosmic radiation is very penetrating. Thin to moderate shielding is effective in reducing the projected equivalent dose but as shield thickness increases, shield effectiveness drops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Shielding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Material shielding can be effective against galactic cosmic rays, but thin shielding may actually make the problem worse for some of the higher energy rays, because more shielding causes an increased amount of secondary radiation, although thick shielding could counter such too. The aluminium walls of the ISS, for example, are believed to produce a net reduction in radiation exposure. In interplanetary space, however, it is believed that thin aluminium shielding would give a net increase in radiation exposure but would gradually decrease as more shielding is added to capture generated secondary radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55351756",
"title": "Future of space exploration",
"section": "Section::::Breakthrough Starshot.:Human limitations.:Physiological issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Furthermore, without Earth's surrounding magnetic field as a shield, solar radiation has much harsher effects on biological organisms in space. The exposure can include damage to the central nervous system, (altered cognitive function, reducing motor function and incurring possible behavioral changes), as well as the possibility of degenerative tissue diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333692",
"title": "Radiation protection",
"section": "Section::::Radiation shielding.:Particle radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cosmic radiation is not a common concern, as the Earth's atmosphere absorbs it and the magnetosphere acts as a shield, but it poses a problem for satellites and astronauts. Frequent fliers are also at a slight risk. Cosmic radiation is extremely high energy, and is very penetrating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Shielding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Part of the uncertainty is that the effect of human exposure to galactic cosmic rays is poorly known in quantitative terms. The NASA Space Radiation Laboratory is currently studying the effects of radiation in living organisms as well as protective shielding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The health threats from cosmic rays is the danger posed by galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles to astronauts on interplanetary missions or any missions that venture through the Van-Allen Belts or outside the Earth's magnetosphere. They are one of the greatest barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883646",
"title": "Mars Radiation Environment Experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Space radiation comes from cosmic rays emitted by our local star, the Sun, and from stars beyond the Solar System as well. Space radiation can trigger cancer and cause damage to the central nervous system. Similar instruments are flown on the Space Shuttles and on the International Space Station (ISS), but none have ever flown outside Earth's protective magnetosphere, which blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface of our planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45juvp
|
why can a light tap or flick or what have you on my testicles hurt pretty bad, but ball-slapping sex doesn't hurt at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the impact is directed onto a smaller surface area. \n\nCan I ask why nut shot pain takes a few seconds to really kick in? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, during ball slapping sex, things hurt less. Hormones, adrenaline, etc. For me at least, it's common for them to be a bit sore after. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you're horny at least from what I've noticed you're sort of inured by a lot of things. Somethings that might usually seem gross to you aren't gross anymore. Things that might hurt don't really as much since you're gettin your peeper tugged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh, it still hurts. But its a good kind of pain. Plus i hope the giving end isn't punching or slapping as hard as anu regualr joe would nut tap a poor bastard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's really not all about the hormones and more about the duration and intensity of both acts. When you say \"flick\", it implies that there is some signficant velocity with the fingers all directed at a very small area of your balls. This leads to concentrated pain.\n\n\"Ball slapping sex\" doesn't involve nearly as much velocity, and the slapping action targets the entire front face of the sack leading to more \"diluted\" force.\n\nThe only thing your hormones are affecting is your perception of how much violence your sack is subjected. I'm sure that even during ball-slapping sex, if someone flicked you in the balls, it'd still hurt way more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Med student here- Many people have covered it with endorphins/hormones/etc but are forgetting some important parts-- > the dartos and cremasteric muscles can contract to reposition the testicles so you aren't directly slamming and jostling them as badly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I was 18, I had epididymitis, inflammation of the epididymis. It felt like I was constantly kicked in the nuts. When I went to Dr., he asked if I was sexually active and if so was I having a lot of hard sex. I said yes. He told me to slow down, my balls and girlfriend will thank me. Which to me was hilarious since my Dr. was close 80 years-old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah, it's the same thing when it comes to your nose hairs: pull one out and it hurts like a bitch, but if you use wax to pull out a bunch, it's not as painful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I honestly feel it's because during sex your balls contract a little bit inwards. When you are just hanging around and you get flicked, the things that connect your balls to your body are exposed, but during sex you are high and tight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do it on the counter while you're standing up and tell me your balls don't hurt after slapping porcelain/cabinets for twenty minutes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Know what hurts worse? Having a doctor give you a shot in the cord attached to your testicle. \n\nSource- had to get one Tuesday. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ball-slapping sex hurts me...I just deal with it. But I will agree that it's not the same hurt. A flick to the sack will put a man down. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you last shorter in bed than the times it takes to lightly tap or flick it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Eli5 sex question? Awkward, but ok,i guess I'll try. \n \nA flick is like poking a balloon with a nail. It pops because the area you are touching is directed at a very small place on the balloon, nails are sharp so it hurts the balloon.\n\nThe ball-slapping sex is like squishing a balloon between your hands. The balloon squished but is usually ok. The area that you are touching is much greater. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who else flicked their nuts because of this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your balls aren't really slapping as hard as you think they are. When you get flicked, that finger starts with resistance and has built up energy before being released, transferred it to your nut with astounding speed. It's concentrated and usually only hits one. When you're doing the dirty, your junk is usually (hopefully) pretty wet by that point, so once your balls \"slap\" they have the ability to slide around every so slightly and absorb or mitigate some of that impact. Furthermore, your jewels are suspended and by the time your nuts slap your lover's taint, you're already pulling back out so you can go back in for another thrust.\n\nSource: professional sex thinker-about-er.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "809198",
"title": "Cock and ball torture",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Loss of blood flow is one of the biggest risks in cock and ball torture (CBT), which can be seen with loss of color and edemas. Bondage in which the testicles are tied to something else is especially dangerous, increasing the risk of the testicles getting damaged through excessive tension or pulling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "523195",
"title": "Blue balls",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Blue balls is slang for the condition of temporary fluid congestion (vasocongestion) in the testicles accompanied by testicular pain, caused by prolonged sexual arousal in the human male without ejaculation. The term is thought to have originated in the United States, first appearing in 1916. Some urologists call this condition \"epididymal hypertension\". The condition is not experienced by all males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "809198",
"title": "Cock and ball torture",
"section": "Section::::Devices.:Testicle cuffs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "BULLET::::- Preventing the testicles from lifting up so far that they become lodged under the skin immediately adjacent to the base of the penis, a condition which can be very uncomfortable, especially if the testicle is then squashed by the slap of skin during thrusting in sexual intercourse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218003",
"title": "Groin attack",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The testicles lack anatomical protection and are highly sensitive to impact. The pain caused by impact to the testicles travels through the spermatic plexus. In extreme cases, a hard strike to the testicles can cause one or both to rupture, potentially sterilizing the victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218003",
"title": "Groin attack",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "While less often depicted in media, a strike to the groin can cause pain for female victims too. The skin of the vulva and the clitoris are highly sensitive, making laceration injuries especially painful. In extreme cases, nerve damage can occur to the clitoris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46895003",
"title": "Sexuality after spinal cord injury",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Considerations for sexual activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Another consideration is loss of sensation, which puts people at risk for wounds such as pressure sores and injuries that could become worse before being noticed. Friction from sexual activity may damage the skin, so it is necessary after sex to inspect areas that could have been hurt, particularly the buttocks and genital area. People who already have pressure sores must take care not to make the wounds worse. Irritation to the genitals increases risk for vaginal infections, which get worse if they go unnoticed. Women who do not get sufficient vaginal lubrication on their own can use a commercially available personal lubricant to decrease friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12514563",
"title": "Testicular trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Because the testes are located within the scrotum, which hangs outside of the body, they do not have the protection of muscles and bones. This makes it easier for the testes to be struck, hit, kicked or crushed, which occurs most often during contact sports. Testicles can be protected by wearing athletic cups during sports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7mt0xl
|
why we can't see a full circle rainbow?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of the physical properties of rain droplet, the light entering and leaving forms an angle of about 42^(o). That means a rainbow is going to be a ring \"around\" the sun at 180^o - 42^o = 138^(o), or 42^o from the point exactly opposite the sun. Since that point is below the horizon, the earth itself blocks the lower portion of the rainbow.\n\n[But not always](_URL_0_). If you are at a high enough altitude, the can be enough water droplets between you and the ground for a full 360^o rainbow to appear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can if you get a garden sprayer and put it in most more and shoot in into the air in a sunny day. The reason you can't see one with rain in the distance us that you are seeing a very large version of the same thing being cut off by the horizon. Every person sees a different rainbow in the sky",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can under the right circumstances, but it's rare.\n\nThe problem is that a rainbow has to be centered on the point opposite the sun, because it's caused by light being reflected by water droplets. From most places on Earth, when the sun is above the horizon (and thus generating light), the point opposite the sun is below the horizon, and thus only the bits of the rainbow that are above the horizon are visible, since the ground blocks the sun's light for the rest of it.\n\nHowever, you can get around this by getting to a very high location. The most common place circular rainbows are seen is on airplanes, since from tens of thousands of feet above the ground you can have plenty of water droplets below you that reflect the light and give you the bottom portion of the rainbow. It's also sometimes seen by mountain climbers at the top of mountains and from the top of skyscrapers.\n\nThe other way you can see a circular rainbow is that there can sometimes be rainbows that are centered on the sun rather than the point opposite the sun, so when the sun is away from the horizon you can see the entire circle. However, this doesn't usually happen so that the naked eye can see it, and looking directly at the sun is very bad for your eyes, so it's not recommend to seek them out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Under the right circumstances you can see a full rainbow around the moon when there is a slight amount of moisture in the air.\nI spotted them more frequently on colder nights or even just winter, they are called moonbows, and they have another name but i cant remember it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact, the full circle rainbow that you can see from airplanes and high mountains is called a Solar Glory. If the moon is making the light, it's obviously a Lunar Glory. See also Brocken Spectre. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the horizon prevents you from seeing the lower half of the rainbow.\n\nIf you were in an airplane and the right conditions, you could see [a circular rainbow](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "From above the earth such as in an aeroplane, it is sometimes possible to see a rainbow as a full circle. This phenomenon can be confused with the glory phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "A rainbow is not located at a specific distance from the observer, but comes from an optical illusion caused by any water droplets viewed from a certain angle relative to a light source. Thus, a rainbow is not an object and cannot be physically approached. Indeed, it is impossible for an observer to see a rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the light source. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems \"under\" or \"at the end of\" a rainbow, the second observer will see a different rainbow—farther off—at the same angle as seen by the first observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Full-circle rainbow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "In theory, every rainbow is a circle, but from the ground, usually only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets \"below\" the observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen. Like a partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a secondary bow or supernumerary bows as well. It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Rainbows under moonlight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Like most atmospheric optical phenomena, rainbows can be caused by light from the Sun, but also from the Moon. In case of the latter, the rainbow is referred to as a lunar rainbow or moonbow. They are much dimmer and rarer than solar rainbows, requiring the Moon to be near-full in order for them to be seen. For the same reason, moonbows are often perceived as white and may be thought of as monochrome. The full spectrum is present, however, but the human eye is not normally sensitive enough to see the colours. Long exposure photographs will sometimes show the colour in this type of rainbow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Rainbows can be observed whenever there are water drops in the air and sunlight shining from behind the observer at a low altitude angle. Because of this, rainbows are usually seen in the western sky during the morning and in the eastern sky during the early evening. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is still dark with raining clouds and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background. During such good visibility conditions, the larger but fainter secondary rainbow is often visible. It appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3871014",
"title": "Rainbow",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "A rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an axial symmetry around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and the sun, lie on a cone pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see above). Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see the full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4719741",
"title": "Well-founded phenomenon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In the world of ordinary experience we might call a rainbow a well-ordered phenomenon; it appears to us to be a coloured arch in the sky, though there is in fact no arch there. We are not suffering from hallucinations, though, for the appearance is grounded in the way the world is ordered – in the behaviour of light, dust motes, water particles, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lq4oa
|
why do sites sometimes give an error, but if you refresh it a second after it works?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's an example.\n\nLet's assume the Google server that I access is in California. I type something into a Google search bar, hit search, and it goes from here in New York State to the Google California Office in 13 milliseconds (0.013 seconds).\n\nThe server in California then has to look for what I put in, which takes a couple milliseconds, and then sends that data back to me once it finds it.\n\nThis is an entire search done in less than 3% of a single second, and is the timescale we need to remember.\n\n-----\n\nWhen a site gives an error, that means the site couldn't be accessed. Or that within the couple milliseconds the server couldn't find the part that had the site you wanted.\n\n-----\n\nIf the error is because there's too many people accessing it, then over the next couple seconds 50 to 100 people will be processed. And once they are done, there's space for your search.\n\nThis is exactly like when you are looking for a parking lot at a mall on the weekends. Every spot is filled, so you have to wait until someone leaves their spot before you can park into a spot.\n\n-----\n\nIf it's because the server can't find the literal part where the site is hosted, then it sometimes takes a couple tries for it to finally find what you are looking for. I mean, look at Reddit. There's hundreds of subreddits with hundreds of pages and posts. Finding a specific post the search function means looking through all those posts on all those subs until the desired post is found. Does that sound like an easy thing to do? No it does not, because it's not an easy thing to do. Even for a program designed to search, it's going to be difficult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1192305",
"title": "Web accessibility",
"section": "Section::::Remediating inaccessible websites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Once an accessibility audit has been conducted, and accessibility errors have been identified, the errors will need to be remediated in order to ensure the site is compliant with accessibility errors. The traditional way of correcting an inaccessible site is to go back into the source code, reprogram the error, and then test to make sure the bug was fixed. If the website is not scheduled to be revised in the near future, that error (and others) would remain on the site for a lengthy period of time, possibly violating accessibility guidelines. Because this is a complicated process, many website owners choose to build accessibility into a new site design or re-launch, as it can be more efficient to develop the site to comply with accessibility guidelines, rather than to remediate errors later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5272519",
"title": "Error hiding",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Hiding complexity from users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "When showing errors to users, it's important to turn cryptic technical errors into messages that explain what happened and what actions the user can take, if any, to fix the problem. While performing this translation of technical errors into meaningful user messages, specific errors are often grouped into more generic errors, and this process can lead to user messages becoming so useless that the user doesn't know what went wrong or how to fix it. As far as the user is concerned, the error got swallowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636686",
"title": "URL redirection",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Redirect loops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Sometimes a mistake can cause a page to end up redirecting back to itself, possibly via other pages, leading to an infinite sequence of redirects. Browsers should stop redirecting after a certain number of hops and display an error message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12442830",
"title": "Optimistic replication",
"section": "Section::::Implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "As a simple example, if an application contains a way of viewing some part of the database state, and a way of editing it, then users may edit that state but then not see it changing in the viewer. Alarmed that their edit \"didn't work\", they may try it again, potentially more than once. If the updates are not idempotent (e.g., they increment a value), this can lead to disaster. Even if they are idempotent, the spurious updates place a burden on the database system - and the situation in which replication delays become particularly noticeable is when the database system is at a high level of load anyway; this can become a vicious circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234018",
"title": "Assertion (software development)",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Assertions for run-time checking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "A major advantage of this technique is that when an error does occur it is detected immediately and directly, rather than later through its often obscure side-effects. Since an assertion failure usually reports the code location, one can often pin-point the error without further debugging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777",
"title": "Hard disk drive",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Error rates and handling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The worst type of errors are silent data corruptions which are errors undetected by the disk firmware or the host operating system; some of these errors may be caused by hard disk drive malfunctions while others originate elsewhere in the connection between the drive and the host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35507",
"title": "HTTP 404",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A 404 error is often returned when pages have been moved or deleted. In the first case, it is better to employ URL mapping or URL redirection by returning a 301 Moved Permanently response, which can be configured in most server configuration files, or through URL rewriting; in the second case, a 410 Gone should be returned. Because these two options require special server configuration, most websites do not make use of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17zu41
|
Reading about the WWII pacific theather. Why the huge difference in losses?
|
[
{
"answer": "A fast deteriorating supply situation for the Japanese and the industrial might and adaptibility of the US happend. What followed was what always follows when ideology, honor culture and courage clashes with superior firepower. \n\nQuite simply, the IJN didn't surrender when almost any other force would have. They fought until they ran out of everything. Food, ammo, equipment, reinforcements. Usually, being cut of and running out of things it what makes a normal army surrender. The IJN fought on, sometimes even resorting to \"banzai tactics\" (in essence, a suicide charge) rather than surrender.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By Okinawa, a late war battle, the technological difference between the US and the IJN/IJA was *massive*.\n\nThe IJA was just barely beyond a ww1 era army, they were not mechanized in a meaningful way, they used bolt-action rifles, had minimal amounts of light tanks, and no air cover. Even their MMG's and HMG's were fed by small capacity stripper clips, where the american browning 1919 could use a belt with bullets in it that was something like 300 rounds before having to reload.\n\nBy contrast, the US army was using sqaud automatic weapons (the BAR), submachine guns (the thompson) and even the basic infantry rifleman had a semi-automatic rifle in the M1 garand. This translates to a single american infantry section having a massive advantage in volume of fire against a single japanese infantry section. What this means in practical terms is that a bayonet charge at american lines was tactical suicide, as even a lowly private could still bang out 8 7.62mm rounds from the hip in close quarters before engaging with his own bayonet. I don't need to get into the effect the thompson and the BAR have on a line of charging infantry, do I?\n\nWhy did the japanese use the \"Banzai tactic\" of bayonet charges so often? For a number of reasons: 1) against an undisciplined enemy, it works brilliantly. 2) when backed into a corner, out of ammo, out of food, out of time, it's the only thing you can do 3) even on a level playing field the japanese knew their weapons were outmatched at every single level from the private to the tanks to the artillery. Closing with the enemy and forcing hand to hand combat neutralizes all of this. The artillery wont bomb it's own soldiers, neither will the tanks, and the automatic weapons can't be fired if their crews are fighting with bayonets to survive. The problem is you still have to get across that field/river/rice paddy/etc to get into the melee.\n\nSo in theory it makes sense, get in close where the enemy's advantage is neutralized, and go to work. However, the american infantry happens to be really, really good at adapting. It didn't take long for tactics to evolve overlapping fields of fire, coordinated fall back positions, pre-sighted light artillery (mortars, etc) zones, and all sorts of things that really just nullify an infantry charge by turning large amounts of territory into shrapnel filled exploding fiery death. The problem: the japanese didn't have any other choice. They *had* to charge. It was the only chance they had, even though they knew it was near suicide. The end result being that the banzai charge almost always resulted in massive losses for the japanese as they would send wave after wave after wave at the american lines.\n\nThen there is all the other stuff in war. The japanese on any given island would suffer through days of unending naval bombardment by some of the biggest guns in the war. Air raids were a constant threat. Starvation and disease are an ever present danger that claim many lives on both sides.\n\n\nBut ultimately? The japanese didn't surrender. They just chose death before dishonor, and didn't have the firepower to stagger their enemy. So they hid in caves, they raided at night, they starved, they never gave up, and they died.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At the Kokoda Track the Japanese figured that since they had the advantage early on in numbers that they would conduct frontal charges against the Australian positions to hold the Australians and then they'd send troops around the Australian flanks. The Australians though would fall back if they were in danger of the flanking attacks getting around them and fought a fighting withdrawal for months along the Kokoda Track. This meant the Japanese suffered huge casualties compared to the Australians.\n\nLater on in the battle the Australians took the initiative with freshly arrived soldiers while the Japanese were exhausted from months of fighting and were also running out of food and other supplies.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[New Guinea campaign also shows this:](_URL_0_)\nApproximately 202,100 Japanese soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New Guinea campaign. The largest number of deaths, 127,600, occurred in Papua and New Guinea with a further 44,000 dying on Bougainville and the remaining 30,500 dying on New Britain, New Ireland, and the Admiralty Islands.\n\nApproximately 7,000 Australian and 7000 American soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New Guinea Campaign.\n\nThat's a 14.4 to 1 ratio.\n\nMany Japanese died of disease and starvation during this campaign. Japanese logistics were sparse at the best of times, and supplying the large army on the island became increasingly difficult.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "195975",
"title": "Chūichi Nagumo",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The Battle of Midway, in June 1942, brought Nagumo's near-perfect record to an end. The First Air Fleet lost four carriers during the turning point of the Pacific War, and the massive losses of carrier aircraft maintenance personnel would prove detrimental to the performance of the IJN in later engagements. The loss of the four carriers, their aircraft, and their maintenance crews, plus the loss of 120 experienced pilots, resulted in Japan losing the strategic initiative in the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60112",
"title": "Battle of Midway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well-trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1733778",
"title": "Imperial Japanese Navy in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Naval Operations (1941-1942).:Pearl Harbor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "American losses were heavy; 2,403 personnel were killed, 18 ships were damaged or sunk, and 188 aircraft were destroyed. In contrast, the Japanese lost 29 aircraft and five midget submarines. The Japanese judged the attack as a success, believing that they accomplished their primary tactical goal, which was the destruction of the battle line of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The Japanese operations to conquer Southeast Asia and establish to a defensive perimeter could proceed without interference, and the U.S. Navy was unable to launch a major trans-Pacific counteroffensive for two years. However, the two American carriers were at sea at the time of the attack and Pearl Harbor's oil storage, dry dock, submarine piers and maintenance facilities were left unscathed. Additionally, contrary to expectations to shatter American morale and force the U.S. government to seek compromise for peace with Japan, the enormous loss of life and property from the sneak attack led to a tidal wave of outrage by the American public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10929",
"title": "Fighter aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Piston engine fighters.:World War II.:Pacific theater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "By 1943, the Allies began to gain the upper hand in the Pacific Campaign's air campaigns. Several factors contributed to this shift. First, second-generation Allied fighters such as the Hellcat and the P-38, and later the Corsair, the P-47 and the P-51, began arriving in numbers. These fighters outperformed Japanese fighters in all respects except maneuverability. Other problems with Japan's fighter aircraft also became apparent as the war progressed, such as their lack of armor and light armament, which made them inadequate as bomber interceptors or ground-attack planes – roles Allied fighters excelled at. Most importantly, Japan's training program failed to provide enough well-trained pilots to replace losses. In contrast, the Allies improved both the quantity and quality of pilots graduating from their training programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11721",
"title": "Vought F4U Corsair",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:World War II.:U.S. service.:Sortie, kill and loss figures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "U.S. figures compiled at the end of the war indicate that the F4U and FG flew 64,051 operational sorties for the U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy through the conflict (44% of total fighter sorties), with only 9,581 sorties (15%) flown from carrier decks. F4U and FG pilots claimed 2,140 air combat victories against 189 losses to enemy aircraft, for an overall kill ratio of over 11:1. While this gave the Corsair the lowest loss rate of any fighter of the Pacific War, this was due in part to operational circumstances; it primarily faced air-to-air combat in the Solomon Islands and Rabaul campaigns (as well as at Leyte and for kamikaze interception), but as operations shifted north and its mission shifted to ground attack the aircraft saw less exposure to enemy aircraft, while other fighter types were exposed to more air combat. Against the best Japanese opponents, the aircraft claimed a 12:1 kill ratio against Mitsubishi A6M and 6:1 against the Nakajima Ki-84, Kawanishi N1K-J, and Mitsubishi J2M combined during the last year of the war. The Corsair bore the brunt of U.S. fighter-bomber missions, delivering of bombs during the war (70% of total bombs dropped by U.S. fighters during the war).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42355029",
"title": "Battle of the Sittang Bend",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Around 14,000 Japanese were lost, with well over half being killed, while British forces suffered only 95 killed and 322 wounded. The break-out attempt and the ensuing battle became the last significant land battle of the Western powers in the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23508196",
"title": "United States Army Air Forces",
"section": "Section::::Role in World War II.:USAAF statistical summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Total aircraft losses for the AAF from December 1941 to August 1945 were 65,164, with 43,581 lost overseas and 21,583 within the Continental United States. Combat losses of aircraft totaled 22,948 worldwide, with 18,418 lost in theaters fighting Germany and 4,530 lost in combat in the Pacific. The AAF credited its own forces with destroying a total of 40,259 aircraft of opposing nations by all means, 29,916 against Germany and its allies and 10,343 in the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6c28m1
|
why is it called the "secret service" when it isn't secret at all? how did they get that name officially?
|
[
{
"answer": "In 1865, the \"Secret Service Division\" of the US Treasury Department was formed as a federal police agency devoted to investigating and preventing money counterfeiting, which was a huge problem at the time. In it's early years it ended up doing all kinds of law-enforcement and intelligence/counter-intelligence duties. At the time, the only other federal law enforcement agencies that existed were the Post Office police and the US Marshals, both of whom have legally limited jurisdiction (US Marshals are responsible for carrying out the decisions of federal courts, such as serving arrest warrants). Later after the 1901 assassination of President McKinley, the SS would be officially tasked with protecting the President, other high officials, and foreign diplomats. Now it's two main jobs are security for the President and investigating financial crime, including but not limited to money counterfeiting. Since 2003 it's been moved from the Department of the Treasury over to the new Department of Homeland Security. \n\nFrom what I've read, historians aren't exactly quite sure why it was called the Secret Service, but it might have had to do with the undercover and secretive nature of intelligence-gathering. But it was never intended to actually be a *secret* agency that the public isn't supposed to know about or anything like that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The secret service in it's original form was a spy agency run by Allan Pinkerton during the Civil War. When Pinkerton was fired from the agency it was handed over to a man named Lafayette Baker. Baker ran the secret service with the same purpose, as a spy network against the confederacy, changing to rooting out confederate hangers on after the war. At this point their role was focused heavily on eliminating counterfeiters, preventing businesses from accepting confederate bills, and beating the heck out of deserters and people who didn't support the union in the civil war.\n\nAnd that's how a spy agency with a spy agency name became treasury department enforcers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24113",
"title": "President of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "100155",
"title": "Secret service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "A secret service is a government agency, intelligence agency, or the activities of a government agency, concerned with the gathering of intelligence data. The tasks and powers of a secret service can vary greatly from one country to another. For instance, a country may establish a secret service which has some policing powers (such as surveillance) but not others. The powers and duties of a government organization may be partly secret and partly not. The organization may be said to operate openly at home and secretly abroad, or vice versa. Secret police and intelligence agencies can usually be considered secret services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37785755",
"title": "Forgery as covert operation",
"section": "Section::::United States Secret Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The United States Secret Service was created by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War in 1865 to combat the high counterfeit rate of currency. At the time, one-third to one-half of all U.S currency in circulation was counterfeit. Today, the Secret Service continues its core mission by investigating violations of U.S. laws relating to currency, financial crimes, financial payment systems, computer crimes and electronic crimes. It utilizes investigative expertise, science and technology, and partnerships to detect, prevent and investigate attacks on the U.S. financial infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9201776",
"title": "Secret Service code name",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The United States Secret Service uses code names for U.S. presidents, first ladies, and other prominent persons and locations. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition. The Secret Service does not choose these names, however. The White House Communications Agency assigns them. WHCA was originally created as the \"White House Signal Detachment\" under Franklin Roosevelt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53831006",
"title": "Secret societies in colonial Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "There are varying definitions as to what being a secret society constitutes. Most secret societies in general would have the following features of 1) claims to exclusivity, 2) their own special secrets and 3) the inclination to prioritize fellow members. Secret societies despite the naming \"secret\" are not in the sense organisations that are unknown to the public, but it is more of its members and many of the activities in which they carry out that tend to secretive rather than their existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163204",
"title": "Secret identity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "A secret identity is a person's alter ego which is not known to the general populace, most often used in fiction. Brought into popular culture by the Scarlet Pimpernel in 1903, the concept is particularly prevalent in the American comic book genre, and is a more genre-specific version of the broader trope of the masquerade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252857",
"title": "Classified information",
"section": "Section::::Typical classification levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "\"Top Secret\" is the highest level of classified information. Information is further compartmented so that specific access using a code word after \"top secret\" is a legal way to hide collective and important information. Such material would cause \"exceptionally grave damage\" to national security if made publicly available. Prior to 1942, the United Kingdom and other members of the British Empire used \"Most Secret\", but this was later changed to match the United States' category name of \"Top Secret\" in order to simplify Allied interoperability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
byj9vy
|
if horse racing tips had any merits, why wouldn't the bookies adjust their odds to match?
|
[
{
"answer": "Betting on horse races is fairly straight forward. If more people bet on a particular horse because they think it has a good chance to win, odds will adjust. The horses with low odds stay that way because few people will bet on them. The bookies do adjust the odds, in horse racing and pretty much any sporting event.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Horse racing is pari-mutuel betting. You are betting against the other punters not the bookie. The bookie takes a fee called the vigorish or vig for holding the bet. The odds are based on the spread of the bets and the favorite is more likely to win than the odds show because of the perverse desire to bet on longshots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Odds are calculated on-the-fly based on how people have bet. Basically, it's the amount of dollars in the pool divided by the number of people who would win if X happens (subtracting a percentage for the house, first). If more people bet on a particular horse, the pool will have to be split more ways to pay out, meaning less money paid per winner.\n\nSometimes odds are published BEFORE any betting, and I wonder if this is what you're asking about. Odds prior to betting are simply estimates made by someone (an expert, in theory) based on how they think the public will bet. They estimate how the public will bet based on varying criteria, but mostly on the horses' track times and prior performances. These odds aren't particularly meaningful, because payouts are based on how the actual bets go, not on these pre-betting odds. They're really there for entertainment and education purposes -- to give ill-informed bettors some indication of how they might want to bet.\n\nA boring example of odds: All of the bets on all of the horses TO WIN totals $1000. The track (or OTB facility, casino, or other entity) takes a percentage, let's pretend it's 10%. The remaining $900 will be paid not matter which nag wins. If 450 people bet $1 on the favorite and it wins, they will all receive $2. If only one person bet on a long-shot and it wins, that person gets the whole $900. Oddly, it doesn't matter how much he bet on the horse if he was the only winner. You won't see a single winner at a well-attended race very often, but I used to work at an OTB in a small town that had its own pools and a single person would win regularly. Note that each type of bet has its own pool -- win, place, show, trifecta, quinella, pick 6, etc all use their own separate pool.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": " > why wouldn't the bookmarkers reduce their odds, and thus balance out the probability of them winning?\n\nThe probability of the horse winning doesn't change, only the amount of the payout changes.\n\nThe bookies are always trying to balance their book so that for every £5 wagered, they only pay out £4. With that margin built in, they usually don't care which horse wins. \n\nIt can go wrong for them sometimes. If a favourite is heavily backed, they don't always get enough bets on the other horses to cover the cost of the favourite winning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "“A tip” is inside information that most others dont know. Tho these others appear correct in their assessments. They treat bettors like idiots. When u have a tip ... u dont goto the bookies a week ahead of time and bet a huge sum. This gives “the system” time to equalize. You assess the situation at the last minute and then decide if its worth it. \nSo u know that horse is going to be running on METH and COCAINE. Sure the horse will die. But man o man its gonna run fast. So at the last minute u asses the odds. If it makes sense to bet enough to make some money with the risk that the horse dies before the end of the race. Go for it. But if the horse is going off at 2/1 id pass. But if its 25/1 id def give it a shot. \n\nThats how “tips” work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its already been explained that bookies prices are set on what the betting public are betting on, so if everybody is getting something wrong then that leaves room for a smarter person to get it right. That plus a lot of other factors allow professionals to bet profitably. \n\nBookies can't combat this, so instead they'll recognise which punters are constantly winning and will either just ban them from betting with them or limit the bets they make on specifics sports. Some bookies limit really good betters to insignificant amounts (\\~$50\\~ per bet) and happily give him the small amount of money they'll make for the information they provide when they make a bet. The professional betters essentially tell the bookie they have an incorrect price for a small fee. \n\nUsually for online booker makers these days you'll get limited or banned pretty quickly once you show 'irregular'/profitable betting habits. \n\nProfessionals invest a lot of time and money in getting their hands on accounts in other peoples names so they can bet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58683",
"title": "Bookmaker",
"section": "Section::::Internet gambling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Betting exchanges compete with the traditional bookmaker. They are generally able to offer punters better odds because of their much lower overheads but also give opportunities for arbitrage, the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets. However, traditionally, arbitrage has always been possible by backing all outcomes with bookmakers (dutching), as opposed to laying an outcome on an exchange. Exchanges, however, allow bookmakers to see the state of the market and set their odds accordingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4357647",
"title": "Pick 6 (horse racing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Because of the huge number of betting interests involved, bettors will often try to increase their chances of winning by selecting multiple combinations. This can be costly — a bettor who wants to cover two horses in each race must bet on 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 combinations, or 64 combinations, times $2 for each for a total of $128. This method is called \"boxing horses,\" and is also used with other wagers such as a trifecta or superfecta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270727",
"title": "Betting exchange",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The fact gamblers can lay outcomes on the exchanges has resulted in criticism from traditional bookmakers including the UK's \"Big Three\" - Gala Coral Group, Ladbrokes and William Hill. These firms argue that granting \"anonymous\" punters the ability to bet that an outcome will not happen is causing corruption in sports such as horse racing since it is much easier to ensure a horse will lose a race than to ensure that it will win.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "678924",
"title": "Match fixing",
"section": "Section::::Motivations and causes.:Effect of non-gambling-motivated fixing on wagering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Whenever any serious motivation for teams to manipulate results becomes apparent to the general public, there can be a corresponding effect on betting markets as honest gamblers speculate in good faith as to the chance such a fix might be attempted. Some bettors might choose to avoid wagering on such a fixture while others will be motivated to wager on it, or alter the bet they would otherwise place. Such actions will invariably affect odds and point spreads even if there is no contact whatsoever between teams and the relevant gambling interests. The rise of betting exchanges has allowed such speculation to play out in real time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538",
"title": "Probability interpretations",
"section": "Section::::Subjectivism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Gambling odds don't reflect the bookies' belief in a likely winner, so much as the other bettors' belief, because the bettors are actually betting against one another. The odds are set based on how many people have bet on a possible winner, so that even if the high odds players always win, the bookies will always make their percentages anyway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5222152",
"title": "Sports betting systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Sportsbooks use systems in their analysis to set more accurate odds. Therefore, the novice gambler may believe that using a system will always work, but it is the general consensus that at some point the oddsmakers will have adjusted for the system to make it no longer profitable. Very short-lived systems are called trends. Any single event that estimates a selection to have a higher likelihood of winning is called an angle as they are meant to be used in conjunction with other angles and trends to produce systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56776304",
"title": "Betting on horse racing",
"section": "Section::::Betting exchanges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In addition to traditional betting with a bookmaker, punters (bettors) are able to both back and lay money on an online betting exchange. Punters who lay the odds are in effect acting as a bookmaker. The odds of a horse are set by the market conditions of the betting exchange which is dictated to by the activity of the members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
375y8z
|
what is that carbon fiber pattern? why is it so appealing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Carbon fibers have extreme tensile strength to weight ratio. This is good in that a light weight component can support a larger load. However, its strength is highly directional i.e. it is strong only in one direction. So the fibers are woven into a matrix like the pattern you see commonly. The pattern also varies by the purpose it is designed for. Then a resin is added to solidify the pattern. This prevents sliding among the fibers and gains considerable strength because of that. \n\nThink of it as a cotton fabric with glue smeared on it. When the glue dries, the fabric will be less flexible (more rigid) like thin sheet metal. \n\nEDIT: It also looks super cool too!! [And check out the cool highlights that can be added](_URL_0_)!!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59980675",
"title": "Implant induction welding of thermoplastics",
"section": "Section::::Welding Process.:Material Considerations.:Composite Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Carbon fiber is of interest due to its widespread use in composite materials. Provided there are closed loops of carbon within the composite structure, eddy currents can be induced in the material. Unidirectional carbon fiber composites can have poor susceptibility when fiber to fiber contact is limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44537209",
"title": "Pitch-based carbon fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The high strength of carbon fiber can be attributed to these four main processes. Having high levels of crystalline regions allows the fibers to withstand high levels of stress. These crystalline regions are formed via the melt spinning process; the crystals are stiff areas that do not deform when an external stress is applied. Orienting and aligning these crystalline regions gives further strength to the fibers, specifically if the orientation is along the fiber axis. Carbonization and graphitization are the two processes responsible for this alignment of the crystalline regions. Pitch based carbon fiber is lower in strength than fiberglass; however, it has a very high elastic modulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160277",
"title": "Carbon fibers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Carbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160277",
"title": "Carbon fibers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "To produce a carbon fiber, the carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber as the crystal alignment gives the fiber high strength-to-volume ratio (making it strong for its size). Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together to form a tow, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160277",
"title": "Carbon fibers",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Textiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Precursors for carbon fibers are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon and pitch. Carbon fiber filament yarns are used in several processing techniques: the direct uses are for prepregging, filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding, etc. Carbon fiber yarn is rated by the linear density (weight per unit length; i.e., 1 g/1000 m = 1 tex) or by number of filaments per yarn count, in thousands. For example, 200 tex for 3,000 filaments of carbon fiber is three times as strong as 1,000 carbon filament yarn, but is also three times as heavy. This thread can then be used to weave a carbon fiber filament fabric or cloth. The appearance of this fabric generally depends on the linear density of the yarn and the weave chosen. Some commonly used types of weave are twill, satin and plain. Carbon filament yarns can also be knitted or braided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5299",
"title": "Carbon",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44537209",
"title": "Pitch-based carbon fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Pitch-based carbon fibers have various end uses due to their high strength. These fibers are used within the aerospace industry due to their high modulus and higher price. These fibers could be used within the automotive and sports industries, but the cheaper PAN based carbon fibers provide a high enough strength for these applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xgfn7
|
- water towers
|
[
{
"answer": "Water towers make it so that, instead of pumping water *all* the time, you just have to pump water to the top of the tower. This means you can still get water when the power goes out, and that's very important in areas where the power is likely to go out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're absolutely right, you do have to get the water up there -- and that's why it seems that whoever explained it to you doesn't get it. The idea is, during the night, and whenever people aren't using much water, you can pump the water up there -- then during the day, and when demand for water outstrips the ability of pumping stations to pump water, you can let water down from the water tower to supplement the water being pumped. It's like a battery for water pressure -- when there's less demand, you can use the excess supply to fill it up, and when there's more demand, you can use it to supplement the supply of pressurized water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44958",
"title": "Water tower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of potable water, and to provide emergency storage for fire protection. In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower. Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, which store treated water close to where it will be used. Other types of water towers may only store raw (non-potable) water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36477403",
"title": "Taastrup Water Tower",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The water tower is designed in the National Romantic style with inspiration from Medieval architecture. Built in a red brick, the cylindrical tower stands 32 metres high and has a diameter of 6 metres at its base. The uppermost part has timber framing. On three sides, four windows, arranged one over the other, provides natural light for the internal staircase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41534388",
"title": "Brønshøj Water Tower",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The water tower is built in reinforced concrete. It has a round foot print and pilasters at close intervals. The lower part of the structure has round windows in a helix arrangement. It has a diameter of 20 m and is 34 m tall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53583715",
"title": "Ehrang station",
"section": "Section::::Entrance building.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The water tower is a spherical water tank, which was built on a cone-shaped base of cast iron plates between 1907 and 1913. Today, the water tower is a relatively rare representative of the water towers built around 1900 to the \"Intze\" design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17496314",
"title": "The Water Tower, Coleshill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The Water Tower is a water tower located in Coleshill, Buckinghamshire. It was built by German prisoners of war during the First World War to provide a gravity fed water system for the nearby town of Amersham. The tower is 30 metres (100ft) high with an internal diameter of 5.4 metres (18ft). Its location on the summit of a hill makes the tower something of a local landmark and it is easily visible from the M40 motorway. Central London, Canary Wharf and Guilford Cathedral can be seen from the top of the tower on a clear day. In the late 1990s the tower was turned into a residential dwelling. In 1999 it featured on the Channel 4 programme \"Grand Designs\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44958",
"title": "Water tower",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Water towers are often regarded as monuments of civil engineering. Some have been converted to serve modern purposes, as for example, the Wieża Ciśnień (Wrocław water tower) in Wrocław, Poland which is today a restaurant complex. Others have been converted to residential use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32454564",
"title": "Mechelen-Zuid water tower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The Mechelen-Zuid water tower is a , combined water and telecommunications tower constructed in 1978. Since 1979, it has supplied the water to the city of Mechelen, Belgium, while also hosting television and telecommunications aerials. The concrete spire passes through a wide disc holding water fifty metres above the ground. Higher up, a smaller disc supports telecommunications equipment. Topped by a decorative stainless steel tube, it is claimed to be the highest water tower in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7n1ffe
|
why do some foods taste just as good (or better) as leftovers the next day, when others are horrible?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to generalize it because it's different for each food. A lot of chemical processes happen constantly even after food is cooked, and it depends on it's chemical makeup, how it was cooked, how it was stored, and how it was reheated. \n\nFirstly, reheating anything often ends up cooking it as well. Some foods care about this and some don't. A medium cooked steak can become well-done and a piece of fish can become rubber. Stew meat, on the other hand, usually only gets more tender the longer you cook it. Additionally with microwaves, because of how they work, they tend to dry and therefore toughen foods reheated in them, especially wheat products. For many breads, however, a little extra toughness is sometimes desirable. \n\nFor some foods, their quality starts to degrade as soon as they're cooked. Fries, for instance, get limp over time as the water in them dissolve it's starchy structure that gives it it's crispness, especially in the humidity of the fridge or if they are sealed in an airtight container where their own steam will do the job. The salt on them then drives that moisture to the surface making them at first slimy and then dry and stale. The oil coating the fry accelerates this process by preventing the water's reabsorption. Lastly, even when trying to reheat the fries, a microwave can never get them crispy again, and even a deep fryer will create an inferior version of the original.\n\nYet other foods only get better with aging, much like a fine wine. Curry and most stews get better as the flavors involved (spices, meats, aromatic vegetables, etc) have time to combine and the harsher notes give way to more subtle ones. Stewed meat also tends to get more tender as it sits and cooks as long as it doesn't dry out.\n\nA side note about meat in general, meat that is slow cooked like stew or pot roast are cooked that way because long exposure to heat dissolves the connective tissue that holds the muscle fibers together, tenderizing the meat. The dissolved connective tissue is collagen, and is what gelatin is made of. Anyway, this dissolved protein gives soups, stocks, and stews a thickness and weight on the tongue that is unique. When made cold, it solidifies much like gelatin, and if not entirely dissolved from the meat will return it to its tough texture. However, reheating the meat with enough moisture present should redissolve the collagen and return it to its tender state.\n\nLastly, food tastes differently at different temperatures. Cold tends to suppress flavors both good and bad, as well as bitterness, while heat enhances more aromatic flavors. As bitterness goes down, sweet tastes are more noticeable which is why many bitter things are made more palatable when cold like coffee and beer, and sweet things all the sweeter like ice cream. Sometimes though you want those flavors, bitter and all. Still others are best between the two, at room temperature, like cake, and of course some foods taste good whether hot or cold, like fried chicken for instance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "232495",
"title": "Motivation",
"section": "Section::::Psychological theories.:Approach versus avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2284563",
"title": "Conditioned taste aversion",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Taste aversion is fairly common in humans. When humans eat bad food (e.g., spoiled meat) and get sick, they may find that food aversive until extinction occurs, if ever. Also, as in nature, a food does not have to \"cause\" the sickness for it to become aversive. A human who eats sushi for the first time and who happens to come down with an unrelated stomach virus may still develop a taste aversion to sushi. Even something as obvious as riding a roller coaster (causing nausea) after eating the sushi will influence the development of taste aversion to sushi. Humans might also develop aversions to certain types of alcoholic beverages because of vomiting during intoxication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2121098",
"title": "Aftertaste",
"section": "Section::::Taste receptor dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Because a lingering taste sensation is intrinsic to aftertaste, the molecular mechanisms that underlie aftertaste are presumed to be linked to either the continued or delayed activation of receptors and signaling pathways in the mouth that are involved in taste processing. The current understanding of how a food's taste is communicated to the brain is as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2121098",
"title": "Aftertaste",
"section": "Section::::Temporal taste perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Because taste perception is unique to every person, descriptors for taste quality and intensity have been standardized, particularly for use in scientific studies. For taste quality, foods can be described by the commonly used terms \"sweet\", \"sour\", \"salty\", \"bitter\", \"umami\", or \"no taste\". Description of aftertaste perception relies heavily upon the use of these words to convey the taste that is being sensed after a food has been removed from the mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2961628",
"title": "Special senses",
"section": "Section::::Taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29265347",
"title": "Food choice",
"section": "Section::::Environmental influences.:Food variety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "As a given food is increasingly consumed, the hedonic pleasantness of the food's taste, smell, appearance, and texture declines, an effect commonly referred to as sensory-specific satiety. Consequently, increasing the variety of foods available can increase overall food intake. This effect has been observed across both genders and across multiple age groups, although there is some evidence that it may be most pronounced in adolescence and diminished among older adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wcs9f
|
"Blacks" or "African-Americans"?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might split the difference and go with Black Americans. No one is likely to get mad about that sort of thing in an undergrad paper so long as you're making a good faith effort. Also the general trend is to [capitalize the B in Black Americans](_URL_0_) these days, though that is a hot topic. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just be consistent. Most writings on race use black with little to no qualms, but I think it comes down to your own stylistic decision. To me, African American or Black American is quite clunky, and if the paper is on America, highly unnecessary unless your work is transnational in nature. In regards to the last comment, if you do capitalize the B in black you need to capitalize the W in white, in my opinion for consistencies sake, and I haven't read anything convincing on why one would be capitalized while the other not. I don't capitalize either when writing, but ultimately that is your decision to make. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. The term typically refers to descendants of enslaved black people who are from the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Racial and ethnic groups.:Black and African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are \"Black\". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Arab states and Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3058522",
"title": "Race and ethnicity in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Racial makeup of the U.S. population.:Black and African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African-American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa who may alternatively identify as Black or some other written-in race versus African-American given they were not part of the historic US slave system. In this case, grouping is thus based on the geography of the individual, and may contradict or misrepresent their self-identification, for instance not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are \"Black\". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa including such notable figures as the inventor Elon Musk and actress Charlize Theron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9999228",
"title": "Lists of African Americans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "This is a list of African Americans, also known as Black Americans or Afro-Americans. African Americans are an Ethnic group and citizens of the United States who have full or partial ancestry of any black racial groups of Africa; Black and African Americans form the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States behind White Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans. African Americans are descendants of enslaved black people who are from the United States. To be included in this list, the person must have a Wikipedia article and/or references showing the person is African-American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7650310",
"title": "List of African-American firsts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "African Americans (also known as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is \"breaking the color barrier\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142431",
"title": "African-American history",
"section": "Section::::Slavery.:African origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1444,
"text": "Most African Americans are descended from Africans who were brought directly from Africa to America and became slaves. The future slaves were originally captured in African wars or raids and transported in the Atlantic slave trade. African Americans are descended from various ethnic groups, mostly from ethnic groups that lived in Western and Central Africa, including the Sahel. A smaller number of African Americans are descended from ethnic groups that lived in Eastern and Southeastern Africa. The major ethnic groups that the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Hausa, Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua, among many others. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, what they had in common was a way of life which was different from that of the Europeans. Originally, a majority of the future slaves came from these villages and societies, however, once they were sent to the Americas and enslaved, these different peoples had European standards and beliefs forced upon them, causing them to do away with tribal differences and forge a new history and culture that was a creolization of their common past, present, and European culture . Slaves who belonged to specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and became more dominant in numbers than slaves who belonged to other African ethnic groups in certain regions of what later became the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Racial and ethnic groups.:Black and African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4% of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1% of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14% of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2klr5z
|
does massage really work to get rid of the 'knots'? what are the knots and why do you sometimes feel worse after a deep tissue massage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Knots are muscles that are contracted (bunched up) after over use or injury. As far as I know, massage is the best way to get rid of knots. There are a few reasons you could feel worse after a deep tissue massage: you could be bruised, your body was so used to your muscles being tensed up and it needs to adjust, you were dehydrated during the massage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Student massage therapist here. A palpable knot can be a couple different things. It could be a group of muscle fibers that aren't relaxing easily. It could also be a a fascial adhesion. Where you connective tissue gets bunched up. \nMassage is similar to working out in that it puts stress on the tissue. So the muscles that were worked on may be sore or bruised, especially if the therapist over treated an area. After some time to recuperate the areas that were worked on usually feel better. \nAdditionally all sorts of things get trapped in our tissues, lactic acid like has been mentioned, but also neural peptides and a whole manner of other chemicals. So when those areas get treated those chemicals get released. Drinking water is one of the best steps to aiding your body's recovery.\n\nEdit: I uncorrected an autocorrect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is actually very little scientific knowledge around massage therapy. We know it works but we aren't sure why or even what it is fixing. \n\nA lot of sciency words are used but it is mostly bunkum - there is no scientific evidence that these things exist. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I interned for a PT who specialized in this sort of thing. \n\nEver heard of dry needling? Its when they take a needle, 30 gauge say 70mm, and push it into the muscle where the knot is. The needling causes instant release of the knot--and lactic acid. I had my pec done for a demo and I couldn't even lift my arm after. The next day though, I felt great, and the knot was gone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actual scientific explanations of knots: \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_3_\n\nand massage:\n\n_URL_2_\n\n**ELIF version-** \"Knots\" are caused by a damaging muscle/connective tissue combined with swelling/sensitivity from the following immune response. From the papers above, massage often doesn't work in controlled trials, massage hasn't been conclusively shown to increase blood flow/removal of toxins/introduction of __ by a significant amount, soreness has nothing to do with lactic aid (and lactic acid is not even removed faster via massage vs cool-down stretching, and lactic acid injections actually help recover from fatigue faster), and massage doesn't help muscle flexibility/alignment/etc more than stretching. \n\nMassage *has* been shown to decrease stress/stress hormone levels, help with relaxation, and a lot of other \"it's all in your head, but what's in your head actually really really matters\" factors.\n\nYou sometimes feel worse after a deep tissue massage because the mechanical stress damages other cells and pain is stressful.\n\nSource: biomedical engineer, microbiologist/geneticist, neuroengineer, and apparently someone willing/able to spend two+ hours browsing google scholar for the hell of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a personal story. I once threw out my back so bad I couldn't walk. I went in and got a massage at a YWCA and afterward I was sore a little. The next day I felt perfect again. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can anyone explain to me why my knots never go away despite weekly massages and bi monthly myofascial release type massages? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1255059",
"title": "Manual therapy",
"section": "Section::::Use and method.:Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "BULLET::::- Friction massage is said to increase mobilization of adhesions between fascial layers, muscles, compartments and other soft tissues. They are thought to create an inflammatory response and instigate focus to injured areas. A 2012 systematic review found that no additional benefit was incurred from the inclusion of deep tissue friction massage in a therapeutic regimen, although the conclusions were limited by the small sample sizes in available randomized clinical trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30707",
"title": "Temporomandibular joint dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Physiotherapy, biofeedback and similar non-invasive measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "It has been suggested that massage therapy for TMD improves both the subjective and objective health status. \"Friction massage\" uses surface pressure to causes temporary ischemia and subsequent hyperemia in the muscles, and this is hypothesized to inactivate trigger points and disrupt small fibrous adhesions within the muscle that have formed following surgery or muscular shortening due to restricted movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1190250",
"title": "Thai massage",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "All types of massage, including Thai massage, can help people relax, temporarily relieve muscle and / or joint pain, and temporarily boost a person's mood. However, many practitioners' claims go far beyond those effects well demonstrated by clinical study. Most clinicians dispute its efficacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "Section::::Medical and therapeutic use.:Beneficial effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Peer-reviewed medical research has shown that the benefits of massage include pain relief, reduced trait anxiety and depression, and temporarily reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and state of anxiety. Additional testing has shown an immediate increase and expedited recovery periods for muscle performance. Theories behind what massage might do include enhanced skeletal muscle regrowth and remodeling, blocking nociception (gate control theory), activating the parasympathetic nervous system, which may stimulate the release of endorphins and serotonin, preventing fibrosis or scar tissue, increasing the flow of lymph, and improving sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8479051",
"title": "Moorbad Gmös",
"section": "Section::::The peat pulp resort.:The cure in the bath house.:Massages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Individually specified massages are essential for improving the muscular function and serve to improve all the muscular movements apparatus. Foot- and ear-reflex zone massage and special forms of traditional massage are used as supportive measures. Thus any tension and over acidification of the muscles, which often lead to pain and loss of mobility, can be treated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749336",
"title": "Massage parlor",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Alternatively, the massages at certain massage parlors may have a \"happy ending\", meaning that the massage ends with the client receiving a sexual release. In addition to a \"happy ending\" service, given the restrictions imposed upon most striptease venues, some erotic massage venues now also offer a service where the client can masturbate him or herself while watching an artist perform a striptease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "Section::::Types and methods.:Thai massage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Thai Massage is a popular massage therapy that is used for management of conditions such as musculoskeletal pain and fatigue. Thai Massage involves a number of stretching movements that improve body flexibility, joint movement and also improve blood circulation throughout the body. In one study scientists found that Thai Massage showed comparable efficacy as the painkiller ibuprofen in reduction of joint pain caused by osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8jsbzh
|
why is the australian dollar so weak against the british pound?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, the Aussie dollar is pretty strong against the pound, currently sitting at 55 pence.\n\nIt is always a mistake to compare currencies absolute values, as these are a result of history. The difference in this case is because Australia switched to decimal currency back in 1966, and with currency being more valuable back then, they chose to make the new dollar equal to 10 shillings, or half the previous non-decimal currency, the Australian Pound. England changed to decimal currency in 1971, and retained the name 'pound' for their currency - which meant that they started with their decimal pound equal to 20 shillings.\n\nWith ups and downs since then the relative values of the Australian dollar and the English Pound hasn't really changed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "492355",
"title": "Reserve Bank of Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mid 19th century–1924.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The value of the Australian pound remained tied to the pound sterling. Inflation in Australia thus increased, less than in Britain, but more than in the United States. The case for a central bank was increased by the need for the government to cut spending after the war to reduce its debt. Commonwealth Bank Governor Denison Miller had been arguing for the issue of Australian currency to be switched from the treasury to the bank, as it had more staff and more monetary knowledge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007978",
"title": "Australian pound",
"section": "Section::::History.:National currency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In 1949, when the United Kingdom devalued the pound sterling against the US dollar, Australian Prime Minister and Treasurer Ben Chifley followed suit so the Australian pound would not become over-valued in sterling zone countries with which Australia did most of its external trade at the time. As the pound sterling went from US$4.03 to US$2.80, the Australian pound went from US$3.224 to US$2.24.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2505080",
"title": "Economic history of Australia",
"section": "Section::::1939–1972.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In 1949, the United Kingdom devalued the pound sterling against the US dollar by 30%, and Australia followed suit so that the Australian pound would not become overvalued in sterling zone countries with which Australia did most of its external trade. As the pound sterling went from US$4.03 to US$2.80, the Australian pound went from US$3.224 to US$2.24. Relative to the pound sterling, the Australian pound remained the same at A£1 5s = £1 sterling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25531320",
"title": "History of pound sterling in Oceania",
"section": "Section::::New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "It wasn't however until the Great Depression that the Australian banks created any substantial divergence from the traditional one-to-one parity between the London pound and the New Zealand pound. Australian and New Zealand raw exports to London were badly hit by the depression, and in an attempt to sustain demand, the Australian banks decided to sell the New Zealand pound at a 9% discount, taking the exchange rate to 110 New Zealand pounds to 100 pounds sterling by 1931. As this was new territory in the history of money, the situation became somewhat confused because a state of affairs now existed in which the exchange rate between Australia and New Zealand was at par and did not correspond to their respective exchange rates with London. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2264742",
"title": "Great Depression in Australia",
"section": "Section::::1929: The storm erupts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "In 1910, the federal government introduced a national currency, the Australian pound, which it pegged to the pound sterling. In effect, Australia was on the gold standard through the British peg. In 1914, Britain removed the pound sterling from the gold standard, creating inflation pressures. Britain returned the pound sterling to the gold standard in 1925 at pre-1913 parity, effectively revaluing both currencies significantly and unleashing crushing deflationary pressures and falling export demand. This had the immediate effect of making British and Australian exports far less competitive in non-British markets, and affected Australia's terms of trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2264742",
"title": "Great Depression in Australia",
"section": "Section::::1929–1935: Scullin and Lang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "In 1929, as an emergency measure, Australia took the Australian pound off the gold standard, resulting in a devaluation relative to sterling. Starting in September 1930, the Australian banks began to slowly devalue the Australian pound, and a year later it had been devalued 30% against the Pound Sterling. This had the economic effect of increasing the cost of imported goods and increasing the cost of servicing government overseas debts, which were denominated in the overseas currency, typically in sterling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81215",
"title": "Australian dollar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area, when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar and the Australian dollar did not follow. It maintained its peg to the US dollar at the rate of A$1 = US$1.12.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jtajb
|
Why does water that you carry feel heavier than water that you consumed?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you drink it, the water is at the near center of your body, in your backpack it's not. There i more support at the center of your body so it feels lighter. Carrying it on your back also requires a posture that is harder to maintain and thus requires more energy and may exhaust your muscles more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Added to the other answer also any water that is consumed is actually relatively rapidly distributed evenly around the body. You won't notice that your hand or foot is a few grams heavier as opposed to a single weight. Also the body is designed (skeleton/muscles) to support the bodies own weight it copes less well with an external weight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "76653",
"title": "Naval architecture",
"section": "Section::::Main subjects.:Flotation and stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the body, in other words, the mass of the body is equal to the mass of the water displaced by the body. This adds an upward force to the body by the amount of surface area times the area displaced in order to create an equilibrium between the surface of the body and the surface of the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14283",
"title": "Heavy water",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "A molecule of heavy water has two deuterium atoms in place of the two protium atoms of ordinary \"light\" water. The weight of a heavy water molecule, however, is not substantially different from that of a normal water molecule, because about 89% of the molecular weight of water comes from the single oxygen atom rather than the two hydrogen atoms. The colloquial term 'heavy water' refers to a highly enriched water mixture that contains mostly deuterium oxide , but also some hydrogen-deuterium oxide (HDO) and a smaller amount of ordinary hydrogen oxide . For instance, the heavy water used in CANDU reactors is 99.75% enriched by hydrogen atom-fraction—meaning that 99.75% of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type. For comparison, ordinary water (the \"ordinary water\" used for a deuterium standard) contains only about 156 deuterium atoms per million hydrogen atoms, meaning that 0.0156% of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27999",
"title": "Swimming",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Since the human body is only slightly less dense than water, water supports the weight of the body during swimming. As a result, swimming is “low-impact” compared to land activities such as running. The density and viscosity of water also create resistance for objects moving through the water. Swimming strokes use this resistance to create propulsion, but this same resistance also generates drag on the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14283",
"title": "Heavy water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "An early experiment reported not the \"slightest difference\" in taste between ordinary and heavy water. However, rats given a choice between distilled normal water and heavy water were able to avoid the heavy water based on smell, and it may have a different taste. Some humans have reported that heavy water produces a \"burning sensation or sweet flavor\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305265",
"title": "Underwater environment",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Density.:Buoyancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Any object immersed in water is subjected to a buoyant force that counters the force of gravity, appearing to make the object less heavy. If the overall density of the object exceeds the density of water, the object sinks. If the overall density is less than the density of water, the object rises until it floats on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "527232",
"title": "Hydrostatics",
"section": "Section::::Pressure in fluids at rest.:Buoyancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "where is the density of the fluid, is the acceleration due to gravity, and is the volume of fluid directly above the curved surface. In the case of a ship, for instance, its weight is balanced by pressure forces from the surrounding water, allowing it to float. If more cargo is loaded onto the ship, it would sink more into the water – displacing more water and thus receive a higher buoyant force to balance the increased weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14283",
"title": "Heavy water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The physical properties of water and heavy water differ in several respects. Heavy water is less dissociated than light water at given temperature, and the true concentration of D ions is less than ions would be for a light water sample at the same temperature. The same is true of OD vs. ions. For heavy water Kw DO (25.0 °C) = 1.35 × 10, and [D] must equal [OD] for neutral water. Thus pKw DO = p[OD] + p[D] = 7.44 + 7.44 = 14.87 (25.0 °C), and the p[D] of neutral heavy water at 25.0 °C is 7.44.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xww2c
|
How certain are we of what year it is? Were there every any disagreements, like during the Dark Ages or afterwards, of the exact year?
|
[
{
"answer": "On the subject of disagreeing about the year, an intriguing, if grossly flawed, fringe theory about chronology: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it's one thing to be off by a day or so, but by a year? That's a massive mistake for an entire population to make. But it wasn't until 525 AD that the AD numbering system began. And there are a couple discrepancies in figuring out when Jesus was born, to start counting. The gospels (for those who take them literally) describe two things that are mentioned elsewhere and let us date it. Matthew says that after Jesus was born, King Herod (the Great) is still alive, because he massacred children in an attempt to kill Jesus. (There's no evidence of any such massacre, though Herod was very bloody). Luke says that Mary and Joseph were in Bethlehem only because of the Census of Quirinius. (That they would have to travel to Joseph's ancestral home of Bethlehem instead of staying in Nazareth makes no sense. The Romans would never have demanded that, and it's completely impractical.) ANYWAY... King Herod died in 4 BC, and the Census took place in 6/7 AD. So one, if not both of these is wrong. And if either of them is right, then our AD 1 is wrong. Basically, though the modern consensus is that Jesus was a real person, any attempt to figure out what year he was actually born in is a shot in the dark. So in that sense, we don't know if this really \"should\" be 2012 or not. But since 525, when they started the AD system, no. No, there's no doubt that it's been kept correctly. And there are enough documents and histories for the previous thousand years that when we label something \"44 BC\" we're confident that they didn't miss a year.\n\ntl;dr- Year 1 AD is arbitrary, and frankly just a guess as to Jesus's birth year, but accepting that, yes, this is 2012.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The seven-day week cycle was propagated throughout Eurasia in the early centuries AD, and nobody [edit: meaning no culture or civilization which was keeping track of the days, often for astrological purposes] anywhere in the world ever lost a day. It stands to reason that there was no time in written history when an entire year was lost.\n\nThis is separate from debates over the dating of the Anno Domini calendar, and disputes over the month when the year began (January, February, or March depending on who you ask).\n\nedit: Oops! I forgot about the great Gregorian calendar dispute, which was indeed a big disagreement over what day it was. Also, the old Roman and Arabic calendars had big problems which caused issues like this:\n\n > If too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars, the calendar would drift rapidly out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city. For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as \"years of confusion\". The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform, 63–46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months, whereas there should have been eight, and none at all during the five Roman years before 46 BC.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does anyone else remember that episode of Duck Tales where Scrooge McDuck accidentally says it's Wednesday when it was actually Tuesday, and since he was so influential, everyone just agreed with him, and it spread from there until everyone in the town just accepted that it was Wednesday?\n\nI think what OP is asking is: Could this happen?",
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},
{
"answer": "We're 100% sure. Most of the arguments in this thread are based on agreements between different civilizations and consistency within civilizations, but there's a stronger argument: astronomy. \n\nAstronomy is incredibly precise. Like mind-blowingly precise. We can easily figure out based on the laws of physics and the current positions of the planets exactly where they were and will be, at any time up to around 40 million years from now (I believe that's the limit, but I might be off by a bit.) So if the written history says that there was a lunar eclipse in 320 BC during the harvest in Greece, and that during a speech in Rome in the spring of 372 BC there was a solar eclipse, we can just run the motion of the planets and figure out exactly when those things happened. And in every case, the written dates line up exactly with what astronomy predicts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "akyser has already explained how the Anno Domini calendar started, being invented by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in what we now call 525 AD. This \"Anno Domini\" (\"In the Year of Our Lord\") year-counting method was invented to assist with the calculation of Easter each year. In fact, Dionysus went so far as [to calculate the dates of Easter for the next 532 years](_URL_0_) (ending in 1057 AD).\n\nSo, even though it wasn't used for date-keeping across much of Europe until hundreds of years later, it *was* used by monks and Christian scholars to keep track of the most important festival in the Christian calendar. By aligning the actual dates of Easter with the dates in Dionysius' tables, we know which year is year, from 525AD to 1057AD - by which time the Anno Domini calendar was widely used across Europe. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has nothing to do with actual history, so please don't upvote me, but if you want a fun read and a good laugh, look up the [Phantom Time Hypothesis.](_URL_0_)\n\nThis is one of the most fun conspiracies ever, it holds that the years between roughly 600 and 900 AD, and all the events therin, were complete fabrications after the fact, and we're actually only in the 1700s currently.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52123",
"title": "229",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Year 229 (CCXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Severus and Cassius (or, less frequently, year 982 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 229 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5285266",
"title": "Florentine calendar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "This is the reason that some dates have an apparent discrepancy of one year. For example, a birth date of 10 March 1552 in Florentine reckoning translates to 10 March 1553 in present reckoning, setting aside the aforementioned discrepancy in the beginning of the day. Beginning the year on a date other than 1 January was common during the mediaeval period: the English year also began on 25 March, until 1752; the Venetian year began on 1 March, until 1522; and the French year on Easter day, until 1564 (see beginning of the year).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59981",
"title": "144 BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Year 144 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Galba and Cotta (or, less frequently, year 610 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 144 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62303",
"title": "229 BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Year 229 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Albinus and Centumalus (or, less frequently, year 525 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 229 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188287",
"title": "696 BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The year 696 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 58 \"Ab urbe condita\" . The denomination 696 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60506",
"title": "208 BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Year 208 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Crispinus (or, less frequently, year 546 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 208 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89300",
"title": "692 BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The year 692 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 62 \"Ab urbe condita\" . The denomination 692 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
trm8w
|
meta plea to eli5 about the upcoming elections.
|
[
{
"answer": "Suggestions for the quick explanations:\n\nElectoral college: States have a number of electoral college seats based on their population size. Voters in the state choose a candidate, and the one with the most votes gets all the seats. When all states have chosen their candidates, the seats are tallied and the one with the most seats wins.\n\n\nAmerican Politics: Candidates X vs. Candidate Y:\n\nCandidate X is on my team - > good.\n\nCandidate Y is not on my team - > bad. \n\nInsert Romney or Obama in for X or Y as you see fit.",
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},
{
"answer": "one might also suggest doing something with filters in RES, no?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd be happy to help edit that guide. I don't trust my political knowledge enough to write it, but I'd be glad to make sure it looks as presentable as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, can we have active moderation? ELI5 will have more and more questions of the \"push-poll\" variety as the election nears. It will become unusable if half of the posts are \"ELI5 why Mitt Romney hates gay babies\" and \"ELI5 how President Obama can hold office if he's a secret Kenyan Nazi?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a great idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6029406",
"title": "Harvard Institute of Politics",
"section": "Section::::National Campaign for Political and Civic Engagement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In 2003, the IOP launched the National Campaign for Political and Civic Engagement, working collaboratively with other schools and organizations across the country to engage young people. The IOP also conducts research and surveys into the political views of America's young voters. In addition, the Institute offers conferences for new members of Congress and new mayors, and, after each Presidential election since 1972, brings together top campaign officials to analyze the race in the \"Campaign for President\" series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31193173",
"title": "People's Pledge",
"section": "Section::::Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A day before the official launch, \"The Daily Mail\" featured the campaign in a lead article titled 'Give us a vote on our future in Europe: Cross-party campaign launched to secure historic referendum'. It claimed the campaign \"hopes to emulate Barack Obama by harnessing the power of the internet to mobilise support in every constituency\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38831152",
"title": "Seven Wondrous Castles and Palaces of Ukraine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The internet voting on the 21 possible candidates was opened on August 22, 2011 at the program's web-site. A total of around 77,000 internet users voted in the campaign. The voting was closed on December 1, 2011, and the results were officially announced on the same day. The whole campaign was initiated back in May 2007 by Mykola Tomenko, a Ukrainian politician and the deputy of the Parliament of Ukraine of the fifth convocation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1440345",
"title": "International Foundation for Electoral Systems",
"section": "Section::::History.:Major events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "With global attention on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, IFES gathered 550 participants from 90 countries for the 2016 U.S. Election Program and Seventh Global Elections Organization Conference (GEO-7) from November 6–10. The 2016 USEP and GEO-7 was the largest international gathering of election professionals of the year and the 13th hosted by IFES since 1992. This flagship event brings together election officials, parliamentarians and diplomats from around the world to observe and learn about the U.S. electoral system as well as discuss elections and voting from comparative international perspectives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3293407",
"title": "National Commission on Federal Election Reform",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "As a result of this contentious election, the National Commission on Federal Election Reform was formed by the University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs and The Century Foundation. Its goal was to evaluate election reform, review policy proposals, and offer a bipartisan analysis to the United States Congress, the US Executive Branch, and the American people. The Commission was cochaired by former Presidents Jimmy Carter (honorary), Gerald Ford (honorary), Robert H. Michel and Lloyd N. Cutler, and included distinguished public leaders from across the political spectrum\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22104855",
"title": "Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::Selection program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The internet voting on the 21 possible candidates was opened on July 7, 2008, at the program's web-site. A total of around 77,000 internet users voted in the campaign. The voting was closed on August 26, 2008, and the results were officially announced on the same day. The whole campaign was initiated back in May 2007 by Mykola Tomenko a Ukrainian politician and the deputy of the Parliament of Ukraine of the fifth convocation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54266373",
"title": "Special Counsel investigation (2017–2019)",
"section": "Section::::Conclusions.:Release of redacted report.:Russian interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The first method detailed in the final report was the usage of the Internet Research Agency, waging \"a social media campaign that favored presidential candidate Donald J. Trump and disparaged presidential candidate Hillary Clinton\". The Internet Research Agency also sought to \"provoke and amplify political and social discord in the United States\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3s524l
|
why does it take minutes to take money from my bank account but days to put it back?
|
[
{
"answer": "What takes minutes is the authorization for somebody to take money from your account, not the time for the money to actually be removed from yours and into theirs. However, once a transaction has been authorized, your bank will show your account as having that much less money, so it can seem like it is final to you (and for most intents and purposes, it is).\n\nFor money incoming into your account, it's the same thing, but you see the other side of the story. Money is authorized to be removed from somebody else's account, though the money isn't actually moved to your account for a while.\n\nReturns and other things often suffer another delay before this as the system that processes returns to accounts often isn't \"run\" until the end of the day, (or even once every few days/a week in many cases).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all about liability. From the bank's point of view, they're fine with taking your money as soon as possible, but what advantage is there for them to hand you refunded money immediately?\n\nSometimes requests are not legitimate, and of the bank gives you that money right away, *they* are on the hook for it. The banks have all the power in this situation, and they use it to their advantage. They only give you the money once everything is settled and they know they won't be screwed over.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1749092",
"title": "BACS",
"section": "Section::::Products and services.:Current Account Switch Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Once a current account has been opened with a new bank or building society, the Current Account Switch Service will transfer all the activity relating to the old account to the new one. That includes moving incoming and outgoing payments, and transferring the account balance, as well as closing the old account. An important feature of the service is that although the process happens over seven working days, the transfer of account happens on the final day. This means that customers continue to use the old bank account until the agreed switch day and from then on use the new bank account. This means that there is no loss of service for any period for the customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9947366",
"title": "Sweep investment",
"section": "Section::::How it Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "At the end of each business day, the bank automatically scans and determines what funds in the person's account is idle. It then transfers the funds to preselected interest-earning accounts. At the start of the following business day, the investment plus interest accrued is credited to the primary account. Due to the timing of these transactions, there is never a conflict of demand for the funds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5775550",
"title": "Google Pay Send",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Funds sent from a Wallet balance, debit card, or linked bank account are generally available to the recipient immediately, and if the recipient has his or her own Wallet account and card, he or she can make an immediate withdrawal of those funds from an ATM. If the funds are drawn on the sender's Wallet balance, the balance will also reflect this change immediately. Any portion of funds drawn via a linked bank account will take two or three days to actually post to that account, though these funds will show as \"pending\" withdrawals on that account within 24 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6668524",
"title": "Remote deposit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Before 2004, if someone deposited a check in an account with one bank, the banks would have to physically exchange the paper check to the bank on which the check is drawn before the money would be credited to the account in the deposit bank. Under Check 21, the deposit bank can simply send an image of the check to the drawing bank. This reduction of the transportation time from total processing life cycle of a check provides a longer time for the corporation to process the checks. Often, this additional processing time allows the corporation to deposit more items at an earlier cutoff time than they otherwise would. In addition, most banks offering Remote Deposit Capture have extended the cutoff times for deposit-8:00 pm, while the deadline for regular paper deposits is 4:00 pm. The practical effect of the law is that checks can still be deposited and cleared, even if a disaster makes it impossible for banks to exchange the physical paper checks with each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1322506",
"title": "Banking in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Interbank lending market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "During the course of every day, each bank executes a large number of transactions, such as payroll, retail and business purchases, credit card payments, etc. Some involve cash (or its equivalent) coming into the bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with a surplus in the interbank lending market. Depending on the bank's assessment of the type of shortfall and costs, the bank may take out an overnight loan, the interest rate of which is based on the cash rate, which is set by the Reserve Bank (RBA) every month (currently 1.25%); or else take out a \"short duration loan\", known as \"prime bank paper\", for a term of between one and six months and whose interest rate is called the \"bank bill swap rate\" (BBSW), which is set by the commercial banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39009519",
"title": "Mt. Gox",
"section": "Section::::Processor of most of world's bitcoin trades; issues (2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "\"Wired Magazine\" reported in November 2013 that customers were experiencing delays of weeks to months in withdrawing cash from their accounts. The article said that the company had \"effectively been frozen out of the U.S. banking system because of its regulatory problems\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608407",
"title": "Cashier's check",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "When cashier’s checks took weeks to clear the banks, they were often forged in fraud schemes. The recipient of the check would deposit it in their account and withdraw funds under next-day availability, assuming it was legitimate. The bank might not be informed the check was fraudulent until, perhaps, weeks after the customer had withdrawn funds made available by the fraudulent deposit, by which time the customer would be legally liable for the cash already withdrawn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16qlln
|
what is "doping" in cycling and why is it illegal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Doping in cycling typically refers to the use of any kind of performance enhancing drug. The actual term doping, I believe, comes from the term \"blood doping\" which means to artificially increase your red blood cell count. A lot of cyclists that have been caught cheating recently have been using something called EPO which allows your body to produce red blood cells faster and to keep the levels of red blood cells higher than normal. This is important to cyclists because red blood cells transport oxygen to and from muscles so the more red blood cells the faster this can happen. The reason this is illegal in cycling is that it gives an artificail advantage to those that use it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doping is a form of cheating that has to do with altering your body in ways that are banned by the rules. This can include PEDs (Performance Enhancing Drugs) which could be steroids, painkillers, marijuana, stimulants, etc. It also includes procedures that enhance the bodies ability to recover or store oxygen such as blood transfusions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"doping\" in cycling refers to \"blood doping\". One would \"donate\" a pint of blood, then have all the red blood cells spun out in a centrifuge. After a while once the person has made new blood to recover what was taken, before a race the extra red blood cells would be injected back into the blood stream, effectively concentrating the blood. More red blood cells can carry more oxygen to the muscles helping them work harder. And i believe it also helps alleviate the burning sensation from the lactic acid build up when muscles are over worked. \n\nEdit: yes, also steroids and those kinds of drugs as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "571581",
"title": "Richard Virenque",
"section": "Section::::Festina affair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "\"The sport of road-race cycling (and it may not be the only one) is like an alcoholic, refusing to accept that it has a problem, as long as it drinks in secrecy. That fact was shamefully proved once again this week when the sport's governing body — the International Cycling Union (UCI) - forced the 1999 Tour to accept Richard Virenque... The baby-faced Virenque faces possible criminal charges of drug-taking and drug-trafficking. Despite his denials, French judicial investigators say they have documentary evidence that he has been doping himself for years. The Tour said last month that he was 'not welcome.' The UCI insisted on Tuesday that he must ride. The Tour gave way. So much for ethical purity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50345901",
"title": "Mechanical doping",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Motor doping, or mechanical doping, in competitive cycling terminology, is a method of cheating by using a hidden motor to help propel a racing bicycle. The term is an analogy to chemical doping in sport, cheating by using performance-enhancing drugs. As a form of \"technological fraud\" it is banned by the , the international governing body of cycling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58397322",
"title": "Doping in tennis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The practice of doping in tennis involves the use of prohibited, performance-enhancing substances listed by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). The practice is considered unsportsmanlike and unethical, with punishments for such offences ranging from official warnings to career bans, depending on the severity of the offence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55200506",
"title": "Doping in auto racing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Some racing drivers have used doping in auto racing to enhance their performance. Deemed unsafe and illegal by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. Appendix A to the International Sporting Code determines which substances are banned and mandates penalties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18285325",
"title": "List of doping cases in cycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The following is an incomplete list of doping cases and recurring accusations of doping in professional cycling, where doping means \"\"use of physiological substances or abnormal method to obtain an artificial increase of performance\"\". It is neither a 'list of shame' nor a list of illegality, as the first laws were not passed until 1965 and their implementation is an ongoing developing process. Thus the list contains doping incidents, those who have tested positive for illegal performance-enhancing drugs, prohibited recreational drugs or have been suspended by a sports governing body for failure to submit to mandatory drug testing. It also contains and clarifies cases where subsequent evidence and explanation has shown the parties to be innocent of illegal practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860860",
"title": "Doping in sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "In competitive sports, doping is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors. The term \"doping\" is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2354465",
"title": "Team Jumbo–Visma",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rabobank (1996–2012).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Following the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) report on doping in professional cycling in October 2012, Rabobank announced it would end its sponsorship of professional cycling at the end of 2012. Rabobank said that doping was so rampant that it was \"no longer convinced the international professional world of cycling can make this a clean and fair sport.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41uufm
|
why have desktop app stores not gotten similar development as mobile app stores?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mobile devices make it difficult to download apps from random places, like someone's website, and easy to download from a centralized store. This means that there is some exclusivity to mobile devices, and that they have things like ratings, etc.\n\nDesktop systems are different because you can get an app from anywhere from anyone, without the need for a central store. And if there were a store, one could potentially pirate the paid apps anyways and not use the store in the first place.\n\nSo, it's more of a money issue. Mobile devices have a focus on app stores because most people just use the suggested methods, but on desktops, you can download an app from wherever, so a desktop store is only optional.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Developers don't like app stores. They take a 30% cut, restrict what your app can do, make you wait to get your app released, don't allow upgrade versions, etc. You don't get direct access to your customer, you can't get their email to try and sell them more crap. \n\nOn most mobile devices developers don't have any choice but to use the app store. Or if they can work around it (Android) it not worth the effort because everybody expects the apps to be in the app store.\n\nOn the desktop, users expect to get applications directly from the developer, so there is no reason to put up with the downsides of the app stores.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115260",
"title": "Mobile marketing",
"section": "Section::::App-based marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Most companies have acknowledged the potential of Mobile Apps to increase the interaction between a company and its target customers. With the fast progress and growth of the smartphone market, high-quality Mobile app development is essential to obtain a strong position in a mobile app store.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1133784",
"title": "Mobile game",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The launch of Apple's App Store in 2008 radically changed the market. First of all, it widened consumers' opportunities to choose where to download apps; the application store on the device, operator's store or third party stores via the open internet, such as GetJar and Handango. The Apple users, however, can only use the Apple App Store, since Apple forbids the distribution of apps via any other distribution channel. Secondly, mobile developers can upload applications directly to the App Store without the typically lengthy negotiations with publishers and operators, which increased their revenue share and made mobile game development more profitable. Thirdly, the tight integration of the App Store with the device itself led many consumers to try out apps, and the games market received a considerable boost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167079",
"title": "Smartphone",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Application stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's BlackBerry App World and Android-related app stores like F-Droid. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19644137",
"title": "Mobile phone",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Application stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's BlackBerry App World and Android-related app stores like F-Droid. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700265",
"title": "Video game development",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Apple App Store, introduced in 2008, was the first mobile application store operated directly by the mobile platform holder. It significantly changed the consumer behaviour more favourable for downloading mobile content and quickly broadened the markets of mobile games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16179920",
"title": "App Store (iOS)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Developers have multiple options for monetizing their applications, ranging from free, free with in-app purchases, and paid. However, App Store has been criticized for a lackluster development environment, prompting the company in June 2016 to announce a \"renewed focus and energy\" on the store. Major changes introduced in the following months include ads in search results, a new app subscription model, and the ability for developers to respond to customer reviews. Additionally, Apple began a process to remove old apps that do not function as intended or that don't follow current app guidelines, with app research firms noticing significant numbers of app removals from the store. Furthermore, with the release of iOS 11 in September 2017, App Store received a complete design overhaul, bringing a greater focus on editorial content and daily highlights, as well as a design similar in style to several of Apple's built-in iOS apps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53730186",
"title": "List of Android app stores",
"section": "Section::::Reasons to use alternative app stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Some users prefer using alternative app stores to avoid using Google services as part of their philosophy. Alternative app stores may also be easier to navigate for users and allow them to find apps easier due to different algorithms or display of apps but users using either third-party app stores or Google Play cannot be certain that the apps they are installing have been checked for malware or computer viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5gkzds
|
How does a single membrane in an earphone generate multiple frequency sounds at the same time instant? (For example, high hats with vocals)
|
[
{
"answer": "When a complex sound or mixture of sounds is heard, there is really only one wave that hits your ear. The waves of sound in the air are able to interfere both destructively and constructively, and the function of the final wave is the sum of those of all the individual waves. The result is not a series of waves traveling to your ear in parallel but a single wave describing the pattern of vibrations in the air corresponding to peaks and troughs of various amplitudes and periods. A graphical representation of the wave can be seen on a computer or phone with a simple oscilloscope program or \"sound wave\" app. One way of thinking of it is getting the air that is already distorted by the wave produced by one tone and further distorting it in the same way flat air would be distorted by the second tone. Analogue media like record players and gramophones record this final wave by electronically or mechanically translating the motion of a membrane into inscriptions on a surface or in the case of tapes recorders, variations in magnetic charge along a length of tape. They can then translate this back into the motion of an oscillator and reproduce the same complex wave that they originally \"heard\" within their technical limitations. \n\nAll your earphones have to do is to replicate the vibration in the air that would have reached your ear if your ear were near the recording device. It simply vibrates according to the electrical signal in approximately the right way to produce this complex wave that contains all the notes of a chord, all the sounds of a street, etc. What is really amazing is that your brain can pick apart the wave into its constituent sounds and recognise them in isolation. \n\nI really recommend using an oscilloscope or something similar to look at sine waves, saw waves and and square waves to see how waveform affects sound volume tone colour and pitch. Also, try multiple sounds at once. One octave of separation means the notes' frequencies are in the ratio of about 1:2. Compare tuned sounds to percussive sounds. It' really fun and helps you undesirable how what you hear is related to the vibrations in the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9736652",
"title": "Auditory masking",
"section": "Section::::Simultaneous masking.:Critical bandwidth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "If two sounds of two different frequencies are played at the same time, two separate sounds can often be heard rather than a combination tone. The ability to hear frequencies separately is known as \"frequency resolution\" or \"frequency selectivity\". When signals are perceived as a combination tone, they are said to reside in the same \"critical bandwidth\". This effect is thought to occur due to filtering within the cochlea, the hearing organ in the inner ear. A complex sound is split into different frequency components and these components cause a peak in the pattern of vibration at a specific place on the cilia inside the basilar membrane within the cochlea. These components are then coded independently on the auditory nerve which transmits sound information to the brain. This individual coding only occurs if the frequency components are different enough in frequency, otherwise they are in the same critical band and are coded at the same place and are perceived as one sound instead of two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30870570",
"title": "Casio CZ synthesizers",
"section": "Section::::Programming.:Modulations.:Ring and Noise modulators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "It was possible to modulate the two voices in a two-voice patch in two different ways. Ring modulation had the output of one of the oscillators affect the volume of the other oscillator, resulting in a controlled distortion. Noise modulation caused the second voice in a two-voice patch to sound like digital noise, roughly simulating the effect of an analog synthesizer's noise source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231463",
"title": "Ringtone",
"section": "Section::::Commercial sales.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "BULLET::::- Polyphonic: A polyphonic ring tone can consist of several notes at a time. The first polyphonic ring tones used sequenced recording methods such as MIDI. Such recordings specify what synthetic instrument should play a note at a given time, and the actual instrument sound is dependent upon the playback device. Later, synthesized instruments could be included along with the composition data, which allowed for more varied sounds beyond the built-in sound bank of each phone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "980841",
"title": "Frequency extender",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The concept uses frequency shifting to overcome the narrow bandwidth of regular telephone systems. The input signal is sent on one telephone line as-is, or in some cases upshifted to provide extra low-frequency response, and sent on a second line shifted down by 3 kHz, which is normally the upper bandpass limit in telephony. Thus, an audio frequency of 5 kHz is sent at 2 kHz. A receiver on the other end then shifts the second line back up and mixes it with the first. This results in greatly improved audio, adding a full octave of range, and pushing the total bandpass to 6 kHz. The sound is then acceptable for voice, if not for music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30003",
"title": "Telephone",
"section": "Section::::Details of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "In most landline telephones, the transmitter and receiver (microphone and speaker) are located in the handset, although in a speakerphone these components may be located in the base or in a separate enclosure. Powered by the line, the microphone (A2) produces a modulated electric current which varies its frequency and amplitude in response to the sound waves arriving at its diaphragm. The resulting current is transmitted along the telephone line to the local exchange then on to the other phone (via the local exchange or via a larger network), where it passes through the coil of the receiver (A3). The varying current in the coil produces a corresponding movement of the receiver's diaphragm, reproducing the original sound waves present at the transmitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13793754",
"title": "Geophysical MASINT",
"section": "Section::::Acoustic MASINT.:Active acoustic sensors and supporting measurements.:Air-dropped active sonobuoys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The Directional Hydrophone Command Activated Sonobuoy system (DICASS) both generate sound and listen for it. A typical modern active sonobuoy, such as the AN/SSQ 963D, generates multiple acoustic frequencies \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865270",
"title": "Speakerphone",
"section": "Section::::Types of speakerphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Half-duplex speakerphones only allow sound to travel in one direction at a time, either: 1) into the speakerphone from the telephone line and out of its internal speaker to its user, or 2) from its user, into the microphone, and out through the telephone line. While the users of the speakerphone are speaking, the phone only transmits sound to the telephone line; its internal speaker is cut off and no sound arriving from the telephone line can be heard by the user. While the user of the speakerphone is quiet, the speakerphone only receives sound from the telephone line and its internal speaker broadcasts that sound to its user. There is a very definite, noticeable switching action each time the phone \"changes directions\" and a cough or other transient noise in the room may interrupt incoming sound from the far end of the telephone connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c5o78l
|
nowadays we are starting to use more paper products than plastic (straws , bags etc) will this his not create a problem in the future because paper is made out of trees ?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the idea is that we can farm trees, wood is a renewable resource. Also so long as this wood isn’t burnt and instead is turned into paper, it should in theory soak up CO2 from the atmosphere and leave us better off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fuck the trees! Giving us oxygen when we didn’t ask for it, making all these jungles and woods that all them rapists and murderers hide in. Entitled pieces of shit them trees man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost all paper is biodegradable. This along with the fact that trees are a renewable source and more people are planting trees, we should be fine!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Paper is easier to recycle than plastic, but we should be finding alternatives to single use. Humans must put sustainability over comfort.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Good point. Also we have to turn soil, plant seeds, cut trees, transport wood, covert to product and then transport to consumers. That’s a lot of green house gases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it will.\n\nWhen we switched from paper to plastic decades ago, this was put forth as great for the environment as it would save so many trees from being cut down.\n\nIn another few decades, we'll switch back to plastic again for the same reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55224515",
"title": "Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to plastic bags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "A 2007 report into shopping bag alternatives noted that paper bags were less environmentally friendly than plastic bags due to a higher carbon footprint. Similarly, cotton bags were unsuitable due to the pesticides used and high volume of water needed to create them. The \"greenest\" option was using recycled plastic bags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "967372",
"title": "Drinking straw",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Plastic straws account only for a tiny portion (0.022%) of plastic waste emitted in the oceans each year. Despite that, numerous campaigns in the 2010s have led to companies considering a switch to paper straws and countries imposing bans on plastic straws. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827851",
"title": "Marine debris",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Mitigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Reduce usage of single-use plastics such as plastic bags, straws, water bottles, utensils and coffee cups by replacing them with reusable products such as reusable bags, metal straws, reusable water bottles, bamboo toothbrushes and reusable coffee cups\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5220330",
"title": "Paper cup",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.:Recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The manufacture of paper usually requires inorganic chemicals and creates water effluents. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of polystyrene foam (whose only significant effluent is pentane).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524589",
"title": "Paper recycling",
"section": "Section::::By region.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The environmental impact due to excessive use of paper has negative effects on trees and forest. Paper production utilizes nearly 40% of world's commercially cut timber. Millions of acres of forests are destroyed leading to deforestation disturbing the ecological balance. Many initiatives are being taken in India for recycling paper and reducing the hazards associated with it. Shree Aniruddha Upasana Foundation (Mumbai, India) is one such organization which undertakes used paper recycling projects. The foundation encourages using paper bags instead of plastic ones which again are a serious hazard to environment. They accept old newspapers, notebooks and so on and recycle the same into paper bags, teaching aids and toys for children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19969564",
"title": "Waste management in Armenia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "In recent years there have been several attempts initiated by public activists to address this problem including the \"Toprak Petq Chi\" (Eng - I don't need a plastic bag) initiative targeting single-use plastic bags. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "967372",
"title": "Drinking straw",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.:The Ban Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Plastic straw use is a controversial topic among four sides, the consumer, corporations, policy makers, and environmentalists. To further explore the views of all four of these groups we will introduce each opposition. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84ow73
|
how can only one jet engine fly a twin engine airplane for hours after the other has shut down?
|
[
{
"answer": "All things being equal, yes. But planes have the ability to turn and this can be used to counter the effect of having an engine out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most times, either the engines are close enough together not to make any noticable difference, or you can easily \"trim\" the aircraft to counter the rotation if they are farther apart, like an airliner. Even then, it's never a significant enough amount to throw the aircraft out of control. Aircraft are naturally very balanced, and most are designed so that one engine can power the internal electronics and provide enough thrust to maintain stable flight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at videos of planes landing with side wind.\n\n\nBecause the plane is being trusted forward on 1 side, and not the other, the plane has the tendency to turn to the side with the shut down engine. \n\n(among other things) by using the rudder, the pilot can compensate this. Bringing the plane back towards centerline \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thrust from one engine is enough to turn the plane. In fact, there was a flight that lost it's hydraulic power and they attempted to land it exclusively using alternating engine power. [United Airlines Flight 232](_URL_0_).\n\nIf a plane is operating under only one engine, it will use it's turning mechanisms to counter the imbalanced thrust. \n\nAs for how long they can fly, every plane has what is called an ETOPS rating. This is the number of minutes they are allowed to be away from a diversion airport. For instance, the Boeing 787 has an ETOPS rating of 330 minutes, meaning it is allowed to be in a place that, if an engine failure occurs, it has 5 and a half hours to reach a diversion airport. \n\nHowever, that doesn't mean you fly to that maximum duration. There will be a specific airport to defer to for any given location on your flight, considering both how far you are from the airport, and how suitable that airport is to handle your passengers. As an example, Cold Bay Alaska is a diversion airport for trans-pacific flights, but airlines also need a plan for how to get the passengers away from there (as well as housing, meals, etc.).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For large passenger jets, the aircraft is designed to be able to fly with one engine shut down (an “in-flight shutdown, or IFSD). That’s why they’re designed with at least two engines.\n\nThere’s a concept called ETOPS (Extended Twin Engine Operations, or, more humorously, “Engines Turn Or People Swim”) which means that if a two-engine aircraft has a single engine shut down, statistically-speaking it is a good bet that the other engine will NOT shut down by an independent cause within a certain number of minutes. How many minutes depends on things like engine reliability data, maintenance records, and maintenance crew experience. A twin-engine commercial aircraft is allowed to fly a certain route only if diversion airports are within the range of the aircraft, flying on a single engine, for less time than the ETOPS time limit at all points during the route.\n\nModern twin-engine aircraft are ETOPS certified for quite a large number of minutes, making long flight times after an engine failure (thankfully) possible.\n\nHope this helps. You can always do a search for ETOPS to get more info.\n\nEdits: minor grammar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If no changes are made to correct the plane's path, then yeah, you've got it right.\n\nBut it's possible to adjust the rudder and controls so that even though the thrust is only coming from one side, the plane keeps moving forward. And planes are built so that the remaining engine can power the electronics and keep the plane going for just such a situation - although unless the plane's over the ocean, the pilot would immediately reroute to the closest airport for an emergency landing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3586065",
"title": "Trijet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Early American twinjet designs were limited by the FAA's 60-minute rule, whereby the flight path of twin-engine jetliners was restricted to within 60 minutes' flying time from a suitable airport, in case of engine failure. In 1964, this rule was lifted for trijet designs, as they had a greater safety margin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103077",
"title": "Turbofan",
"section": "Section::::Common types.:High-bypass turbofan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The turbofans on twin engined airliners are further more powerful to cope with losing one engine during take-off, which reduces the aircraft's net thrust by half. Modern twin engined airliners normally climb very steeply immediately after take-off. If one engine is lost, the climb-out is much shallower, but sufficient to clear obstacles in the flightpath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29481324",
"title": "JS Air Flight 201",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "However, investigators stated that even if a mid-air engine failure occurred, the pilots still could have returned to the airport safely. If an aircraft had a mid air engine failure in one engine, the plane still could fly. All twin engine aircraft are designed to sustain a safe flight even if one of the engines has failed or is switched off due to any abnormality, provided the emergency handling procedures are correctly followed. Similarly, the Beechcraft 1900C also had the capability to sustain safe flight with single engine operation. This suggests that pilot error maybe the main cause of the accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3586138",
"title": "Twinjet",
"section": "Section::::ETOPS.:Introduction to transoceanic flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate transatlantic and transpacific flight routes. On a nonstop flight from America to Asia or Europe, the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route. Hence, in case of an engine failure in a twinjet (like Boeing 777), it is never too far from an emergency landing field in Canada, Alaska, eastern Russia, Greenland, Iceland, or the British Isles. The Boeing 777 has also been approved by the Federal Aviation Administration for flights between North America and Hawaii, which is the world's longest regular airline route with no diversion airports along the way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2227870",
"title": "Flight planning",
"section": "Section::::Overview and basic terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "When twin-engine aircraft are flying across oceans, deserts, and the like, the route must be carefully planned so that the aircraft can always reach an airport, even if one engine fails. The applicable rules are known as ETOPS (ExTended range OPerationS). The general reliability of the particular type of aircraft and its engines and the maintenance quality of the airline are taken into account when specifying how long such an aircraft may fly with only one engine operating (typically 1–3 hours).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913215",
"title": "Long March 3",
"section": "Section::::Launch failures.:ChinaSat 7 launch failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The third-stage engine shut down roughly 40 s earlier than planned because of a fire in the LH2 injector of the gas generator. Insufficient purging had permitted oxygen to freeze in the gas generator during flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45390961",
"title": "Four-engined jet aircraft",
"section": "Section::::History.:Later decades and gradual decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "In the 1980s, the increased reliability and available power of jet engines enabled twinjets to safely fly on one engine. This prompted the introduction of ETOPS ratings for twinjets, allowing them to circumvent the 60-Minute Rule and fly on transoceanic routes previously serviced by four-engined types. The advantage of redundancy brought by four engines was no longer necessary and they could no longer compete with the lower fuel consumption and maintenance costs of twinjets with higher-powered engines. All but the largest four-engined types, such as the Boeing 747, became uneconomical and this led to the retirement of the ageing 707 and DC-8 fleets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dvpcx
|
It's generally understood that a good deal of dangerous animals have bright colors to act as a "warning" (poison dart frogs, coral snakes, etc.), but aren't most of their natural predators colorblind? Wouldn't this diminish the effectiveness of this defense mechanism?
|
[
{
"answer": "Birds (which are common predators of insects and frogs) have some of the best vision and color detection of any animal. If they were colorblind we wouldn't have colorful birds (color helps them mate and show dominance), because the duller colored ones would be less likely to be eaten by predators, and thus color would have no evolutionary benefit. \n\nSnake (another main predator of frogs) vision varies greatly, with most not being able to see very sharply, but they are able to track movement, and others use smell, heat, or vibration to track prey. Many brightly colored animals will also have a scent that's detectable, and serves as a warning.\n\n\n\nEDIT: A letter",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Few animals are completely color blind. Most mammals can see two of the three primary colors we see. Birds can usually see a similar range to us. Also, animals in places where creatures have developed these warning signs generally have better color vision, as that helps then spot things hiding in the undergrowth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "621",
"title": "Amphibian",
"section": "Section::::Defence mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander (\"Salamandra salamandra\") being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad (\"Bombina spp.\"), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog \"Allobates zaparo\" is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318175",
"title": "Signalling theory",
"section": "Section::::Honest signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "One class of honest signal is the aposematic warning signal, generally visual, given by poisonous or dangerous animals such as wasps, poison dart frogs, and pufferfish. Warning signals are honest indications of noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness. Thus, the brighter and more conspicuous the organism, the more toxic it usually is. The most common and effective colours are red, yellow, black and white.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "812186",
"title": "Poison dart frog",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of skin coloration and toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Conspicuousness and toxicity may be inversely related, as polymorphic poison dart frogs that are less conspicuous are more toxic than the brightest and most conspicuous species. Energetic costs of producing toxins and bright color pigments lead to potential trade-offs between toxicity and bright coloration, and prey with strong secondary defenses have less to gain from costly signaling. Therefore, prey populations that are more toxic are predicted to manifest less bright signals, opposing the classical view that increased conspicuousness always evolves with increased toxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13455478",
"title": "Animal coloration",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Signalling.:Warning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Warning coloration (aposematism) is effectively the \"opposite\" of camouflage, and a special case of advertising. Its function is to make the animal, for example a wasp or a coral snake, highly conspicuous to potential predators, so that it is noticed, remembered, and then avoided. As Peter Forbes observes, \"Human warning signs employ the same colours – red, yellow, black, and white – that nature uses to advertise dangerous creatures.\" Warning colors work by being associated by potential predators with something that makes the warning colored animal unpleasant or dangerous. This can be achieved in several ways, by being any combination of:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464447",
"title": "Animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Interspecific communication.:Prey to predator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1290,
"text": "There are however, some actions of prey species are clearly directed to actual or potential predators. A good example is warning coloration: species such as wasps that are capable of harming potential predators are often brightly coloured, and this modifies the behaviour of the predator, who either instinctively or as the result of experience will avoid attacking such an animal. Some forms of mimicry fall in the same category: for example hoverflies are coloured in the same way as wasps, and although they are unable to sting, the strong avoidance of wasps by predators gives the hoverfly some protection. There are also behavioural changes that act in a similar way to warning colouration. For example, canines such as wolves and coyotes may adopt an aggressive posture, such as growling with their teeth bared, to indicate they will fight if necessary, and rattlesnakes use their well-known rattle to warn potential predators of their venomous bite. Sometimes, a behavioural change and warning colouration will be combined, as in certain species of amphibians which have most of their body coloured to blend with their surroundings, except for a brightly coloured belly. When confronted with a potential threat, they show their belly, indicating that they are poisonous in some way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Antipredator adaptations.:Avoiding an attack.:Signalling unprofitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Many prey animals are aposematically coloured or patterned as a warning to predators that they are distasteful or able to defend themselves. Such distastefulness or toxicity is brought about by chemical defences, found in a wide range of prey, especially insects, but the skunk is a dramatic mammalian example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29657",
"title": "Salamander",
"section": "Section::::Defense.:Camouflage and mimicry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1430,
"text": "Although many salamanders have cryptic colors so as to be unnoticeable, others signal their toxicity by their vivid coloring. Yellow, orange, and red are the colors generally used, often with black for greater contrast. Sometimes, the animal postures if attacked, revealing a flash of warning hue on its underside. The red eft, the brightly colored terrestrial juvenile form of the eastern newt (\"Notophthalmus viridescens\"), is highly poisonous. It is avoided by birds and snakes, and can survive for up to 30 minutes after being swallowed (later being regurgitated). The red salamander (\"Pseudotriton ruber\") is a palatable species with a similar coloring to the red eft. Predators that previously fed on it have been shown to avoid it after encountering red efts, an example of Batesian mimicry. Other species exhibit similar mimicry. In California, the palatable yellow-eyed salamander (\"Ensatina eschscholtzii\") closely resembles the toxic California newt (\"Taricha torosa\") and the rough-skinned newt (\"Taricha granulosa\"), whereas in other parts of its range, it is cryptically colored. A correlation exists between the toxicity of Californian salamander species and diurnal habits: relatively harmless species like the California slender salamander (\"Batrachoseps attenuatus\") are nocturnal and are eaten by snakes, while the California newt has many large poison glands in its skin, is diurnal, and is avoided by snakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yql3h
|
the whole controversy around goldman sachs.
|
[
{
"answer": "Read Griftopia. Sorry, it's not that simple. That's why it went on for so long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "335244",
"title": "Goldman Sachs",
"section": "Section::::Controversies and legal issues.:Role in the financial crisis of 2007-2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "Goldman has been criticized in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, where some alleged that it misled its investors and profited from the collapse of the mortgage market. That time in Goldman's history brought investigations from the United States Congress, the United States Department of Justice, and a lawsuit from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that resulted in Goldman paying a $550 million settlement. Goldman Sachs was \"excoriated by the press and the public\" despite the non-retail nature of its business that would normally have kept it out of the public eye. Visibility and antagonism came from the $12.9 billion Goldman received, more than any other firm, from AIG counterparty payments provided by the bailout of AIG, the $10 billion in TARP money it received from the government (though the firm paid this back to the government), and a record $11.4 billion set aside for employee bonuses in the first half of 2009. While all the investment banks were scolded by congressional investigations, Goldman Sachs was subject to \"a solo hearing in front of the Senate Permanent Subcommitee on Investigations\" and a quite critical report. In a widely publicized story in \"Rolling Stone\", Matt Taibbi characterized Goldman Sachs as a \"great vampire squid\" sucking money instead of blood, allegedly engineering \"every major market manipulation since the Great Depression ... from tech stocks to high gas prices\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56868849",
"title": "Goldman Sachs controversies",
"section": "Section::::Role in the financial crisis of 2007–2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1580,
"text": "Goldman has been harshly criticized, particularly in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, where some alleged that it misled its investors and profited from the collapse of the mortgage market. That time — \"one of the darkest chapters\" in Goldman's history according to \"The New York Times\" — brought investigations from the United States Congress, the United States Department of Justice, and a lawsuit from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that resulted in Goldman paying a $550 million settlement. Goldman Sachs was \"excoriated by the press and the public\" according to journalists McLean and Nocera—this despite the non-retail nature of its business that would normally have kept it out of the public eye. Visibility and antagonism came from the $12.9 billion Goldman received—more than any other firm—from AIG counterparty payments provided by the bailout of AIG, the $10 billion in TARP money it received from the government (though the firm paid this back to the government), and a record $11.4 billion set aside for employee bonuses in the first half of 2009. While all the investment banks were scolded by congressional investigations, Goldman Sachs was subject to \"a solo hearing in front of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations\" and a quite critical report. In a widely publicized story in \"Rolling Stone\", Matt Taibbi characterized Goldman Sachs as a \"great vampire squid\" sucking money instead of blood, allegedly engineering \"every major market manipulation since the Great Depression ... from tech stocks to high gas prices\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56868849",
"title": "Goldman Sachs controversies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Goldman Sachs controversies are the controversies surrounding the American multinational investment bank Goldman Sachs. The bank and its activities have generated substantial controversy and legal issues around the world and is the subject of speculation about its involvement in global finance and politics. In a widely publicized story in \"Rolling Stone\", Matt Taibbi characterized Goldman Sachs as a \"great vampire squid\" sucking money instead of blood, allegedly engineering \"every major market manipulation since the Great Depression.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56868849",
"title": "Goldman Sachs controversies",
"section": "Section::::Danish utility sale (2014).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "Goldman Sachs's purchase of an 18% stake in state-owned Dong Energy—Denmark's largest electric utility—set off a \"political crisis\" in Denmark. The sale—approved in January 30, 2014—sparked protest in the form of the resignation of six cabinet ministers and the withdrawal of a party (Socialist People's Party) from Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt's leftist governing coalition. According to \"Bloomberg Businessweek\", \"the role of Goldman in the deal struck a nerve with the Danish public, which is still suffering from the aftereffects of the global financial crisis.\" Protesters in Copenhagen gathered around a banner \"with a drawing of a vampire squid—the description of Goldman used by Matt Taibbi in Rolling Stone in 2009\". Opponents expressed concern that Goldman would have some say in Dong's management, and that Goldman planned to manage its investment through \"subsidiaries in Luxembourg, the Cayman Islands, and Delaware, which made Danes suspicious that the bank would shift earnings to tax havens.\" Goldman purchased the 18% stake in 2014 for 8 billion kroner and sold just over a 6% stake in 2017 for 6.5 billion kroner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335244",
"title": "Goldman Sachs",
"section": "Section::::Controversies and legal issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Goldman has been accused of an assortment of misdeeds, including a general decline in ethical standards, working with dictatorial regimes, cozy relationships with the US federal government via a \"revolving door\" of former employees, insider trading by some of its traders, and driving up prices of commodities through futures speculation. Goldman has denied wrongdoing in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56868849",
"title": "Goldman Sachs controversies",
"section": "Section::::Role in the financial crisis of 2007–2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Goldman has also been accused of an assortment of other misdeeds, including a general decline in ethical standards, working with dictatorial regimes, cozy relationships with the US federal government via a \"revolving door\" of former employees, insider trading by some of its traders, and driving up prices of commodities through futures speculation. Goldman has denied wrongdoing in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335244",
"title": "Goldman Sachs",
"section": "Section::::Controversies and legal issues.:Danish utility sale (2014).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 1169,
"text": "Goldman Sachs's purchase of an 18% stake in state-owned DONG Energy (now Ørsted A/S) - Denmark's largest electric utility - set off a \"political crisis\" in Denmark. The sale - approved in January 30, 2014 - sparked protest in the form of the resignation of six cabinet ministers and the withdrawal of a party (Socialist People's Party) from Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt's leftist governing coalition. According to \"Bloomberg Businessweek\", \"the role of Goldman in the deal struck a nerve with the Danish public, which is still suffering from the after-effects of the global financial crisis\". Protesters in Copenhagen gathered around a banner \"with a drawing of a vampire squid - the description of Goldman used by Matt Taibbi in Rolling Stone in 2009\". Opponents expressed concern that Goldman would have some say in DONG's management, and that Goldman planned to manage its investment through \"subsidiaries in Luxembourg, the Cayman Islands, and Delaware, which made Danes suspicious that the bank would shift earnings to tax havens\". Goldman purchased the 18% stake in 2014 for 8 billion kroner and sold just over a 6% stake in 2017 for 6.5 billion kroner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hcrng
|
What causes a gun barrel to rise when I shoot? If I hang upside-down and shoot, will the barrel "rise" away from the anchor point (i.e. my feet) or away from the source of gravity (i.e. the Earth)? What would happen if both are absent (i.e. in space)? Or is something else going on?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bullet doesn't leave along the line that passes the center of the gravity for the gun. Because of this, the device will experience a torque from the gas that pushes back in the firing chamber, and it will attempt to begin rotating, which is what you should see in space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does that mean that if guns were designed like this, they'd be better?\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has to do with where you are holding the gun and the direction of force from the recoil. The recoil force should be in line with the barrel, since it's a reaction to the acceleration of the bullet. There are also some forces associated with gases exiting the barrel, but since the propellant is usually lighter than the bullet, lets ignore that for simplicity now.\n\nNext you have to look at where the gun is anchored on your body or hand and the center of gravity of the gun. For most guns the anchor point and center of gravity will be below the barrel. If you simplified the problem and said that the gun was anchored at a single point on the grip there is a torque around that point. To keep the gun still you have to provide a linear reaction force in the direction of the bullet, plus a torque corresponding to the bullet force time the distance between the bullet force vector and the grip point. (torque = force x radius). Here's a crude Paint drawing:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe red line represents the bullet force, the blue line is the anchor point or center of gravity. If you only provide the green force to counter the recoil, the gun will rotate around the anchor point because of the torque induced between the anchor point and the bullet force. The distance R, is given by the line that is perpendicular to the bullet force and runs through the anchor point. The torque causes the gun to rotate and you see that as the barrel rising.\n\nWhether the center of gravity or the anchor point dominates the dynamics of the recoil depends on all the details of the situation. (Mass of the gun, location of anchor, location of center of gravity, magnitude of the bullet reaction force, strength of the support forces.) In reality your hands are not rigid enough to completely keep the gun from moving, so the center of gravity/inertia become relevant. If you sat the gun on a stand and triggered with no anchor, then center of gravity would dominate what happened.\n\nAlso, if you were to completely support the gun in line with the barrel and the center of gravity were in line with the barrel, there'd be no torque and the gun wouldn't rotate and the barrel wouldn't rise.\n\n**TL;DR The barrel rises because of the rotation of the gun from the torque between the bullet reaction force and anchor/center of gravity of the gun.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10810071",
"title": "Cylinder (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Designs.:Swing-out cylinder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The pivoting part that supports the cylinder is called the crane; it is the weak point of swing-out cylinder designs. Using the method often portrayed in movies and television of flipping the cylinder open and closed with a flick of the wrist can in fact cause the crane to bend over time, throwing the cylinder out of alignment with the barrel. Lack of alignment between chamber and barrel is a dangerous condition, as it can impede the bullet's transition from chamber to barrel. This gives rise to higher pressures in the chamber, bullet damage, and the potential for an explosion if the bullet becomes stuck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25794",
"title": "Revolver",
"section": "Section::::Loading and unloading.:Swing out cylinder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The pivoting part that supports the cylinder is called the crane; it is the weak point of swing-out cylinder designs. Using the method often portrayed in movies and television of flipping the cylinder open and closed with a flick of the wrist can in fact cause the crane to bend over time, throwing the cylinder out of alignment with the barrel. Lack of alignment between chamber and barrel is a dangerous condition, as it can impede the bullet's transition from chamber to barrel. This gives rise to higher pressures in the chamber, bullet damage, and the potential for an explosion if the bullet becomes stuck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::Planetary orbits.:Understanding orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial speed, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing speed is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually \"orbits\" in a technical sense – they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity – but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871279",
"title": "Recoil operation",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The same forces that cause the ejecta of a firearm (the projectile(s), propellant gas, wad, sabot, etc.) to move down the barrel also cause all or a portion of the firearm to move in the opposite direction. The result is required by the conservation of momentum such that the ejecta momentum and recoiling momentum are equal. These momenta are calculated by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3721845",
"title": "Rotational–vibrational coupling",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Similarly, when a cannon is fired, the projectile will shoot out of the barrel towards the target, and the barrel will recoil, in accordance with the principle of conservation of momentum. This does not mean that the projectile leaves the barrel at high velocity \"because\" the barrel recoils. While recoil of the barrel must occur, as described by Newton's third law, it is not a causal agent. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584911",
"title": "External ballistics",
"section": "Section::::Main effects in external ballistics.:Projectile/bullet drop and projectile path.:Projectile/bullet drop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "In order for a projectile to impact any distant target, the barrel must be inclined to a positive elevation angle relative to the target. This is due to the fact that the projectile will begin to respond to the effects of gravity the instant it is free from the mechanical constraints of the bore. The imaginary line down the center axis of the bore and out to infinity is called the line of departure and is the line on which the projectile leaves the barrel. Due to the effects of gravity a projectile can never impact a target higher than the line of departure. When a positively inclined projectile travels downrange, it arcs below the line of departure as it is being deflected off its initial path by gravity. Projectile/Bullet drop is defined as the vertical distance of the projectile below the line of departure from the bore. Even when the line of departure is tilted upward or downward, projectile drop is still defined as the distance between the bullet and the line of departure at any point along the trajectory. Projectile drop does not describe the actual trajectory of the projectile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "380558",
"title": "Story Musgrave",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"When you see a launch from the outside, it's a rather glorious, magnificent thing. Inside, it's the absolute opposite of that. It's 137 decibels. It's shaking. Everything is shaking. You're along for the ride and you want to survive that. So, it's not a joy ride for me. It's what I need to go through to get into the incredible serenity and celestial dance of zero gravity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33g1p1
|
what makes an expensive product so expensive? is it more related to the brand, or the materials?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's really depends on the product. Some are expensive because of the brand, some are expensive because of msterials. But both and neither can apply.\n\nThe better question is what product are you refering to?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone prices their product at the maximum amount people are willing to pay for it. So, in one sense, what determines this price is the general perceived value and willingness to spend money on it by the products market.\n\nNow, there is some level of rationality in the world of customers - they do often value quality, they do often value brand, they do often value materials, or utility, or durability etc. It doesn't really matter if these are real or not, or that you think they are _really_ valuable, so long as someone else does...that'll be the price.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "858665",
"title": "Luxury goods",
"section": "Section::::Market characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Some luxury products have been claimed to be examples of Veblen goods, with a positive price elasticity of demand: for example, making a perfume more expensive can increase its perceived value as a luxury good to such an extent that sales can go up, rather than down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "975110",
"title": "Snob effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "This situation is derived by the desire to own unusual, expensive or unique goods. For consumers who want to use exclusive products, price \"is\" quality. These goods usually have a high economic value, but low practical value. The less of an item available, the higher its snob value. Examples of such items with general snob value are rare works of art, designer clothing, and sports cars. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1751119",
"title": "Final good",
"section": "Section::::Buying habits.:Specialty consumer goods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Specialty goods are unique in nature; these are unusual and luxurious items available in the market. Specialty goods are mostly purchased by the upper classes of society as they are expensive in nature and difficult to afford for the middle and lower-classes. Companies advertise their goods targeting the upper class. These goods do not fall under the category of necessity; rather they are purchased on the basis personal preference or desire. Brand name, uniqueness, and special features of an item are major attributes which attract customers and make them buy such products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "421981",
"title": "Substitute good",
"section": "Section::::Monopolistic competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Many markets for commonly used goods feature products which are perfectly substitutable yet are differently branded and marketed, a condition referred to as monopolistic competition. A good example may be the comparison between store brand and name brand versions of medications - the products may be \"identical\" but the packaging is differentiated by the vendors. Since the goods are essentially alike, the only genuine difference between them is the price - their vendors rely primarily on price and branding to effect sales. In those sectors consumer choice is usually driven by discriminate according to \"lowest price\", with higher-priced variants relying on a sense of exclusivity created by slicker branding to maintain competitiveness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39265436",
"title": "Fashion design copyright in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Affected designers and manufacturers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "When original designers are confronted about the issue of price, they justify their expensiveness by means of the creative effort that goes into both the design and production process. This clearly includes the materials and methods used to produce top quality pieces to sell to consumers. Fashion is in all senses a distinct form of art. There are bad pieces and good pieces, but even a bad or plain painting would still be labeled as artwork. Designer pieces are expensive not only because of the brand name, but also the innovation and creativity of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2851594",
"title": "The Millionaire Next Door",
"section": "Section::::Main points.:Avoid buying status objects or leading a status lifestyle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Buying status objects such as branded consumer goods is a never-ending cycle of depreciating assets. Even when you get a good deal on premium items, if you choose to replace them frequently, the older items hold no value and have become a sunk cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "858665",
"title": "Luxury goods",
"section": "Section::::Socioeconomic significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Several manufactured products attain the status of \"luxury goods\" due to their design, quality, durability or performance that are remarkably superior to the comparable substitutes. Thus, virtually every category of goods available on the market today includes a subset of similar products whose \"luxury\" is marked by better-quality components and materials, solid construction, stylish appearance, increased durability, better performance, advanced features, and so on. As such, these luxury goods may retain or improve the basic functionality for which all items of a given category are originally designed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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