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fiq51
|
Why does my skin look different under different lighting conditions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Different kinds of lights are composed of different wavelengths of light. That is some lights have more red others more blue etc. When these reflect off your skin which reflects different colors differently you get different colors. It has nothing to do with x-rays. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Exactly what the appropriately named UV Catastrophe said.\r\n\r\nRegular light bulbs are composed of all wavelengths at different proportions, like a bell curve. Fluorescent lights--due to the specific way they generate light by electrically exciting gas molecules--emit only very specific wavelengths of light, usually mostly green and some red. That powdery coating on the inside of a fluorescent bulb is supposed to smooth it out a bit, but optical detection and analysis shows it doesn't do that well.\r\n\r\nThus, anything that is blue, green, or red is going to stand out proudly, and everything in between looks sort of muted and gross.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may also be a case of color theory. For example, if you stand in the bathroom (which usually has a yellowish light) you teeth may look pretty white. But if you were to hold a mirror in front of you while outside (where the light has less yellow in it) your teeth would look more yellow. If you were to step into a blue light, it would be exaggerated even more. It has to do with color compliments and works the same with the tints of color in your skin. Certain lighting is going to bring out reds or yellows etc. Think about when you shine different color flashlights on different samples of colors. Similar effect. \n\nYou should check out a decent color theory book. Interesting stuff.\n*Edited for grammar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On a side note, your blood is never blue. That's a common misconception that is not true. Anyone who has ever given blood can see that deoxygenated blood comes right out of your vein dark red. The reason it appears blue under the skin is because the light undergoes [Rayleigh scattering](_URL_0_) as it passes through tissue. This is a frequency-dependent effect and shorter wavelengths like blue scatter more, which is also why the sky appears blue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2584413",
"title": "Ochronosis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Skin-lightening products are still prevalent in many parts of the world. This may be due to aesthetic or social-standing reasons, in areas where a lighter skin tone is considered to be a sign of wealth or beauty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25547777",
"title": "Amber shift",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Social and dining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Often restaurants, bars and other social gathering places will dim lighting to maximise amber shift. The reason for this is that the warmer (amber shifted) light shows skin tones in a more attractive manner. Some interior designers also feel that warmed light gives a more intimate feel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Exposure to sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39",
"title": "Albedo",
"section": "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Small-scale effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1595922",
"title": "Photosensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Skin reactions.:Human medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Sensitivity of the skin to a light source can take various forms. People with particular skin types are more sensitive to sunburn. Particular medications make the skin more sensitive to sunlight; these include most of the tetracycline antibiotics, heart drugs amiodarone, and sulfonamides. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38079914",
"title": "Dark skin",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry and genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1807,
"text": "Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals. Keratocytes from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to the heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly pigmented skin, it can absorb more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays. Darkly pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture free radicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, which are created by the interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after UVR irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, UVB damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on Langerhans cells. The stratum corneum of people with dark or heavily tanned skin is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16793410",
"title": "Winchester syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Many individuals experience leathery skin where the skin appears dark and thick. Excessive hair growth is known to be found in these darker areas of the skin (hypertrichosis). The eyes may develop a white or clear covering the cornea (corneal opacities) which can cause problems with vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cg0tvi
|
if the polar ice caps were developed during the last ice age, why is it so bad that they are melting now? isn’t that more of a return to where we were rather than an anomaly?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe that the issue is that since the last Ice Age there have been a number of cities created right along the coast. Prior to that we don’t really have as far as I know anything archaeological evidence of cities on the coast. As the ice packs melt the water level rise which will drown most of the cities near the coast and additionally this may also impact the earths seasons or at least what cools off regions of the world and what helps regulate the temperature",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It reflects sunlight, it influences ocean currents, it insulates the air, it keeps methane at bay, it limits severe weather, and it supports native Inuit people and wildlife.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The earth doesn't give a shit what's happening to it. You do along with all the things that live on it because they've adapted to the conditions that existed after the last ice age and they don't want to adapt again to rapidly changing conditions because that means a lot of them and their offspring are going to die.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s bad because there are billions of humans now. Changes in sea level will greatly affect the lives of millions people, especially those residing near bodies of water. Additionally, we have modified these bodies of water to accommodate more people (i.e., reclaimed areas).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Earth abides. Global warming is a blip for it. But global warming will kill people and destroy a lot of human-built stuff and cause many animal species to go extinct, and that’s bad. The changes being experienced on the earth by global warming are catastrophically fast, and mature can’t adapt that quickly, hence the extinctions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1127684",
"title": "Polar ice cap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Earth's polar caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000 years. Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the Sun. Additionally, in geologic time scales, the ice caps may grow or shrink due to climate variation. If the polar ice caps are too hot then they will melt. However if they are too cold they will increase their sizes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37890717",
"title": "Brine rejection",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Climate change could have different effects on ice melt and brine rejection. Previous studies have suggested that as ice cover thins, it will become a weaker insulator, resulting in larger ice production during the autumn and winter. The consequent increase in winter brine rejection will drive ocean ventilation, and strengthen the inflow of warm Atlantic waters. Studies of the last glacial maximum (LGM) have indicated that a drastic reduction in the production of sea ice and thus reduction of brine rejection, would result in the weakening of the stratification in the global deep oceans and in CO release into the shallow oceans and the atmosphere, triggering global deglaciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354987",
"title": "Laurentide Ice Sheet",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Its melting also caused major disruptions to the global climate cycle, because the huge influx of low-salinity water into the Arctic Ocean via the Mackenzie River is believed to have disrupted the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water, the very saline, cold, deep water that flows from the Greenland Sea. That interrupted the thermohaline circulation, creating the brief Younger Dryas cold epoch and a temporary re-advance of the ice sheet, which did not retreat from Nunavik until 6,500 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18246585",
"title": "Climate change in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current and potential effects of climate change in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Climate scientists have hypothesized that the stratospheric polar vortex jet stream will gradually weaken as a result of global warming and thus influence U.S. conditions. This trend could possibly cause changes in the future such as increasing frost in certain areas. The magazine \"Scientific American\" noted in December 2014 that ice cover on the Great Lakes had recently \"reached its second-greatest extent on record\", showing climate variability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24242341",
"title": "Urban thermal plume",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Decreasing Arctic sea ice cover is one of the most visible manifestations of climate change, often linked to rising global temperatures. However, there are several reports that shrinking polar ice is due more to changes in ambient wind direction than to increasing environmental temperatures \"per se\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1127684",
"title": "Polar ice cap",
"section": "Section::::Earth.:Historical cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "The current rate of decline of the ice caps has caused many investigations and discoveries on glacier dynamics and their influence on the world's climate. In the early 1950s, scientists and engineers from the US Army began drilling into polar ice caps for geological insight. These studies resulted in “nearly forty years of research experience and achievements in deep polar ice core drillings... and established the fundamental drilling technology for retrieving deep ice cores for climatologic archives.” Polar ice caps have been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the “rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years.” In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice is \"700,000 sq km below the previous minimum of 4.17m sq km set in 2007\". In August 2013, Arctic sea ice extent averaged 6.09m km, which represents 1.13 million km below the 1981–2010 average for that month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1146369",
"title": "Ice cap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area that they occupy. Plastic moulding, gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier's retreat. Many lakes, such as the Great Lakes in North America, as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
darqv0
|
With the massive influx of gold miners immigrating to California during its gold rush, was there enough food and water grown locally for them? Was food sent in? The miners obviously weren’t growing their own food.
|
[
{
"answer": "Water was usually not a problem - the California Gold Country has plenty of streams and rivers. During the drier times, miners had to wait for enough flow to \"wash dirt\" - the method used to expose gold, but there was always enough to drink.\n\nMiners spent a lot of time hunting. I co-edited the [letters of the Grosh Brothers](_URL_0_) - placer miners in the California Gold Rush. They described how two of their group would wash dirt while one or two others would go hunting. They would then share everything that each was able to produce during the day - food and gold. That was the typical approach for the first miners in the Gold Country.\n\nThere were also those who farmed. The Grosh Brothers gave up mining at some points and took up agriculture, but the lure of gold always brought them back (and they eventually died in the effort). There was also a great deal imported to California. Ships were repeatedly making the trip to Mexico and South American, bringing back passengers (and the mail!), but also a great deal of food grown in those areas. Costs were inflated in Gold Rush-era California, but acquiring food was not difficult.\n\nAs the Gold Rush went through its cycle of initial rush, depletion of gold, and then retreat from the Gold Country, infrastructure improved and more people were involved in agriculture, exploiting the rich natural resources of Northern California, which continue to feed the nation. Acquiring food was never that big of a problem; the real question was a matter of distribution and cost, but since the first years were \"flush\" with gold, money was no object.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723271",
"title": "Maritime history of California",
"section": "Section::::California fisheries.:Modern fisheries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "During the California Gold Rush there were many new immigrants who were familiar with fishing. There was a large demand for fresh food including fresh fish and shellfish among the rapidly increasing California population. Providing fresh food products were one of the most wanted and lucrative trades that developed among the California Argonauts. The small Californio population before the rush were only able to provide some beef—their main \"product\" before 1850 had been cowhides and tallow. After the California Gold Rush started developing a market for fresh fish, many Azorean-Portuguese turned from gold mining to fishing. Fisherman established several small fishing communities up and down the California coast selling fish in towns and cities from San Diego to Eureka. They built their own small fishing boats using the traditional \"lateen\" sail technology common in the Mediterranean on their fishing boats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695922",
"title": "Santa Ana River",
"section": "Section::::History.:American settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "In 1860, a much closer gold rush occurred in the San Bernardino Mountains when prospector William Holcomb discovered significant deposits, just over the northern drainage divide of the Santa Ana River. This discovery exploded into a full-scale gold mining operation in days. The Santa Ana River served as a conduit for miners traveling to the region and many of the forests in the upper basin experienced clearcutting as a result of the high resource demands of the boom. Gold was also discovered in Lytle Creek in that same year. Following the gold rush, the cultivation of citrus became the mainstay of the economy of the lower Santa Ana River area. Through the late 19th century, citrus fields covered much of the coastal plain and led to the naming of Orange County.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2590380",
"title": "Yuba River",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "In the 1850s, the California Gold Rush brought large numbers of European-American settlers into the area, followed by many Mexican, African and Chinese immigrants. These settlers brought diseases with them, to which the Native Americans had no immunity. Within a few years, these diseases wiped out most of the native population. The Yuba River and its forks were one of the richest parts of the Mother Lode, and miners poured to the region in great numbers. Although gold was first extracted by simple methods such as panning and sluicing, large-scale industrial hydraulic mining left a much greater impact. About 25 million cubic yards (19,400,000 m) of hydraulic mining debris was carried down the Yuba River. This raised stream beds up to in places, buried riverside land under sediment, and increased the risk of flooding. The practice was banned in 1884 following lawsuits from farmers who had been affected by the debris flows. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48923",
"title": "Pike's Peak Gold Rush",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In 1849 and 1850, several parties of gold seekers bound for the California Gold Rush panned small amounts of gold from various streams in the South Platte River valley at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, and the discoveries were not reported for several years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "110604",
"title": "Pocatello, Idaho",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gold rush and agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "After the gold rush played out, the settlers who remained turned to agriculture. With the help of irrigation from the nearby Snake River, the region became a large supplier of potatoes, grain and other crops. Residential and commercial development gradually appeared by 1882.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58296",
"title": "California Gold Rush",
"section": "Section::::Near-term effects.:Impact on Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial. Native Americans, dependent on traditional hunting, gathering and agriculture, became the victims of starvation and disease, as gravel, silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them. Later farming spread to supply the settlers' camps, taking more land away from the Native Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174892",
"title": "Ishi",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The gold rush brought tens of thousands of miners and settlers to northern California, putting pressure on native populations. Gold mining damaged water supplies and killed fish; the deer left the area. The settlers brought new infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles. The northern Yana group became extinct while the central and southern groups (who later became part of Redding Rancheria) and Yahi populations dropped dramatically. Searching for food, they came into conflict with settlers, leading to them setting bounties on the natives. Prices included 50 cents per scalp and 5 dollars per head. In 1865, the settlers attacked the Yahi while they were still asleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7529i2
|
How have the eyes of animals that need clear vision in and out of water evolved to cope with the varying refractive indices?
|
[
{
"answer": "Anableps fish just have eyes that are half-and-half divided, with the top half working well out of water and the bottom working well in. It's _weird_. \n\nSeal pupils contract in the bright light of the surface, and their eyes focus better in air. In dim light (like they experience underwater) the pupils expand and the eyes focus better underwater. But at night on land, their pupils expand and their eyes can't cope well with seeing through air, giving them terrible night vision. It's apparently pretty entertaining to walk around a beach where they have hauled out at night....they know you are there but can't actually see you well at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305465",
"title": "Lens (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Accommodation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Aquatic animals must rely entirely on their lens for both focusing and to provide almost the entire refractive power of the eye as the water-cornea interface does not have a large enough difference in indices of refraction to provide significant refractive power. As such, lenses in aquatic eyes tend to be much rounder and harder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6752609",
"title": "Underwater vision",
"section": "Section::::Focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. Most animals' eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5002743",
"title": "Aquatic mammal",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The shape and function of the eyes in aquatic animals are dependent on water depth and light exposure: limited light exposure results in a retina similar to that of nocturnal terrestrial mammals. Additionally, cetaceans have two areas of high ganglion cell concentration (\"best-vision areas\"), where other aquatic mammals (e.g. seals, manatees, otters) only have one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305465",
"title": "Lens (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In many aquatic vertebrates, the lens is considerably thicker, almost spherical, to increase the refraction. This difference compensates for the smaller angle of refraction between the eye's cornea and the watery medium, as they have similar refractive indices. Even among terrestrial animals, however, the lens of primates such as humans is unusually flat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19274237",
"title": "Mammalian eye",
"section": "Section::::Function of the mammalian eye.:Accommodation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60560",
"title": "Tetrapod",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Senses.:Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Changes in the eye came about because the behavior of light at the surface of the eye differs between an air and water environment due to the difference in refractive index, so the focal length of the lens altered to function in air. The eye was now exposed to a relatively dry environment rather than being bathed by water, so eyelids developed and tear ducts evolved to produce a liquid to moisten the eyeball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5621157",
"title": "Posterior segment of eyeball",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "In some animals, the retina contains a reflective layer (the tapetum lucidum) which increases the amount of light each photosensitive cell perceives, reflecting the light out of the eye, allowing the animal to see better under low light conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n1ucn
|
why, when most people orgasm, they instinctively want to vocalize their excitement/expressions?
|
[
{
"answer": "No scientific answer here, but I can only assume it is like any other \"unexpected\" rush of emotions or feeling. When you step on a nail, you shriek. When you burn your hand, you shriek. Just like anonoman925 said, it is probably an involuntary reaction to too much stimulus.\n\nTL;DR: Too much stimulus = Involuntary reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No scientific answer here, but I can only assume it is like any other \"unexpected\" rush of emotions or feeling. When you step on a nail, you shriek. When you burn your hand, you shriek. Just like anonoman925 said, it is probably an involuntary reaction to too much stimulus.\n\nTL;DR: Too much stimulus = Involuntary reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860043",
"title": "Sexual anhedonia",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Normally, a human being is able to feel pleasure from an orgasm. Upon reaching a climax, chemicals are released in the brain and motor signals are activated that will cause quick cycles of muscle contraction in the corresponding areas of both males and females. Sometimes, these signals can cause other involuntary muscle contractions such as body movements and vocalization. Finally, during orgasm, upward neural signals go to the cerebral cortex and feelings of intense pleasure are experienced. People who have this disorder are aware of reaching an orgasm, as they can feel the physical effects of it, but they experience very limited or no sort of pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33089187",
"title": "Female copulatory vocalizations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In humans, coital vocalizations are linked to orgasm, hence occurring during copulation and serving as an expression of sexual pleasure. Vocalizations can be used intentionally by women in order to boost the self-esteem of their partner and to cause quicker ejaculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33089187",
"title": "Female copulatory vocalizations",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "On the other hand, recent studies have indicated that most copulatory vocalizations in women do not accompany their own orgasm, but rather their partner’s ejaculation. The study showed that the man typically finds the woman’s vocalization arousing and highly exciting, and that the woman herself is aware of this. Most women in the study, furthermore, indicated that they vocalized during intercourse to make their man ejaculate more quickly, or to boost his enjoyment or self-esteem, or both. A correlation has been found between the frequency of vocalizations and sexual satisfaction for both men and women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Medical aspects.:Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: \"At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Orgasm (from Greek ὀργασμός \"orgasmos\" \"excitement, swelling\"; also sexual climax) is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by sexual pleasure. Experienced by males and females, orgasms are controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system. They are often associated with other involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in multiple areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm (known as the refractory period) is often a relaxing experience, attributed to the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin as well as endorphins (or \"endogenous morphine\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Human orgasms usually result from physical sexual stimulation of the penis in males (typically accompanying ejaculation) and of the clitoris in females. Sexual stimulation can be by self-practice (masturbation) or with a sex partner (penetrative sex, non-penetrative sex, or other sexual activity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20014929",
"title": "Human female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Physiological.:Orgasm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gsa3i
|
What would happen if a MAGLEV train lost power?
|
[
{
"answer": "They have wheels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7120592",
"title": "Lathen train collision",
"section": "Section::::The accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The train started moving at 09:53. 57seconds later emergency braking was recorded. Approximately half a second and 25metres later the maglev train hit the maintenance vehicle at a speed of 162km/h. The aerodynamic design of the transrapid caused it to dive under the heavy (60 tonne) maintenance vehicle, ripping off the roof of the maglev train. The wreckage continued for another 300 meters on the track before coming to a halt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28115949",
"title": "GO-Urban",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cancellation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "There were also technical problems; in testing, the complex systems needed to switch trains on the magnetic tracks froze up in cold weather, and would require a re-design. A US report also noted that the system was surprisingly loud and had poor ride quality. With Krauss-Maffei's financial support gone, and daunting technical problems remaining to be solved, the maglev project died. The test track at the CNE was abandoned in place, with the foundations and a few support pillars already constructed. Krauss-Maffei continued development of the original inter-city Transrapid, but at a very slow pace and through a series of mergers with other companies involved in maglev technology. The first Transrapid system did not enter service until 30 years later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172228",
"title": "Transrapid",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.:September 2006 accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle at on the test track in Lathen, Germany. The maintenance vehicle destroyed the first section of the train, then lifted off the track to complete two full rotations before landing in a pile of pre-exploded debris. This was the first major accident involving a Transrapid train. The news media reported 23 fatalities and that several people were severely injured, these being the first fatalities on any maglev. The accident was caused by human error with the first train being allowed to leave the station before the maintenance vehicle had moved off the track. This situation could be avoided in a production environment by installing an automatic collision avoidance system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43305272",
"title": "2014 Moscow Metro derailment",
"section": "Section::::Derailment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The derailment also caused a massive power outage on the line; another train, which was located in the tunnel at the time of accident some from Slavyansky Bulvar, was also stuck, and passengers had to be evacuated. There were no medical injuries reported from that train.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "958942",
"title": "Xinbeitou branch line",
"section": "Section::::Line Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "It has been reported that the line is operating at a loss. A proposal was put forth in 2005 that a maglev train operation would solve the problem of noise pollution, but its feasibility on operating costs became a subject of ridicule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18443383",
"title": "AirRail Link",
"section": "Section::::Maglev.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "As built, the length of the track was , and trains \"flew\" at an altitude of . The line operated successfully for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems, and a lack of spare parts, made it unreliable in its later years. The system closed in July 1995 when an investigation concluding the cost of reinstating and maintaining the Maglev to be too high. Initially the cars for the Maglev were stored by the airport owners, Birmingham International Airport Ltd., on the airport site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994664",
"title": "British Rail Class 73",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1259,
"text": "Due to gaps in the Third rail in complex pointwork or level crossings, a short electric locomotive such as the Class 73 is going to momentarily lose power. This results in noticeable arcing if the Driver does not shut off power. However, despite the \"sparks effect\" this rarely affected the locomotives, except to burn out the carbon brush pick up shoes a little more quickly. The problem of arcing only became a bit of a problem when some of these locomotives were altered to work \"Gatwick Express\" services using modified Mark 2 coaching stock and 500 hp Gatwick Luggage Vans (GLV). As 750v Power jumpers between locos or units were banned on BR designs (The last EMUs to have such things were the Bulleid designed 4SUBs). The Class 73s could not benefit from the pickup shoes at the opposite end of the train on the GLV. As a result of removing the last bank of resistance on the Class 73 locos to make them quicker on acceleration with these trains, arcing increased. Therefore, to reduce damage from the increased arcing to other electrical equipment these particular locomotives had \"flash guards\" fitted on their bogies around the shoes. Stories of Class 73s catching fire were greatly exaggerated, as with the Bulleid Pacific steam locos before them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5aatfz
|
how would the space agencies respond if they detect an incoming asteroid large enough to cause damages?
|
[
{
"answer": "The space agencies would report it to the public. They are in no position to keep anything like that a secret and in no position to do anything about it. The only thing they can do is warn people the best they can in the hopes that people might get to safety. The only thing anyone might be able to do about it is to launch a nuclear ICBM against it in the hope that it will break up and cause a number of smaller less dangerous meteorites. The space agencies does not have ICBMs as they are used by the military but the space agencies will hopefully be able to help in such an event. We have not tried such a thing either and have no idea if an ICBM can fly the radically different flight path needed or what a nuclear device does to an asteroid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a number of ways of responding to a potential threat that have been theorised. The most common is to use a nuclear detonation to destroy or deflect the object away from Earth. Other alternatives include using a kinetic impact in a similar way, a laser array to disintegrate the object or even use a normal rocket to push the object away.\n\nThese all have pros and cons and are untested. The likely outcome is by the time we identify the object it's likely too late to do anything to change it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38623877",
"title": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Sub-150m impacting asteroids would not cause global damage but are still locally catastrophic. They can, by contrast to larger ones, only be detected when they come very close to the Earth, which in most cases only happens during their final approach. Those impacts therefore will always need a constant watch and typically cannot be identified earlier than a few weeks in advance, far too late for interception. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would presently require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Meeting the asteroid and deflecting it by least the diameter of the Earth after its interception would then needs several additional years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017976",
"title": "Asteroid impact prediction",
"section": "Section::::Response to predicted impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "If a more severe impact is predicted, the response may require evacuation of the area, or with sufficient lead time available, an avoidance mission to repel the asteroid. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38528850",
"title": "Chelyabinsk meteor",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "On the day of the impact, Bloomberg News reported that the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs had suggested the investigation of creating an \"Action Team on Near-Earth Objects\", a proposed global asteroid warning network system, in face of 's approach. As a result of the impact, two scientists in California proposed directed-energy weapon technology development as a possible means to protect Earth from asteroids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63794",
"title": "Impact event",
"section": "Section::::Impacts and the Earth.:Earth impacts.:Holocene.:Asteroid impact prediction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In the late 20th and early 21st century scientists put in place measures to detect Near earth objects, and predict the dates and times of asteroids impacting earth, along with the locations at which they will impact. The International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the global clearing house for information on asteroid orbits. NASA's Sentry System continually scans the MPC catalog of known asteroids, analyzing their orbits for any possible future impacts. Currently none are predicted (the single highest probability impact currently listed is ~7 m asteroid , which is due to pass earth in September 2095 with only a 5% predicted chance of impacting).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "Section::::Deflection efforts.:Ongoing projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System, now in operation, conducts frequent scans of the sky with a view to later-stage detection on the collision stretch of the asteroid orbit. Those would be much too late for deflection, but still in time for evacuation and preparation of the affected Earth region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54431373",
"title": "Double Asteroid Redirection Test",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) is a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333633",
"title": "B612 Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The need for an asteroid detection program has been compared to the need for monsoon, typhoon, and hurricane preparedness. As the B612 Foundation and other organizations have publicly noted, of the different types of natural catastrophes that can occur on our planet, asteroid strikes are the only one that the world now has the technical capability to prevent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
414ogf
|
how are news outlets and online articles able to be so misleading and sometimes downright wrong with their stories?
|
[
{
"answer": "Back up a bit and imagine a government body who's job is to decide what is and isn't true, and to censor or fine news agencies that it believes are wrong. \n\nA) It would be incredibly unconstitutional, as freedom of the press is a critical right that we all have.\n\nB) Consider the possibility of abuse. Is it staffed by people? If yes, then its entirely possible that they'll bring in their own biases, and start shutting down points of view that they disagree with.\n\nC) What is true or false. We can all think of blatant examples, as that's easy. Where do you draw the line. Could an organization be punished for a mistake? How about a matter of opinion, which much of the news media focuses on. Are you willing to give a government agency the ability to silence reporters because their opinions are \"wrong,\" or because the person they're interviewing is wrong about something.\n\nSuch a thing could never be safely or effectively implemented in a free country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2203174",
"title": "Misinformation",
"section": "Section::::Social media and misinformation.:Competition in news and media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Because news organizations and websites hotly compete for viewers, there is a need for great efficiency in releasing stories to the public. News media companies broadcast stories 24 hours a day, and break the latest news in hopes of taking audience share from their competitors. News is also produced at a pace that does not always allow for fact-checking, or for all of the facts to be collected or released to the media at one time, letting readers or viewers insert their own opinions, and possibly leading to the spread of misinformation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3177392",
"title": "Chequebook journalism",
"section": "Section::::Controversial issues over its use.:Conflict of interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The \"Encyclopedia of Journalism\" states that the problem with paying sources for news stories is that the sources will have a natural temptation to embellish or exaggerate their description of events. Since they are being paid, sources may feel obligated to keep the story interesting. When the public learns that the sources of news were paid, however, they often consider the information as being tainted, a mere commodity which was purchased, and thereby less credible. That change of opinion can easily affect the credibility of the news organization or the entire profession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2871629",
"title": "Pack journalism",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "A major long term consequence of this kind of journalism is that it reduces news reporting to a competition with news organizations competing over breaking stories. This results in the public missing out on other important news. Readers and viewers of news might not take this kind of reporting seriously, and they might not feel the news is a reliable source of information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "225276",
"title": "Journalistic scandal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Journalism scandals are high-profile incidents or acts, whether intentional or accidental, that run contrary to the generally accepted ethics and standards of journalism, or otherwise violate the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45418312",
"title": "View from nowhere",
"section": "Section::::Mitigation.:Editorial awareness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "News sources can protect their entire audience from this effect if all reporters stories are reviewed by editors who use a quality checklist for all stories which includes an assessment of the false neutrality bias of view-from-nowhere reporting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5707206",
"title": "Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics",
"section": "Section::::The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics.:Exegesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "BULLET::::- Explanation: Spread of information has become viral today, because of the Internet. This also means that false news or rumors can spread speedily through social networking sites or emails. Being involved in the circulation of incorrect information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to spread the wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products. Mails from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hard-to-believe information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the circulation of false information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can hurt other parties or organizations that are affected by that particular theme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228796",
"title": "Day trading",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:News playing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The basic strategy of news playing is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is \"good\" or \"bad\" must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market's expectations, not how good it is in absolute terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dzh7f9
|
why do injuries tend to hurt more in winter than in summer?
|
[
{
"answer": "One reason is that when your immune system is compromised, your body amplifies pain signals to trick you into staying in bed. It's one reason why you're achy and weak when sick. Since your immune system tends to be weaker in the winter when your body is expending a lot of energy to stay warm. This effect happens more often in winter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally speaking, we feel more pain in the cold because there is a relationship between blood circulation and nerve pain. When its cold outside and you aren’t dressed up for it, it’s very difficult for your body to heat itself because your heart rate slows in the cold as a way to survive. Our nerves are a network that send signals to the brain -ouch- that hurt! As circulation and heat increase our nerves calm down. The cold is more painful because it increases pressure on our nerves and stiffens soft tissues- such as your muscles. This in itself can increase your likelihood of injury (which is why runners do warm ups and wear sweats!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1721631",
"title": "Três Pontas",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "During the summer rains are common in the late afternoon. Temperatures at this time are always very high. In the winter the arrival of polar air masses that drop and cause frost. In this time of year the relative humidity is too low, and causes discomfort to the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515053",
"title": "Climate change, industry and society",
"section": "Section::::Systems and sectors.:Health.:Direct effects of temperature rise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1513,
"text": "Rising temperatures have two opposing direct effects on mortality: higher temperatures in winter reduce deaths from cold; higher temperatures in summer increase heat-related deaths. The net local impact of these two direct effects depends on the current climate in a particular area. Palutikof \"et al.\" (1996) calculate that in England and Wales for a 1 °C temperature rise the reduced deaths from cold outweigh the increased deaths from heat, resulting in a reduction in annual average mortality of 7000, while Keatinge \"et al.\" (2000) \"suggest that any increases in mortality due to increased temperatures would be outweighed by much larger short term declines in cold related mortalities.\" Cold-related deaths are far more numerous than heat-related deaths in the United States, Europe, and almost all countries outside the tropics. During 1979–1999, a total of 3,829 deaths in the United States were associated with excessive heat due to weather conditions, while in that same period a total of 13,970 deaths were attributed to hypothermia. In Europe, mean annual heat related mortalities are 304 in north Finland, 445 in Athens, and 40 in London, while cold related mortalities are 2457, 2533, and 3129 respectively. According to Keatinge \"et al.\" (2000), \"populations in Europe have adjusted successfully to mean summer temperatures ranging from 13.5°C to 24.1°C, and can be expected to adjust to global warming predicted for the next half century with little sustained increase in heat related mortality.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47953964",
"title": "Role of geography in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Brutal winters diminished supplies and left both sides cold, starving, and wet. Lack of shoes and good clothes caused vulnerability and the spread of disease. Rain, snow, heat, and cold all played their role in World War One because of the giant amount of areas the war was fought in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4707029",
"title": "Canzo",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Summer is warm, with temperatures around 30 °C. Winters are cold on the whole, and by night the temperature goes below 0 °C, but the protective effect of surrounding mountains and the mitigating effect of Lake Como make the winter cold less severe, with temperatures only a few degrees below 0. During spring and autumn temperatures vary suddenly, but generally are moderate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27494639",
"title": "Climate of Islamabad",
"section": "Section::::Monthly weather conditions.:September.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "End of summer in which, day temperatures remain a bit high. But evenings, nights and mornings are quite pleasant. Temperature starts to drop more in the night. And by the end of September, summer seems to have gone away. And Autumn starts to approach. It all depends on the rains. If there are much rains in September, weather will change quickly. If not, then the weather changes gradually. Monsoon rains continue till the mid-week of September, but they can be showers till the end of the month. After that monsoon completely withdraws from the city. Western disturbance cause showers or little drizzle in this month. The highest temperature is (1982) and lowest is (1994). The highest rainfall in this month stands at (2014).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682782",
"title": "Dog days",
"section": "Section::::Scientific basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The effects of summer heat and rainfall patterns are real, but vary by latitude and location according to many factors. For example, London, UK is farther north than Calgary, Canada, but has a milder climate from the presence of the sea and the warm Gulf Stream current. A medical institution has reported a connection between Finland's dog days and increased risk of infection in deep surgery wounds, although that research remains unverified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23071",
"title": "Prince Edward Island",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Summers are moderately warm, but rarely uncomfortable, with the daily maximum temperature only occasionally reaching as high as . Autumn is a pleasant season, as the moderating Gulf waters delay the onset of frost, although storm activity increases compared to the summer. There is ample precipitation throughout the year, although it is heaviest in the late autumn, early winter and mid spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
299b58
|
How can moons get "captured" by planetary bodies without having done a "retrograde burn"?
|
[
{
"answer": "The reason that KSP requires retrograde burns to have a captured orbit is because KSP does not accurately simulate multi-body gravity. When you orbit Kerbin, you only experience Kerbin's gravity. However, when orbiting Earth, a decent chunk of the gravity you experience is the Moon's, with a little left over for the Sun and everything else. This acts as an extra force on the object.\n\nHere is a good example. \n_URL_0_\n\nIf you watch closely, you can see that the object (which is believed to be an old Apollo spacecraft part) accelerates extremely quickly as it passes closely to the moon on both its first and last approach to the system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Triton is Neptune's captured moon. To go into orbit, Triton still had to lose momentum somehow, just as you do a burn to get captured by Duna (or, perhaps get your orbit adjusted by Ike). In KSP, the moons and planets are all on rails, but in real space, you would transfer some of your momentum to Ike to get captured by Duna. Your orbit will still intersect Ike's, so you'll either get ejected or eventually settle into a resonance.\n\nNeptune probably didn't have a large moon for Triton to transfer momentum to -- but Triton, like Pluto and many other outer solar system bodies, was probably a binary object. So Triton's partner got sped up as Triton slowed down, letting Triton get captured by Neptune while its partner got boosted to higher-energy orbit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39432383",
"title": "List of Space: 1999 vehicles",
"section": "Section::::\"Meta Probe\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The mission to Meta is postponed when the crew seemingly contract a virus, later dying on (although the cause of death is subsequently revealed to be \"magnetic radiation\" emanating from nuclear waste disposal areas on the Moon's far side). With the arrival of a back-up crew, preparations for launch resume, but both \"Meta Probe\" and Space Dock are lost when the disposal sites detonate and the resulting chain reaction forces the Moon from its orbit. \"Meta Probe\" is hurled into interplanetary space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2006409",
"title": "Doom 64",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Following the conclusion of the original \"Doom \"series, the sole Marine who survived the horrors of Hell returned to Earth, reclaiming it from the invasion that almost eradicated the human race. Demons still lingered within the abandoned halls and complexes of Phobos and Deimos. As a last-ditch effort, the military decided to bombard the moons with extreme radiation in hopes of killing off any remaining demons. It was initially successful, however, something survived the exposure. The radiation blocked the military's sensors, and allowed something to slip past them undetected. This mysterious entity, possessing the ability to resurrect any demon it came across, recreated the entire demonic horde and made it stronger than ever before. A Marine strike force was ordered to contain the advancing armies of Hell, but was mercilessly slaughtered within moments. The player's character is the sole survivor of this group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39076510",
"title": "Asteroid Redirect Mission",
"section": "Section::::Target asteroid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The carbonaceous boulder that would have been captured by the mission (maximum 6 meter diameter, 20 tons) is too small to harm the Earth because it would burn up in the atmosphere. Redirecting the asteroid mass to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon would ensure it could not hit Earth and also leave it in a stable orbit for future studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21512627",
"title": "Satellite collision",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft impacts with moons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "BULLET::::- There have been no spacecraft collisions with any Jovian moons. Note that to avoid collision with Europa and possible contamination by Earth microbes, the NASA Galileo spacecraft was intentionally deorbited into Jupiter's atmosphere on September 21, 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "818377",
"title": "Moons of Uranus",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and groups.:Inner moons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The small inner moons constantly perturb each other. The system is chaotic and apparently unstable. Simulations show that the moons may perturb each other into crossing orbits, which may eventually result in collisions between the moons. Desdemona may collide with either Cressida or Juliet within the next 100 million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231176",
"title": "SunDog: Frozen Legacy",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The SunDog has shields and two weapons systems (lasers and a cannon), but both have to be controlled manually. Hits from the pirates on the SunDog deplete shields and will damage systems and the hull if the shields get low. A player can destroy a pirate, survive to reach a planet, at which point the SunDog can safely land, or charge up their warp drive and warp (however warping from inside a system may fail). As a last resort the SunDog may jettison its cargo, which will make the pirates lose interest. If the player destroys a pirate, they may be able to obtain whatever cargo it was carrying. Damage to the SunDog's systems can be repaired on the fly by the player by leaving the cockpit and replacing damaged components, if they can afford the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2527894",
"title": "The Rising Force",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The mining ship is soon attacked by pirates, which causes them to launch an emergency landing on a moon close to Bandomeer. The Jedi, Offworld, and Offworld's rival faction must work together to fight against predators and other threats. Offworld's uprising is also stopped during this truce, and once the ship is repaired, the factions travel together to Bandomeer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sjqgz
|
How did the Merchant Republics in Italy arise in isolation while the rest of Europe seems steeped in Feudalism?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure the question as it's posed will yield a satisfactory answer. Feudalism and a republic aren't mutually exclusive, as the former isn't a type of government. Besides, the republics present in Italy weren't the kinds of republics we think of today. They were essentially city-states dominated by elites and ruled by particular noble families (e.g. the de'Medicis in Florence). The Dutch republic and the state of Novgorod functioned in much the same way.\n\nFor more info, I'd check out Daniel Waley and Trevor Dean, [_The Italian City-Republics_](_URL_1_) and Perry Anderson's [_Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism_](_URL_0_).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A big question, particularly around the 90's (after the fall of one of the last multi-ethnic empires: the Soviet Union), was how the world came to be entirely divided in nation-states as it seemed right then. Was it coincidence? Was there something inherently more effective about nation-states? Fukuyama famously declared it the end of history, others were more reserved, but there was a general agreement that it was in fact the case now, but clearly it had not always been like that.\n\nAnd this is the context that generated a lot of interesting literature on the structure of medieval politics. One of the most interesting ideas imo, comes from Charles Tilly in his work \"Coercion, Capital, and European States\". He argues that European history (after 990 AD) essentially knows two bases for political power: a concentration of capital, and a concentration of potential for coercion (money and swords, so to speak). Capital, he argues, tends to be concentrated in cities. So, is his notion, during most of the middle ages in rich, urban regions of Europe (most notably northern Italy, but later also the Low Countries and parts of north Germany, I think) monied elites formed the basis of local regimes, whereas in other parts of Europe power was based on control over the military class, with a lot of pressure on regimes to get control over both sources of power.\n\nHe leaves lots of room for criticism, at least partially by being very thin in the specifics, but I think he makes a strong point for the fact that the presence of lots of money hugely impacted the course of history for northern Italy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14532",
"title": "Italy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1600,
"text": "During the Early Middle Ages, Italy endured sociopolitical collapse and barbarian invasions, but by the 11th century, numerous rival city-states and maritime republics, mainly in the northern and central regions of Italy, rose to great prosperity through trade, commerce and banking, laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. These mostly independent statelets served as Europe's main trading hubs with Asia and the Near East, often enjoying a greater degree of democracy than the larger feudal monarchies that were consolidating throughout Europe; however, part of central Italy was under the control of the theocratic Papal States, while Southern Italy remained largely feudal until the 19th century, partially as a result of a succession of Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Angevin, Aragonese and other foreign conquests of the region. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration and art. Italian culture flourished, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths. During the Middle Ages, Italian explorers discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery. Nevertheless, Italy's commercial and political power significantly waned with the opening of trade routes that bypassed the Mediterranean. Furthermore, centuries of infighting between the Italian city-states, such as the Italian Wars of the 15th and 16th centuries, left the region fragmented, and it was subsequently conquered and further divided by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322915",
"title": "Italian Renaissance",
"section": "Section::::Origins and background.:Thirteenth-century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144571",
"title": "Commercial Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the Commercial Revolution.:Maritime Republics and Communes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323758",
"title": "Italian city-states",
"section": "Section::::Difference from northern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13584",
"title": "History of the Mediterranean region",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Late Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The Italian \"Repubbliche Marinare\" (Maritime Republics) of Venice, Genoa, Amalfi and Pisa developed their own \"empires\" in the Mediterranean shores. The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Genoese and the Venetians, who profited immensely from it. The Republic of Pisa and later the Republic of Ragusa used diplomacy to further trade and maintained a libertarian approach in civil matters to further sentiment in its inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62583",
"title": "History of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Italian towns had appeared to have exited from Feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to feudal and absolute monarchies, the Italian independent communes and merchant republics enjoyed relative political freedom that boosted scientific and artistic advancement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2442651",
"title": "Signoria",
"section": "Section::::Perennial \"power vacuum\" of medieval Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "No ultramontanian empire could succeed in unifying Italy or in achieving more than a temporary hegemony because its success threatened the survival of medieval Italy's other powers: the Byzantines, the Papacy, and the Normans. They and the descendants of the Lombards, who became fused with earlier Italian ethnic groups, conspired and fought against and eventually destroyed any attempt to create a dominant political order in Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3alku1
|
what causes that characteristic "grandma scent?"
|
[
{
"answer": "technically it's described as:\n\n* floral\n* aldehydic (a sub category of floral, think soapy and citrusy)\n* musky\n* powdery\n\nTo ELI5, it's typically Chanel No 5 with a slight baby powder note.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49159",
"title": "Hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Olfactory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "Phantosmia (olfactory hallucinations), smelling an odor that is not actually there, and parosmia (olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered, are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system) that, in most cases, are not caused by anything serious and usually go away on their own in time. It can result from a range of conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, dental problems, migraines, head injuries, seizures, strokes, or brain tumors. Environmental exposures are sometimes the cause as well, such as smoking, exposure to certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25617725",
"title": "Old person smell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "One study suggested that old person smell may be the result of 2-nonenal, an unsaturated aldehyde which is associated with human body odor alterations during aging; however, there are other hypotheses. Another study failed to detect 2-nonenal at all, but found significantly increased concentrations of benzothiazole, dimethylsulphone, and nonanal on older subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10853405",
"title": "Biluochun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Its original name is \"Xia Sha Ren Xiang\" (; \"scary fragrance\"). Legend tells of its discovery by a tea picker who ran out of space in her basket and put the tea between her breasts instead. The tea, warmed by her body heat, emitted a strong aroma that surprised the girl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5022917",
"title": "HN1 (nitrogen mustard)",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Inhaling the vapor causes symptoms that begin in the upper airway and expand to the lower airway. Increased concentrations cause worse symptoms. Mild inhalation exposure causes rhinorrhea (runny nose), sneezing, barking cough (a harsh cough that sounds somewhat like a dog barking), epistaxis (nosebleed), dyspnea (shortness of breath) that affects smokers and asthmatics, hoarseness that turns into toneless voice, ageusia (loss of taste), and anosmia (loss of smell); later on, sinus and nose pain develops. With more severe inhalation exposure, the airway becomes inflamed, pneumonia develops, and the respiratory epithelium can begin to have necrosis and slough off, forming a pseudomembrane that can occlude the airway. This occlusion can be fatal, as can the pneumonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26027217",
"title": "Alyzon Whitestarr",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Her best friend smells of a comforting sea breeze. She registers her father’s contentment as the sweet scent of caramelized sugar. But why does the cutest guy in school smell so rancid? With these new senses she discovers that some people's spirits have been infected by a sentient disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8163023",
"title": "Chypre",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Modern chypre perfumes have various connotations such as floral, fruity, green, woody-aromatic, leathery, and animalic notes, but can easily be recognized by their \"warm\" and \"mossy-woody\" base which contrasts the fresh citrus top, and a certain bitterness in the dry-down from the oak moss and patchouli. The accord consists of:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1751880",
"title": "Piperonal",
"section": "Section::::Fragrance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Piperonal has a floral odor which is commonly described as being similar to that of vanillin or cherry. For this reason it is commonly used in fragrances and artificial flavors. The compound was named Heliotropin after the 'cherry pie' notes found in the heliotrope flower's fragrance (even though the chemical is not present in the flower's true aroma). Perfumers began to use the fragrance for the first time by the early 1880s. It is commonly used to add vanilla or almond nuances, generally imparting balsamic, powdery, and floral aspects to a scent's character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b9cdfr
|
what would happen if you took laxatives for an entire week?
|
[
{
"answer": "I assume hemorrhoids at the very least. \n\nThis is a form of bulimia. And the long term effects are more concerning then the week your on them. At some point (not sure if it’s after one week or more prolonged used) you’ll start to have loose bowels because your body hasn’t been needing to work on its own. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former laxative abuser here. Assuming you are talking about stimulant laxatives, while continuing a normal diet, the only weight loss would come from holding less waste in your body and dehydration, as your body still digests the food normally. You may experience severe muscle cramps, intestinal bloating from inflammation, joint pain, a sore raw butthole, and headaches from the dehydration. Continued prolonged laxative abuse will also cause nausea, weakness, and can lead to seizures from electrolyte imbalance. Not to mention the normal intestinal cramping from the laxatives itself. There were instances where the nausea and pain were so intense that I would also throw up while having a bowel movement. While taking the laxatives, bowel movements can also become unpredictable, and experiencing random \"leaking\" is very common, which is usually triggered around half an hour after eating. Your body can also get used to the dose you have been taking, and to continue having the desired effect, you may have to up your dose. Aside, taking stimulant laxatives regularly without continuing to eat can cause you to poop stomach bile, which burns like the fires of hell all the way out. Once you stop taking them after such a period of time, you will experience constipation, as your body has come to rely on the effect of the stimulant laxative to eliminate waste. The constipation will last anywhere from a few days to weeks depending on the individual's response to detoxing from the laxatives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the type of laxative. For example doctors regularly prescribe Miralax, Colace etc. for daily usage by people who have constipation problems. Those laxatives work by drawing water into the large intestine to soften the stool so its easier to pass. On the other hand, laxatives with Bisacodyl as the active ingredient force your intestines to contract,. So your body \"pushes\" the poo out. Just one regular dose can make you extremely uncomfortable. Taking a higher dosage will be extremely painful. I did this once, it was really really bad. I lost 13 pounds of mostly water. People do use it for weight loss though, especially to make a weigh in. This happened all the time during PRT season in the Navy. But, long term abuse can cause a whole host of problems including permanently messing up your ability to poo without assistance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2388",
"title": "Antidepressant",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Discontinuation syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Methods of prevention include gradually decreasing the dose among those who wish to stop, though it is possible for symptoms to occur with tapering. Treatment may include restarting the medication and slowly decreasing the dose. People may also be switched to the long acting antidepressant fluoxetine which can then be gradually decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2780034",
"title": "Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Methods of prevention include gradually decreasing the dose among those who wish to stop, though it is possible for symptoms to occur with tapering. Treatment may include restarting the medication and slowly decreasing the dose. People may also be switched to the long acting antidepressant fluoxetine which can then be gradually decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168526",
"title": "Laxative",
"section": "Section::::Problems with use.:Laxative gut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Physicians warn against the chronic use of stimulant laxatives due to concern that chronic use could cause the colonic tissues to get worn out over time and not be able to expel feces due to long-term overstimulation. A common finding in patients having used stimulant laxatives is a brown pigment deposited in the intestinal tissue, known as melanosis coli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2341811",
"title": "Ketotifen",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Ketotifen relieves and prevents eye itchiness and/or irritation associated with most seasonal allergies. It starts working within minutes after administering the drops. The drug has not been studied in children under three. The mean elimination half life is 12 hours. Besides its anti-histaminic activity, it is also a functional leukotriene antagonist and a phosphodiesterase inhibitor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168526",
"title": "Laxative",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Stimulant agents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Stimulant laxatives are substances that act on the intestinal mucosa or nerve plexus, altering water and electrolyte secretion. They also stimulate peristaltic action and can be dangerous under certain circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168526",
"title": "Laxative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lubricant and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas under certain circumstances. Sufficiently high doses of laxatives may cause diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1657368",
"title": "Ketorolac",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "In 2007, there were concerns about the high incidence of reported side effects. This led to restriction in its dosage and maximum duration of use. In the UK, treatment was initiated only in a hospital, although this was not designed to exclude its use in prehospital care and mountain rescue settings. Dosing guidelines were published at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nd8kh
|
if we can't see atoms how did ibm make a movie with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those are Carbon Monoxide molecules. \n\nFor that note, electron microscopes can operate pretty much on an atomic scale. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27036",
"title": "Stop motion",
"section": "Section::::Stop motion in other media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Scientists at IBM used a scanning tunneling microscope to single out and move individual atoms which were used to make characters in \"A Boy and His Atom\". This was the tiniest scale stop-motion video made at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319288",
"title": "Chris Burden",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Early performance art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In 1980, he produced \"The Atomic Alphabet\" – a giant, poster-sized hand-colored lithograph – and performed the text dressed in leather and punctuating each letter with an angry stomp. Twenty editions of the work were produced and are largely in the possession of museums, including SFMOMA and the Whitney Museum of American Art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7064233",
"title": "History of nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Experimental advances.:Invention of scanning probe microscopy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "IBM researcher Don Eigler was the first to manipulate atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope in 1989. He used 35 Xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo. He shared the 2010 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37415478",
"title": "Technologies in 2001: A Space Odyssey",
"section": "Section::::Imagining the future.:Depiction of computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "During Apple and Samsung's patent war over consumer electronics design, in 2011 Samsung used a still image from the scene in which two astronauts are eating at a table with what appear to be tablet computers as an exhibit to counter Apple's patent claiming the original abstract design of tablet computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36510964",
"title": "IBM (atoms)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "IBM in atoms was a demonstration by IBM scientists in 1989 of a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms. A scanning tunneling microscope was used to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company initialism. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23604",
"title": "Photography",
"section": "Section::::Modes of production.:Science and forensics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "917010",
"title": "Maxwell Atoms",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Atoms is good friends with fellow animator Tom \"Mr.\" Warburton, creator of \"\" and C. H. Greenblatt, the creator of \"Chowder\". He and Tom have made multiple references to each other's shows and have made a cross-over TV movie, \"The Grim Adventures of the Kids Next Door\". As well for C.H, he voiced the character Fred Fredburger in several episodes of Billy and Mandy, alongside a brief cameo of Chowder in \"Underfist\". Atoms was also an executive producer and voice actor of the Disney show \"Fish Hooks\" with Noah Z. Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
chmd6d
|
were little old people always little or do they shrink as they age?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most people do shrink as they get older and their bodies degenerate.\n\nThe very little old people you're thinking of were short to begin with and shrivel up more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "905957",
"title": "Human height",
"section": "Section::::History of human height.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Depending on sex, genetic and environmental factors, shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be universal in the extremely aged. This decrease in height is due to such factors as decreased height of inter-vertebral discs because of desiccation, atrophy of soft tissues and postural changes secondary to degenerative disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1265734",
"title": "Middle age",
"section": "Section::::Middle adulthood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Sub-group definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Gerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves. However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36179328",
"title": "Transgenerational design",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "At the start of the 1980s, the oldest members of the population, having matured during the great depression, were being replaced by a generation of Baby Boomers, steadily reaching middle age and approaching the threshold of retirement. Their swelling numbers signaled profound demographic changes ahead that would steadily expand the aging population throughout the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2237801",
"title": "Short stature",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Shortness in children and young adults nearly always results from below-average growth in childhood, while shortness in older adults usually results from loss of height due to kyphosis of the spine or collapsed vertebrae from osteoporosis. The most common causes of short stature in childhood are constitutional growth delay or familial short stature. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Life expectancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Before the surge in the over-65 population, accidents and disease claimed many people before they could attain old age, and health problems in those over 65 meant a quick death in most cases. If a person lived to an advanced age, it was due to genetic factors and/or a relatively easy lifestyle, since diseases of old age could not be treated before the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544505",
"title": "Mucopolysaccharidosis",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:MPS III.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10. Other problems may include narrowing of the airway passage in the throat and enlargement of the tonsils and adenoids, making it difficult to eat or swallow. Recurring respiratory infections are common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65tbjt
|
Why do some places show a long-term decline in sea level and others a rise?
|
[
{
"answer": "Measuring sea level is actually tricky business and we're not really *that* good at it currently.\n\nAdditionally, there's global sea level and local sea level. Global sea level is mostly affected (at least on human time scales) by the volume and temperature of the ocean (which is mostly affected by melting of surface ice). But the land on Earth is not static, so local sea level ends up being even more complicated with a lot more factors going into it. A major factor around river mouths, for example, is subsidence. The land there is soft, and it settles over time (to simplify) so even if nothing about the ocean changed the water depth at a particular point in a river delta might get deeper over time. Similarly, material deposition can have the opposite effect.\n\nAn important factor today is that the Earth only recently, in geological terms, came out of an ice age. For a period of about a hundred thousand years vast ice sheets covered much of the northern land masses. The current location of Boston would have been under more than a kilometer of ice, for example. Those ice sheets were, of course, massive and the water that made them up came out of the oceans, which is why the sea levels were lower during that period. Additionally, the weight of those ice sheets pushed down the continents, which float on the solid but plastic mantle. When the ice sheets retreated with the end of the ice age about ten thousand years ago the water raised the global sea level significantly (flooding a lot of low lying areas) but it also reduced the force that was weighing down the areas of the continents where the ice sheets were. As a consequence many northern land masses have been experiencing a long period of \"post-glacial rebound\", as slow geologic forces push them toward a different equilibrium elevation than when they were weighed down by glaciers.\n\nThis movement is actually large enough to be measurable, and it's highest in places like Norway and Northern Canada. And, of course, Alaska. Southern Alaska is rebounding at a rate of several millimeters per year. Global sea level rise is smaller than this movement so local sea level change in regions still experiencing post-glacial rebound is negative, the sea seems to be going down (though in fact the land is going up). You can see the same thing in [Oslo, Norway](_URL_0_) for example.\n\nBut if you look at areas that never had local glaciation and aren't experiencing post-glacial rebound, like [Mumbai, India](_URL_1_), you see a different trend, one of increasing sea level. However, if you look at the sea level trends for a lot of different port cities at low latitudes you'll find that the rates of sea level increase are all over the place, from just a single mm/year up to several mm/year. A lot of that is due to different rates of subsidence. The land moves (both up and down), so trying to measure one moving thing from another moving thing is a very challenging problem.\n\nWe've been measuring the sea level with satellites for decades, but even that is not without it's fair share of problems. The main one being that we can't seem to calibrate the measurements of the satellites sufficiently well to actually have much confidence in the exact values of the trend data. We can be fairly certain that there's a global sea level rise but it may be as low as 0.5 mm/year or as high as 2-3 mm/year, it's hard to be certain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A process called isostatic rebound causes land uplift resulting from the lack of ice that was once present which caused large depressions over an area. This uplift, or rebound, is greater then the rate of sea level rise. A classic example of this process can be observed in north eastern Europe, where historically the land was covered in ice kilometres in thickness, similar to present day Greenland. It is very important to note that sea level change is a very complex science with dozens of factors contributing to a net rise or fall for example, water temperature, air pressure, and water currents trends. All of which change on annual, decadal, centennial, and millennial scales. The max and min sea level difference globally is a much as 70m from what I remember, all due to local factors mentioned. \n\nSource: Have a bachelors degree in physical geography",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35895879",
"title": "Effects of global warming on oceans",
"section": "Section::::Sea level.:Coasts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Superimposed on the global rise in sea level, is strong regional and decadal variability which may cause sea level along a particular coastline to decline with time (for example along the Canadian eastern seaboard), or to rise faster than the global average. Regions that have shown a rapid rise in sea level during the past two decades include the western tropical Pacific and the United States northeastern seaboard. These regional variations in sea level are the result of many factors, such as local sedimentation rates, geomorphology, post-glacial rebound, and coastal erosion. Large storm events, such as Hurricane Sandy in the eastern Atlantic, can dramatically alter coastlines and affect sea level rise as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "520744",
"title": "Geology of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Geological history.:Cenozoic era.:Quaternary period.:Holocene epoch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to global warming appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9023306",
"title": "Geology of England",
"section": "Section::::Geological history.:Phanerozoic eon.:Cenozoic era.:Quaternary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to global warming appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21171721",
"title": "Sea level rise",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "Current and future sea level rise is set to have a number of impacts, particularly on coastal systems. Such impacts include increased coastal erosion, higher storm-surge flooding, inhibition of primary production processes, more extensive coastal inundation, changes in surface water quality and groundwater characteristics, increased loss of property and coastal habitats, increased flood risk and potential loss of life, loss of non-monetary cultural resources and values, impacts on agriculture and aquaculture through decline in soil and water quality, and loss of tourism, recreation, and transportation functions. Many of these impacts are detrimental. Owing to the great diversity of coastal environments; regional and local differences in projected relative sea level and climate changes; and differences in the resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems, sectors, and countries, the impacts will be highly variable in time and space. River deltas in Africa and Asia and small island states are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160676",
"title": "Coastal geography",
"section": "Section::::Sea level changes (eustatic change).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "The sea level on earth regularly rises and falls due to climatic changes. During cold periods more of the Earth’s water is stored as ice in glaciers while during warm periods it is released and sea levels rise to cover more land. Sea levels are currently quite high, while just 18,000 years ago during the Pleistocene ice age they were quite low. Global warming may result in further rises in the future, which presents a risk to coastal cities as most would be flooded by only small rises. As sea levels rise, fjords and rias form. Fjords are flooded glacial valleys and rias are flooded river valleys. Fjords typically have steep rocky sides, while rias have dendritic drainage patterns typical of drainage zones. As tectonic plates move about the Earth they can rise and fall due to changing pressures and the presence of glaciers. If a beach is moving upwards relative to other plates this is known as isostatic change and raised beaches can be formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21171721",
"title": "Sea level rise",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Ecosystems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "Coastal ecosystems are facing drastic changes as a consequence of rising sea levels. Many systems might ultimately be lost when sea levels rise too much or too fast. Some ecosystems can move land inward with the high-water mark, but many are prevented from migrating due to natural or artificial barriers. This coastal narrowing, sometimes called 'coastal squeeze' when considering human-made barriers, could result in the loss of habitats such as mudflats and marshes. Mangroves and tidal marshes adjust to rising sea levels by building vertically using accumulated sediment and organic matter. If sea level rise is too rapid, they will not be able to keep up and will instead be submerged. As both ecosystems protect against storm surges, waves and tsunamis, losing them makes the effects of sea level rise worse. Human activities, such as dam building, may restrict sediment supplies to wetlands, and thereby prevent natural adaptation processes. The loss of some tidal marshes is unavoidable as a consequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Agricultural surfaces and climate changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Sea levels are expected to get up to one meter higher by 2100, though this projection is disputed. A rise in the sea level would result in an agricultural land loss, in particular in areas such as South East Asia. Erosion, submergence of shorelines, salinity of the water table due to the increased sea levels, could mainly affect agriculture through inundation of low-lying lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
87cvi4
|
How do we measure gas levels of an exoplanet's atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "Molecules have characteristic absorption lines in the electromagnetic spectrum. The width of these absorption lines depends on the optical thickness of the gas. Meaning, with more gas in our line of sight we will have a stronger (wider) absorption band. \nIn order to measure the atmosphere of a planet, the planet needs to orbit infront of the star. Then some light of the star will pass through the planets atmosphere. We can then compare the spectrum of the star with the planet and without. The difference between the two spectra allows us to see the effect of the atmosphere of the exo planet on the spectrum. By using some sophisticated data and error analysis it is theoretically possible to estimate the content of the atmosphere. However in order to reliably do this you need very high resolution spectrographs and you need to be able to estimate all the other parameters that can also broaden the spectral lines. This could be thermal doppler broadening of atmospheric molecules, broadening due to the rotation of the planet, shifts due to the motion of the planet around its host star, pressure broadening, etc. etc. It is not a trivial process and this kind of technology is not very far yet. However our technology improves every year and we make theoretical advances every year so soon we should be able to characterise exoplanet atmospheres more reliably. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202899",
"title": "Atmosphere",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The first exoplanet whose atmospheric composition was determined is HD 209458b, a gas giant with a close orbit around a star in the constellation Pegasus. Its atmosphere is heated to temperatures over 1,000 K, and is steadily escaping into space. Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and sulfur have been detected in the planet's inflated atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2743476",
"title": "Atmospheric escape",
"section": "Section::::Observations of exoplanet atmospheric escape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Studies of exoplanets have measured atmospheric escape as a means of determining atmospheric composition and habitability. The most common method is Lyman-alpha line absorption. Much as exoplanets are discovered using the dimming of a distant star's brightness (transit), looking specifically at wavelengths corresponding to hydrogen absorption describes the amount of hydrogen present in a sphere around the exoplanet. This method indicates that the hot Jupiters HD209458b and HD189733b and Hot Neptune GJ436b are experiencing significant atmospheric escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "884094",
"title": "Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer",
"section": "Section::::Scientific results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "NICMOS observed the exoplanet XO-2b at star XO-2, and a spectroscopy result was obtained for this exoplanet in 2012. This uses the spectroscopic abilities of the instrument, and in astronomy spectroscopy during a planetary transit (an exoplanet passes in front of star from the perspective of Earth) is a way to study that exoplanet's possible atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45085125",
"title": "Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets",
"section": "Section::::Methods of predicting exoplanet geodynamic regimes.:Observation of exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Spectroscopy has been used to characterize extrasolar gas giants, but has not yet been used on rocky exoplanets. However, numerical modeling has demonstrated that spectroscopy could detect atmospheric sulfur dioxide levels as low as 1 ppm; presence of sulfur dioxide at this concentration may be indicative of a planet without surface water with volcanism 1500–80,000 times higher than Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55568980",
"title": "Origins Space Telescope",
"section": "Section::::Preliminary characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Targeting exoplanet observations in the 6–40 μm wavelength range, it will measure the temperatures and search for basic chemical ingredients for life in the atmospheres of small, warm planets at habitable temperatures (∼) and measure their atmospheric composition. This may be accomplished by a combination of transit spectroscopy and direct coronagraphic imaging. Important atmospheric diagnostics include spectral bands of ammonia (, a unique tracer of nitrogen), the 9 μm ozone line (ozone, is a key biosignature), the 15 μm band (carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas), and many water wavelength bands. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33673568",
"title": "Oxygen equivalent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "It does so by expressing oxygen concentration as a ratio of the partial pressure of oxygen at a given altitude or pressure to Standard Atmospheric Pressure; rather than as a ratio of the PO at a given pressure to the total pressure of the gas mixture. The latter would generally be 0.2095, the atmospheric concentration by volume of O, although FO and P vary for extraterrestrials. Calculations occur as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072959",
"title": "Viking lander biological experiments",
"section": "Section::::The experiments.:Gas exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The gas exchange (GEX) experiment (PI: Vance Oyama, NASA Ames) looked for gases given off by an incubated soil sample by first replacing the Martian atmosphere with the inert gas helium. It applied a liquid complex of organic and inorganic nutrients and supplements to a soil sample, first with just nutrients added, then with water added too. Periodically, the instrument sampled the atmosphere of the incubation chamber and used a gas chromatograph to measure the concentrations of several gases, including oxygen, CO, nitrogen, hydrogen, and methane. The scientists hypothesized that metabolizing organisms would either consume or release at least one of the gases being measured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wt17g
|
Education in post war Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": " > How valued were their qualifications?\n\nIn West Germany the folks behind the racial science of the nazi regime [kept teaching their subjects](_URL_0_) using their skills to, for example, measure the skulls of the Canary Islanders. The continuity of West German elites would be a major issue both to East Germany and in the West German public.\n\n > But what happened after the war to everyone who had been socialised into believing this?\n\nwhat was done to \"reeducate\" or \"denazify\" Germans has been asked before so here's a primary source on the opinions immediately thereafter:\n\n > Report No.12 (28 June 1946) \n > ATTITUDES OF SOME BAVARIAN SCHOOLCHILDREN\n > Sample:250 schoolchildren between the ages of 12 and 18 in\nRegensburg, Weilheim, Pirkensee, and Burglengenfeld\nInterviewing dates:not specified. (6 pp.)\nAlthough 88 per cent of the children had belonged to Nazi youth\norganisations, only 12 per cent were members of a new youth\norganisation. Thirty-seven per cent of their parents had belonged\nto the NSDAP,a figure about average for the American zone. Eightyfour per cent of the youth were Catholic. Most (48%) would vote\nfor the CSUif they were old enough, 18 per cent for the SPD, and\nthree per cent for the KPD. Almost a third (29%), however, said\nthey would not vote even if they could.\n\n > Their principal concern was obtaining food. Thirty per cent said\nthat the type of aid Germany needed most was food, and 26 per\ncent reported that their greatest wish was for more food. They also\ndesired peace and freedom for their brothers who were prisoners\nof war. Their secondary concern were jobs, clothing, and shoes.\nThe children seemed to be in good health. Reading, sports, and\nhandicrafts provided recreation.\n\n > Almost all the children (98%) claimed to like school. Most (66%)\nthought themselves to be average students. About one-third\nconsidered themselves to be good students. Only a few (3%)\nadmitted that they were bad students. Although they were interested\nin a wide variety of subjects, they liked best mathematics, German,\ngeography, history, biology, and English. Seventy-four per cent\npreferred to learn English rather than some other foreign language.\nThe employment aspirations of the youth were generally low.\nThe girls wanted to be saleswomen, dressmakers, clerks, teachers,\nor hairdressers. The boys wished to be bakers, electricians, or\ncarpenters. None of the boys wanted to teach. More girls (7%)\nthan boys (3%) hoped to become physicians or dentists.\nThe most common reason given (36%) for Germany’s loss of\nthe war was the overpowering strength of the enemy. Second\n(30%) was Germany’s lack of material. When asked to name the\nthree greatest Germans, about ten per cent named Hitler, a\nquarter mentioned monarchs, and a third poets. When\nquestioned as to what the respondent would do if he alone knew\nthe secret of the atom bomb, the most common answer given\n(36%) was to keep it a secret. Democracy to these youths meant\nfreedom for the people (23%) and government by the people\n(10%). Forty-eight per cent, however, had no opinion when\nasked what democracy meant.\n\n > Almost as many (35%) liked the American soldier as disliked\nhim (39%). More than half of those who disliked the American\nsoldier mentioned his general behaviour as a reason.\nMost of the youth expected a good, lasting, or just or wise peace\nfrom the Allies. Fifty-nine per cent did not expect another war\nsoon. Of the 41 per cent who did expect war, most thought it would\nbe with the Soviet Union.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "379031",
"title": "Education in Japan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-WWII.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "After the defeat in World War II, the Allied occupation government set education reform as one of its primary goals, to eradicate militarist teachings and convert Japan into a pacifist democracy. Nine years of education was made mandatory, with six years in elementary education and three in junior high as an emulation of the American educational system. A number of reforms were carried out in the post-war period that aimed at easing the burden of entrance examinations, promoting internationalization and information technologies, diversifying education and supporting lifelong learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13081129",
"title": "Feusdorf",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In late September 1945 after the fighting had ended, school began again after an interruption of more than a year when the French occupying authorities granted leave for lessons to resume. The old schoolbooks were reused, but only after all material pertaining to the Third Reich and Nazi ideology had been torn out. There were 55 pupils, 27 boys and 28 girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27677756",
"title": "Hilde Meisel",
"section": "Section::::German Educational Reconstruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "In 1942, Meisel worked with Fritz Borinski, Werner Milch, Minna Specht, Walter Auerbach, Werner Burmeister, Fritz Eberhard and Otto Kahn-Freund to establish the German Education Reconstruction, a project of the \"Union of German Socialist Organisations in Great Britain\" launched to plan and prepare a reorganization of the system of education and upbringing in postwar Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375698",
"title": "Education in Germany",
"section": "Section::::History.:West Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "After World War II, the Allied powers (Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, and the U.S.) ensured that Nazi ideology was eliminated from the curriculum. They installed educational systems in their respective occupation zones that reflected their own ideas. When West Germany gained partial independence in 1949, its new constitution (Grundgesetz) granted educational autonomy to the state (Länder) governments. This led to widely varying school systems, often making it difficult for children to continue schooling whilst moving between states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "441353",
"title": "Education for Death",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to the Ziemer book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Gregor Ziemer, an American author and educator who lived in Germany from 1928 to 1939, wrote the book \"Education for Death\" after fleeing Germany on the eve of World War II. The book highlights what was going on in the Nazi schooling of the German youth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31421080",
"title": "Didsbury Campus",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history: 1465–1946.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "During both world wars the site was used as a military hospital, with up to 200 beds and more than 5000 patients receiving treatment between 1941 and 1945. In 1943 the Board of Education had begun to consider the future of education, following reforms that would inevitably come after the war ended. It was estimated that with the raising of the school leaving age, following the 1944 Education Act, about 70,000 new teachers would be needed annually, almost ten times as many as before the war. In 1944 a report was produced by the Board of Education on the emergency recruitment and training of teachers, and it was decided that there were to be several new training colleges set up. These colleges were to be staffed by lecturers seconded from local authorities, with mature students selected from National Service conscripts. In 1945 the theological college, which was no longer required by the Wesleyans, was leased to the Manchester Education Authority. The new emergency training college was officially opened on 31 January 1946, with Alfred Body as its first principal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87995",
"title": "Occupation of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.:Education reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Before and during the war, Japanese education was based on the German system, with \"Gymnasien\" (selective grammar schools) and universities to train students after primary school. During the occupation, Japan's secondary education system was changed to incorporate three-year junior high schools and senior high schools similar to those in the US: junior high school became compulsory but senior high school remained optional. The Imperial Rescript on Education was repealed, and the Imperial University system reorganized. The longstanding issue of Japanese script reform, which had been planned for decades but continuously opposed by more conservative elements, was also resolved during this time. The Japanese written system was drastically reorganized with the Tōyō kanji-list in 1946, predecessor of today's Jōyō kanji, and orthography was greatly altered to reflect spoken usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ygvyn
|
Can house flies, fruit flies, or other insects see the microscopic organisms or bacteria on stuff that we can't see?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't believe they can. Their eyes, [compound eyes](_URL_1_), are not intended to see high detail images because their largest threats are larger than they are (ie, a cow's tail or your hand trying to swat them). Instead, they are intended to see fast movements over a large angular resolution, they can see movements from more angles than we can (again, the cow's tail or your hand coming in from a weird angle) however, their eyes lack [visual acuity](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. A smaller eye does not automatically make the eye see sharper.\n\nA less advanced compound eye does not see sharper than a more advanced octopus eye.\n\n~~Human eyes can easily see very small things floating on the eyes surface, but its generally very out of focus and highly transparent, irrelevant and therefore unnoticed.~~\n\nEverything else is just a matter of focussing, its easy to see something small on a short distance if the eye allows for it. Since eagles must be good at this, i wonder how a hawk/eagle eye can see a nearby non-moving water surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "379255",
"title": "Aquatic insect",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- Insect stages - \"Some larvae, nymphs and adult insects that live in freshwater.\" \"A UK-based web site with microscopic photos of various insects and other microorganisms as well as biological information.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12319793",
"title": "Micro-animal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Micro-animals are animals so small that they can be visually observed only under a microscope. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites, spider mites, and some crustaceans such as copepods and certain cladocera. Another common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Some nematode species are microscopic, as well as many loricifera, including the recently discovered anaerobic species, which spend their entire lives in an anoxic environment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5473983",
"title": "Simkaniaceae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Two \"Fritschea\" species have been identified in insects. These are candidatus species because they only grow in insect bacteriocytes and have not been cultured in vitro. Whiteflies are the host of Candidatus \"Fritschea bemisiae\" (strain Falk). Scale insects are the host of Candidatus \"Fritschea eriococci\" (strain Elm).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11069089",
"title": "Pythium irregulare",
"section": "Section::::Hosts and Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "In order to identify \"Pythium irregulare\" it is necessary to isolate the organism and observe it microscopically. First, it is important to identify that the microbe is an oomycete by looking for characteristics that are specific to oomycetes, such as coenocytic hyphae, zoospores, and oospores. After that, one can identify the microbe as being in the genera \"Pythium\" by observing disease symptoms, host range, as well as the presence of a vesicle, where zoospores form, which is attached to the sporangia. In contrast, most other oomycetes do not have a vesicle and the zoospores form in the sporangia. Finally, once the genera has been identified, it is helpful to use a dichotomous key to identify the species. Some of the key identifiers for \"P. irregulare\" include oogonia with irregular shaped, cylindrical projections, sporangia that occur singly, sporangia that are not filamentous, and oogonia smaller than 30 μm. There are also many genomic tests that can be done to determine species based on specific DNA markers. It is also important to note that many diagnosticians do not identify to the species level because it can be difficult to find all necessary microscopic structures and many management techniques can be applied to all \"Pythium\" species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292524",
"title": "Microscopic scale",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "By convention, the microscopic scale also includes classes of objects that are most commonly too small to see but of which some members are large enough to be observed with the eye. Such groups include the \"Cladocera\", planktonic green algae of which \"Volvox\" is readily observable, and the protozoa of which \"stentor\" can be easily seen without aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20377",
"title": "Microorganism",
"section": "Section::::Classification and structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14610284",
"title": "Insect mouthparts",
"section": "Section::::Sponging insects.:Labellum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The housefly is the typical sponging insect. The labium gives the description, being articulate and possessing at its end a sponge-like labellum. Paired mandibles and maxillae are present, but much reduced and non-functional. The labellum's surface is covered by minute food channels, formed by the interlocking elongate hypopharynx and epipharynx, forming a proboscis used to channel liquid food to the oesophagus. The food channel draws liquid and liquified food to the oesophagus by capillary action. The housefly is able to eat solid food by secreting saliva and dabbing it over the food item. As the saliva dissolves the food, the solution is then drawn up into the mouth as a liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r384j
|
why do some people enjoy massages but it causes pain for others?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a huge difference between massages just for the feeling of someone rubbing your back with some more force in it and massages for relaxing muscles. I have a rather high pain tolerance, but if my muscles are really tense, having them massaged hurts *a lot*. I can't give you a good explanation for that (any physicians/medicine-students around here?), but this is one reason why a lot of people do not enjoy massages meant for really relaxing the muscles. And if my muscles are really tense, even slightly pressing them will hurt, so maybe your neck is just ridiculously tense? In this case I'd recommend going to get a medical massage. I've known folks running around with muscles that were never really relaxed for years. They didn't even know what a relaxed back feels like, so they didn't miss it.\n\nMassages for relaxing the muscles are generally made harder, so they might even hurt slightly if your muscles are not tense and you are not \"used to it\" (meaning your pain tolerance to this kind of pain is very low). Another possibility: The guys giving you a massage didn't know, what they were doing. A wrong massage hurts too, but it will only tense your muscles even more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Secretly, some people are masochists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "Section::::Medical and therapeutic use.:Regulations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 190,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 190,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "People state that they use massage because they believe that it relieves pain from musculoskeletal injuries and other causes of pain, reduces stress and enhances relaxation, rehabilitates sports injuries, decreases feelings of anxiety and depression, and increases general well being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1190250",
"title": "Thai massage",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "All types of massage, including Thai massage, can help people relax, temporarily relieve muscle and / or joint pain, and temporarily boost a person's mood. However, many practitioners' claims go far beyond those effects well demonstrated by clinical study. Most clinicians dispute its efficacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "Section::::Medical and therapeutic use.:Beneficial effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Peer-reviewed medical research has shown that the benefits of massage include pain relief, reduced trait anxiety and depression, and temporarily reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and state of anxiety. Additional testing has shown an immediate increase and expedited recovery periods for muscle performance. Theories behind what massage might do include enhanced skeletal muscle regrowth and remodeling, blocking nociception (gate control theory), activating the parasympathetic nervous system, which may stimulate the release of endorphins and serotonin, preventing fibrosis or scar tissue, increasing the flow of lymph, and improving sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "Section::::Medical and therapeutic use.:Beneficial effects.:Single-dose effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pain relief: Relief from pain due to musculoskeletal injuries and other causes is cited as a major benefit of massage. A 2015 Cochrane Review concluded that there is very little evidence that massage is an effective treatment for lower back pain. A meta-analysis conducted by scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign failed to find a statistically significant reduction in pain immediately following treatment. Weak evidence suggests that massage may improve pain in the short term for people with acute, sub-acute, and chronic lower back pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236647",
"title": "Erotic massage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Today, erotic massage is used by some people on occasion as a part of sex, either as foreplay or as the final sex act, or as part of sex therapy. There is also a large commercial erotic massage industry in some countries and cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43945",
"title": "Massage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Massage is the manipulation of soft tissues in the body. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet, or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pain. A person who was professionally trained to give massages was traditionally known as a masseur (male) or a masseuse (female), but those titles are outmoded, and carry some negative connotations. In the United States, the title massage therapist has been recognized as a business norm for those who have been professionally trained to give massages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236647",
"title": "Erotic massage",
"section": "Section::::Sex therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Erotic massage may be used in sex therapy as a means of stimulating the libido or increasing the ability of a person to respond positively to sensual stimulus. In some cases, erotic massage can be a form of foreplay without sexual gratification, intended to heighten the sensitivity of an individual prior to another engagement where sexual arousal and fulfillment is intended. In other cases, erotic massage may be used professionally to help men address issues of premature ejaculation. Methods employed may teach the recipient to relax the musculature of his pelvis and thus prolong arousal and increase pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8p8ln3
|
When was the highest % of the global population enslaved and did ancient societies with more slaves have an economic advantage over their rivals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow-up: Did areas with high percentages of slaves have poor freemen angry over economic woes? It seems like there would be a shortage of paying jobs when the wealthy could simply buy slaves to fill almost every role from farmhands to pedagogues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27992",
"title": "Slavery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "According to the \"Encyclopedia of African History\", \"It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture.\" The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33152938",
"title": "Roman villas in northwestern Gaul",
"section": "Section::::Labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "By the end of the second century BCE, 80 percent of the population consisted of emancipated slaves or their descendants. After the wars of expansion, as the slave pool dried up villas converted to tenant or employed laborers. By the end of the empire most slaves worked in domestic service as the owners’ private staff, rather than as laborers on the estates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253264",
"title": "Slavery in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Colonial America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "They constituted less than 5% of the twelve million enslaved people brought from Africa to the Americas. The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S., and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction. The number of enslaved people in the U.S. grew rapidly, reaching by the 1860 Census. From 1770 to 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21384",
"title": "History of Nigeria",
"section": "Section::::De-colonial states, 1800–1948.:Savanna states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "According to the \"Encyclopedia of African History\", \"It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10983626",
"title": "Slavery in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1242,
"text": "Slavery and the slave trades had a significant impact on the size of the population and the gender distribution throughout much of Africa. The precise impact of these demographic shifts has been an issue of significant debate. The Atlantic slave trade took 70,000 people, primarily from the west coast of Africa, per year at its peak in the mid-1700s. The Arab slave trade involved the capture of peoples from the continental interior, who were then shipped overseas through ports on the Red Sea and elsewhere. It peaked at 10,000 people bartered per year in the 1600s. According to Patrick Manning, there were consistent population decreases in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of these slave trades. This population decline throughout West Africa from 1650 until 1850 was exacerbated by the preference of slave traders for male slaves. In eastern Africa, the slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labor, Zanj slaves captured from the southern interior were sold through ports on the northern seaboard in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in the Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Persian Gulf, India, Far East and the Indian Ocean islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39285321",
"title": "Slavery in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Enslaved Africans in Latin America.:Atlantic Slave Trade- Brazil, French Caribbean, and Spanish America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "During the nearly four centuries in which slavery existed in the Americas, Brazil was responsible for importing 35 percent of the slaves from Africa (4 million) while Spanish America imported about 20 percent (2.5 million) all during the Atlantic Slave Trade. These numbers are significantly higher than the imported slaves of the United States (less than 5 percent). High death rates, an enormous number of runaway slaves, and greater levels of manumission(granting a slave freedom) meant that Latin America and Caribbean societies had fewer slaves than the United States at any given time. However they made up a higher percentage of the population throughout the colonial period. This being said, the upper class of these societies constantly feared for uprising among not only slaves but Indians and the poor of all racial ethnic groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3817699",
"title": "Malthusian trap",
"section": "Section::::The Malthusian theory.:Evidence to support the theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1780,
"text": "Research indicates that technological superiority and higher land productivity had significant positive effects on population density but insignificant effects on the standard of living during the time period 1–1500 AD. In addition, scholars have reported on the lack of a significant trend of wages in various places over the world for very long stretches of time. In Babylonia during the period 1800 to 1600 BC, for example, the daily wage for a common laborer was enough to buy about 15 pounds of wheat. In Classical Athens in about 328 BC, the corresponding wage could buy about 24 pounds of wheat. In England in 1800 AD the wage was about 13 pounds of wheat. In spite of the technological developments across these societies, the daily wage hardly varied. In Britain between 1200 and 1800, only relatively minor fluctuations from the mean (less than a factor of two) in real wages occurred. Following depopulation by the Black Death and other epidemics, real income in Britain peaked around 1450–1500 and began declining until the British Agricultural Revolution. Historian Walter Scheidel posits that waves of plague following the initial outbreak of the Black Death throughout Europe had a leveling effect that changed the ratio of land to labor, reducing the value of the former while boosting that of the latter, which lowered economic inequality by making employers and landowners less well off while improving the economic prospects and living standards of workers. He says that \"the observed improvement in living standards of the laboring population was rooted in the suffering and premature death of tens of millions over the course of several generations.\" This leveling effect was reversed by a \"demographic recovery that resulted in renewed population pressure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fvtxzk
|
why is it easy to pick up a child that weighs 40 to 50 kilograms but very difficult to pick up a 40 to 50 kilogram weight?
|
[
{
"answer": "The weight of the child is spread out over a large area compared to the relatively small area of the weight, making the child appear easier because it uses more muscles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On top of what others have said, there’s usually a bigger incentive not to drop the child, so you try harder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well you're using both hands and your legs. You don't just grab a kid by the shirt and hoist it up with one arm. You bend down, grab the kid with both hands and use your legs to lift.\n\nWhen you pick up a dumbbell you're using one hand, which means the weight is to your side, which means it's an unbalanced lift, you have a hard time using your legs on an unbalanced lift, etc.\n\nWhen you pick up a barbell (this would be an empty bar), it's long an ungainly.\n\nWhen you pick up a box it's a smooth-sided surface with nothing to grab onto.\n\nThere are very few parallels to picking up a child. Picking up a lumpy piece of equipment like a kitchen mixer, desktop PC or a microscope is similar I suppose. Not hard if you can get a good grip on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because a child doesn't weigh 40-50kg, that's around the weight of the average 14-17 year old male\n\nObjects typically are harder to pick up also because they are lower to the ground, a child with outstretched arms you're only picking up from around thigh/waist height",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21265224",
"title": "Capstan equation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "For instance, the factor \"153,552,935\" (5 turns around a capstan with a coefficient of friction of 0.6) means, in theory, that a newborn baby would be capable of holding (not moving) the weight of two supercarriers (97,000 tons each, but for the baby it would be only a little more than 1 kg). The large number of turns around the capstan combined with such a high friction coefficient mean that very little additional force is necessary to hold such heavy weight in place. The cables necessary to support this weight, as well as the capstan's ability to withstand the crushing force of those cables, are separate considerations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3229129",
"title": "Child safety seat",
"section": "Section::::Law.:Austria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- All children who are smaller than and younger than 14 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must be either 14 years old or 4'11\" to ride without a booster seat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3229129",
"title": "Child safety seat",
"section": "Section::::Law.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- All children who are smaller than and younger than 7 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must use a car seat at ages 0–4; Ages 5–7 a booster is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29500777",
"title": "Trauma in children",
"section": "Section::::Anatomic and physiologic differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Due to basic geometry, a child's weight to surface area ratio is lower than an adult's, children more readily lose their body heat through radiation and have a higher risk of becoming hypothermic. Smaller body size in children often makes them more prone to poly traumatic injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3077526",
"title": "Metal Slug 3",
"section": "Section::::Versions.:Console versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Two players compete to gain the most weight in a limited amount of time by eating various foods. They start out at 100 kg and must finish at 200. If players lose enough weight, they will return to normal size and subsequently to a mummy state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12142820",
"title": "Clark's rule",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The procedure is to take the child's weight in pounds, divide by 150 lb, and multiply the fractional result by the adult dose to find the equivalent child dosage. For example, if an adult dose of medication calls for 30 mg and the child weighs 30 lb, divide the weight by 150 (30/150) to obtain 1/5 and multiply 1/5 times 30 mg to get 6 mg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9388522",
"title": "Kila Raipur Sports Festival",
"section": "Section::::Other games.:Ghaggar Phissi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "This is another game for the boys. One boy would bend and the other boys, may be one or two or three get on top of him, if he could bear the weight, he would win. In case he could not bear the weight and fell, he would lose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nfyfp
|
If an Amnesia victim has lost their memories for a significant amount of time and recovers their memories, will they regain their original personality or keep the amnesia personality?
|
[
{
"answer": "What we observe as personality is the product of variance in regions of the brain- this study, for example, shows the correlation between neuroticism and amygdala variance- _URL_0_ . An individual's personality is quite stable over the long run- see here _URL_1_ and here _URL_2_ . \nAmnesia, specifically in your case retrograde amnesia, impacts the brains ability to utilize its episodic memory system. From the wikipedia article on amnesia- \"This type of amnesia first targets the patient's most recent memories, the amount of memories lost depends on the severity of the case. The person may be able to memorize new things that occur after the onset of amnesia (unlike in anterograde amnesia), but is unable to recall some or all of their life or identity prior to the onset. The effects of retrograde amnesia (RA) occurs on fact memory on a lower degree than its affects on autobiographical memory, which can be affected over the whole lifespan of the patient by RA.\" \nSo, to answer the question, personality wise, they would be the same throughout. If their memories returned, their personality wouldnt change- all that would change is their ability to recall the memories they had \"lost\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What we observe as personality is the product of variance in regions of the brain- this study, for example, shows the correlation between neuroticism and amygdala variance- _URL_0_ . An individual's personality is quite stable over the long run- see here _URL_1_ and here _URL_2_ . \nAmnesia, specifically in your case retrograde amnesia, impacts the brains ability to utilize its episodic memory system. From the wikipedia article on amnesia- \"This type of amnesia first targets the patient's most recent memories, the amount of memories lost depends on the severity of the case. The person may be able to memorize new things that occur after the onset of amnesia (unlike in anterograde amnesia), but is unable to recall some or all of their life or identity prior to the onset. The effects of retrograde amnesia (RA) occurs on fact memory on a lower degree than its affects on autobiographical memory, which can be affected over the whole lifespan of the patient by RA.\" \nSo, to answer the question, personality wise, they would be the same throughout. If their memories returned, their personality wouldnt change- all that would change is their ability to recall the memories they had \"lost\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "509678",
"title": "Repressed memory",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Amnesia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The form of amnesia that is linked with recovered memories is dissociative amnesia (formerly known as psychogenic amnesia). This results from a psychological cause, not by direct damage to the brain, and is a loss of memory of significant personal information, usually about traumatic or extremely stressful events. Usually this is seen as a gap or gaps in recall for aspects of someone's life history, but with severe acute trauma, such as during wartime, there can be a sudden acute onset of symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1432945",
"title": "Cognitive disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Mild and major neurocognitive disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A person with amnesia may slowly be able to recall their memories or work with an occupational therapist to learn new information to replace what was lost, or to use intact memories as a basis for taking in new information. If it is caused by an underlying cause such as Alzheimer's disease or infections, the cause may be treated but the amnesia may not be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530537",
"title": "Anterograde amnesia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. In the other case, which has been studied extensively since the early 1970s, patients often have permanent damage, although some recovery is possible, depending on the nature of the pathophysiology. Usually, some capacity for learning remains, although it may be very elementary. In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10898",
"title": "Fugue state",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1320,
"text": "Functional amnesia can also be situation specific, varying from all forms and variations of traumas or generally violent experiences, with the person experiencing severe memory loss for a particular trauma. Committing homicide; experiencing or committing a violent crime such as rape or torture; experiencing combat violence; attempting suicide; and being in automobile accidents and natural disasters have all induced cases of situation-specific amnesia (Arrigo & Pezdek, 1997; Kopelman, 2002a). As Kopelman (2002a) notes, however, care must be exercised in interpreting cases of psychogenic amnesia when there are compelling motives to feign memory deficits for legal or financial reasons. However, although some fraction of psychogenic amnesia cases can be explained in this fashion, it is generally acknowledged that true cases are not uncommon. Both global and situationally specific amnesia are often distinguished from the organic amnesic syndrome, in that the capacity to store new memories and experiences remains intact. Given the very delicate and oftentimes dramatic nature of memory loss in these such cases, there usually is a concerted effort to help the person recover their identity and history. This will allow the subject to sometimes be recovered spontaneously when particular cures are encountered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509678",
"title": "Repressed memory",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Effects of trauma on memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "BULLET::::- Traumatic amnesia; this involves the loss of memories of traumatic experiences. The younger the subject and the longer the traumatic event is, the greater the chance of significant amnesia. He stated that subsequent retrieval of memories after traumatic amnesia is well documented in the literature, with documented examples following natural disasters and accidents, in combat soldiers, in victims of kidnapping, torture and concentration camp experiences, in victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in people who have committed murder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347303",
"title": "Amnesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease, but it can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. In some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a few months of memory. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time. These two types are not mutually exclusive; both can occur simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236809",
"title": "Recall (memory)",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Amnesia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Movies often restore victim's memory through a second trauma, or through a kind of cued recall when they revisit familiar places or see familiar objects. The phenomenon of the second trauma can be seen in \"Singing in the Dark\" (1956) where the victim experiences the onset of amnesia because of the trauma of the Holocaust, but memory is restored with a blow to the head. Although neurosurgery is often the cause of amnesia, it is seen as a solution in some movies, including \"Deluxe Annie\" (1918) and \"Rascals\" (1938).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42vwtc
|
can alcohol turn you into a different person?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my experience, alcohol just loosens inhibitions. So people who \"get mean\" when they drink are just mean people who usually keep it together. Just like I get really sentimental when I drink; I'm a sentimental guy, it's just normally under the surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14185155",
"title": "History of Alcoholics Anonymous",
"section": "Section::::1935 Dr. Bob sober.:A new program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "To produce a spiritual conversion necessary for sobriety and sanity, alcoholics needed to realize that they couldn't conquer alcoholism by themselves—that surrendering to a higher power and working with another alcoholic were required. Sober alcoholics could show drinking alcoholics that it was possible to enjoy life without alcohol, thus inspiring a spiritual conversion that would help ensure sobriety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24514",
"title": "Psychosis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Psychoactive drugs.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Approximately three percent of people who are suffering from alcoholism experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to the long-term effects of alcohol resulting in distortions to neuronal membranes, gene expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as causing psychosocial impairments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24809120",
"title": "Alcohol in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Influences.:Social status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "A lot of people think drinking alcohol gives them a sense of identity that may help them fit in with social networks. Some also believe it heightens confidence to take part in social situations. Some may oppose the fact that they are being pressured into consuming alcohol, but others look to find social networks where consuming alcohol is common as enhancing a sense of belonging and identity formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29981150",
"title": "Drunk drivers",
"section": "Section::::Effects of alcohol on cognitive processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "One of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, \"without significantly impairing sensory motor functions.\" This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of usable vision than people who are sober. The information the brain receives from the eyes \"becomes disrupted if eyes must be turned to the side to detect stimuli, or if eyes must be moved quickly from one point to another.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2367309",
"title": "State-dependent memory",
"section": "Section::::Substances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "Alcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects of state-dependent memory while intoxicated for chronic drinkers than for those who do not drink often.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472608",
"title": "Depressant",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes for taxation and regulation of production: beers, wines, and spirits (distilled beverages). They are legally consumed in most countries around the world. More than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47699434",
"title": "Alcoholism in adolescence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Alcohol is a liquid form substance which contains ethyl alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) that can cause harm and even damage to a persons DNA. \"Alcohol consumption is recognized worldwide as a leading risk factor for disease, disability, and death.\" and is rated as the most used and abused substance by adolescences. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological changes, usually a time in a person life in which they go through puberty. Combining these transitional stages and the intake of alcohol, can leave a number of consequences for an adolescent. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
58gmu0
|
Like Google Maps...but for History
|
[
{
"answer": "The website [GeoCron](_URL_1_) is a good place to start. You can skip to any year and it will show you roughly what the world looked like. It is not entirely accurate at some points, like sometimes the author just places a circle and the name of the civilization where he may not have much information. However, it is a good place to start and gives a good visual of empires, the first civilizations, and the such.\n\nOf course, more detailed maps can be used in collaboration with GeoCron to give your students a better understanding. I have found [Euratlas](_URL_0_) to be a decent sources for maps of different European regions in 100 year increments. So a bit of big stretches between maps, but decent if it has one near the year you are interested in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chapel Hill has the [Ancient World Mapping Center](_URL_0_). It's a little tricky to use - I've been able to generate maps for one of my chapters, but I haven't figured out how to get a persistent link and I have no bloody clue what the citation will be. Right now they're jpgs of screenshots. Should be fine for lecture though.\n\nSometimes the names of places are tricky. I think it prefers Rubico to Rubicon for some reason; some other places prefer to use the Latin or Greek forms in idiosyncratic ways. Probably fine for your needs though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find that [Talessman's Atlas](_URL_0_) maps are very good for teaching about the ancient and medieval periods indeed. Hope they can be of some use for you, too!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Google Earth has a [timeline feature ](_URL_0_) in the top bar. It only goes back to the 1940's in most cases and generally only in urban centers. \n\n[How To](_URL_1_)\n\nIt uses early aerial photography from the 1930's to the late 1990's, at which point satelite imagery kicks in. The oldest shots are in Texas around Spindletop, mapping oil fields.\n\nI use it to research & demonstrate growth and historic context of neighborhoods we do projects in. You can literally pick a spot, scroll back & forth watching change happen decade by decade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57882206",
"title": "Aerial firefighting and forestry in southern Australia",
"section": "Section::::Mapping.:Digital fire mapping and GPS navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::4. Google Maps beginning as a \"thought bubble\" and a series of random scribbles on a white board in 2004 by Noel Gordon, one of the four men who founded the Sydney-based software company Where 2 Technologies. Google Earth developed separately in the US around the same time while Google Street View followed in 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494648",
"title": "Google Maps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Google Maps is a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets (Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and route planning for traveling by foot, car, bicycle and air (in beta), or public transportation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7052260",
"title": "Adrian Holovaty",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Crime mapping innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "As one of the first Google Maps mashups, it helped influence Google to create its official Google Maps API. Newspaper sites such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" and the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" have incorporated a map from EveryBlock, the successor to chicagocrime.org, into their web sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494648",
"title": "Google Maps",
"section": "Section::::History.:Acquisitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Google Maps first started as a C++ program designed by two Danish brothers, Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen, at the Sydney-based company Where 2 Technologies. It was first designed to be separately downloaded by users, but the company later pitched the idea for a purely Web-based product to Google management, changing the method of distribution. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google Inc. where it transformed into the web application Google Maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13980190",
"title": "Intelligence analysis management",
"section": "Section::::Preprocessing.:Geophysical basic intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Online resources such as Google Earth are increasingly useful for other than the most detailed technical analysis. One challenge remains the indexing of maps in geographical information systems, since multiple projections and coordinate systems are used both in maps and in imagery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494648",
"title": "Google Maps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Google Maps began as a C++ desktop program at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application. After additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a realtime traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The service's front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax. Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allowed users to collaboratively expand and update the service's mapping worldwide but was discontinued from March 2017. However, crowdsourced contributions to Google Maps were not discontinued as the company announced those features will be transferred to the Google Local Guides program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3735970",
"title": "Geospatial content management system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Since the advent of Google Maps and the publication of its API, numerous users have used online maps to illustrate their web pages. Google Maps is in itself not a GeoCMS but a building block for GeoCMS applications. Similarly Mapserver can also be used for creating GeoCMS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xws9k
|
modulo
|
[
{
"answer": "Modulo returns the remainder of integer division, rather than trying to fiind a decimal answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mod is basically the remainder of a division problem.\n\n50mod7 is 1 because 50/7 = 7 with a remainder of 1. 7*7 = 49. 49 + 1 = 50. 50mod7 = 1.\n\n39mod5 = 4\n\n100mod12 = 4\n\n92mod3 = 2",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Division with Rest and the result is only the rest.\n\nLets take an example: 5 / 4 = 1,25 or 1 And a rest of 1, because 5 - 4 = 1\n\nThat means, that 5 Mod 4 is 1.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1352566",
"title": "Modulo (jargon)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "\"Modulo\" is mathematical jargon that was introduced into mathematics in the book \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. Given the integers \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\", the expression \"a\" ≡ \"b\" (mod \"n\") (pronounced \"\"a\" is congruent to \"b\" modulo \"n\"\") means that \"a\" − \"b\" is an integer multiple of \"n\", or equivalently, \"a\" and \"b\" both leave the same remainder when divided by \"n\". It is the Latin ablative of \"modulus\", which itself means \"a small measure.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37160229",
"title": "Join-pattern",
"section": "Section::::Implementations and libraries.:C#.:Polyphonic C#.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Polyphonic C# is an extension of the C# programming language. It introduces a new concurrency model with synchronous and asynchronous (which return control to the caller) methods and chords (also known as ‘synchronization patterns’ or ‘join patterns’).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1352566",
"title": "Modulo (jargon)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The word modulo (Latin, with respect to a modulus of ___) is the Latin ablative of \"modulus\" which itself means \"a small measure.\" It was introduced into mathematics by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. The term has gained many meanings—some exact and some imprecise. Generally, the term is expressed:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11730835",
"title": "Alesis Quadrasynth",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "In the Quadrasynth's composite synthesis system, up to four \"tones\" are used to create a single \"patch\" or synthesizer sound. These individual \"tones\" are created by using 16-bit digital single-cycle waveforms or digital samples as oscillator sources, and are then processed via a digital non-resonant filter, various LFOs and envelope generators, and so on - in the usual manner. The Quadrasynth contained 16MB of ROM containing PCM-based waveforms and samples, with the option of expanding the sample base via PCMCIA expansion cards which plug into the back of the synthesizer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582340",
"title": "Quadratic sieve",
"section": "Section::::How QS optimizes finding congruences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The quadratic sieve attempts to find pairs of integers \"x\" and \"y(x)\" (where \"y(x)\" is a function of \"x\") satisfying a much weaker condition than \"x\" ≡ \"y\" (mod \"n\"). It selects a set of primes called the \"factor base\", and attempts to find \"x\" such that the least absolute remainder of \"y(x)\" = \"x\" mod \"n\" factorizes completely over the factor base. Such \"y\" values are said to be \"smooth\" with respect to the factor base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1352428",
"title": "Modulo operation",
"section": "Section::::Remainder calculation for the modulo operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In mathematics, the result of the modulo operation is an equivalence class, and any member of the class may be chosen as representative; however, the usual representative is the least positive residue, the smallest nonnegative integer which belongs to that class, \"i.e.\" the remainder of the Euclidean division. However, other conventions are possible. Computers and calculators have various ways of storing and representing numbers; thus their definition of the modulo operation depends on the programming language or the underlying hardware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033877",
"title": "Dixon's factorization method",
"section": "Section::::Optimizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The quadratic sieve is an optimization of Dixon's method. It selects values of \"x\" close to the square root of N such that \"x\" modulo \"N\" is small, thereby largely increasing the chance of obtaining a smooth number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ywegq
|
Why have no new phyla developed since the Cambrian Explosion?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is because of the way that phyla (and other taxonomic groups) are defined. Phyla are essentially arbitrarily-defined groups, and there is no particular amount of structural or genetic divergence that causes us to classify a particular group as a phylum. However, like other taxonomic groups, scientists do strive to make phyla represent monophyletic groups (groups of organisms that contain a common ancestor and all of its descendants). This means that in order for a new phylum to be recognized, we would have to split up a currently recognized phylum, possibly into several groups.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15182882",
"title": "Marine invertebrates",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Emergence of animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2056572",
"title": "Marine life",
"section": "Section::::Invertebrate animals.:Body plans and phyla.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8787159",
"title": "Objections to evolution",
"section": "Section::::Impossibility.:Creation of complex structures.:Cambrian explosion complexity argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record, and many more phyla now extinct. This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today, although they did not resemble the species of today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18288753",
"title": "Ordovician radiation",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "If the Cambrian Explosion is thought of as producing the modern phyla, the GOBE can be considered as the \"filling out\" of these phyla with the modern (and many extinct) classes and lower-level taxa. The GOBE is considered to be one of the most potent speciation events of the Phanerozoic era increasing global diversity severalfold. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26167757",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in biology",
"section": "Section::::Non-human biology.:Ecology and paleontology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349161",
"title": "Cambrian explosion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Before the Cambrian explosion, most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. As the rate of diversification subsequently accelerated, the variety of life began to resemble that of today. Almost all present animal phyla appeared during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
458msk
|
Before French and Latin, has there been any other lingua franca?
|
[
{
"answer": "Greek! The Romans themselves were Grekophiles, and most well-educated Romans would be expected to know Greek. Greek was the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean (and was also widely spoken in many western mediteranean settlements like Massalia and Emporion) and continued to be the primary language of communication there up to the fall of the Byzantine Empire. [You can read more here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imperial Aramaic would be an example of a lingua franca pre-dating the use of these two languages in that capacity.\n\nAfter and amongst the disruptions of the end of the Bronze age Aramean semi-nomadic tribes migrated throughout the Near East establishing new kingdoms and often overrunning existing ones. Babylon was sacked at one point and the Hebrew Bible is replete with references to Aram-Syria menacing Israel and Judah. They never were able to conquer Assyria (northern Iraq) though and ultimately Assyria brought most of the Near East under its control. As also referenced in the Hebrew Bible the Assyrians were quite fond of forced deportations and ultimately a lot of Aramean speaking peoples were settled in areas like Mesopotamia that already had a strong Arameans influence in certain areas. Ultimately, the dialect of Aramean spoken in Mesopotamia (Imperial Aramaic) became the \"lingua franca\" of the (Neo) Assyrian Empire. Assyria fell and was briefly replaced by a resurgent Babylon, which didn't knock Imperial Aramaic off of its pedastal since the Babylonians were speaking Aramaic by that point anyway. Once Cyrus the Persian overthrew the Babylonians and the Medes, he and his successors were practical enough to continue using this dialect in the administration of their empire. Koine Greek would steal some of the thunder of Aramaic after the conquests of Alexander the Great, but it was still widely used in the Near East at the beginning of the Common Era (the Christian Bible, while written in Koine reflects that Jesus spoke a form of Aramaic) and only stops being used as a lingua franca in parts of the Near East after the \"Arabization\" associated with the Muslim Conquests.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, actually. One such language was Koine Greek.\n\nOne consequence of Alexander's conquests of Asia and Egypt was a process called Hellenization, the transference of Greek culture into the newly conquered territories. Greek architecture, philosophy, technology, literature, and religion were spread throughout the kingdoms that emerged in the wake of Alexander. \n\nKoine Greek became a *lingua franca,* though obviously that term would not have been used. In the Middle East, Koine Greek was even still used as a common language after the arrival of the Roman Empire. This is actually the reason that the New Testament was written in Koine Greek: anybody who could actually read could probably read Greek, and those who couldn't read Greek would still have understood it when it was read aloud. It was this common language that helped spread Christianity throughout the Empire.\n\nAfter the fall of the Roman Empire, Koine Greek continued to be used in the Byzantine empire as a written language (although at this point, the language was in a period of transition between Koine and Modern Greek, a period called Medieval Greek). It would only be a few centuries after that before Arabic was introduced to the region and Koine's dominance came to an end.\n\n---\n\nNikolaos P. Andriotis, *History of the Greek Language.* \nElizabeth Pollard, *Worlds Together Worlds Apart.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65373",
"title": "Lingua franca",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The term \"lingua franca\" derives from Mediterranean Lingua Franca, the pidgin language that people around the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from late medieval times, especially during the Renaissance era, to the 18th century. At that time, Italian-speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the Ottoman Empire and a simplified version of Italian, including many loan words from Greek, Old French, Portuguese, Occitan, and Spanish as well as Arabic and Turkish came to be widely used as the \"lingua franca\" (in the generic sense) of the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11242061",
"title": "Mediterranean Lingua Franca",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "\"Lingua franca\" means literally \"language of the Franks\" in Late Latin, and originally referred specifically to the language that was used around the Eastern Mediterranean Sea as the main language of commerce. However, the terms \"Franks\" and \"Frankish\" were actually applied to all Western Europeans during the late Byzantine Period. Later, the meaning of \"lingua franca\" expanded to mean any bridge language. Its other name in the Mediterranean area was \"Sabir\", deriving from a Romance base meaning \"to know\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31030456",
"title": "List of lingua francas",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Italian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The Mediterranean Lingua Franca was largely based on Italian and Provençal. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities (Genoa, Venice, Florence, Milan, Pisa, Siena) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65373",
"title": "Lingua franca",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Lingua francas have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called \"trade languages\" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic, and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term is taken from the medieval Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a Romance-based pidgin language used (especially by traders and seamen) as a lingua franca in the Mediterranean Basin from the 11th to the 19th century. A world language – a language spoken internationally and by a large number of people – is a language that may function as a global lingua franca.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39432784",
"title": "List of English words of Italian origin",
"section": "Section::::Literature and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lingua franca (Italian \"lingua Franca\", \"Frankish language\"). Its usage to mean a common tongue originated from its meaning in Arabic and Greek during the Middle Ages, whereby all Western Europeans were called \"Franks\" or \"Faranji\" in Arabic and \"Phrankoi\" in Greek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48294",
"title": "International auxiliary language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Natural international languages: Lingua francas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "\"Lingua francas\" have arisen around the globe throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called \"trade languages\") but also for diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term originates with one such language, Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a pidgin language used as a trade language in the Mediterranean area from the 11th to the 19th century. Examples of lingua francas remain numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example as of the early 21st century is English. There are many other lingua francas centralized on particular regions, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Greek, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22292",
"title": "Occitan language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Occitan in the Iberian Peninsula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Catalan in Spain's northern and central Mediterranean coastal regions and the Balearic Islands is closely related to Occitan, sharing many linguistic features and a common origin (see Occitano-Romance languages). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature among Romance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Guerau de Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerverí de Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dxk2g
|
Why does it spread germs/illnesses to leave a bathroom with hands unwashed, yet oral-genital contact is not regarded as a surefire way to get the same illnesses?
|
[
{
"answer": "Washing your hands after using the bathroom is not just about the germs gathered during the time using the bathroom. Ingraining that habit into people while they are at a sink with water gets them to clean away other germs they may have picked up without having to make a special trip to wash. \n\nHuman fecal matter is the real germ problem, not the human genitals. The genitals themselves, if clean should carry no more germs than the rest of the skin. Ineffective wiping however leaves fecal matter, and potentially it ends up on the hands. Washing removes it. In reality a male standing to pee, or either gender who doesn't wipe at all shouldn't be gaining any more germs on their hands than from any other activity. Its just easier to train people to always wash after a bathroom event so the bases are covered. It has the added benefit of removing other germs gathered before the bathroom event.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6532984",
"title": "Sapovirus",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "General sanitary hygiene is the most important method of preventing sapovirus. This can be done by thoroughly washing hands after using the restroom and before eating/preparing food. Contaminated surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant and or solutions containing bleach. Other preventative measures include avoiding contact and sharing drinks/food with infected individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Infections can be prevented from occurring in homes as well. In order to reduce their chances to contract an infection, individuals are recommended to maintain a good hygiene by washing their hands after every contact with questionable areas or bodily fluids and by disposing of garbage at regular intervals to prevent germs from growing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52237093",
"title": "Door handle bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Precautions and preventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "The most obvious way to prevent the contraction and spread of direct contact diseases is to try not to touch door handles at all, of course this is not always possible. Therefore, thoroughly washing your hands after going to the bathroom or returning from a public place should be a behaviour that is instilled in children from an early age though this is not enough to stop most germs from breeding. Automatic doors are becoming more and more popular in hospitals, chemists and other public buildings due to them reducing the risk of cross-contamination since there is no need to handle the door at all. Another prevention technique, which is mainly used in luxury hotels, is the use of a doorman who will open and close the main door, screening visitors and deliveries. These mean passers through do not have to touch the door at all therefore eliminating all risk of catching or passing on direct contact diseases. Precautionary measures which can be taken in order to prevent such diseases include wearing gloves, using paper towel or tissues to open handles or using tools, like the loodini, to avoid using door handles all together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Laundry hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Laundry hygiene involves practices that prevent disease and its spread via soiled clothing and household linens such as towels. Items most likely to be contaminated with pathogens are those that come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal towels, facecloths, nappies. Cloths or other fabric items used during food preparation, or for cleaning the toilet or cleaning up material such as feces or vomit are a particular risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38578972",
"title": "1964 Aberdeen typhoid outbreak",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The typhoid outbreak may have encouraged replacement of traditional laundered roller towels in public toilets, which allowed bacterial cross-infection from person to person, by disposable paper towels and warm air hand driers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42673188",
"title": "Cystoisospora belli",
"section": "Section::::Transmission and prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Cystoisospora belli does not require an intermediate host and currently is only known to transmit from person to person. The method of transmission is ingesting food or water that has been contaminated with feces from someone who is infected. Washing your hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and before handling food is vital. Also, educating children the importance of hand-washing and good hygiene practice is important.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Not indicated.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "There are certain situations during which hand washing with water and soap are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of \"Clostridioides difficile\", parasites such as \"Cryptosporidium\", and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as when after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC recommends hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9w9iot
|
how can i invest and grow my money without knowing how to invest?
|
[
{
"answer": "The market overall is down right now, so it makes sense that you lost some money. The three main things you need to know: Investment gains are slow; it wouldn't be a surprise for it to take a year or so before you make $10 on $500. The safest way to invest is to diversity; buying shares of an index fund or an ETF will let you invest in hundreds of stocks at once rather than putting all of your cash into one or two companies. Third thing to consider is what pre-tax investment options you have. See if your work offers a 401k plan; any money you put into that wont get taxed until you take it out, and some employers will give you extra money for contributions you make to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are people who do this as their job. They are the much-reviled and lambasted \"investment bankers\" and they will invest and grow your money for you. In order to enlist their services you can talk to your bank where you are likely already keeping your money, and they will direct you to their specialists on staff for just such a purpose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Exceptionally few people \"know\" how to invest. Most people use things like 401k from their company as their main investment, which requires minimal to no knowledge, and generally thats the first stop for most.\n\n > How can I take $500 and put it somewhere and after a reasonable amount of time, have more than $510?\n\nNot sure if example or not, but if you are thinking of investing $500 (the fact that you even used such low number as an example scares me), you should not. Thats **way** too low of an amount to consider investing in anything. Generally amounts less than $10k of very liquid, you really don't need it, no chance you'll need it would be even the bare minimum to consider investing at all (outside of 401k stuff).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the layperson should be funding a 401k, funding a roth IRA, and putting any additional investment funds into a major index fund. Personally I like the vanguard 500; you can quibble over fund management but vanguard's fees are low and no comparable product meaningfully outperforms them.\n\napps like acorn, betterment and so on are really less about investment choice than they are about finding inventive ways to start saving; they're fine if they help you, but you still want to be sure you're using the change they set aside in the best way possible",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Go to r/wallstreetbets. Look at what they think is the right move. Now invest $500 in the opposite. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9547490",
"title": "Socially responsible investing",
"section": "Section::::Investing strategies.:Community investment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "By investing \"directly\" in an institution, rather than purchasing stock, an investor is able to create a greater social impact: money spent purchasing stock in the secondary market accrues to the stock's previous owner and may not generate social good, while money invested in a community institution is put to work. For example, money invested in a Community Development Financial Institution may be used by that institution to alleviate poverty or inequality, spread access to capital to under-served communities, support economic development or green business, or create other social good. In 1984, Trillium Asset Management's founder, Joan Bavaria, invited Chuck Matthei of the Institute for Community Economics (ICE), an organization that helps communities create and sustain land trusts, to a meeting of US SIF. It is likely that this was the first time a nonprofit organization with a loan fund would meet directly with SRI managers. Trillium clients began investing in ICE later that year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17432703",
"title": "Real estate investment club",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Individuals have long known that it is possible to make money by investing in real estate, but very few, proportionately speaking, have the capital available to be able to do any investing. The solution is for individuals to join real estate investment clubs (which need to be distinguished from a formally established [real estate investment trust], so that their money can be pooled together in order to purchase properties that they otherwise could not afford to buy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "578327",
"title": "Future value",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "An investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to invest it. The financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the interests that he will receive from a borrower (the bank account on which he has the money deposited).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63218",
"title": "Present value",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "An investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to save it. But the financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the compound interest that he or she will receive from a borrower (the bank account in which he has the money deposited).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "805953",
"title": "Funding",
"section": "Section::::Methods of Funding.:Raise from investors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "To raise capital, you require funds from investors who are interested in the investments. You have to present those investors with high-return projects. By displaying high-level potentials of the projects, investors would be more attracted to put their money into those projects. After certain amount of time, usually in a year’s time, rewards of the investment will be shared with investors. This makes investors happy and they may continue to invest further. If returns do not meet the intended level, this could reduce the willingness of investors to invest their money into the funds. Hence, the amounts of financial incentives are highly weighted determinants to ensure the funding remains at a desirable level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1918736",
"title": "Yossi Vardi",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 401,
"text": "\"Investing in the Internet is similar in a way to investing in a farm. A farmer sows his seeds and 180 days later, he harvests. With start-up investments you sow your seeds and the harvest could take two or three years, but in the end it will always come. Perhaps that's what confuses the investors. They see wagon-loads of produce and they run to sow, but they cannot see when the harvest will come.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4529662",
"title": "Real estate entrepreneur",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Leverage is a powerful reason for investing in real estate. If an investor used 100% cash to acquire a house worth $100,000, and the house increased in value by $5,000 in one year, then the investor made a return of 5% (assuming no other costs in this case). However, if the investor obtained 95% financing, only $5,000 cash would be required at the closing table, and a bank or other lender would loan the remaining $95,000 to acquire the property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73qc72
|
what is the difference between the various semi-automatic gun mechanisms?
|
[
{
"answer": "The most simple form is straight blowback\nStraight blowback works by having an unlocked bolt behind the round in the chamber. when the gun is fired the gas pressure exerts a force on the bolt and it is forced away from the chamber. As it moves rearwards the empty case is pulled out. When the bolt reaches the rear of it's travel it moves forward again using the force stored in the recoil spring. On the way forwards it strips a new round from the magazine and pushes it into the chamber ready to fire again. The main disadvantage of blowback firearms is that the only thing keeping the bolt in battery (against the chamber) is the inertia of the bolt. In order to be safe the case needs to be supported in the chamber until the pressure in the chamber has dropped (after the bullet has left the barrel). As the power of the round being fired increases the mass of the bolt must increase. \n\n\nDelayed blowback is similar in operation except there will be some mechanism that will increase the inertia of the bolt without adding mass. For example the roller delayed blowback system used in the HK MP5 sub machinegun and G3 rifle or the lever delayed system used in the FAMAS rifle. The mechanism generally works by having a two part bolt having some method of forcing one half to move faster than the bolt face thus giving the bolt assembly more inertia than a one piece bolt of the same mass.\n\n\nBlow forward is the opposite of blowback. The bolt is in a fixed position and the drag of the bullet travelling through the barrel pulls the barrel forwards off the empty case. As the barrel reaches the end of it's forward travel the empty case is ejected and the barrel returns under spring pressure. As it travels back it collects a new round and chambers it. This method of operation is extremely rare and was only used in a few firearms\n\n\nRecoil operation means that when the gun is fired the bolt and barrel both move backwards together. This gives the bullet more time to leave the barrel than a blowback design. There are two main types of recoil operation: short recoil and long recoil.\n\n\nShort recoil operation means that the barrel and bolt are locked together when in battery and only travel a short distance before the barrel unlocks from the bolt. After this happens the barrel stops and the bolt continues. The empty case is ejected and the bolt returns forward collecting a new round and chambering it. The bolt gets to the barrel and moves it forward into the locked position ready to fire again. Most semi-auto pistols use a short recoil action with a browning tilting barrel design which works by locking the barrel into the slide via locking lugs above the chamber. As the barrel moves rearward it drops down which disconnects it from the slide. For example see the 1911. Other short recoil systems include the toggle locked (luger pistol) and rotating barrel (gsh18, beretta px4).\n\n\nLong recoil operation means that when the gun is fired both the bolt and barrel travel all the way to the end of travel. At this point the bolt stays at the rear and the barrel returns to the forward position. When the barrel slides off the empty case which is held by the bolt the case is ejected and the bolt then moves forward collecting a new round and chambering it. An example of this is the Browning A5 shotgun.\n\n\nGas operated firearms use tap some gas from a port in the barrel and use it to operate the gun. Gas operated firearms can be put into 2 categories: direct impingement and piston operated.\n\n\nDirect impingement firearms work by blowing gas directly at the bolt carrier which then moves rearward unlocking the bolt and ejects a round. For example the AG m/42 rifle. \nAn alternative is the system used in the AR10 and AR15 rifle which is where gas is tapped off the barrel and directed into the bolt carrier via the gas key. Once inside the carrier it expands in the space behind the bolt (which has a gas piston and rings at the rear) causing the bolt carrier to move rearward and unlock the bolt and then carry it the the rear. If memory serves this system was originally called an \"expanding gas system\" but is usually called direct impingement now.\n\n\nGas piston systems work by directing gas from the barrel and using it to push a piston which moves the bolt carrier to operate the firearm.\nThere are two types: short stroke and long stroke systems.\n\n\nShort stroke is where the piston only travels a short distance just enough to give the bolt carrier a kick which sets it into motion. Examples of this are the HK G36 rifle, FN SCAR rifle and the Steyr Aug Rifle.\n\n\nLong stroke is where the piston is attatched to the bolt carrier and travels all the way to the rear and all the way forward again. For example the AK47 rifle and M1 Garand rifle.\n\n\nTwo different ways that the bolt can unlock are by tilting or rotating. All the rifles I mentioned previously as examples of gas piston systems all have rotating bolts. Examples of tilting bolts are the VZ58 rifle and the FN FAL.\n\n\nOther actions exist too, I forget the name but there is a gun that used a combination blow forward/blow back action. Also check out the Mateba auto revolver.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "460100",
"title": "Semi-automatic pistol",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The language surrounding automatic, semi-automatic, self-loading, etc., often causes confusion due to differences in technical usage between different countries and differences in popular usage. For example, the term \"automatic pistol\" technically refers to a machine pistol which is capable of firing multiple round bursts for a single pull of the trigger, although in popular US usage it is also used as a synonym for a semi-automatic pistol. In the case of pistols, an 'automatic pistol', a 'semi-automatic pistol', or a 'self-loading pistol', all usually imply a handgun that is semi-automatic, self-loading, and magazine-fed with a magazine that is removable, producing one shot fired for each trigger pull. The term pistol may refer to handguns in general, or may be used to differentiate (semi-automatic) pistols from revolvers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "768511",
"title": "Automatic firearm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Although all \"semi-automatic\", \"burst fire\", and \"fully automatic\" firearms are \"automatic\" in the technical sense that the firearm automatically cycles between rounds with each trigger pull, the terms \"automatic weapon\" and \"automatic firearm\" are conventionally reserved by firearm enthusiasts to describe fully automatic firearms. Use of the terms \"fully automatic\" or \"full auto\" can avoid confusion. Firearms are further defined by the type of firearm action used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 487,
"text": "Semi-automatic refers to a firearm which uses the force of recoil or gas to eject the empty case and load a fresh cartridge into the firing chamber for the next shot and which allows repeat shots solely through the action of pulling the trigger. A double-action revolver also requires only a trigger pull for each round that is fired but is not considered semi-automatic since the manual action of pulling the trigger is what advances the cylinder, not the energy of the preceding shot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "Section::::Fully automatic compared to semi-automatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The term \"automatic pistol\" almost exclusively refers to a semi-automatic (i.e. not fully automatic) pistol (fully automatic pistols are usually referred to as machine pistols). With handguns, the term \"automatic\" is commonly used to distinguish semi-automatic pistols from revolvers. The term \"auto-loader\" may also be used to describe a semi-automatic handgun. However, to avoid confusion, the term \"automatic rifle\" is generally, conventionally and best restricted to a rifle capable of fully automatic fire. Both uses of the term \"automatic\" can be found; the exact meaning must be determined from context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11966",
"title": "Firearm",
"section": "Section::::Types of firearms.:Function.:Automatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 946,
"text": "An \"automatic\" firearm, or \"fully automatic\", \"fully auto\", or \"full auto\", is generally defined as one that continues to load and fire cartridges from its magazine as long as the trigger is depressed (and until the magazine is depleted of available ammunition. The first weapon generally considered in this category is the Gatling gun, originally a carriage-mounted, crank-operated firearm with multiple rotating barrels that was fielded in the American Civil War. The modern trigger-actuated machine gun began with various designs developed in the late 19th century and fielded in World War I, such as the Maxim gun, Lewis Gun, and MG 08 \"Spandau\". Most automatic weapons are classed as long guns (as the ammunition used is of similar type as for rifles, and the recoil of the weapon's rapid fire is better controlled with two hands), but handgun-sized automatic weapons also exist, generally in the \"submachine gun\" or \"machine pistol\" class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "460100",
"title": "Semi-automatic pistol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A semi-automatic pistol is a type of pistol that is semi-automatic, meaning it uses the energy of the fired cartridge to cycle the action of the firearm and advance the next available cartridge into position for firing. One cartridge is fired each time the trigger of a semi-automatic pistol is pulled; the pistol's \"disconnector\" ensures this behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768511",
"title": "Automatic firearm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "An automatic firearm continuously fires rounds as long as the trigger is pressed or held and there is ammunition in the magazine/chamber. In contrast, a semi-automatic firearm fires one round with each individual trigger-pull. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4cwroj
|
sound. yes i get that is a wave but how is a wave able to encode so much variety (voice, instruments, sound effects)?
|
[
{
"answer": "If it were a single wave, it would not convey so much. But sounds like you describe are a series of waves, spread out over time and interpreted by an excellent computer -- your brain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Frequency. The rate and fluctuation of which your' auditory cortex is inundated with sound hitting it determines the way you interpret it. If I hit something once it's a sharp whack, but hit it 1000 times per second it's a steady tone. Just like how a dog whistle cannot be perceived by humans, but dogs with more superb hearing can register the sound which basically isn't real to humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can encode a huge amount of information in a single wave. This can be done due to a property called *waveform addition*. If you take the sound of a voice and the sound of a piano, you can record them both individually as separate waveforms. You can then add them together to produce a more complex single wave. Here is a simple version of adding 2 waves together. _URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simple answer is just that waves are incredible complex and the sounds you describe look nothin like the sine waves one thinks about when thinking about waves. Just [look](_URL_0_) at the difference between a plugged guitar string and a cymbal crash.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dunno if I can answer your question directly but I'm a music major undergrad taking beginning audio. Basically all we talk about is the science of sound and how we can manipulate it. \n\n\nSound, or better yet, specific tones vibrate a certain amount of times in one second. For example the tone A440 will vibrate 440 times in one second. Beyond that though are overtones and partials (basically the same thing) where you will have other tones sort of inside the principal tone. It's easier to explain with a drawing, but a quick google search of the overtone series should give you plenty of info. Anyway, the reason A440 will sound different on a piano than a guitar is because of timbre. This is essentially the overtone series put to work. Different instruments will have different overtones to create their characteristic sound. Furthermore, if you are tech savvy and have a DAW (Digital Audio Workstation) you can manipulate these overtones to either make a guitar sound like a piano, or create whole new fictional instruments based on acoustic ones we already have. They will do this for movies based on sci-fi books and the like. \n\n\nSomeone else correct me if I'm wrong. To be honest I've had seven exams this week, it's Friday, and I'm high af. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are different frequencies, tones, pitches, and densities very much like the variety in types of waveforms. If you look at the waveform visualization of an audio you can see the differences in volume and such. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496667",
"title": "Korg OASYS",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis engines.:HD-1.:Wave Sequencing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Wave Sequences were first introduced on Korg's Wavestation synthesizer, released in 1990. Wave Sequences allow a single note to play through a list of samples, one after the other, with or without crossfades, with other associated parameters changing for each sample, as listed below. This can create smooth, evolving timbres, or rhythmic effects. Internally, Wave Sequences are implemented by using two voices; voice A plays the first sample, voice B plays the second sample, voice A plays the third sample, and so on. Other synthesizers have featured concepts which are similar in some aspects, such as PPG, Waldorf, and Access Virus wavetables, Synclavier resynthesis, and Ensoniq Transwaves and Hyperwaves (see the Ensoniq TS 10).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52287299",
"title": "3D sound synthesis",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Synthesizing 3D sound with speaker location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "Wave field synthesis is a spatial audio rendering technique that synthesizes wave fronts by using Huygens–Fresnel principle. First the original sound is recorded by microphone arrays and then loudspeaker arrays are used to reproduce the sound in the listening area. The arrays are placed along the boundaries of their own area. Microphones and loudspeakers are the same as the arrays with regard to their respective area. The different part this technique has is that it allows multiple listeners to move in the listening area and still hear the same sound from all directions. This is the unique thing that the binaural and transaural techniques can't achieve. Generally, the sound reproduction systems using wave field synthesis place the loudspeakers in a line or around the listener in a 2D space. And similar systems are also proposed to reproduce a sound field in a 3D space. However, since these systems are very expensive and the loudspeakers are visible in the listener's field of vision, it is very difficult to construct an audio-visual system using these systems. So papers on how to reduce the number of microphones and loudspeakers have been written. One of them achieve their goal by considering the auditory capability of the listeners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "906878",
"title": "Metamaterial",
"section": "Section::::Other types.:Acoustic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Control of sound waves is mostly accomplished through the bulk modulus \"β\", mass density \"ρ\" and chirality. The bulk modulus and density are analogs of permittivity and permeability in electromagnetic metamaterials. Related to this is the mechanics of sound wave propagation in a lattice structure. Also materials have mass and intrinsic degrees of stiffness. Together, these form a resonant system and the mechanical (sonic) resonance may be excited by appropriate sonic frequencies (for example audible pulses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37649",
"title": "Amplitude",
"section": "Section::::Amplitude normalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "With waveforms containing many overtones, complex transient timbres can be achieved by assigning each overtone to its own distinct transient amplitude envelope. Unfortunately, this has the effect of modulating the loudness of the sound as well. It makes more sense to separate loudness and harmonic quality to be parameters controlled independently of each other. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5968131",
"title": "Waveshaper",
"section": "Section::::Problems associated with waveshapers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The sound produced by digital waveshapers tends to be harsh and unattractive, because of problems with aliasing. Waveshaping is a non-linear operation, so it's hard to generalize about the effect of a waveshaping function on an input signal. The mathematics of non-linear operations on audio signals is difficult, and not well understood. The effect will be amplitude-dependent, among other things. But generally, waveshapers—particularly those with sharp corners (e.g., some derivatives are discontinuous) -- tend to introduce large numbers of high frequency harmonics. If these introduced harmonics exceed the nyquist limit, then they will be heard as harsh inharmonic content with a distinctly metallic sound in the output signal. Supersampling can somewhat but not completely alleviate this problem, depending on how fast the introduced harmonics fall off. Supersampling involves the following procedure:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Perception of sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location. Some of these terms have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant analyses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5968131",
"title": "Waveshaper",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Waveshapers are used mainly by electronic musicians to achieve an extra-abrasive sound. This effect is most used to enhance the sound of a music synthesizer by altering the waveform or vowel. Rock musicians may also use a waveshaper for heavy distortion of a guitar or bass. Some synthesizers or virtual software instruments have built-in waveshapers. The effect can make instruments sound noisy or overdriven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mpd38
|
Is this any intuitive way to think about normal distribution function ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The gaussian distribution is e^-x^2. It is the heart to the shape that is called the normal distribution. The pis, the sigmas, the various other values are just adjustments. \n\nThe constant term in front of the exponential is just a multiplier to make the area under the curve equivalent to 1 (so that the sum of the probabilities is 100%.))\n\nThe x-a term in the exponent is to shift the function right or left. Ie if you set a to 5, the function would peak at 5.\n\nThe sigma is widening the curve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The gaussian distribution is e^-x^2. It is the heart to the shape that is called the normal distribution. The pis, the sigmas, the various other values are just adjustments. \n\nThe constant term in front of the exponential is just a multiplier to make the area under the curve equivalent to 1 (so that the sum of the probabilities is 100%.))\n\nThe x-a term in the exponent is to shift the function right or left. Ie if you set a to 5, the function would peak at 5.\n\nThe sigma is widening the curve.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58117270",
"title": "Distribution function (measure theory)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In mathematics, a distribution function is a real function in measure theory. From every measure on the algebra of Borel sets of real numbers, a distribution function can be constructed, which reflects some of the properties of this measure. Distribution functions (in the sense of measure theory) are a generalization of distribution functions (in the sense of probability theory).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21462",
"title": "Normal distribution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The normal distribution is useful because of the central limit theorem. In its most general form, under some conditions (which include finite variance), it states that averages of samples of observations of random variables independently drawn from independent distributions converge in distribution to the normal, that is, they become normally distributed when the number of observations is sufficiently large. Physical quantities that are expected to be the sum of many independent processes (such as measurement errors) often have distributions that are nearly normal. Moreover, many results and methods (such as propagation of uncertainty and least squares parameter fitting) can be derived analytically in explicit form when the relevant variables are normally distributed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32370",
"title": "Vector space",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Distributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "A \"distribution\" (or \"generalized function\") is a linear map assigning a number to each \"test\" function, typically a smooth function with compact support, in a continuous way: in the above terminology the space of distributions is the (continuous) dual of the test function space. The latter space is endowed with a topology that takes into account not only \"f\" itself, but also all its higher derivatives. A standard example is the result of integrating a test function \"f\" over some domain Ω:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23601",
"title": "Pi",
"section": "Section::::Role and characterizations in mathematics.:Gaussian integrals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution. The Gaussian function, which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean and standard deviation , naturally contains :\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51188793",
"title": "Darwin–Fowler method",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Distribution functions are used in statistical physics to estimate the mean number of particles occupying an energy level (hence also called occupation numbers). These distributions are mostly derived as those numbers for which the system under consideration is in its state of maximum probability. But one really requires average numbers. These average numbers can be obtained by the Darwin–Fowler method. Of course, for systems in the thermodynamic limit (large number of particles), as in statistical mechanics, the results are the same as with maximization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51955",
"title": "Distribution (mathematics)",
"section": "Section::::Basic idea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "A distribution \"T\" is a linear mapping \"T\" : D(R) → R. Instead of writing \"T\"(\"formula_1\"), it is conventional to write formula_2 for the value of \"T\" acting on a test function \"formula_1\". A simple example of a distribution is the Dirac delta \"δ\", defined by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10167616",
"title": "Quantile function",
"section": "Section::::Calculation.:Normal distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The normal distribution is perhaps the most important case. Because the normal distribution is a location-scale family, its quantile function for arbitrary parameters can be derived from a simple transformation of the quantile function of the standard normal distribution, known as the probit function. Unfortunately, this function has no closed-form representation using basic algebraic functions; as a result, approximate representations are usually used. Thorough composite rational and polynomial approximations have been given by Wichura and Acklam. Non-composite rational approximations have been developed by Shaw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53uhvi
|
How different were the peoples of northern Spain culturally, linguistically etc from people in southern Spain during the rule of the Umayyads?
|
[
{
"answer": "So what you're talking about here is a really long period. I happen to have a decent source that discusses this topic at length in some parts, but I might wander a bit here and there.\n\nSo to the beginning. If we look at the early days of conquests in the 8th century, even then the actual conquering force of al-Andalus wasn't uniform ethnically at all. When they crossed the straits of Gibraltar in 711 the troops were mainly composed of Arabs and Berbers, being ruled from Damascus by the (Umayyad) Caliph. They were *very* much a Berber-dominated force, and Maribel Fierro (p8) reports that the number of actual Arabs among them was pretty small, and they had a fairly privileged status being Arabs. At that time there was a fairly strong link between being Muslim and being Arab which was broken down over the years, but in those days it was still quite strong. This meant that people who weren't arabs adopted the status of clients (mawali) of an Arab tribesman or of another convert who already had a patron. Freed slaves were clients as well. So in these days islamicization went hand in hand with arabicization but there were still distinct Berber and Arab cultures. \n\nIn 739 there was a pretty big Berber rebellion in northern Africa and the Caliph sent some troops to put an end to it. Without getting too much into detail about this - it led to a big influx of Arabs around Ceuta as a Syrian commander named Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri, initially refused passage, managed to negotiate with an Andalusi military governor who was attempting to deal with his own Berber rebellions. I could go on and on about the political consequences of al-Qushayri arriving in al-Andalus for an entire post , but suffice to say they brought their division of Qays and Yemen (northern and southern) arabs with them, although the precise meaning of this conflict in the islamic world back then is still debated. Again, without going into too much detail they were settled (with a lot of argument and dispute) in Granada (Elvira), Seville & Niebla, Malaga, Jaen, Algeciras, Sidonia, Beja and Tudmir. \n\nSo the Berbers also had their own culture and existence and how arabicised & islamicised they were depended on whether they were urban or not. So the real cultural divide at that point wasn't necessarily *just* northern/southern, but also urban/rural. The Berbers did however mostly settle in tribal groups in rural areas along the frontier. Please remember that when I say \"frontier\" here it's in the context of the early 8th century, where the frontier was in what we would consider to be fairly southern in modern Iberia. From what we understand they were mostly autonomous although it's difficult to pull the details out of obscurity with limited archaeological work. But for example, Fierro points out that some patterns of irrigation we find can potentially be linked to Berber tribal organisation, and the existence of these tribal, autonomous Berbers in the northern rural regions is highlited whenever they rebelled against the Cordoban ruler or representatives below him. \n\nSome of these tribal berbers in al-Andalus actually continued their existence well into the Umayyad era of al-Andalus and actually outlived it - some of the taifas after the fitna of al-andalus (the huge civil war that caused the Cordoba Caliphate to collapse from around 1009-1031) were ruled by those who gained power because of Berber tribal military resources & organisation - i.e. the Zirid taifa formed by Zawi bin Ziri. From what I understand, most of these guys survived even the reconquista and the inquisition and although they eventually lost their unique cultural identities, their descendants still live in Spain & Portugal today. But, if you were an urban Berber, you were much more likely to have been a state administrator or a scholar and thus very arabicised and islamicised. \n\nNow, if we look briefly at the christians - sometimes you see them called in secondary sources as \"mozarabs\" (as arabicised christians) but really I don't like this term, especially because they certainly didn't identify as this and afaik none of the actual Andalusi literature ever uses that term. This term appears in the very late Christian sources as a term they used for Christians who emigrated to the north of Iberia but who spoke Arabic and culturally resembled Arabs rather than those with Visigoth ancestry. But it's not an accurate label as it lumps them all together culturally and linguistically, when in reality a lot of them didn't really share those histories or backgrounds. \n\nAnyway, the vast majority of the Andalusi Christians, like the Berbers, lived in rural areas with fairly limited contact with the Arab settlers & conquerors. Ibn Hawqal in the 10th century, translated by Fierro, wrote an interesting section about these relatively autonomous Christian Andalusis:\n\n > In al-Andalus there is more than one agricultural property on which dwell thousands of people who know nothing of urban life and who are Hispano-Romans professing the Christian religion. There are periods in which they rebel and some of them take refuge in fortresses. They put up a stiff fight, for they are fierce and stubborn. When they cast off the yoke of obedience, it is hard to make them return to it, unless they are exterminated and that is a difficult, prolonged process.\n\nSomething I'd like to point out about the \"extermination\" here that needs to be understood with context is that the history of al-Andalus is also the history of a series of governments dealing with a long series of rebellions. These included arab muslim rebellions, tribal berber rebellions, and many others - so they weren't trying to 'exterminate' Christians per se, Ibn Hawqal is more referring to rebels that can't be negotiated with and so must be defeated by conquest. \n\nNow, Ibn Hawqal doesn't speak about what language the rural Christian spoke but it was likely a Romance language descended from Latin since the local Andalusis weren't monolingual until the mid-to-late 11th century, and even then it wasn't truly monolingual demographically until the 12th century. So yes, between urban and rural areas, and the south to the frontier, there were certainly linguistic divides - with Romance/Arabic bilingualism being common for Christians. Indigenous Christian converts were often called muwalladun - in the way it was used then it referred mainly to people who weren't Arabs ethnically, but were born into Arabic culture and were raised as Arabs. That could be anybody, without a specific indication of religion. Jews in al-Andalus were also very arabicised and in their case, it enabled them to flourish and also paradoxically to preserve their language and ethnic identity. \n\nDespite the rural/urban divides in culture and language throughout the early centuries of al-Andalus, by the time of the establishment of the Caliphate of Cordoba under the reign of Abdul Rahman III, an era that was one of stabilising and unifying the region, a common Andalusi identity finally emerged through the work of scholars but also through the fierce advocacy of the muslim traditions of egalitarianism which Abdul Rahman III was a particularly big supporter of. In those days there was a concerted attempt to eradicate the idea of Arab supremacy (particularly in politics), although it was an uphill battle and never quite manifested in the way that was hoped and muwallads hardly ever managed to maintain the power or positions that they were given by Abdul Rahman III in place of ethnic Arabs.\n\nThis is already a pretty damn long post, so I'm going to cut it off here. I would close by saying that yes, the frontier - that changed over time - certainly did see an impact culturally but I would argue that just as big was the divide was between rural and urban areas.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4331381",
"title": "Islam in Spain",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In time Islamic migrants from places as diverse as North Africa to Yemen and Syria and Iran invaded territories in the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic rulers called the Iberian peninsula \"Al-Andalus\". That was the root for the name of the present-day region of Andalusia, the southernmost region of Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5012024",
"title": "Alcantarilla",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Alcantarilla soon became part of Al-Andalus. In the 8th century, nearly all the Iberian peninsula, which had been under Visigothic rule, was quickly conquered (711–718), by Muslims (the Moors), who had crossed over from North Africa, defeating the Visigoths. Visigothic Spain was the last of a series of Christian and pagan lands conquered in a great westward charge from the Middle East and across north Africa by the religiously inspired armies of the Umayyad empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2450993",
"title": "Catalans",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "As the border between Muslims and Frankish realms stabilized, a buffer area called the Marca Hispanica (nominally under Frankish suzerainty) formed in what is today northwestern Spain, which fought off Muslim raids and resisted settlement by them. In the eastern part of the Marca there emerged the Catalan counties of Barcelona (conquered by the Christians in 801), Ausona, Pallars, Roussillon, Empúries, Cerdanya and Urgell, which are sometimes called \"Old Catalonia\". Barcelona would become an important center for Christian forces in the Iberian Peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1010051",
"title": "Culture of Spain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The Visigothic Kingdom left a united Christian Hispania that was going to be welded in the \"Reconquista\". The Visigoths kept the Roman legacy in Spain between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages. Muslim influences remained during the Middle Ages in the areas conquered by the Umayyads, however, these influences had not been completely assimilated into the Spanish culture. Spanish culture before and after the arrival of the Muslims was based heavily on Roman heritage and the primary religion practised was Catholicism. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45127",
"title": "Moors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from northern Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in Classical Arabic as al-Andalus, which at its peak included most of Septimania and modern-day Spain and Portugal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21299684",
"title": "Sayago",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "During the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain, an own kingdom, called Sabaria, existed in the zone, but it was soon conquered by the Visigoths in the 6th century. Middle age passes by without any relevance and the isolation of Sayago begin to left a deep mark in the character of the \"comarca\". The Umayyad conquest of Hispania did not leave any remarkable architecture or tradition in Sayago. In contrast, the Catholic Church dominate the life of the Sayaguese people over the High Middle Ages, submitting the towns to a strict regime where peasants had to pay the tithe from what they collect in their respective farms and give it to the local Church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26667",
"title": "Spain",
"section": "Section::::History.:Muslim era and Reconquista.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
58z8bx
|
This Week's Theme: The 14th Century, AD
|
[
{
"answer": "\n**Current**: 14th Century AD\n\n**On Deck:** Resistance and Conformity\n\n**In the Hole**: Propaganda",
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},
{
"answer": "*I send a pestilence, a plague*\n\n*Into your house, into your bed*\n\n*Into your streams, into your streets*\n\n*Into your drink, into your bread*\n\n*Upon your cattle, upon your sheep*\n\n*Upon your oxen in the field*\n\n*Into your dreams, into your sleep*\n\n*Until you break, until you yield*\n\n*I SEND MY SWARM*\n\n*I SEND MY HORDE*\n\n*THUS SAITH THE LORD*",
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},
{
"answer": "Oh cool! The 14th century is such an interesting time in Mesoamerica. You have the Mexica arriving in the Basin of Mexico, the uacusecha (I think) arriving in the Patzcuaro Basin, the Caxcanes, who also worshiped Huitzilopochtli and spoke Nahuatl, arriving in Jalisco, the end of Chichen Itza and the rise of Mayapan in northern Yucatan. Maybe someone will ask questions about these topics or others. \\*hint hint, nudge nudge*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23000701",
"title": "Christianity in the 15th century",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The 15th century is part of the High Middle Ages, the period from the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 to the close of the 15th century, which saw the fall of Constantinople (1453), the end of the Hundred Years War (1453), the discovery of the New World (1492), and thereafter the Protestant Reformation (1515). It also marked the later years of scholasticism and the growth of Christian humanism and other developments of the early Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28856678",
"title": "Der Antritt des neuen Jahrhunderts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "\"The Start of the New Century\" (\"Der Antritt des neuen Jahrhunderts\") is a poem written by Friedrich Schiller early in the 19th century, possibly in 1801. It deals with the Peace of Lunéville and the Napoleonic Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1792211",
"title": "Alvito, Portugal",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The 15th and 16th centuries were a time of strong economic and populational development of Alvito, which reached 1700 inhabitants in 1527. The Castle of Alvito was rebuilt between 1494 and 1504, and its architecture and decoration show an interesting mix of Manueline (Portuguese late Gothic) and Mudéjar (Arab-influenced) styles, typical of the Alentejo region. Also the main church (\"matriz\") of Alvito, in a mix of Manueline and early Renaissance styles, dates from the early 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "914099",
"title": "Quattrocento",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The cultural and artistic events of Italy during the period 1400 to 1499 are collectively referred to as the Quattrocento (, , ) from the Italian for the number 400, in turn from , which is Italian for the year 1400. The Quattrocento encompasses the artistic styles of the late Middle Ages (most notably International Gothic), the early Renaissance (beginning around 1425), and the start of the High Renaissance, generally asserted to begin between 1495 and 1500.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410784",
"title": "Criticism of the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Interfaith.:Protestantism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Key events of the period include: the Council of Trent (1545–1563); the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570); the Battle of Lepanto (1571); the adoption of the Gregorian calendar under Pope Gregory XIII; the French Wars of Religion; the Long Turkish War; the final phases of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648); and the formation of the last Holy League by Innocent XI during the Great Turkish War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48437211",
"title": "Encyclopædia Britannica Films",
"section": "Section::::DVD compilations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Medieval and Renaissance Europe\" UPC 798936840554: The Medieval Manor (1956) / Chaucer's England (1956) / Martin Luther: Beginning of Reformation (1973) / Hamlet: The Age of Elizabeth (1959)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13212",
"title": "History of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Early modern Europe.:Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman as well as more recent Arabic texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22ve03
|
Do the descendants of the major Japanese clans (Tokugawa, Oda, etc) still have influence or command respect? Are their any clans that still 'exist', so to speak?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to popular belief, The Meiji Restoration was an effective wipe out of samurai nobility. Instead, the surviving samurai heads (that is, the heads of all the major clans excluding the Hojo, Takeda and Chosokabe) accepted the new order of the emperor. The 15th shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, wanted to reform the shogunate and began the Boshin War, which also marks the beginning of the Meiji Restoration. Following the shogun's surrender and resignation, he retired and disappeared from public view for the majority of his later life. While the Emperor allowed him to create his own house for his family, his descendants do not retain the influence of their clan.\n\nOda Nobunaga's death at Honno-ji by the hands of his general Akechi Mitsuhide was the start of the end of the Oda clan. Central Japan soon fell into the control of another general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. This left no substantial record available to prove bloodline, similar to many other clans that existed before the Meiji Restoration. \n\nWhile there have been many claims of relationship to the major clans, another note to bear in mind is that over a long period families tend to create a new name for themselves after a fall from grace or due to an unknown heritage - a good example of this is the widespread family name of Takeda and Suzuki.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "After the Meiji restoration, the clans were [converted into noble families](_URL_1_), along the lines of European nobility. Their domains were [converted into prefectures](_URL_0_), with a centralized authority, though they were allowed to keep 10% of the province's revenue. If you're interested in this time period, there's a great biography of Saigo called (unfortunately, due to the horrible Tom Cruise Movie) *The Last Samurai*, by Mark Ravina. It's a really good read.\n\nThe nobility was finally eliminated in 1947, though their descendents continued to do pretty well for themselves. ([This book](_URL_2_) is pretty much exactly what you're looking for.) After WWII, they maintained an elitist status, referring to non-former-nobles who became rich as *nariagari* (upstarts) or *narikin* (nouveau riche). They were criticized for being ostentatious with their wealth (austerity was a virtue in old money families, with many boasting their maids wore better kimono than their own daughters). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2019824",
"title": "Tokugawa clan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 285,
"text": "The was a powerful \"daimyō\" family of Japan. They nominally descended from Emperor Seiwa (850–880) and were a branch of the Minamoto clan (Seiwa Genji) by the Nitta clan. The early history of this clan remains a mystery. Members of the clan ruled Japan as \"shōguns\" from 1603 to 1867.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8329639",
"title": "Kikkawa clan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The was a prominent samurai clan of Japan's Sengoku period. The most famous member of the clan is likely Kikkawa Motoharu (1530-1586), one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's generals, who was adopted into the family. Along with the Kobayakawa clan, the Kikkawa played an important role in Hideyoshi's Kyūshū Campaign (1586-7), and later became daimyō in Izumo province and Iwakuni after that.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84507",
"title": "Tokugawa shogunate",
"section": "Section::::Government.:Shogunate and domains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Tokugawa's descendants further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the \"shōgun\". \"Fudai daimyō\" were hereditary vassals of Ieyasu, as well as of his descendants. \"Tozama\" (\"outsiders\") became vassals of Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara. \"Shinpan\" (\"relatives\") were collaterals of Tokugawa Hidetada. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the \"tozama\" as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the \"tozama\" less likely to rebel. In the end, it was the great \"tozama\" of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "356189",
"title": "Oda clan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Edo period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Though the Oda were effectively eclipsed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi following Nobunaga's death, it is not often known that the Oda continued to be a presence in Japanese politics. One branch of the family became \"hatamoto\" retainers to the Tokugawa shōgun, while other branches became minor \"daimyō\" lords. As of the end of the Edo period, these included Tendō Domain (also known as Takahata Domain, Dewa Province, 20,000 \"koku\"), Yanagimoto han (Yamato Province, 10,000 \"koku\"), Kaiju han (also known as Shibamura han; Yamato Province, 10,000 \"koku\"), and Kaibara han (Tanba Province, 20,000 \"koku\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2019785",
"title": "Gosankyō",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "The were three branches of the Tokugawa clan of Japan. They were descended from the eighth of the fifteen Tokugawa shōguns, Yoshimune (1684–1751). Yoshimune established the \"Gosankyo\" to augment (or perhaps to replace) the \"Gosanke\", the heads of the powerful \"han\" (fiefs) of Owari, Kishū, and Mito. Two of his sons, together with the second son of his successor Ieshige, established the Tayasu, Hitotsubashi, and Shimizu branches of the Tokugawa. Unlike the \"Gosanke\", they did not rule a \"han\". Still, they remained prominent until the end of Tokugawa rule, and some later shōguns were chosen from the Hitotsubashi line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352150",
"title": "Adachi clan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "The Adachi clan (安達氏) is a family of samurai who are said to have been descended from Fujiwara no Yamakage. Their historical significance derives from their successes during the Genpei War and their subsequent affiliation with the Hōjō clan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539250",
"title": "Gosanke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The , also called simply , or even , were the most noble three branches of the Tokugawa clan of Japan: Owari House of Tokugawa, Kii House of Tokugawa, and Mito House of Tokugawa, all of which were descended from clan founder Tokugawa Ieyasu's three youngest sons, Yoshinao, Yorinobu, and Yorifusa, and were allowed to provide a shōgun in case of need. In the Edo period the term \"gosanke\" could also refer to various other combinations of Tokugawa houses, including (1) the shogunal, Owari and Kii houses and (2) the Owari, Kii, and Suruga houses (all with the court position of \"dainagon\"). \n",
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svvxi
|
Ionized water
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you be more specific? In general, anyone claiming to make \"ionized\" water is running a scam, but depending on what device they're selling, it may produce any of a number of things.",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8236934",
"title": "Direct analysis in real time",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.:Ionization process.:Positive ion formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "Although the exact ion formation mechanism is not clear, water can be ionized directly by Penning ionization. Another proposal is that water is ionized by the same mechanism that has been proposed for atmospheric pressure chemical ionization\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1042917",
"title": "Water ionizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A water ionizer (also known as an alkaline ionizer) is a home appliance which claims to raise the pH of drinking water by using electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and alkaline components. The alkaline stream of the treated water is called alkaline water. Proponents claim that consumption of alkaline water results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims violate basic principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no medical evidence for any health benefits of alkaline water.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "337279",
"title": "Self-ionization of water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The self-ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is an ionization reaction in pure water or in an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule, HO, deprotonates (loses the nucleus of one of its hydrogen atoms) to become a hydroxide ion, OH. The hydrogen nucleus, H, immediately protonates another water molecule to form hydronium, HO. It is an example of autoprotolysis, and exemplifies the amphoteric nature of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24027000",
"title": "Properties of water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of the solution that it is in; it readily produces both and ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of and is a constant, so their respective concentrations are inversely proportional to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27669729",
"title": "History of water filters",
"section": "Section::::Softening and ion exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The theory of ion exchange involves replacing undesirable or potentially harmful ions with more desirable or harmless ones. This is implemented in domestic water treatment system as water softeners. These not only remove calcium ions, but also lead and other heavy metals from water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1042917",
"title": "Water ionizer",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Water ionizers work by simply siphoning off the water near the cathode. Water siphoned off the cathode side contains increased levels of hydroxide (OH) and would be expected to have a higher pH (i.e. be more alkaline), whereas water siphoned off near the anode would have increased levels of H making it acidic. The acidic water is claimed to be useful for household disinfecting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337279",
"title": "Self-ionization of water",
"section": "Section::::Equilibrium constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In dilute aqueous solutions, the activities of the solute particles are approximately equal to their concentrations. Thus, the \"ionization constant\", \"dissociation constant\", \"self-ionization constant\",\"water ion-product constant\" or \"ionic product\" of water, symbolized by \"K\", may be given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x2ylk
|
why do i get these rashes on my throat after i've shaved?
|
[
{
"answer": "it's just razor burn, and it's common. There's a facial hair softener you can buy that may work. are you using shaving cream? It's quite important",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few years back I switched to a brush+lather shave and never looked back. Canned shave gel is total garbage.\n\nThis made all the difference in the world to me. That and picking up a safety razor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nYou're welcome",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608085",
"title": "Pseudofolliculitis barbae",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "After a hair has been shaved, it begins to grow back. Curly hair tends to curl into the skin instead of straight out the follicle, leading to an inflammation reaction. PFB can make the skin look itchy and red, and in some cases, it can even look like pimples. These inflamed papules or pustules can form especially if the area becomes infected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "412822",
"title": "Folliculitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Bacterial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sycosis vulgaris, Sycosis barbae or Barber's itch is a staphylococcus infection of the hair follicles in the bearded area of the face, usually the upper lip. Shaving aggravates the condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22597413",
"title": "Sycosis vulgaris",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Sycosis vulgaris is a cutaneous condition characterized by a chronic infection of the chin or bearded region. The irritation is caused by a deep infection of hair follicles, often by species of \"Staphylococcus\" or \"Propionibacterium\" bacteria. Asymptomatic or painful and tender erythematous papules and pustules may form around coarse hair in the beard (sycosis barbae) or the back of the neck (sycosis nuchae).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Effects of shaving.:Razor burn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "A rash at the time of shaving is usually a sign of lack of lubrication. Razor burn is a common problem, especially among those who shave coarse hairs on areas with sensitive skin like the bikini line, pubic hair, underarms, chest, and beard. The condition can be caused by shaving too closely, shaving with a blunt blade, dry shaving, applying too much pressure when shaving, shaving too quickly or roughly, or shaving against the grain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3272427",
"title": "Ixodes holocyclus",
"section": "Section::::Tick bites.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "In southeast Queensland a 'maddening rash' (known locally as 'scrub itch') is caused by infestation by many tick larvae. This especially affects people clearing leafy bushland such as lantana scrub. Not infrequently a single tick embedded over an eyelid will result in gross facial and neck swelling within a few hours. The person can go on to develop very severe signs of throat (tracheopharyngeal) compression within 5–6 hours after the first onset of symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465863",
"title": "Seborrhoeic dermatitis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Seborrhoeic dermatitis can occur in infants younger than three months and it causes a thick, oily, yellowish crust around the hairline and on the scalp. Itching is not common among infants. Frequently, a stubborn diaper rash accompanies the scalp rash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Shaving methods.:Wet shaving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "Before wet shaving, the area to be shaved is usually doused in warm to hot water by showering or bathing or covered for several minutes with a hot wet towel to soften the skin and hair. A lathering or lubricating agent such as cream, shaving soap, gel, foam or oil is normally applied after this. Lubricating and moisturizing the skin to be shaved helps prevent irritation and damage known as razor burn. Many razor cartridges include a lubricating strip, made of polyethylene glycol, to function instead of or in supplement to extrinsic agents. It also lifts and softens the hairs, causing them to swell. This enhances the cutting action and sometimes permits cutting the hairs slightly below the surface of the skin. Additionally, during shaving, the lather indicates areas that have not been addressed. When soap is used, it is generally applied with a shaving brush, which has long, soft bristles. It is worked up into a usable lather by the brush, either against the face, in a shaving mug, bowl, scuttle, or palm of the hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3a7zto
|
what is tickling? why do we have places like on our sides and armpits that makes us laugh out of panic when there is no real danger?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am not 100% certain why this is the case... But to my knowledge it's due to the \"surprise factor of the person touching you. Think about it this way. When someone is tickling your mind is thinking \"they're touching me, but where\". I believe this unpredictability of the situation causes you to squirm and panic. But if you tell the person hey touch my armpit here, the effect is not the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is just a short explanation based on the video at the end of my comment:\n\nSmall tickling (like from a feather) is called knismesis. It makes you scratch/touch places. This is to make us get rigd of insects, spiders and other stuff we don't want to have on our skin. Many animals are ticklish too so it shows us our evolutionary history.\n\nThe more rough version (e.g. from fingers poking you) is called Gargalesis. It is something all primates have and might be there to teach each other self defence without hurting each other. It makes you react to something that might hurt your most vulnerable parts. \n\nSource: SciShow about this topic.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "A third, hybrid hypothesis, has suggested that tickling encourages the development of combat skills. Most tickling is done by parents, siblings and friends and is often a type of rough-and-tumble play, during which time children often develop defensive and combat moves. Although people generally make movements to get away from, and report disliking, being tickled, laughter encourages the tickler to continue. If the facial expressions induced by tickle were less pleasant the tickler would be less likely to continue, thus diminishing the frequency of these combat lessons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Tickling is defined by many child psychologists as an integral bonding activity between parent and children. In the parent-child concept, tickling establishes at an early age the pleasure associated with being touched by a parent with a trust-bond developed so that parents may touch a child, in an unpleasant way, should circumstances develop such as the need to treat a painful injury or prevent harm from danger. This tickling relationship continues throughout childhood and often into the early to mid teen years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Charles Darwin theorized on the link between tickling and social relations, arguing that tickling provokes laughter through the anticipation of pleasure. If a stranger tickles a child without any preliminaries, catching the child by surprise, the likely result will be not laughter but withdrawal and displeasure. Darwin also noticed that for tickling to be effective, you must not know the precise point of stimulation in advance, and reasoned that this is why some people cannot effectively tickle themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "When considering tickling in terms of its qualities as a sensation, it results from a mild stimulation moving across the skin. The dual character of tickling refers to the associated behaviors that include smiling, laughter, twitching, withdrawal and goose bumps. The tickle can be divided into two separate categories of sensation, knismesis and gargalesis. Knismesis, also known as a \"moving itch\", is a mildly annoying sensation caused by a light movement on the skin, such as from a crawling insect. This may explain why it has evolved in many animals. Gargalesis reactions refer to a laughter-provoking feeling caused by a harsher, deeper pressure, stroked across the skin in various regions of the body. These reactions are thought to be limited to humans and other primates, although some research has indicated that rats can also be tickled in this way. A German study also indicates that the gargalesis type of tickle triggers a defense mechanism for humans in the hypothalamus conveying submissiveness or fleeing from danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "As with parents and siblings, tickling serves as a bonding mechanism between friends, and is classified by psychologists as part of the fifth and highest grade of social play which involves special intimacy or \"cognitive interaction\". This suggests that tickling works best when all the parties involved feel comfortable with the situation and one another. It can also serve as an outlet for sexual energy during adolescence, and a number of people have stated in a study that their private areas were ticklish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "One hypothesis, as mentioned above, is that tickling serves as a pleasant bonding experience between parent and child. However, this hypothesis does not adequately explain why many children and adults find tickling to be an unpleasant experience. Another view maintained is that tickling develops as a prenatal response and that the development of sensitive areas on the fetus helps to orient the fetus into favourable positions while in the womb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Self-tickling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "While the reasons for the inhibition of the tickling sensation during self-tickling remain unknown, research shows that the human brain is trained to know what sensation to expect when the body moves or performs an action. Another reason may be the lack of awareness of many sensations arising from self-movement, such as not paying attention to one's own vocal cords. When we try to tickle ourselves by grabbing our sides, the brain foresees this contact between body and hand and prepares itself for it. This removes the feeling of unease and panic, causing the body to not react to tickling in the same way it would if someone else supplied the stimulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vll58
|
Why does some music just sound... Old? Is it recording quality, or were instruments constructed differently?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you shoot some examples of what recorded music you're thinking of? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39915658",
"title": "Vintage musical equipment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Vintage musical equipment is older music gear, including instruments, amplifiers and speakers, sound recording equipment and effects pedals, sought after, maintained and used by record producers, audio engineers and musicians who are interested in historical music genres. While any piece of equipment of sufficient age can be considered vintage, in the 2010s the term is typically applied to instruments and gear from the 1970s and earlier. Guitars, amps, pedals, electric keyboards, sound recording equipment (e.g., reel to reel tape decks and microphones) from the 1950s to 1970s are particularly sought. Musical equipment from the 1940s and prior eras is often expensive, and sought out mainly by museums or collectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172121",
"title": "Phonograph record",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.:Sound fidelity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Delicate sounds and fine overtones were mostly lost, because it took a lot of sound energy to vibrate the recording horn diaphragm and cutting mechanism. There were acoustic limitations due to mechanical resonances in both the recording and playback system. Some pictures of acoustic recording sessions show horns wrapped with tape to help mute these resonances. Even an acoustic recording played back electrically on modern equipment sounds like it was recorded through a horn, notwithstanding a reduction in distortion because of the modern playback. Toward the end of the acoustic era, there were many fine examples of recordings made with horns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53207",
"title": "Record producer",
"section": "Section::::Equipment and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "While most music production is done using sophisticated software, some musicians and producers prefer the sound of older analog technology. Professor Albin Zak claims that the increased automation of both newer processes and newer instruments reduces the level of control and manipulation available to musicians and producers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24039180",
"title": "Historical classical music recordings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "As time passes, even later recordings, made in the early stereo era are also being released as \"historical\" recordings, especially if they were never released or were dropped from the record catalogs due to loss of popularity or \"antiquated\" sound. Typically such recordings are of artists and performances that were particularly notable at the time they were first released, or were unavailable because they were private recordings made at concerts or radio broadcasts. The latter can be of rather high quality if the recording derives from tapes made and archived by the broadcaster or the organization mounting the performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24471",
"title": "Phonograph",
"section": "Section::::Dominance of the disc record.:First all-transistor phonograph.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Records themselves became an art form because of the large surface onto which graphics and books could be printed, and records could be molded into unusual shapes, colors, or with images (picture discs). The turntable remained a common element of home audio systems well after the introduction of other media, such as audio tape and even the early years of the compact disc as a lower-priced music format. However, even though the cost of producing CDs fell below that of records, CDs remained a higher-priced music format than either cassettes or records. Thus, records were not uncommon in home audio systems into the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232235",
"title": "Aeolian harp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The quality of sound depends on many factors, including the lengths, gauges, and types of strings, the character of the wind, and the material of the resonating body. Metal-framed instruments with no sound board produce a music very different from that produced by wind harps with wooden sound boxes and sound boards. There is no percussive aspect to the sound like that produced by a wind chime; rather crescendos and decrescendos of harmonic frequencies are played in rhythm to the winds. Their vibrant timbres produce an ethereal, almost mystical, music that many people find alludes to higher realms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295511",
"title": "Sound quality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The sound quality of a reproduction or recording depends on a number of factors, including the equipment used to make it, processing and mastering done to the recording, the equipment used to reproduce it, as well as the listening environment used to reproduce it. In some cases, processing such as equalization, dynamic range compression or stereo processing may be applied to a recording to create audio that is significantly different from the original but may be perceived as more agreeable to a listener. In other cases, the goal may be to reproduce audio as closely as possible to the original.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4k5u38
|
why is nuclear fusion considered the "holy grail" of nuclear power compared to fission?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fusion is controllable and sustainable. If your fusion reactor is getting too hot, shut off the fuel source. If your nuclear reactor is going critical and the safeties have failed, pray. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > but I fail to understand why fusion is safer\n\nBecause it requires extremely specific circumstances to occur. The second those conditions are lost, the reaction can't physically happen. If you don't have enough heat in the system, the fuel won't have enough energy in it to fuse.\n\n > cleaner\n\nIt doesn't use radioactive fuel and the radioactive byproducts are extremely minimal.\n\n > produces more energy\n\nThis is the same system that powers the sun. You're using E=mc^2 basically. Fission is just using the radioactive release of heavy elements to heat water. Fusion converts the entire atom to energy (well not exactly but that's not important for this discussion).\n\n > I thought fusion required very high energy input to even occur\n\nIt does initially but the hope is that once you get it running the power output is larger than the input. And NO this does NOT break physics, the input merely allows for the output to occur, it doesn't magically double itself or whatever.\n\nAnother bonus: Fuel is easy to come by. It uses light elements, which are the most common in the universe. There's enough hydrogen in the ocean to last us beyond the heat-death of the universe.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, achieving the necessary temperature/pressure/duration combination has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear binding energy curve.:Binding energy and nuclide masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20766780",
"title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Hybrid nuclear fusion–fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their nuclear waste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22153",
"title": "Nuclear power",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 317,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 317,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22153",
"title": "Nuclear power",
"section": "Section::::Use in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055890",
"title": "Sustainable energy",
"section": "Section::::Sustainable energy research.:Thorium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. Fission is used in all current nuclear power plants. Fusion is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4222539",
"title": "Nuclear safety and security",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear fusion research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bcq96k
|
why are white americans not called european americans? similar to asian americans and african americans.
|
[
{
"answer": "We should not use any of these segregating terms. \n\nWe should simply use the term Americans instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because some other white people got mad about us calling black people black. So they made up a new term, even though not all black people are African, and not all African people are black.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historically, “American” was used by people in power in the US to refer to white Americans\n\nSomething else-American was to identify non white people. White people were the default, essentially\n\nNow, we say white Americans because we know white shouldn’t be assumed. Many people prefer black Americans instead of African Americans because that’s actually what people mean. Not all people from Africa are black\n\nCaucasian is the white equivalent of African American\n\nDoes that make sense?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "African-American is a relatively new term and part of what is commonly termed a 'Euphemism Treadmill'. What happens is that you've got a word to describe a group and that word acquires negative connotations from that association. So you change the word and the process starts all over again. A better example would be how we refer to the mentally disabled, where yesterday's word becomes a slur about every 2 - 3 decades because there's never going to be a polite way to say \"dumber than average\".\n\nHowever, African-American also falls into this category. Neither 'colored' nor 'black' are strictly offensive in the way that 'retard' or 'imbecile' would be, but they were viewed as being negative terms so we got a new one.\n\nAsian-American is slightly different. A first generation immigrant would almost never refer to themselves this way because it's vague to the point of meaninglessness. People from Bangalore, the Hmong highlands or Seoul have no real unifying characteristics - they're from wildly different cultures with dramatically different appearances and Old World experiences. However, despite the presence of large numbers of people with Asian ancestry in the U.S., no single cultural group from Asia makes up a significant percentage of the population.\n\nThus, Asian-American became a political term of art to amplify the importance of the faction. \"People of Color\" or \"LGBTQ\" are similar in nature - they merge wildly disparate groups with wildly disparate interests and backgrounds in an attempt to create common political cause (with minimal success in the former case and slightly more success in the latter).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "605581",
"title": "European Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "The term is used by some to emphasize the European cultural and geographical ancestral origins of Americans, in the same way as is done for African Americans and Asian Americans. A European American awareness is still notable because 90% of the respondents classified as white in the U.S. Census knew their European ancestry. Historically, the concept of an American originated in the United States as a person of European ancestry, thus excluding non-European groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Many African Americans have expressed a preference for the term \"African American\" because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24849513",
"title": "Non-Hispanic whites",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "White Americans have developed their own music, art, cuisine, fashion, and political economy largely based on a combination of traditional European ones. Most religious white Americans are Christian. Many Europeans often Anglicized their names and over time most Europeans adopted English as their primary language and intermarried with other white groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7650310",
"title": "List of African-American firsts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "African Americans (also known as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is \"breaking the color barrier\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5347230",
"title": "Racial classification of Indian Americans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The racial classification of Indian Americans has varied over the years and across institutions. Originally, neither the courts nor the census bureau classified Indian Americans as a race because there were only negligible numbers of Indian immigrants in the United States. For most of America's early history, the government only recognized two racial classifications, \"White\" or \"Colored\". Due to racist immigration laws of the time, those deemed \"Colored\" were often stripped of their American citizenship or denied the ability to become citizens. For these reasons, various South Asians in America took the government to court to try and be considered \"White\" instead of \"Colored\", using various rationales. It wasn't until 1980, amid pressures within the Indian community for recognition, that the census created an \"Asian Indian\" category. Around 360,000 people identified as such in 1980; in the last census, in 2010, this grew to 2.8 million. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Racial and ethnic groups.:Black and African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4% of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1% of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14% of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Surveys show that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for \"African American\" versus \"Black American\", although they have a slight preference for \"Black American\" in personal settings and \"African American\" in more formal settings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wpa9x
|
why were trains invented so much earlier than cars? it seems like trains would be harder to manufacture and create.
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine a car running a steam engine, burning coal in a furnace, using the heat to heat up water, pump that water, and turn the wheels. Also storage for coal to be able to go hundreds of miles.\n\nThis is easier to go in a 200 tonne stab of metal than a tiny box with people inside. \n\nAlso no need for steering, just turn wheels and drive forward. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Trains have some advantages that make them more cost effective and essentially a lower technology level to run.\n\n1) no steering system. This simplifies manufacure and design of the suspension.\n\n2) they're larger. This means that heavy, large engines and gearboxes can be used. While these might be individually more expensive than those used in cars, they are more efficient and can be simpler to manufacture than smaller parts.\n\n3) They usually used steam engines, which are dramatically more efficient and simple than internal combustion engines, but less responsive. Because of these qualities, steam engines are far better for pushing somethig a log way at a constant speed (like trains), but are kind of crappy for the stop-and-go driving that cars do a lot of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1136114",
"title": "Autorack",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "In the early 20th century, when automobiles were still new technology, their production levels were low enough that they could be shipped in sufficient quantities in boxcars. Two to four automobiles would usually fit into one boxcar. But as the automobile industry grew in size, railroads found that they needed to modify the boxcars for more efficient loading. Some modifications included longer boxcars, larger sliding double side doors located near one end of the boxcar, or doors located on the boxcar ends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18920332",
"title": "Prussian G 12",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "It was built because it had been shown during the First World War that it was a great disadvantage, from a servicing and maintenance point of view, for each state railway to have its own locomotive classes with no standardization. In addition, the military railways needed a fast, powerful, goods train locomotive, that did not, however, have a high axle load. Even spare parts for locos of the same class often did not fit their sister locos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44362658",
"title": "Machine industry",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century to now.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The inventions of new propulsion techniques based on electric motors, internal combustion engines and gas turbines brought a new generation of machines in the 20th century from cars to household appliances. Not only the product range of the machinery industry increased considerably, but especially smaller machines could also deliver products in much greater numbers fabricated in mass production. With the rise of mass production in other parts of the industry, there was also a high demand for manufacturing and production systems, to increase the entire production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1529431",
"title": "Budd Rail Diesel Car",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "The self-propelled railcar was not a new concept in North American railroading. Beginning in the 1880s railroads experimented with steam-powered railcars on branch lines, where the costs of operating a conventional steam locomotive-hauled set of cars was prohibitive. These cars failed for several reasons: the boiler and engine were too heavy, water and fuel took up too much space, and high maintenance costs eliminated whatever advantage was gained from reducing labor costs. In the 1900s steam railcars gave way to gasoline, led by the McKeen Motor Car Company, which produced 152 between 1905–1917. J. G. Brill sold over 300 \"railbuses\" in the 1920s. Newcomer Electro-Motive Corporation, working with the Winton Motor Carriage Company, dominated the market at the end of the 1920s but had exited it completely by 1932 as the Great Depression gutted rail traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21992152",
"title": "Economic history of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Industrial Revolution: 1750s–1840s.:Railways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1136114",
"title": "Autorack",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "These modifications helped, but the demand for new automobiles outpaced the railroads' abilities to build and modify boxcars in which to ship them. In 1923, the Grand Trunk Western Railroad experimented with modifying a group of -long wood-frame flat cars to increase their capacity by adding collapsible frames to allow for double-deck operation. The concept was not perfected and therefore failed to gain acceptance. In the 1940s and 1950s, some railroads experimented with automobile-loading assemblies that would lift one or more automobiles above others within a boxcar. The success of these assemblies was limited due to their special use and specific size; it proved uneconomical to maintain a fleet of these assemblies that could only be loaded into boxcars from the ends of the cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1080739",
"title": "4-2-0",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "As the 1840s approached and more American railroads began to experiment with the new locomotive type, the fell out of favor since it was not as able as the to pull a paying load. continued to be built into the 1850s, but their use was restricted to light-duty trains since, by this time, most railroads had found them unsuitable for regular work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
anr40s
|
what's the difference between cs (computer science), cis (computer information science, and it (information technology?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oversimplified, but here we go.\n\n* **Computer Science** - the science of creating computer programs. Algorithms and data structures. Almost entirely focused on writing code.\n\n* **Computer Information Science** - How to use computers to organize and make use of data. A little higher level than CS.\n\n* **Information Technology** - How to use technology to solve business problems. This can involve CS and CIS but is more problem focused.",
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"answer": "This will vary on the program you are enrolled in: \n\nComputer Science = learn programming to eventually become a developer building apps, services, and automation.\n\nComputer Information Science = you learn a technical curriculum with the intent on becoming an IT manager or Program Manager. You basically manage projects and have some technical insights.\n\nIT = tech support with some PM skills, maybe dabble in programming. ",
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"answer": "Computer Science in essence is academic, research focused, scientific. It concerns studies of AI algorithms, network protocols, security research, ... Not many people who study CS continue in this theoretical field, since the demand for practical applications is enormous. \n\nCIS is the part of CS that deals with information gathering and processing. Again, there's a huge practical interest, given what Facebook, Google, etc. do. Smaller companies all try to implement their own versions. But there is also tons of research to improve their algorithms.\n\nIT is a bit different, in the sense that its core business is managing computer infrastructure. They make sure all employees have the correct and up-to-date software installed, the servers keep running, the network is secured, etc. This is almost purely practical.\n",
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"answer": "Since we're here, where does Computer Engineering falls?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "**Computer Science** : It’s the science (mathematics) of how computers inherently work. It would have an answer to this question: If I had a bunch of random numbers, what would be the fastest way to sort them, is it the fastest way? And why is it the fastest way. It often requires writing code but only to verify and quantify an idea.\n\n**CIS**: I’ve got this gigantic set of numbers and letters and words and other data. CIS will answer this question (amongst many other): How can I make sense of this data to find how they’re interrelated\n\n**IT**: I’ve got a business to run that requires selling lemonade. But because I’m a genius lemonade maker and the biggest one in town, I’ve set up many lemonade stands around town that are completely automated. IT answers this question: How can I effectively tie in all these lemonade machines to work seamlessly and serve customers without a moments delay? What computers do I need? How shall I set up my storage? What’s the ideal internet connection to use?\n\nEdit: well shit, good morning to me. Glad this is my most upvoted comment! And thank you for the gold and silver!\n\nEdit 2: Because some of y'all asked me to ELI5 some more, so here's my take: \n\n\n**Software Engineering**: The customers of Lemonade Inc. need an app to order their favorite kind of lemonade right to their door step. A software engineer would be able to: Make an app that's easy to use, and can be installed on the customer's phone. \n\n\n**Data Science**: Data science is (amongst other things) using lots of data to draw conclusions about a specific topic. If Bob opened the app made by the software engineer, given his previous purchases, which lemonade flavor can I suggest to him that he is most likely to buy? Also, can I perhaps make him buy another one by showing his wife's favorite lemonade right next to his so he would remember to buy her one as well? \n\n\n**Computer Engineering**: Computer Engineering deals with actually making the physical computer that will physically run the programs made by the computer scientist or software engineer. Example: Hey computer science guy! I hear you want to run that new number sorting method on a set of 1,873,347,234,123,872,193,228 numbers! Oh, are current processors too slow because they need to do 10x more work than required for this specific task? Ok let me see what your method is, and let me perhaps build a custom processor for you to efficiently do everything in as much time as you expect. (Warning: this is a gross oversimplification of computer engineering, and they dont go around making new custom processors for everyone. I've tried to keep it simple and in line with the examples above!)",
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"answer": "Also, how does Information Systems relate to these?",
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"answer": "There seems to be plenty of answers, but I figured I would throw one more in there for you. I majored in MIS (management information systems) for a bit. It was a lot like the CIS but more focused on software used in businesses. In my short time studying it they really seemed to put emphasis on not only knowing technical side of how to make the software, but also knowing the business side of things so you could make the most effective software for the customers needs. ",
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"answer": "I have never heard of the term CIS in my field. As for the two other, they are vastly different.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nComputer science relates to the science of how to translate a task in a way that a computer can do it. Example: you take a map and decide how you are going to drive your car from point A to point B while avoiding congested areas and accidents. How can a computer do that (like google map)? It involves modeling a mathematical formula, a logic per se, that will allow a computer to determine the best path. Or say you have a sheet of metal and you need to cut shapes into it, how do you make sure select which shapes to cut and in which angles to minimize the material loss?\n\nIt's not dependent on programming language, even if selecting the rigth language for the right task is essential.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nInformation Techbnologies is geared toward business applications. From designing interfaces, business applications and understanding business processes and how to automate them or support them with a software, to infrastructure and server installation and maintenance. Web design, maintaing a company's computer fleet, it's all IT.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;",
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"answer": "Programmer, data scientist, and admin. \n\nOne writes code. One manages and manipulates data. One keeps a computer system up and users happy. ",
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{
"answer": "CS: You write a program to see how often that guy picks his nose\n\nCIS: You use that program to gather the data and determine what is actually a true nose pick\n\nIT: You set up the computers and cameras and network them so that you never miss a nose pick again.",
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"answer": "I see so many things I disagree with here. Terms aren't always used correctly or consistently so don't get too hung up on them.\n\nThe way I see it:\n\nComputer Science: is the study of how computers work. It is typically a program offered at universities. \n\nIT: Is the career of working with computers. This is most often done by people with Computer Science or related degrees.\n\nComputer Information Science: Is a subbranch of computer science.\n\nSoftware Engineering: Is another subbranch of computer science, however with more focus on engineering aspects. ",
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{
"answer": "Went to school for CS. \n\nWish I would have gone to school for CIS. I did not know the difference. I don't have the interest in or dedication to math that it took to make it into Calculus 4 and differential equations. \n\nOf course, the real secret is you don't need a degree to do what the pros do in this specific field. No other STEM field has such a lack of academic requirements for the pay we receive, and that's because there's an incredibly high demand for us. I didn't graduate and am making top tier salary as an SRE in silicon valley. What matters is what you can demonstrate. Certifications and code reviews weigh a lot more than a degree in this particular occupational field. And we tend to get lots of office perks too.",
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"answer": "Absolutely no difference to 90% of the people out there.\n\nPeople: \"What do you do?\"\n\nMe: \"I develop software.\"\n\nPeople: \"So you are in IT?\"\n\nMe: \"No. I develop software. Which means I USE a computer and a network, but I do not spend my life maintaining a network of computers. If I have a computer problem I phone my IT department and go for coffee.\"\n\nMe: \"No I cannot help you with your computer, WIFI, printer, or networking problem.\"",
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"answer": "**Computer Science** - Math behind creating computer programs and systems.\n\n**Computer Information SYSTEMS** - This is what businesses called Information Technology in the '70s and '80s. It is a set of things working together to control information on computers. Databases, file servers, etc. \n\n**Information Technology** - Basically the same as computer information systems. The technology we use to process information from fax machines to smartphones.",
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"answer": "Imagine you have a lemonade stand with 3 people working it.\n \nOne person understands how lemonade works. They research better ways to make the lemonade, better ratios of ingredients, different lemons, design better pouring methods, hell maybe there is a BRAND NEW stand we could be creating. This is like in computer science where people are researching more efficient patterns and algorithms, and more broad computing concepts. \n\nThe second person is responsible for building the lemonade. They understand the best mugs to use, understand those better pouring techniques and how to use them (but may not understand WHY they are better or how), and everything involved in building your lemonade stand and delivering the lemonade to the customer. This is Computer Information Systems. They design the programs that are used, using concepts laid out by computer science (over simplifying for the ELI5).\n\nThen the final person is essentially the middleman between the lemonade stand and the customer. They may not sell the lemonade (that would be product or sales), but have interactions with the customers. If a customer isn't liking their lemonade, or can't even drink it for some reason they can contact this person to help fix the problem. They have some idea of how everything works, but don't typically design it themselves. This is IT.",
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"answer": "My rough take; each answers a different fundamental question:\n\n* Computer Science: What is a computer? (What can a computer do?)\n* Computer Engineering: How can we build a computer?\n* Computer Information ~~Science~~ Systems: What can the computer tell us about this data?\n* Software Engineering: What problems can we solve with the computer?\n* IT: How can I ~~keep~~ make all these computers ~~working~~ efficient and secure?\n\nEDIT: I did not expect this comment to get so much attention! Please, do not base your academic or career decisions on these ELI5, one-sentence breakdowns. I think if you study in any of these fields you can learn enough to jump to any other in practice. Most of what you will actually use every day you will learn on the job or on your own time (if that scares you, you will have a harder time making a jump). The key is to learn *how to learn on your own*.\n\nPlease consult with people actually working in the industry. I myself have an electrical engineering degree, work mostly as a software/controls engineer, and have a passion for computer science. On a daily basis, most of my time is spent working with teams to solve practical problems where software is simply one tool in the box. Feel feel to ask me anything about these areas.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Honest answer: It's all marketing buzzwords to promote more degrees. Professors in universities push this so they can get funding and more $",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Simply put, the difference is what people studying each field focus on.\n\n- Computer science primarily focuses on the specific science of \"computing\", which is to say, how to make computers \"do\" specific things. It's the core \"academic\" approach to computing, and the most theoretical\n- Computer Information Science is related, but focuses more on the data and how it can be analyzed and used. It's very closely related to computer science and is an academic approach to computing too, but focuses on a different aspect, with a slightly more business oriented approach too\n- IT is more practical and focuses on the actual hardware in a \"real world\" environment: it's the \"business\" approach to computing\n\nCS/CIS are quite closely related, along with other fields like Cybersecurity - a lot of people who study one of these fields started with CS, and usually there's a chunk of crossover between modules/classes studied: eg a CS major will do some CIS-type modules (often without the CIS label) and a CIS major will almost certainly take some CS modules.\n\nIT is much less related to the other two, and is more like the IT department at a school or business.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Oversimplified but....\n\nComputer Science = Study of computers and computer systems. You design the system, parts of the system or ways to use the system.\n\nInformation Science = How to turn data into valuable information. You take the data that the system collects, clean it, organize it and turn it into something that makes sense, like a report or chart. \n\nInformation Technology = Set up / maintenance / administrative. You put the system together, install the software and set up permissions/security. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "CS: We make things.\n\nCIS: We manage things.\n\nIT: We fix things.\n\nThis might be more ELI3...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Someone at universities figured out that there is a lot of money to be made since a lot of students study computer related courses. At least at a grad level, it’s mostly a money making scheme with basically the same courses being offered.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "CS = Computer Science - The focus is on the theoretical basis of computing. What makes computers work the way they do\n\nCIS = Information Systems - The focus is on the systems (including humans) and how they are used to support business\n\nIT is the one everyone else (especially computer scientists) tend to get wrong. So I will refer to the formal definition according to the ACM / IEEE curriculum statements for these fields.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI quote:\n\nInformation Technology is the study of systemic approaches\nto select, develop, apply, integrate, and administer secure\ncomputing technologies to enable users to accomplish their\npersonal, organizational, and societal goals. \n\nMy shorter version: \n\nIT = Information Technology - The focus is on technology and how to apply CS theory to help improve solutions within IS systems (kind of).\n\nIf you think about it in terms of cars:\n\nCS is equivalent to Physics working out the \"rules\" of what makes a car work\n\nIS is equivalent to car manufacturers that analyse the needs of humans in various environments and design what our cars should look like and how we want to use them etc\n\nIT is equivalent to Engineering who works closely with IS to build cars, engines, etc, according to the rules the physics people discovered to meet the specifications of the designs the IS people came up with.\n\nThe above is of course not nearly as clear cut since all of these overlaps in many aspects. The primary focus of the degree is different though. A CS graduate will always have advanced math, and IS graduate will always know a lot more social science theory, and IT graduate will always be somewhere in between CS and IS.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Computer Science is a branch of mathematics that got rich enough to afford its own building. Everything else is about doing practical stuff with computers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think of IT guys as mechanics. They do the grunt work of keeping them running and troubleshooting shit.\n\nYou dont have to learn how to create, you learn how to maintain what's there ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer scientist: I’ll tell you how you might fix it, if certain assumptions are true.\n\nComputer information systems expert: I’ll tell you how many fixes are needed, how long they’ve been in queue for a fix, and what category of fix is needed.\n\nInformation technology worker: I’ll fix it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "(Generally speaking, in practical terms)..\n\nComputer science is centered around fundamental research of software and hardware concepts and the development that springs forth from it.\n\nComputer information systems is centered around how the developed software and hardware interacts in an applied sense.\n\nInformation Technology is just a department title for whatever group in an organization is responsible for putting what's developed in 1 and structured in 2 into action to achieve some sort of defined goal.\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I don't think any of these responses are actually understandable by a child. Here's my take. \n\nComputer science is about how to make computers do what they do. \n\nComputer information systems is about how to make computers do useful work for business. \n\nInformation technology is about how to fix broken computers and make healthy computers stay healthy longer. ",
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"answer": "**Computer Science** = theoretical, philosophical, foundational understanding of computing in general\n\n**Computer Information Systems** = teaches some of the theoretical (not always to the same extent as CS), but also mixes in how it ties into real-world business\n\n**Information Technology** = practical business application of tech knowledge",
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"answer": "CS: How computers work\n\nCIS: How this computer works\n\nIT: How these computers work together",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Many answers here incorrectly associate computer science with building software or writing code. Computer science is best understood as a field with significant overlap with pure and applied mathematics. Very broadly, computer scientists seek to understand claims about the nature of computation.\n\nFor example, it is known that if you're only allowed to perform comparisons, sorting a list of n numbers cannot be done without performing at least C * n * log(n) comparison operations in the worst case. Here C is some constant number that depends on how you implement your algorithm (for example, whether you chose to execute the algorithm on pencil and paper, or whether you wrote a computer program to execute the algorithm for you). After specifying a model of computation (and some other details), this claim can be proved rigorously using mathematics.\n\nThe result above is a classic example of a lower bound type result. It tells you that no matter how clever you are, you cannot avoid doing a certain amount of work if you want to compute a solution to some problem. More generally, lower bound type results tell you that given an input to a problem of size N, your algorithm must perform at least C*f(N) computations to find a solution to the problem in the worst case, where C is some constant that depends on the way you implemented the algorithm, and f is some function of the input size. (The question of how to measure the \"size\" of an input is very important, but I've chosen to ignore it here.)\n\nAlthough there is considerable diversity even in computer science, I believe the above example is more representative of what computer science involves and the things computer scientists think about.",
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"answer": "When I went through college CS was algorithms based, very computer science/engineering heavy. \n\nCIS was out of the computer science department but had business electives required.\n\nMIS was out of the business department but had computer programming and databases electives required. When I was in the Unix lab there were a group of MIS students in there doing a database project and one of the guys was not understanding it and said loudly and smugly, \"I don't know why I have to learn this, I'm a MIS major, the people doing this will be working for me.\"\n\nI didn't know him but sometimes wish I knew what happened to him.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As far as degree programs go, this is how it was at my major university.\n\nCS: Writing Code and applications, the science of computers (binary logic, etc.)\nCIS and IT were the same thing basically but with different electives: Web development, Databases, Networking, OS Management (active directory, etc.)\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "*In academia:*\n\nCS/CIS/IT are largely dependent on schools. For example, there are some schools where CIS is more theory/math than another school's CS program.\n\nTo keep things simple we're going to go by the largest national accrediting body for computing (abet)'s [criteria](_URL_0_) \\- there are three specialties: Computer Science (CS), Information Systems (IS) and Information Technology (IT).\n\nThey define CS as:\n\n > Apply computer science theory and software development fundamentals to produce computing-based solutions. \n\nand IS as:\n\n > Support the delivery, use, and management of information systems within an information systems environment.\n\nand IT as:\n\n > Identify and analyze user needs and to take them into account in the selection, creation, integration, evaluation, and administration of computing-based systems.\n\nPretty vague, right? Academically it's not really strict like you would see in medical, engineering, law or business. There's essentially a handful of courses that a school's faculty puts together, then calls the degree whatever it most aligns to. There's a ton of overlap. Typically the curriculum with the most math and theory courses becomes Computer Science, then the one with the most business courses becomes (computer/management/nil) Information Systems, and then the remaining one becomes Information Technology. Another important distinction is in which section/school the program is in. The business school, liberal arts school, the math department, or the engineering school?\n\nNow, I did say typically. I have seen ivy league-tier schools that would offer a degree like \"Computer and Information Science: concentration Computer Science\" that is just a very rigorous CS degree with a long name.\n\n\\---------\n\n*In industry:*\n\nCS is a degree that HR looks at for software engineering positions. To a lesser extent they look at related degrees like electrical engineering, math, information systems, and information technology. Sort of confusingly, the IT industry (not the degree) is mostly a customer-facing support kind of role. In summary: traditional engineers create computers and maybe some software, software engineers create software like algorithms, and IT people utilize those creations to benefit the business.",
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"answer": "The CS descriptions so far leave a lot to be desired. CS grew out of electrical engineering, mathematics and logic. Although it does involve coding, and some fields within it are more focused on this, the computer and coding are more of a tool used by the computer scientist to work on their more abstract, general concerns. Which are: \n\n- What is theoretically possible to compute? \n- How long will such a computation take? \n- What algorithms (descriptive 'how to' recipes) describe this computation, and are how many different ones exist and how efficient are they compared to each other?\n- What data structures (data storage techniques and representations) are best suited for a computation? What are their pitfalls and benefits?\n- What languages can we create to describe and instantiate these computations?\n\nCS Is a very broad field that spills over into more practical applications like software engineering and computer engineering, data science, and even IT when it comes to the application of cryptography for security measures. But on its own it has much more in common with theoretical math and logic than engineering. Its fundamental concern is the theoretical computer (a Turing Machine), to analyze what can be computed, and the algorithms possible and their efficiency. For example, there are some problems that can be solved, but they would take the lifetime of the universe to solve. And there are others that are easily solved if given the answer, but deriving it takes forever, like factoring numbers. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "IT - Keeps your sock drawer in working order\nCIS - Keeps your sock drawer organized\nCS - Answers the question, what is a sock?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Don't forget **Computer Engineering**, which is about the physical construction of computers. It's how you get from \"sparky wires\" to \"ones and zeroes,\" and eventually to \"I can run Doom on this thing.\"\n\nSource: I'm a Computer Engineer and it's cool as hell.",
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"answer": "Computer science doesn't require a computer. Paper, a pencil, and a good eraser are all you need to write proofs.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Oooh, I'm way late to the party but I've always enjoyed my take on this very question, but people rarely ask this question. This is only based on my observations at the school I got my MIS degree at, so your mileage may vary.\n\nI don't know where IT falls in here. But for the rest, I think of it as a spectrum that looks like this:\n\n < CS---CIS---MIS---BA > \n\nWhen I use those acronyms I'm thinking Computer Science, Computer Information Systems (Maybe same as IT?), Management Information Systems (which is a terrible name for this degree, but it's an awesome degree, and Business Administration.\n\nThat spectrum also loosely equates to the kinds of classes you take:\n\n < Computer--------Business > \n\nSo computer classes will be like intro to comp sci, networking, programming, database design, etc. \n\nBusiness classes are like marketing, management, finance, etc. \n\nSo when I think back to the original spectrum I gave you:\n < CS----CIS----MIS----BA > \n\nand\n\n < Computer------Business > \n\nIn the CS degree, you get almost all computer classes and no business classes. With CIS you get some business, but still mostly computer. With MIS you get mostly business with some compsci classes, and BA you get all business classes.\n\nSo why would someone do any of this? Wouldn't it be better to specialize either in CS or BA? Why have those two in the middle? First, I would say the two in the middle are largely interchangeable in the business world. If you have a job that wants a CIS degree, your MIS will work, and vice versa. But those two play an **important** role in a business setting because to be frank: a CS and a BA don't know how to talk to each other. The CIS/MIS person knows enough of both sides of the world to translate between the two.\n\nThey know how to take the BA's business requirement and translate it into SQL code, or java, or whatever. They probably aren't doing the actual programming, but they can work closely with the CS person to ensure what they're doing matches what the BA wants. They can also help temper both sides' priorities. CS will want to do everything perfect. BA will want to do everything cheap. The CIS/MIS person will help the two negotiate.\n\nI'm an MIS major because I actually love doing this kind of work. I also lean more towards the business side, so that's why I took the MIS classes. When I graduated, I had to give an oral presentation on a subject in order to qualify for my Summa Cum Laude, and I gave it on this very topic (to which I passed). \n\nI've lived this role for 15-ish years in Corporate America and it's important, but not well understood or valued. But you'll get things done better when all sides are accounted for in a project. \n",
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"answer": "Most of the answers are incorrect regarding what computer science is (even the top comment at the moment says it wrongly). \n\nIt is basically just mathematics (it split off of math because it is such a huge subject). Computer science is NOT about computers, it is about maths but using computers as a tool, just like astronomy is not about telescopes.\nWe learn about linear algebra, discrete maths, algorithms and datastructures, design of digital circuits, numerical methods, etc. \nThe goal of compsci is to quantify problems and solve them in an efficient manner using maths.\nIt is about the fundamental principles behind everything. For example encryption is basically just calculating enormous prime numbers (Diffie Hellman) and it finds application in the TCP protocol. Computer scientists develop the fundamental theory behind everything.\n\nSource: I am a cs student",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The way I look at it. Do you want to me a programmer, data analyst, or sys admin?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CS: STEM undergrad, graduate school\n\nCIS: Business undergrad\n\nIT: community college, university dropout\n\nTongue in cheek, but it's more true than not.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm in IT and I stumbled across this explanation a while ago:\n\nThink of a car manufacturing company.\n\nYou have designers that work out what they want the car to do and perform tests to see if it can be done -*at all*. That's Computer Science. Possibly *creating* the bleeding edge of new innovations in the industry. Likely simply working for someone to reduce the business impact of a stupid decision of an executive.\n\nThen you have the mechanical engineers, who take the above information, and turn it into a car that can actually make it to market. That's Computer Information Science. . Might get a chance to *use* bleeding edge tech. possibly coming up with apps and using the teh to make something really cool, but more likely going to just be coding for an organization to make their weird payroll scheme work efficiently with outdated tech.\n\nThen you have several disciplines that are overlooked in the original question:\n\n- The guy who decides what size all the bolts in the car are going to be - that's hardware manufacture (how large should this server rack be?).\n\n- The guy who makes sure that the airbag isn't going to kill someone - That's bug testing (weird offshoot of IT)\n\n- and a few more, including other weird offshoot disciplines (White hat hacking, network design, software support, etc.)\n\nUntil you finally get to:\n\nThe greasy mechanic. Fixes the cars every day - solves problems, performs scheduled maintenance, and generally keeps them running. He is a Sysadmin, and he works in the IT department. BUT - \"what kind of IT?\" you may ask.\n\nMaybe he works for a company that has a nice fleet of high-end vehicles. That's IT at a nationally-recognized company headquarters. Seriously important, but not the main focus of the business, so no job security. Someone can replace him easily. Someone is likely *trying* to replace him.\n\nMaybe he works for a company that has vehicles, but not a ton, but he's still really important. That's IT at a small/medium business. The business would grind to a halt without him, but he's reliable and keeps the pretty lights blinking.\n\nMaybe he works in that weird place that doesn't seem like it *belongs* in the ghetto, but holy shit they get a lot of business - all your friends know that he does great work, but somehow has bad reviews on FB. That's a IT at a **M**anaged **S**ervice **P**rovider. The business has computers, but no IT department. They hire this other company to come and do maintenance/crisis management every once in a while. There might be a long-term contract. Maybe not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing's for sure, taking any of these courses will make you never forget to end your open parenthesis. Trust me, I know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8431748",
"title": "Information and computer science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Information and computer science (ICS) or computer and information science (CIS) (plural forms, i.e., \"sciences\", may also be used) is a field that emphasizes \"both\" computing and informatics, upholding the strong association between the fields of information sciences and computer sciences and treating computers as a tool rather than a field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "237495",
"title": "Information system",
"section": "Section::::As an academic discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Information systems bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes on building the IT systems within a computer science discipline. Computer information system(s) (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society, whereas IS emphasizes functionality over design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "524425",
"title": "Computer Science and Engineering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at some universities that integrates the fields of computer engineering and computer science. It is a sub-field of electronics engineering, focusing the digital electronics domain with added courses in computer architecture, processor design, operating systems, high-performance computing, parallel processing, computer networks and embedded systems. CSE programs also include core subjects of computer science such as theory of computation, design and analysis of algorithms, data structures and database systems. The program aims at designing, developing and troubleshooting computing devices and systems (such as personal computers, supercomputers, robots, smartphones, networking devices, embedded devices), focusing the underlying fundamental issues (like processor architecture design, operating system design, memory management, digital system design, communication protocol design, system software development, application software development and database management) in the most efficient and effective way. Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning and data science are also covered under these programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10706645",
"title": "Bachelor of Computer Information Systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The Bachelor of Computer Information Systems (abbreviated BSc CIS) is an undergraduate or bachelor's degree that focuses on practical applications of technology to support organizations while adding value to their offerings. In order to apply technology effectively in this manner, a broad range of subjects are covered, such as communications, business, networking, software design, and mathematics. This degree encompasses the entirety of the Computing field and therefore is very useful when applying to computing positions of various sectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5213",
"title": "Computing",
"section": "Section::::Sub-disciplines of computing.:Computer science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "731199",
"title": "University of Santo Tomas",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Undergraduate studies.:Institutes and departments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The Institute of Information and Computing Sciences was separated from the Faculty of Engineering on July 2014. It was founded in 1999 and originally under the College of Science at the Institute of Computer Sciences. It was then placed under the Faculty of Engineering as the Department of Information and Computer Studies from 2004 until 2014. A Level I accreditation status from PAASCU has been granted to all three-degree programs of the institute namely: Computer Science, Information Systems, and Information Technology. The Institute is located at the Roque Ruaño Building, together with the Faculty of Engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43847151",
"title": "University of Santo Tomas Institute of Information and Computing Sciences",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The Institute of Information and Computing Sciences was established through a consortium of three colleges: the Faculty of Engineering, the College of Commerce and Accountancy, and the College of Science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dhsz8
|
Historical Fencing in the US of A
|
[
{
"answer": "Matthew J. O'Rourke, a captain of volunteers on the Union side during the Civil War, published a treatise on the use of the saber in 1872, which was adopted as the Army's standard. You can get a free ebook of the manual here: _URL_0_\nThe first half of the the book is \"the Manual,\" regulations for how to draw a sword on parade, etc. The Part you're probably interested is the second half, \"the Exercise,\" which contains the actual fencing. If you're familiar with other 19th century military sabre systems, say from the U.K., its fairly similar, but with a few differences.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are few resources over on r/Hemascholar that might be in the area you're interested in, although the materials there tend to be eclectic. You might also ask over at r/wma.\n\nSome resources from the US military side of things:\n\n- Matthew W. Berriman's [The Militiaman's Manual: And Sword-play Without a Master : Rapier and Broad-Sword Exercises](_URL_2_) (1861)\n\n- William Gilham's [Manual of Instruction for the Volunteers and Militia of the Confederate States](_URL_3_) (1861)\n\n- Philip St. George Cooke's [Cavalry Tactics; Or Regulations for the Instruction, Formations, and Movements of the Cavalry](_URL_5_) (1864)\n- A. J. Corbesier's [Principles of Squad Instruction for the Broadsword](_URL_1_) (1869) [PDF]\n\n- A. C. Cunningham's [Sword and Bayonet](_URL_4_) (1906)\n\n- [Provisional Regulations for Sabre exercise](_URL_0_) (1907)\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought I should add that Captain O'Rourke published a previous version of his work during the civil war itself.\n\n Some more sources for 19th American military fencing:\n\nMajor Wayne, a former fencing instructor at West Point, published a manual intended for military use, unlike O'Rourke he includes a section on fencing with foils in preparation for a more \"thrusty\" weapon, as well as a broadsword or sabre section.\n_URL_0_\n\nThe Militiaman's Manual (Full title: The Militiaman's Manual: And Sword-play Without a Master : Rapier and Broad-sword Exercises, Copiously Explained and Illustrated : Small-arm Light Infantry Drill of the United States Army : Infantry Manual of Percussion Musket : Company Drill of the United States Cavalry\"), a work intended for Militia officers, contains fencing lessons for both thrusting and cutting weapons, perhaps intended, as the subtitle suggests, for people without access to a fencing master. The book sandwiches fencing instruction in with drill and the manual of arms for percussion musket, basically everything a militia officer would need to know.\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1897561",
"title": "Classical fencing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Many people self-identify as classical fencers, but do not share the concept of classical fencing described in this article, preferring the early to mid-20th-century style of competitive fencing (which, in the United States, was formalized and governed by the American Fencing League, or AFL) to the more classical style of the 19th century. This should not be confused with the Amateur Fencers League of America (AFLA), which was renamed to the current United States Fencing Association (USFA) in 1981, which is affiliated with the FIE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1897561",
"title": "Classical fencing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Used in this sense, classical fencing is a style of historical fencing focusing on the 19th- and early 20th-century national fencing schools, especially in Italy and France, \"i.e\". the schools out of which the styles of contemporary sports fencing have developed. Masters and legendary fencing figures such as Giuseppe Radaelli, Louis Rondelle, Masaniello Parise, the Greco brothers, Aldo Nadi and his rival Lucien Gaudin are today considered typical practitioners of this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58635036",
"title": "Studley Park, Narellan",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Garden layout.:Statement of Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The post and rail fencing has mostly disappeared, but had historical and aesthetic significance as a clear example of a style favoured by wealthy Victorian and Edwardian landowners at the turn of the century, and as such, carried some social significance as well. They warrant reinstatement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4897989",
"title": "Amateur Fencers League of America",
"section": "Section::::History.:1957-1983.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "These events in the early 1980s solidified the evolutionary branching between fencing (under the USFA) and standard fencing (which in 2006 began to experience a revival under the fledgling American Fencing League). The intervening two decades also brought on the classical fencing and historical fencing movements, neither of which have much connection to USFA/AFLA fencing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10893",
"title": "Fencing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels and self defense. Fencing is believed to have originated in Spain; some of the most significant books on fencing were written by Spanish fencers. \"Treatise on Arms\" was written by Diego de Valera between 1458 and 1471 and is one of the oldest surviving manuals on western fencing (in spite of the title, the book of Diego Valera was on heraldry, not about fencing) shortly before dueling came under official ban by the Catholic Monarchs. In conquest, the Spanish forces carried fencing around the world, particularly to southern Italy, one of the major areas of strife between both nations. Fencing was mentioned in the play \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" written sometime prior to 1602.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2444217",
"title": "Italian school of swordsmanship",
"section": "Section::::Classical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "By the end of the 19th century, the immediate ancestor of modern fencing had developed with its familiar pedagogy and collection of techniques and theory. At this time, the two predominant schools within the Italian tradition are the Radaellian (after Maestro G. Radaelli) and the Neapolitan. In 1883 the Italian Ministry of War selects the treatise by Neapolitan Masaniello Parise to be the official syllabus of the newly founded Scuola Magistrale of fencing; now called Classical Italian Fencing, Parise's teachings survive to this day almost unchanged, although many of Radaelli's saber teachings were incorporated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10893",
"title": "Fencing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development into a sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Basic conventions were collated and set down during the 1880s by the French fencing master Camille Prévost. It was during this time that many officially recognised fencing associations began to appear in different parts of the world, such as the Amateur Fencers League of America was founded in 1891, the Amateur Fencing Association of Great Britain in 1902, and the Fédération Nationale des Sociétés d’Escrime et Salles d’Armes de France in 1906.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fhvfuu
|
In high and late medieval Europe, German & Yiddish-speaking Jews had very high rates of literacy. However, was this isolated to Hebrew literature or could most Jewish people also read the Latin alphabet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gotz Aly (Why the Germans, why the Jews) explained that having extremely limited opportunities, European Jews invested heavily in and prioritized education. Whether their own religious education or secular education. As a result, they often had a mastery or at least understanding of multiple languages.\n\nBeing persecuted and discriminated against, Jewish people needed the ability to communicate with the Non Jews they were living with. Accordingly, they had to be able to read and talk in the language of their neighbours.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152735",
"title": "Germans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "By the Middle Ages, large numbers of Jews lived in the Holy Roman Empire and had assimilated into German culture, including many Jews who had previously assimilated into French culture and had spoken a mixed Judeo-French language. Upon assimilating into German culture, the Jewish German peoples incorporated major parts of the German language and elements of other European languages into a mixed language known as Yiddish. However tolerance and assimilation of Jews in German society suddenly ended during the Crusades with many Jews being forcefully expelled from Germany and Western Yiddish disappeared as a language in Germany over the centuries, with German Jewish people fully adopting the German language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7773244",
"title": "History of the Jews in Iran",
"section": "Section::::The Second Temple period.:Pahlavi dynasty (1925 to 1979).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "From the beginning of the 20th century, the literacy rate among the Jewish minority was significantly higher than the Muslim masses. In 1945 about 80 percent of the Jewish population were literate, whereas most Muslims could not read and write. In 1968 only 30 percent of Muslims were literate, whereas this figure was more than 80 percent for the Jews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18945585",
"title": "History of education in ancient Israel and Judah",
"section": "Section::::Literacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Despite this schooling system, many children did not learn to read and write. It has been estimated that at least 90 percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine in the first centuries CE could merely write their own name or not write and read at all, or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent. Exact literacy rates among ancient Jews in Roman Palestine cannot be determined \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3567663",
"title": "Jewish English Bible translations",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "But equivalent translation efforts have been less widespread among Jews. This is partially due to the fact that English became a major spoken language among Jews only in the era since the Holocaust. Before then, even Jews in English-speaking countries were still part of an immigrant culture to a large extent, which meant that they could either understand the Hebrew Bible in its original language to a certain degree or, if they required a translation, were still not fully comfortable in English. Many translated Bibles and prayer books from before the Holocaust were still in Yiddish, even those published in countries like the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56450289",
"title": "Eastern European Jewry",
"section": "Section::::From the beginning of the Jewish settlement to the 18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "At the beginning of the 16th century, the number of Jews in Eastern Europe was estimated at between 10,000 and 30,000. As early as the beginning of the 17th century, it was known that there were Jews living in cities of Lithuania, whose language was \"Russiany\" (from Hebrew: רוסיתא) and they did not know the \"Ashkenaz tongue\", i.e. German-Yiddish. In the mid-18th century, the number of Jews increased to about 750,000. During this period only one-third of East European Jews lived in areas with a predominantly Polish population. The rest of the Jews lived among other peoples, mainly in the Ukrainian and Russian-Lithuanian environments. The numerical increase was due to mass migration of Jews from Central Europe to Eastern Europe in the 16th century, as well as a high birth rate among these immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118560",
"title": "Carolingian Renaissance",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "A lack of Latin literacy in eighth century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate Bible. An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages, that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18910757",
"title": "Judaeo-Spanish",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Jews in the Middle Ages were instrumental in the development of Spanish into a prestige language. Erudite Jews translated Arabic and Hebrew works, often translated earlier from Greek, into Spanish. Christians translated them again into Latin for transmission to Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ni22i
|
what does the death of kim jong-il mean for north korea/the rest of the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Functionally nothing as power had already been transferred and his death was expected. It's mostly important in relation to the cult of personality that existed in NK and how they will respond. I seriously doubt anything is going to change though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not much in any real sense, North Korea's leadership had already more or less been transferred to his son. \n\nMaybe his son will be less extreme then him but so far that has not been the case. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Too soon to answer that BUT all indications are that his son has been groomed and will likely continue ruling NK in the same manner. Stay tuned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you are playing a game called \"Crazy Dictator\" on your Xbox, and the person playing the game dies for some reason. Someone else then picks up the controller and continues where the previous player left off. Kim Jong-Il is dead, but the game will continue.\n\nBut North Korea has a mythology that surrounds their \"dear leader\" much like a comic book, wrestler, etc. has their own made-up backstory. Thus, they will have to let their crazy mythology \"absorb\" Il's death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one knows. That's the problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Long term, it's kind of up in the air. The US and ROK army over here in SK have been put on alert, however.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's very hard to say at this point. There is very little information out about Kim Jong-un and we have no clue whether the regime will be better or worse under him. One of the many problems that analysts have outlined is that it isn't just the outside world that is unfamiliar with Kim Jong-un. Most North Koreans, outside of his name, aren't familiar with the successor either. Analysts say that this could lead to the government making drastic moves in order to make the North Korean people embrace the new ruler and the most obvious way in which a North Korean leader can gain approval is through aggression towards South Korea. Another cause for concern is the issue of having a power vacuum in a state possessing nuclear weapons. No one is sure as of right now whether North Korea is even dealing with a power vacuum as Kim Jong-Il's illness was well known and Kim Jong-un was being prepared to succeed his father. However, if there is, this situation could lead to disaster as potentially, many people could have access to these nuclear weapons. \n\nEDIT: Another interesting note that may or may not be important in predicting what Kim Jong-un's regime will be like is the fact that he was educated at an international school in Berne, separating him from his NK-educated father and grandfather. This could mean that he will have more western principles and as a result, he might not be as radical as his predecessors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As has been stated, not much is likely to change. Even so, with how quiet and backroom the nature of politics in the DPRK are, it's not likely that everyone is excited about Kim Jong-Un replacing his father. As with any power-shift, there are almost certainly people in the background planning to use this as an opportunity to gain some power and influence of their own. \n\nFor the record, I'm not saying that they're going to go in and kill Kim Jong-Un or something; I'm just saying that I doubt Kim Jong-Un will find his power as entrenched as his father's was. \n\nOne final note: It's important not to think of the entire DPRK's population as brainwashed. That's a very simplistic (and generally untrue) way to think about things. A good chunk of North Korea''s southern population is exposed to South Korean TV, and there has been some quiet political organizing/questioning of the establishment at universities in the country throughout this past year, so don't think that the entire population of the DPRK is just sitting back, unthinking. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kim Jong-il had a unique combination of shrewdness, ruthlessness, and crazy that allowed him to rule North Korea with an iron fist while keeping the rest of the world at bay.\n\nChances are, his successor will not be as good at this game as he was. He may have to deal with the rest of the world in order to stay in power, or he may not be able to stay in power at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was a paper that someone wrote in 2009 about the matter. These are all speculations about the possible outcomes of KJI's death. _URL_0_ It's a lot to read and it's not really ELI5, but i'm sure someone can break these situations down and explain much better than I could.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a stretch, but here goes.\n\nImagine you are at a your school. Now imagine that there is another kindergarten room, and nobody is allowed in there except that class of kindergarteners and their teacher. The teacher (Kim Jong Il) tells his students that he is the best teacher ever, and all the other classes (western countries) are teaching wrong things, and all the other teachers and students are evil. The principal (China) lets this one teacher get away with all of this as long as the teacher makes everything look ok, and keeps the kids in his room. Sometimes kids try to leave the room, but the principal quietly ushers them back to their room, where they are never seen or heard from again.\n\nThe rest of the school knows that there are many bad things happening in this room, but can't do anything about it because the principal is protecting them. \n\nNow imagine that the teacher dies, and leaves one of his students in charge. The student isn't known very well at all to the rest of the school outside the classroom, just that he might have been [playing with some fireworks](_URL_0_) last year. \n\nThere might also be a few teacher's pets left in the classroom (generals) who don't like the idea of this student being left in charge, because he is not as \"perfect\" as the teacher. So they might be planning something to get rid of him.\n\nThe rest of the school is not really sure what will happen because they don't have very much knowledge about what was really happening in the classroom. They can't burst into the room because the principal is still looking out for the secret class, so the best they can do for now is watch very closely to make sure nothing too bad comes out of the room and hurts anybody else.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"**There is a 50-50 chance that the regime can survive. There is a huge chance that the regime can fall into implosion, explosion, or complete civil war. Anarchy type activity.** This is absolutley something that the people that are planning for right now. This means a lot of military involvement for both South Korea and United States. Probably lead by the South Korean military with support from the United States and this is a very real possibility and this is why the north korean regime process is the fourth threat\" Bruce E. Bechtol, Jr May 23 2011\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI will summarize some of Bruce E. Bechtol key points\n\n1. In North Korea there is no such thing as hierarchical organization of government. It is more like a guy in the center of a circle and all of the institutions feed into him. Since Kim Il-sung took over. He set up the government that way for his son Kim Jong Il. He had 20 years to do that since 1974 to 1994 when the process started. You cannot run that country unless you control the party, the military, the security services and that Byzantine entity known as the Kim family inner circle. Kim Jung Il controlled all of them. It all started in 1974. By 1992 he was a 5 star general in the army even though he never served in uniform. He was the head of the organization and guidance department for the party. Which is the organization that controls not only what happens in the party but the controls promotions for the military. He was the head of State Security Department and the Ministry of Peoples Security the 2 biggest security services of about 8 security services. His father also purged all of his relatives that he was out of favor with. **None of this has happened for Kim Jong-un yet.** His father is trying to set him up as a general in the army but he is not there yet. He is in the party and has a place in the OGD (Organization and Guidance Department) but he is not running it yet.**There have been problems with him getting along with people in the security services and there have been problems with the fact there have been reports of him trying to have his older brother assassinated.**\n\n\n2. Nobody outside of Kim controls more than a few staff members. In the army if you are a general commanding a core or a colonel commanding a regiment on your left shoulder you have a guy from the State Security Department overlooking that you are doing things politically correct and on your right shoulder you have a guy from the General Political Bureau making sure you are not going to try and overthrow the government. So unlike China and the Soviet Union where they have a political officer in every unit and in North Korea if you want to rebel you have to kill 2 guys and they answer to 2 separate chains of command. So Kim has built the power base in the country so nobody controls enough power so someone can come in and take control a coup d'etat.\n\n\n3. **In order for his son to take over his dad has to build a power base for him in the party, army, security services and the Kim family regime. Has he been able to do that? He has not been able to do that yet. It took 20 years for Kim Jong-il's father to do that for him.** There is a good chance Kim Jong Il will die in the next 5 years so he doesn't have much time to prepare his son unlike his father did for him.\n\n4. The generals would like the succession of the son to work because they know they will hanging on meat hooks Mussolini style if the country implodes. They would like to see a family succession to work for selfish reasons. Because of the way the military is set up it would be almost impossible for a general to throw a coup d'etat because the party watches the military too closely.\n\n\nThe lecturer Bruce E. Bechtol, Jr., is an associate professor of political science at Angelo State University and served as a visiting adjunct professor at the Korea University Graduate School of International Studies in Seoul, Korea. A former intelligence officer with the Defense Intelligence Agency and a retired Marine, he has lived and worked in Korea. He is the author of Red Rogue: The Persistent Challenge of North Korea, as well as numerous articles in peer-reviewed journals relating to Korean security issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A fatter version of Kim Jong-il keeps on playing the game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On another thread, here's a \"explain like I'm an intelligence agent\" answer:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It means that Kim Kardashian is free to reign as the \"evilest Kim alive\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Functionally nothing as power had already been transferred and his death was expected. It's mostly important in relation to the cult of personality that existed in NK and how they will respond. I seriously doubt anything is going to change though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not much in any real sense, North Korea's leadership had already more or less been transferred to his son. \n\nMaybe his son will be less extreme then him but so far that has not been the case. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Too soon to answer that BUT all indications are that his son has been groomed and will likely continue ruling NK in the same manner. Stay tuned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you are playing a game called \"Crazy Dictator\" on your Xbox, and the person playing the game dies for some reason. Someone else then picks up the controller and continues where the previous player left off. Kim Jong-Il is dead, but the game will continue.\n\nBut North Korea has a mythology that surrounds their \"dear leader\" much like a comic book, wrestler, etc. has their own made-up backstory. Thus, they will have to let their crazy mythology \"absorb\" Il's death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one knows. That's the problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Long term, it's kind of up in the air. The US and ROK army over here in SK have been put on alert, however.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's very hard to say at this point. There is very little information out about Kim Jong-un and we have no clue whether the regime will be better or worse under him. One of the many problems that analysts have outlined is that it isn't just the outside world that is unfamiliar with Kim Jong-un. Most North Koreans, outside of his name, aren't familiar with the successor either. Analysts say that this could lead to the government making drastic moves in order to make the North Korean people embrace the new ruler and the most obvious way in which a North Korean leader can gain approval is through aggression towards South Korea. Another cause for concern is the issue of having a power vacuum in a state possessing nuclear weapons. No one is sure as of right now whether North Korea is even dealing with a power vacuum as Kim Jong-Il's illness was well known and Kim Jong-un was being prepared to succeed his father. However, if there is, this situation could lead to disaster as potentially, many people could have access to these nuclear weapons. \n\nEDIT: Another interesting note that may or may not be important in predicting what Kim Jong-un's regime will be like is the fact that he was educated at an international school in Berne, separating him from his NK-educated father and grandfather. This could mean that he will have more western principles and as a result, he might not be as radical as his predecessors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As has been stated, not much is likely to change. Even so, with how quiet and backroom the nature of politics in the DPRK are, it's not likely that everyone is excited about Kim Jong-Un replacing his father. As with any power-shift, there are almost certainly people in the background planning to use this as an opportunity to gain some power and influence of their own. \n\nFor the record, I'm not saying that they're going to go in and kill Kim Jong-Un or something; I'm just saying that I doubt Kim Jong-Un will find his power as entrenched as his father's was. \n\nOne final note: It's important not to think of the entire DPRK's population as brainwashed. That's a very simplistic (and generally untrue) way to think about things. A good chunk of North Korea''s southern population is exposed to South Korean TV, and there has been some quiet political organizing/questioning of the establishment at universities in the country throughout this past year, so don't think that the entire population of the DPRK is just sitting back, unthinking. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kim Jong-il had a unique combination of shrewdness, ruthlessness, and crazy that allowed him to rule North Korea with an iron fist while keeping the rest of the world at bay.\n\nChances are, his successor will not be as good at this game as he was. He may have to deal with the rest of the world in order to stay in power, or he may not be able to stay in power at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was a paper that someone wrote in 2009 about the matter. These are all speculations about the possible outcomes of KJI's death. _URL_0_ It's a lot to read and it's not really ELI5, but i'm sure someone can break these situations down and explain much better than I could.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a stretch, but here goes.\n\nImagine you are at a your school. Now imagine that there is another kindergarten room, and nobody is allowed in there except that class of kindergarteners and their teacher. The teacher (Kim Jong Il) tells his students that he is the best teacher ever, and all the other classes (western countries) are teaching wrong things, and all the other teachers and students are evil. The principal (China) lets this one teacher get away with all of this as long as the teacher makes everything look ok, and keeps the kids in his room. Sometimes kids try to leave the room, but the principal quietly ushers them back to their room, where they are never seen or heard from again.\n\nThe rest of the school knows that there are many bad things happening in this room, but can't do anything about it because the principal is protecting them. \n\nNow imagine that the teacher dies, and leaves one of his students in charge. The student isn't known very well at all to the rest of the school outside the classroom, just that he might have been [playing with some fireworks](_URL_0_) last year. \n\nThere might also be a few teacher's pets left in the classroom (generals) who don't like the idea of this student being left in charge, because he is not as \"perfect\" as the teacher. So they might be planning something to get rid of him.\n\nThe rest of the school is not really sure what will happen because they don't have very much knowledge about what was really happening in the classroom. They can't burst into the room because the principal is still looking out for the secret class, so the best they can do for now is watch very closely to make sure nothing too bad comes out of the room and hurts anybody else.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"**There is a 50-50 chance that the regime can survive. There is a huge chance that the regime can fall into implosion, explosion, or complete civil war. Anarchy type activity.** This is absolutley something that the people that are planning for right now. This means a lot of military involvement for both South Korea and United States. Probably lead by the South Korean military with support from the United States and this is a very real possibility and this is why the north korean regime process is the fourth threat\" Bruce E. Bechtol, Jr May 23 2011\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI will summarize some of Bruce E. Bechtol key points\n\n1. In North Korea there is no such thing as hierarchical organization of government. It is more like a guy in the center of a circle and all of the institutions feed into him. Since Kim Il-sung took over. He set up the government that way for his son Kim Jong Il. He had 20 years to do that since 1974 to 1994 when the process started. You cannot run that country unless you control the party, the military, the security services and that Byzantine entity known as the Kim family inner circle. Kim Jung Il controlled all of them. It all started in 1974. By 1992 he was a 5 star general in the army even though he never served in uniform. He was the head of the organization and guidance department for the party. Which is the organization that controls not only what happens in the party but the controls promotions for the military. He was the head of State Security Department and the Ministry of Peoples Security the 2 biggest security services of about 8 security services. His father also purged all of his relatives that he was out of favor with. **None of this has happened for Kim Jong-un yet.** His father is trying to set him up as a general in the army but he is not there yet. He is in the party and has a place in the OGD (Organization and Guidance Department) but he is not running it yet.**There have been problems with him getting along with people in the security services and there have been problems with the fact there have been reports of him trying to have his older brother assassinated.**\n\n\n2. Nobody outside of Kim controls more than a few staff members. In the army if you are a general commanding a core or a colonel commanding a regiment on your left shoulder you have a guy from the State Security Department overlooking that you are doing things politically correct and on your right shoulder you have a guy from the General Political Bureau making sure you are not going to try and overthrow the government. So unlike China and the Soviet Union where they have a political officer in every unit and in North Korea if you want to rebel you have to kill 2 guys and they answer to 2 separate chains of command. So Kim has built the power base in the country so nobody controls enough power so someone can come in and take control a coup d'etat.\n\n\n3. **In order for his son to take over his dad has to build a power base for him in the party, army, security services and the Kim family regime. Has he been able to do that? He has not been able to do that yet. It took 20 years for Kim Jong-il's father to do that for him.** There is a good chance Kim Jong Il will die in the next 5 years so he doesn't have much time to prepare his son unlike his father did for him.\n\n4. The generals would like the succession of the son to work because they know they will hanging on meat hooks Mussolini style if the country implodes. They would like to see a family succession to work for selfish reasons. Because of the way the military is set up it would be almost impossible for a general to throw a coup d'etat because the party watches the military too closely.\n\n\nThe lecturer Bruce E. Bechtol, Jr., is an associate professor of political science at Angelo State University and served as a visiting adjunct professor at the Korea University Graduate School of International Studies in Seoul, Korea. A former intelligence officer with the Defense Intelligence Agency and a retired Marine, he has lived and worked in Korea. He is the author of Red Rogue: The Persistent Challenge of North Korea, as well as numerous articles in peer-reviewed journals relating to Korean security issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A fatter version of Kim Jong-il keeps on playing the game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On another thread, here's a \"explain like I'm an intelligence agent\" answer:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It means that Kim Kardashian is free to reign as the \"evilest Kim alive\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "154099",
"title": "Kim Jong-il",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Kim Jong-il's funeral took place on 28 December in Pyongyang, with a mourning period lasting until the following day. South Korea's military was immediately put on alert after the announcement and its National Security Council convened for an emergency meeting, out of concern that political jockeying in North Korea could destabilise the region. Asian stock markets fell soon after the announcement, due to similar concerns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34121385",
"title": "Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The death of Kim Jong-il was reported by North Korean state television news on 19 December 2011. The presenter Ri Chun-hee announced that he had died on 17 December at 8:30 am of a massive heart attack while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. Reportedly, he had received medical treatment for cardiac and cerebrovascular diseases. During the trip though, he was said to have had an advanced acute myocardial infarction, complicated with a serious heart shock. However, it was reported by South Korean media in December 2012 that he had died in a fit of rage over construction faults at a crucial power plant project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34121385",
"title": "Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Governments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "BULLET::::- – Foreign Secretary William Hague said \"The people of North Korea are in official mourning after the death of Kim Jong-Il. We understand this is a difficult time for them. This could be a turning point for North Korea. We hope that their new leadership will recognise that engagement with the international community offers the best prospect of improving the lives of ordinary North Korean people. We encourage North Korea to work for peace and security in the region and take the steps necessary to allow the resumption of the Six Party Talks on denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34121385",
"title": "Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Parties and organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- – General Secretary of the ruling FRELIMO party Filipe Chimoio Paúnde described Kim Jong-il's death as a \"sadness\" for the North Korean people. \"Considering the relations that exist between the two states we also feel the loss\". North Korea \"gave its support during the national liberation war\" which FRELIMO fought against the colonial power Portugal, Paúnde said.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507834",
"title": "Kim Jong-nam",
"section": "Section::::Assassination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "On 13 February 2017, Kim died after being exposed to VX nerve agent at Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia. It was widely believed that he was killed on the orders of his half-brother Kim Jong-un. Four North Korean suspects left the airport shortly after the attack, travelling back to Pyongyang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154099",
"title": "Kim Jong-il",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "It was reported that Kim Jong-il had died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 8:30a.m. while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. It was reported in December 2012, however, that he had died \"in a fit of rage\" over construction faults at a crucial power plant project at Huichon in Jagang Province. He was succeeded by his youngest son Kim Jong-un, who was hailed by the Korean Central News Agency as the \"Great Successor\". According to the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), during his death a fierce snowstorm \"paused\" and \"the sky glowed red above the sacred Mount Paektu\" and the ice on a famous lake also cracked so loud that it seemed to \"shake the Heavens and the Earth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507834",
"title": "Kim Jong-nam",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:2001–2005: Loss of favour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Kim Jong-un was left in charge while his father was on a state visit to China. Outsider observers also believed North Korea's sinking of a South Korean ship in March 2010 was part of Kim Jong-il's attempt to secure succession for the youngest Kim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3egrm9
|
what the suds in dish soap do and how they work.
|
[
{
"answer": "Dish soap is made out of special molecules are both polar (slight charge) and non-polar. This property allows them to form a microscopic \"bubble\" called a [micelle](_URL_0_) around non-polar molecules (such as fat and oils) which can then be dissolved in water. The reason it is so hard to get things like oil off of your hands without soap is because they are non-polar and do not dissolve in water. Using a soap helps to dissolve the oils and they can then be washed off of your hands with water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "A soap dish is a shallow, open container or platform where a bar of soap may be placed to dry after use. Soap dishes are usually located in or near a sink, shower, or bathtub. Most soap dishes are made from waterproof materials such as plastic, ceramic, metal, or glass, though some are made from bamboo. A china saucer or sponge may serve as a soap dish. A soap dish accommodates bar soap, whereas a soap dispenser accommodates liquid soap or foam soap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Placement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Most soap dishes are standalone accessories whose placement is at the user's discretion, though some are a built-in feature of a sink, shower, or bathtub. Standalone soap dishes may be entirely portable or may include options for semi-permanent or permanent installation on a horizontal or vertical surface. Locating a soap dish outside the perimeter of a faucet's or showerhead's stream helps the soap to avoid excess erosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Elements in the design of a soap dish include safety, ventilation, cleanliness, placement, aesthetics, and cost. When a soap dish is part of a bath accessories set, coordinated group design may be utilized. Notable soap dish designs include Leonard L Hierath's May 2018 US Patent #US-9962042 Article Support (soap dish) US Patent and Trademark Office; Robert A. Pitton's 1956 US patent for a reversible, hemispherical soap dish and Bernard Cohen's October 2017 design for the \"SoapAnchor\" (patent pending).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Because of their intended use in wet and potentially hazardous environments, most soap dishes are designed with safety in mind. Such features include unbreakable materials, non-slip surfaces, rounded edges, and secure installation elements (e.g., wall mount hardware, a suction cup, or non-skid feet). Depositing or retrieving a slippery bar of soap is facilitated by an open (or semi-open) sided design or by a shallow lip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27654014",
"title": "Shaving soap",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Traditional shaving soap is often sold as a round puck, either with a rounded bottom intended for use with a shaving scuttle or a flat bottom for use in a mug. High-end soaps may be sold with their own dishes, typically made of either wood or ceramic, and be formed to fit the dish with which the puck is sold. Shaving soap may also be formed in a stick, sold either in a plastic tube or wrapped in foil or paper. Shaving soap is more rarely sold as rectangular bars (as is common with body soap).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Dishwashing liquid (BrE: washing-up liquid), known as dishwashing soap, dish detergent and dish soap, is a detergent used to assist in dishwashing. It is usually a highly-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation, and is primarily used for hand washing of glasses, plates, cutlery, and cooking utensils in a sink or bowl. In addition to its primary use, dishwashing liquid also has various informal applications, such as for creating bubbles, clothes washing and cleaning oil-affected birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268796",
"title": "Tripoli, Lebanon",
"section": "Section::::Business.:The Soap Khan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The raw material used for these kinds of soap is olive oil. The Tripoli soap is also composed of: honey, essential oils, and natural aromatic raw materials like flowers, petals, and herbs. The soaps are dried in the sun, in a dry atmosphere, allowing the evaporation of the water that served to mix the different ingredients. The drying operation lasts for almost three months. As the water evaporates, a thin white layer appears on the soap surface, from the soda that comes from the sea salts. The craftsman brushes the soap very carefully with his hand until the powder trace is entirely eliminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2byil2
|
Atlatls VS bows in the Americas
|
[
{
"answer": "[This post](_URL_0_) has it that bows and arrows emerged between 3-4 thousand years ago, probably independently, in a number of locations in North America. To my knowledge, atlatls were widely spread throughout North America both before and after bows were in use.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202388",
"title": "Spear-thrower",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "The spear-thrower was used by early Americans as well. It may have been introduced to America during the immigration across the Bering Land Bridge, and despite the later introduction of the bow and arrow, atlatl use was widespread at the time of first European contact. Atlatls are represented in the art of multiple PreColumbian cultures, including the Basketmaker culture in the American Southwest, Maya in the Yucatan Peninsula, and Moche in the Andes of South America. Atlatls were especially prominent in the iconography of the warriors of the Teotihuacan culture of Central Mexico. A ruler from Teotihucan named Spearthrower Owl is an important figure described in Mayan stelae. Complete wooden spear-throwers have been found on dry sites in the western United States and in waterlogged environments in Florida and Washington. Several Amazonian tribes also used the atlatl for fishing and hunting. Some even preferred this weapon over the bow and arrow, and used it not only in combat but also in sports competitions. Such was the case with the Tarairiu, a Tapuya tribe of migratory foragers and raiders inhabiting the forested mountains and highland savannahs of Rio Grande do Norte in mid-17th-century Brazil. Anthropologist Harald Prins offers the following description:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10069202",
"title": "Self bow",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In many parts of the world including much of Africa, the Americas, northern Europe, and Southern Asia, the great majority of traditional bows are self bows. The first bow artifacts, the Stellmoor and Holmegaard artifacts of Northern Europe, are self bows. The Stellmoor bow was made from the heartwood of a Scots pine while the oldest Holmegaard bows were carved from small-diameter elms. In primitive flight archery competitions, bows inspired by the design of the Holmegaard bows perform very well because of their light, non-bending tips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30695727",
"title": "Pit (Kid Icarus)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "However, as the \"Super Smash Bros.\" games sometimes differ slightly from the canon of the series that it represents, the bow's name and origin were changed in \"Kid Icarus: Uprising\". In \"Uprising\", it retains its updated design from \"Brawl\", but is now known as the Palutena Bow and is revealed to have been crafted by its namesake, the Goddess of Light Palutena. Aside from the Palutena Bow, Pit can use various other bows, as well as new types of weapons that provide vastly different effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24051122",
"title": "Belembaotuyan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The belembaotuyan is a musical bow played in Guam, also spelled \"belumbaotuyan\", \"belenbaotuchan\", and \"belimbau-tuyan\". This gourd-resonating musical bow likely has common roots with the Brazilian berimbau, due to constant trade between Asia and South America in the nineteenth century, during which the instrument may have been introduced to the Chamorro people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219810",
"title": "Bow and arrow",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, but it persisted into the early 19th century in Eastern cultures and in hunting and tribal warfare in the New World. In the Canadian Arctic bows were made until the end of the 20th century for hunting caribou, for instance at Igloolik. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81493",
"title": "Bowser (character)",
"section": "Section::::Appearances.:In other media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bowser's first American appearances were as the antagonist in all three \"Super Mario Bros.\" cartoons (produced by DIC Entertainment) voiced by Harvey Atkin. The character is typically referred to as \"King Koopa\" rather than Bowser. His appearance in the cartoons was also different than his video game appearances. He had green skin and lacked his red hair and ability to breathe fire, although he did wield a magic wand similar to those seen in \"Super Mario Bros. 3\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5529060",
"title": "Cuatro (instrument)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The cuatro is a family of Latin American string instruments found in Central and South America, Puerto Rico and other parts of the West Indies, derived from the Spanish guitar. Although some have viola-like shapes, most cuatros resemble a small to mid-sized classical guitar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
l2hdz
|
What is the limiting factor in human eyesight?
|
[
{
"answer": "To sum up several responses, there are several limiting factors, several of them intertwined:\n\n1. How much information hits your retina: the limit cause by the circular aperture of your eye and the imperfections in the lens.\n\n2. How much information that hits your retina actually gets converted into electrical signals: the limit caused by the number of photoreceptors.\n\n3. How much information that your photoreceptors generate actually gets passed on to the cortex via the optic nerve: the limit caused by the number of outgoing axons (note: we have only 1 million. Sounds like a lot, but remember that a 1 megapixel camera has 1 million pixels. This limit is also related to the preprocessing done by the retina, which consists of several layer of cells)\n\n4. How much information that reaches your cortex is processed into actual visual experience: the limit caused by the amount of cortex dedicated to visual processing.\n\n1. Given that the diffraction limit should allow us to see bacteria etc. I don't think this is the current bottleneck.\n\nI can't immediately eliminate any of the other 3, but I am fairly certain that evolution would prefer a system in which all of these channels are fairly well balanced against one another. That is to say, if you increased the number of photoreceptors, then you would also increase the diameter of the axon and the amount of cortex. There is no reason to believe that our cortex has the ability to process far more visual information than it currently does. \n\nSeveral have cited examples in which cortex being used for processing one modality can adapt to processing another. This is not evidence of increased bandwidth: it is very likely that those that learn to see using their tongues are actually processing _less_ information than they were before.\n\nSome evidence for the close balance would be the retinotopic organization of the first place input from the eye goes. There seems to be a tight correlation between the number of photoreceptors and the number of neurons for different parts of the visual field, evidence of the fact that we are spending just enough on building optic nerves and V1 neurons to deal with the input we are getting from the amount of photoreceptors we have. Every where the density of photoreceptors goes up, everything else goes up as well. Likewise for increasing the bandwidth at 3 and 4\n\nIn summary: the limiting factor in human eyesight is likely everything besides the diffraction limit. You probably won't see an improvement on the ability to recognize objects using the same light input to the eye without making improvements everywhere along the processing chain.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To sum up several responses, there are several limiting factors, several of them intertwined:\n\n1. How much information hits your retina: the limit cause by the circular aperture of your eye and the imperfections in the lens.\n\n2. How much information that hits your retina actually gets converted into electrical signals: the limit caused by the number of photoreceptors.\n\n3. How much information that your photoreceptors generate actually gets passed on to the cortex via the optic nerve: the limit caused by the number of outgoing axons (note: we have only 1 million. Sounds like a lot, but remember that a 1 megapixel camera has 1 million pixels. This limit is also related to the preprocessing done by the retina, which consists of several layer of cells)\n\n4. How much information that reaches your cortex is processed into actual visual experience: the limit caused by the amount of cortex dedicated to visual processing.\n\n1. Given that the diffraction limit should allow us to see bacteria etc. I don't think this is the current bottleneck.\n\nI can't immediately eliminate any of the other 3, but I am fairly certain that evolution would prefer a system in which all of these channels are fairly well balanced against one another. That is to say, if you increased the number of photoreceptors, then you would also increase the diameter of the axon and the amount of cortex. There is no reason to believe that our cortex has the ability to process far more visual information than it currently does. \n\nSeveral have cited examples in which cortex being used for processing one modality can adapt to processing another. This is not evidence of increased bandwidth: it is very likely that those that learn to see using their tongues are actually processing _less_ information than they were before.\n\nSome evidence for the close balance would be the retinotopic organization of the first place input from the eye goes. There seems to be a tight correlation between the number of photoreceptors and the number of neurons for different parts of the visual field, evidence of the fact that we are spending just enough on building optic nerves and V1 neurons to deal with the input we are getting from the amount of photoreceptors we have. Every where the density of photoreceptors goes up, everything else goes up as well. Likewise for increasing the bandwidth at 3 and 4\n\nIn summary: the limiting factor in human eyesight is likely everything besides the diffraction limit. You probably won't see an improvement on the ability to recognize objects using the same light input to the eye without making improvements everywhere along the processing chain.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even light microscopes have a limit. \n > The resolution limit of a light microscope using visible light is about 200 nm.\nFrom Wiki\n \nHere's what we could see if we had super lenses in our eyes.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At some point, the eye will be diffraction limited (see Rayleigh Criterion and Angular Resolution [here](_URL_0_)). Even if your eye was physically perfect/ideal in every way, your vision is still limited by the size of the circular aperture of the eye. \n\nI actually did a presentation on this for a lower division physics class and can send it to you if interested, but I can't do that until tomorrow (have to get the file from a lab computer).\n\nEDIT: [Link to said small presentation](_URL_1_). Only three slides, and only one really discusses the physics.\n\nSecond edit: I do remember attending a talk where the speaker discussed using a clever algorithm to combine input from multiple lenses (i.e. two eyes) to beat the diffraction limit, but it didn't provide a huge increase in resolution by any means. Will try to hunt down the abstract.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the augmentation technology. For something that projects into your retina, you'd be limited by the number of rods and cones (the \"resolution\" of your eye) - there's a finite number of cells there and each cell can only detect a finite amount of information. \n\nIf you replace the retina and directly interface with the optic nerve (like some of the cochlear implants do), there'd be a limit on the \"bandwidth\" of the nerves. It's a pretty large bundle of nerves though.\n\nThe real limit would be how much optical data your brain can process. The brain filters out a lot of details and picks up on motion, edges, faces, shapes and distance, etc. That's all hard-wired either genetically or soon after birth. So if you want 6 eyes positioned on all sides of your head, I'm not sure your brain can process that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a function of the physical size and design of the eye. This affects the properties for the diffraction of light. Not so much the rods/cones.\n\nHere you go:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can give a partial answer - we don't exactly know how the eye passes visual data to the brain, but we do know it isn't as simple as a response level being reported by each rod or cone every 1/24 seconds. The eye does a lot of preprocessing and sends signals that encode what patterns of rods and cones have fired. If I recall correctly, the eye actually does edge detection.\n\nThe brain appears to do motion detection, shape recognition, facial recognition, and colour detection in distinct steps - and in that order, I believe.\n\nA sufficiently advanced knowledge of how all that works might lead to an understanding of how to 'game' the optic nerve to shove more information through, but the brain isn't really equipped to deal with it and we don't know the limits of its plasticity when it comes to dealing with additional sensory input. \n\nWhat we do know is that people who have lacked a sense since birth don't like it when you fix the problem, because their brains haven't developed the capacity to deal with the information. I imagine you'd get a similar effect from increasing the complexity of information shoved through an existing channel.\n\nWe do already have (in its infancy) the technology to overlay an artificial retina over a failing natural retina. I can imagine a day when such an artificial device would do something like shift the spectrum you can see by interpreting UV or IR with false colour, or maybe insert an overlay to give you augmented reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm no expert, but I used to run a research and differential diagnosis laboratory for a large medical university's department of ophthalmology.\n\n\nBasically I found that during an electro-occulogram study that the occipital lobe would register information about 200 micro seconds after retinal stimulation. This was also borne out in an electro-retinogram study, as well. These were not just my findings, but well know standard data transfer rates in humans.\n\n\nWhat that means is that photonic light energy incident upon the retinal pigment epithelium was transduced into electrical impulses along the rods and cones and passed to the optic nerve bundle, and then moved from the eye through the brain to the occipital lobe (back of your head) and processed to some degree of recognition within about 200 microseconds.\n\n\nThe studies I mentioned include either stimulation of the retina by an image of a shifting pattern or by stimulation by a narrow band and intensity controlled light pulse. You can ask me how we acquired the data, but it's ghoulish and boring.\n\n\nWhat you really need is a Redditor who is either a physcho-physicist who specializes in visual stimulii studies, or an ophthalmologist who is focused on retinal degenerations, diseases, and other such dystrophies. I've been out of the game for about 20 years now, even though I like to think I try to keep current due to the fascinating nature of the topic.\n\n\nUmmm... Good question.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Density of photoreceptors (rods & cones), and bandwidth along the optical nerve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few interesting posts in here discussing processing within the brain. I won't comment on how that could fit in with future technology, but I can say that the limiting factor for human eyesight is retinal physiology. It comes down to the spacing of cones within the fovea, which is where they are most densely packed and responsible for fine detail vision. If you assume perfectly clear media (cornea, lens, vitreous), then the theoretical limit of human visual resolution is something on the order of 20/8. Anything that subtends a smaller angle on the retina just can't be resolved by individual cones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What does 'enhance human eyesight' mean? That is the key part of answering this question.\n\nIf you are talking about angular resolution, well, that's easy: you give the eye magnifying lenses. Surgeons regularly use magnifying loupes to give them better resolution for fine operations. Or, in the case of most ophthalmologic procedures, they use a stereo microscope.\n\nIf you are talking about total bandwidth to the brain, that's a much different issue. There is a lot of signal processing and compression that takes place before information is sent along approx 1.2 million nerve fibers per eye.\n\nSo what do you mean by 'enhance eyesight?'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, did I get lost after reading this article.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n > But adaptive optics will be most useful when it can be used to correct vision permanently outside the lab. That's why eye surgeons are so interested in Williams' work. His technique is fairly easily translated to surgery (and may also work for contact lenses). A laser surgeon can follow the map of errors revealed by the wavefront sensor, making minuscule, precise corrections on the corneal surface. No longer will laser surgery be limited to the big aberrations that surgeons can now eliminate: It could erase every error in the eye.\n\nWhich of course did not work out in the real world as well as they imagined.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > Technology designed to have 100% of patients freed from corrective lenses. \n\nThe ALLEGRETTO WAVE Eye-Q customizes every treatment to the patient's individual prescription and cornea while aiming to improve what nature originally designed. The Wavefront Optimized TM treatment considers the unique curvature and biomechanics of the eye, preserving quality of vision and addressing the spherical distortions that can induce glare and may affect night vision.\n\nThey aren't saying everyone will have 20/10 vision, but at least it'll be good enough to not need corrective lenses.\n\nHonestly, I'm curious as to what the issue was this technology isn't more advanced by now? With how fast processing power, imaging sensors, lasers, and other supplemental technologies have progressed, after reading about this 10+ year old technique I'd figure 20/10 vision would be something you could get for $10 from a kiosk at your local pharmacy by now...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How about we just re-order the retina, and put the [photoreceptors first](_URL_0_)?\n\nWhy mess with technology when we can use biology?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, I've seen a few replies saying there would be a limit to seeing small things with the eye do to...x...; however, the limit would have to be the same limit of a microscope. Since we can project what's on the microscope...\n\nAs far as the rest of the question I'm not sure, I just came to find out from the experts. (giggidy)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The density of air is the reason the focal length is what it is. If you aim for a better length then you get \"heat haze\" effects from the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even light microscopes have a limit. \n > The resolution limit of a light microscope using visible light is about 200 nm.\nFrom Wiki\n \nHere's what we could see if we had super lenses in our eyes.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At some point, the eye will be diffraction limited (see Rayleigh Criterion and Angular Resolution [here](_URL_0_)). Even if your eye was physically perfect/ideal in every way, your vision is still limited by the size of the circular aperture of the eye. \n\nI actually did a presentation on this for a lower division physics class and can send it to you if interested, but I can't do that until tomorrow (have to get the file from a lab computer).\n\nEDIT: [Link to said small presentation](_URL_1_). Only three slides, and only one really discusses the physics.\n\nSecond edit: I do remember attending a talk where the speaker discussed using a clever algorithm to combine input from multiple lenses (i.e. two eyes) to beat the diffraction limit, but it didn't provide a huge increase in resolution by any means. Will try to hunt down the abstract.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the augmentation technology. For something that projects into your retina, you'd be limited by the number of rods and cones (the \"resolution\" of your eye) - there's a finite number of cells there and each cell can only detect a finite amount of information. \n\nIf you replace the retina and directly interface with the optic nerve (like some of the cochlear implants do), there'd be a limit on the \"bandwidth\" of the nerves. It's a pretty large bundle of nerves though.\n\nThe real limit would be how much optical data your brain can process. The brain filters out a lot of details and picks up on motion, edges, faces, shapes and distance, etc. That's all hard-wired either genetically or soon after birth. So if you want 6 eyes positioned on all sides of your head, I'm not sure your brain can process that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a function of the physical size and design of the eye. This affects the properties for the diffraction of light. Not so much the rods/cones.\n\nHere you go:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can give a partial answer - we don't exactly know how the eye passes visual data to the brain, but we do know it isn't as simple as a response level being reported by each rod or cone every 1/24 seconds. The eye does a lot of preprocessing and sends signals that encode what patterns of rods and cones have fired. If I recall correctly, the eye actually does edge detection.\n\nThe brain appears to do motion detection, shape recognition, facial recognition, and colour detection in distinct steps - and in that order, I believe.\n\nA sufficiently advanced knowledge of how all that works might lead to an understanding of how to 'game' the optic nerve to shove more information through, but the brain isn't really equipped to deal with it and we don't know the limits of its plasticity when it comes to dealing with additional sensory input. \n\nWhat we do know is that people who have lacked a sense since birth don't like it when you fix the problem, because their brains haven't developed the capacity to deal with the information. I imagine you'd get a similar effect from increasing the complexity of information shoved through an existing channel.\n\nWe do already have (in its infancy) the technology to overlay an artificial retina over a failing natural retina. I can imagine a day when such an artificial device would do something like shift the spectrum you can see by interpreting UV or IR with false colour, or maybe insert an overlay to give you augmented reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm no expert, but I used to run a research and differential diagnosis laboratory for a large medical university's department of ophthalmology.\n\n\nBasically I found that during an electro-occulogram study that the occipital lobe would register information about 200 micro seconds after retinal stimulation. This was also borne out in an electro-retinogram study, as well. These were not just my findings, but well know standard data transfer rates in humans.\n\n\nWhat that means is that photonic light energy incident upon the retinal pigment epithelium was transduced into electrical impulses along the rods and cones and passed to the optic nerve bundle, and then moved from the eye through the brain to the occipital lobe (back of your head) and processed to some degree of recognition within about 200 microseconds.\n\n\nThe studies I mentioned include either stimulation of the retina by an image of a shifting pattern or by stimulation by a narrow band and intensity controlled light pulse. You can ask me how we acquired the data, but it's ghoulish and boring.\n\n\nWhat you really need is a Redditor who is either a physcho-physicist who specializes in visual stimulii studies, or an ophthalmologist who is focused on retinal degenerations, diseases, and other such dystrophies. I've been out of the game for about 20 years now, even though I like to think I try to keep current due to the fascinating nature of the topic.\n\n\nUmmm... Good question.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Density of photoreceptors (rods & cones), and bandwidth along the optical nerve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few interesting posts in here discussing processing within the brain. I won't comment on how that could fit in with future technology, but I can say that the limiting factor for human eyesight is retinal physiology. It comes down to the spacing of cones within the fovea, which is where they are most densely packed and responsible for fine detail vision. If you assume perfectly clear media (cornea, lens, vitreous), then the theoretical limit of human visual resolution is something on the order of 20/8. Anything that subtends a smaller angle on the retina just can't be resolved by individual cones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What does 'enhance human eyesight' mean? That is the key part of answering this question.\n\nIf you are talking about angular resolution, well, that's easy: you give the eye magnifying lenses. Surgeons regularly use magnifying loupes to give them better resolution for fine operations. Or, in the case of most ophthalmologic procedures, they use a stereo microscope.\n\nIf you are talking about total bandwidth to the brain, that's a much different issue. There is a lot of signal processing and compression that takes place before information is sent along approx 1.2 million nerve fibers per eye.\n\nSo what do you mean by 'enhance eyesight?'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, did I get lost after reading this article.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n > But adaptive optics will be most useful when it can be used to correct vision permanently outside the lab. That's why eye surgeons are so interested in Williams' work. His technique is fairly easily translated to surgery (and may also work for contact lenses). A laser surgeon can follow the map of errors revealed by the wavefront sensor, making minuscule, precise corrections on the corneal surface. No longer will laser surgery be limited to the big aberrations that surgeons can now eliminate: It could erase every error in the eye.\n\nWhich of course did not work out in the real world as well as they imagined.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > Technology designed to have 100% of patients freed from corrective lenses. \n\nThe ALLEGRETTO WAVE Eye-Q customizes every treatment to the patient's individual prescription and cornea while aiming to improve what nature originally designed. The Wavefront Optimized TM treatment considers the unique curvature and biomechanics of the eye, preserving quality of vision and addressing the spherical distortions that can induce glare and may affect night vision.\n\nThey aren't saying everyone will have 20/10 vision, but at least it'll be good enough to not need corrective lenses.\n\nHonestly, I'm curious as to what the issue was this technology isn't more advanced by now? With how fast processing power, imaging sensors, lasers, and other supplemental technologies have progressed, after reading about this 10+ year old technique I'd figure 20/10 vision would be something you could get for $10 from a kiosk at your local pharmacy by now...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How about we just re-order the retina, and put the [photoreceptors first](_URL_0_)?\n\nWhy mess with technology when we can use biology?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, I've seen a few replies saying there would be a limit to seeing small things with the eye do to...x...; however, the limit would have to be the same limit of a microscope. Since we can project what's on the microscope...\n\nAs far as the rest of the question I'm not sure, I just came to find out from the experts. (giggidy)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The density of air is the reason the focal length is what it is. If you aim for a better length then you get \"heat haze\" effects from the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21687795",
"title": "Eyestalk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In anatomy, an eyestalk (sometimes spelled as eye stalk or known as an ommatophore) is a protrusion that extends the eye away from the body, giving the eye a better field of vision. It is a common feature in nature and frequently appears in fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "6579147",
"title": "External limiting membrane",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The external limiting membrane (or outer limiting membrane) is one of the ten distinct layers of the retina of the eye. It has a network-like structure and is situated at the bases of the rods and cones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "143822",
"title": "Supplemental Security Income",
"section": "Section::::Eligibility.:Aged, disabled, or blind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "\"central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which has a limitation in the field of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees should also be considered as having a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "31217",
"title": "Typography",
"section": "Section::::Text typefaces.:Principles of the typographic craft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Legibility \"refers to perception\" (being able to see as determined by physical limitations of the eye) and readability \"refers to comprehension\" (understanding the meaning). Good typographers and graphic designers aim to achieve excellence in both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "29701119",
"title": "Reduced eye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The reduced eye is an idealized model of the optics of the human eye. Introduced by Franciscus Donders, the reduced eye model replaces the several refracting bodies of the eye (the cornea, lens, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor) are replaced by an ideal air/water interface surface that is located 20 mm from a model retina. This, converts a system with six cardinal points (two focal points, two principal points and two nodal points) into one with three cardinal points (two focal points and one nodal point).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "44441134",
"title": "Eyes Wide Open (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "\"Eyes Wide Open\" looks at five key issues: population, consumption, energy, food, and climate, drawing on history, psychology, sociology, and the role of money to explain both environmental issues and the human reaction to such issues, with a particular focus on \"defense mechanisms,\" such as denialism, projection, and regression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Ciliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as accommodation. The near point and far point define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the lens has become with age. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer than normal reading distance—approximately 25 cm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
] | null |
2vw6t9
|
is it true that the 1960's-1970's middle east was super civilized and progressive, and if so, what the hell happened?
|
[
{
"answer": "Other contributing factors were the series of wars between Israel and essentially the rest of middle east in the 60s, the OPEC embargo, Foreign intervention, the rise of extremism, among other shifts in both Middle Eastern and international politics. There are still some last vestiges of stability in the Middle East such as Jordan, UAE, Qatar, and even Saudi Arabia.\n\nMuch of the stability came from independence efforts, especially after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, coupled with oil wealth. Ultra-right groups took power in the 50s and 60s in Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Libya, and soon the Soviet Union and other international powers got involved, and sparked/facilitated a lot of the pre-existing tension.",
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"answer": "There are lots and lots of reasons.\n\nOne major factor is they were involved in a number of proxy wars between the US and Russia during the cold war, and that caused all kinds of damage, because both sides supported the militant rebel types, because they were the ones who would actually fight.\n\nThe school of thought seemed to be \"destabilized is better than communist/capitalist\"",
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"answer": "My own personal opinion, based on what I have read, heard and know, is that most nations, especially Middle Eastern nations, are just pawns in a huge game of political chess among the superpowers. When it comes to the case of Iran, the US backstabbed the Shah and supported the current regime to get power so that they could stand against communism and send Iran back in progress. Note that this was during the Cold War when a lot of shit took place in the Middle East.",
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{
"answer": "Same thing that happened in East Asia in the 50s and 60s. And Latin America in the 60s-80s. Uncle Sam arrived with his two best friends, freedom and democracy.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It was less about it being progressive, and more about being run by dictators who were friendly to the west. They were superficially trying to emulate some their ways, but without the underlying freedom and democracy.\n\nSure, women could wear short skirts and go to school, but everyone still get throw in jail for criticizing the gov't.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Pakistani here!\n\nIn the 60s, we were very progressive. Free market economy, thriving banking sector, largely secularist (Alcohol, clubbing and everything was part of society). Then the cold war happened.\n\nIn the mid 70s Prime Minister Bhutto, a socialist, was forced to outlaw alcohol by pressure from the Islamic clergy. He gave in to several other of their demands and that's when the left begun to fall. Bhutto was also anti American, opting to ally himself with the Soviets and China. So naturally, when the Shah (Pro US) was overthrown in Iran by the Shia religious faction (Anti US and Saudi), it was time for Bhutto to bite the dust. The US helped the then Chief of Army Zia ul Haq to take power and ousted Bhutto. Bhutto was hanged shortly afterwards.\n\nNow Zia was super Islamist and nationalist. And the US wanted to deter Soviet influence in the then Socialist Republic of Afghanistan. So then came the Afghan Jihad. The US and Pakistan Army started the Al Qaeda and the Taliban to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. To strengthen this, massive nationalistic and Islamist propaganda and policies were introduced. This included lashing in public, making it mandatory to wear Islamic clothing (people wore western before the 80s), making it mandatory to learn government dictated Islamic studies and Pakistan studies (wasn't even a subject in school before this) and all sorts of policies to radicalize the masses. He also introduced heavy Islamic laws such as blasphemy and sharia. Basically, Pakistan went from being bad to worse in the 80s to pump propaganda and control the masses. The cold war ended, the US left and in the 90s, Pakistan was left in shambles with a radicalized public and a poor economy.\n\nWhen Musharraf came to power in 1999, he introduced liberal and free market policies. Bless that man otherwise Pakistan would be a complete shithole like Iraq or Afghanistan now. Today, urban Pakistan is progressive and liberal whilst rural Pakistan is still Islamist and radicalized. Issue is, it's difficult to de-radicalize two generations of people indoctrinated with religious and nationalistic propaganda in the rural areas while it was very easy to do so in the urban areas within a decade where people have access to free media and western education. So there's a rift in Pakistan now. Rural folks see urban folks as *shameless* and westernized whilst urban folks look at them as backward and blame them for pulling the country back.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "One thing to keep in mind when you see those photos of mini skirt-clad women in Kabul or Tehran is that they were not at all representative of their countries at the time. Women may have been able to wear shorter skirts in Kabul in the 60's, but the majority of Afghan women still lived in very conservative areas and had little to no autonomy or access to education. The same generally holds true for Iran (also, Iran wasn't \"progressive\" under the shah--just because your wife wears western dress, that doesn't make your repressive monarchy somehow enlightened or moderate).",
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"answer": "I am a secular middle class Iranian but the photos you show were only a specific segment of Iranian society at the time. Back in the 70s, we were only 40-50% literate and I'd dare say the majority had a poor standard of living. There was a huge clash between the modernized, westernized Iranians and the traditional, religious ones. For example, bazaar owners hated the new shopping malls, the religious populace disliked some liberal notions of Iranian society at the time (we even had nudity in films back then), and cabarets, bars and casinos were targeted. Honestly, those regions were always quite religious; it just didn't come to the fore as much at the time because of extremely strong dictators. Iran in the 70s was in a peculiar place; we had a bunch of educated intelligentsia who wanted more political freedoms, with an illiterate and religious populace who were controlled by the clerics. Left wingers and moderates idealistically thought that social freedoms would be a given, in addition to the new found political freedoms, as soon as we would overthrow the king, heck my parents even thought the same (remember, the 1979 revolution was political Islam's first victory in modern history). As history has shown, we eventually lost both political and social freedoms. Instead of banding together against the fundamentalists, they sided with them, before the Islamists turned on them, executing them by the thousands. The unsung heroes of this story? The Iranian military generals. They could have sent us straight into civil war, right before the eve of Saddam's invasion, but they decided to make the military neutral. The troops were ready and able to shed some blood, and they had already done so during the revolts. The generals themselves were executed a few months later by the revolutionaries. Really, if there ever was a practical application of Animal Farm, Iran would be it. The movie Persepolis kind of captures the feeling of the time.",
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"answer": "The middle east has always had ultraconservative people, even back in the 60s and 70s. Likewise, there are still progressive minded people living in these countries today.\n\nBack then, these countries were overwhelmingly rural. The cities visited by westerners (i.e. where most of these pictures were taken) were typically inhabited by a well-educated, western-leaning elite, that wasn't representative of the views or lifestyles of the population at large. \n\nIn the past 40-50 years these countries have become far more urbanized (as an example, [Iran](_URL_0_) went from being 37.5% urban in 1966 to being 71% urban in 2011). As the rural population moved to the cities, they brought their ultraconservative views with them, and became much more visible to outside observers.",
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"answer": "TL;DR: Cold war. Can't fight directly? Build proxies. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In 3 words, the cold war.\n\nThis was when pretty much any tin pot dictator, revolutionary or convenient idiot would be propped up in power by one or the other sides (US/Russia, but other countries can't be absolved ether).\n\nThis usually split the population of the countries - left/right, religious/liberal etc. There's really no way a puppet regime can be in place without a bogeyman, real or imagined. \n\nThen suddenly, cold war ends. Geopolitical objectives shift and a lot of the countries in question are left with either a power vacuum since their puppet no longer has any strings, or suddenly needing to shift allegiances to a regional power. You'd think this is good, but a couple of decades of erosion of democratic institutions and weakening of the bureaucracy means that pretty much anyone can now step up to the plate. More often than not, the one who step into the vacuum isn't democratically elected, but has the backing of various institutions (army, security forces, regional powers, religious factions etc.), all with their own agendas not necessarily involving the progression of the country.\n\nMany times, the cold war government was good at suppressing internal disputes. With no government suppressing them, a lot of countries experienced civil wars, low level insurgencies, or just flat out shit the bed.\n\nNote that the images you're talking about don't really represent the countries. Mostly, urbanisation led to people being more liberal, but there were still substantial rural populations.\n",
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"answer": "If you read carefully the responses below, the answer seems to boil down to this : American foreign policy happened.\n\nIs that really it? Did we sow the seeds that led to the War on Terror? Íf we did, is this karma?",
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"answer": "The US and other powers meddle in the affairs of other countries for their own gain without any knowledge of how they're causing chain reactions that go back to them",
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"answer": "The U.S. and Soviet Union approached the Middle East without properly understanding the cultures. Those areas have heavy cultural aspects intertwined with their behavior. The majority of the Middle East was ruled by tribes and Bedouins. Tribal culture it very different than the town life of Europe. Revenge is very strong a motive their. \n\nFor example, Syria was called communist at one point, before Assad's father came to power. One of the reasons was because he was trading with the Soviet Union, because the west betrayed the Arab countries by not fulfilling the Treating of Sykes-Picot (sp?). This angered a lot of Arabs, adding to it the betrayal they felt with the exodus of Palestinians and the formation of Israel. This made them go to war with Israel. \n\nIran had the Shah who was overthrown because Iran wouldn't share their oil with Britain and the U.S. This led to a coup and the western powers installing the strongest contender, who at the time was Khomeni. The rest is history. ",
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"answer": "Hey, Pakistan is still pretty progressive once you get past the headlines. Just give to give you some quick examples, [This literature festival happened last week in Karachi](_URL_3_). No one really reported anything on that, because it's pretty much normal news. Plenty of similar events take place in big cities, Lahore, Karachi, Islamabad pretty much on a regular basis if you follow Pakistani news.\n\nHere's a video of the [fasion week event](_URL_0_) that takes place in Islamabad yearly.\n\n[Here's an article and video](_URL_2_) about popular musical \"Grease\" being staged in a Pakistani theater for the first time.\n\nAs far as education is concerned, [over 60% of all Pakistani university students](_URL_1_) are women.\n\nOf course, not trying to paint a rosy picture. Immense problems do exist in terms of inequality and conservatism in rural areas which is generally due to patriachal society and lack of education. Much needs to be done. But it's an evolving society and far more vibrant than people give it credit for, especially in the urban areas.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Modern Middle East.:Modern states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The modern Middle East was shaped by three things: departure of European powers, the founding of Israel, and the growing importance of the oil industry. These developments led increased U.S. involvement in Middle East. The United States was the ultimate guarantor of the region's stability as well as the dominant force in the oil industry after the 1950s. When revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt (1954), Syria (1963), Iraq (1968), and Libya (1969), the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold War, allied itself with Arab socialist rulers like Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and Saddam Hussein in Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "58568",
"title": "Suez Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Post Egyptian revolution period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
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"end_character": 499,
"text": "In the 1950s the Middle East was dominated by four distinct but interlinked struggles. The first was the geopolitical battle for influence between the United States and the Soviet Union known as the Cold War. The second was the anti-colonial struggle of Arab nationalists against the two remaining imperial powers, Britain and France. The third was the Arab–Israeli dispute, and the fourth was the race between different Arab states for the leadership of the Arab world, known as the Arab Cold War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "53888573",
"title": "Soviet Middle Eastern foreign policy during the Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Shuttle diplomacy.:Camp David Accords and aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The U.S. responded to Soviet influence in the Middle East after the Camp David Accords by using economic sanctions to influence the Arab world. Geopolitics transitioned from post-Cold War polarization to 21st-century regional conflicts. The lack of two superpowers destabilized the Middle East as pressure-relieving, limited proxy conflicts grew into greater conflicts which spawned genocide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19323",
"title": "Middle East",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 555,
"text": "The modern Middle East began after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with the Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies and partitioned into a number of separate nations, initially under British and French Mandates. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notably Britain and France by the end of the 1960s. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Western nations: 1980–present.:Western nations and the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 283,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 283,
"end_character": 1651,
"text": "The West had become increasingly unpopular in the Middle East following World War II. The Arab states greatly disliked the West's support for Israel. Many soon had a special hatred towards the United States, Israel's greatest ally. Also, partly to ensure stability on the region and a steady supply of the oil the world economy needed, the United States supported many corrupt dictatorships in the Middle East. In 1979, an Islamic revolution in Iran overthrew the pro-Western Shah and established an anti-Western Shiite Islamic theocracy. Following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, most of the country came under the rule of a Sunni Islamic theocracy, the Taliban. The Taliban offered shelter to the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda, founded by the extremist Saudi Arabian exile Osama Bin Laden. Al-Qaeda launched a series of attacks on United States overseas interests in the 1990s and 2000. Following the September 11 attacks, however, the United States overthrew the Taliban government and captured or killed many Al Qaeda leaders, including Bin Laden. In 2003, the United States led a controversial war in Iraq, because Saddam had never accounted for all his weapons of mass destruction. By May of that year, American, British, Polish and troops from other countries had defeated and occupied Iraq. Weapons of mass destruction however, were never found afterwards. In both Afghanistan and Iraq, the United States and its allies established democratic governments. Following the Iraq war, however, an insurgency made up of a number of domestic and foreign factions has cost many lives and made establishing a government very hard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Modern Middle East.:Modern states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "The fall of the Soviet Union and the collapse of communism in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of Soviet Jews to emigrate from Russia and Ukraine to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments, and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria, and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein increasingly relied on Arab nationalism as a substitute for socialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25665657",
"title": "Munir al-Ajlani",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Final years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
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"text": "When asked, \"Had members of your generation, who created the modern Middle East, lived to see how lacking democracy was to become in the Arab World in the second half of the 20th century, what would they have said?\" Chuckling, Ajlani replied, \"It's good that they didn't! They died at the right time!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eejcg
|
What are some good books about US Armored Forces in WWII
|
[
{
"answer": "More generally Band of Brothers and Citizen Soldier are two great books if you want more of a narrative than a by-the-numbers historical account. Do realize that with books by Steven Ambrose you would do well to research what may or may not have been plagiarized. The core message is still solid even if Ambrose had sticky literary fingers.\n\nSteven Zaloga (being lazy, linking wikipedia for a book list here _URL_1_) is a good source for discussion of US tank tactics and strategy in WW2. \n\nForty too. _URL_0_\n\nTo elaborate a bit on the M4 and the M26, Patton personally had very little to do with the delay- he was no stranger to the inadequacy of the M4 and even ordered his own troops to engage in on-field modifications to effectively upgrade M4's to their Jumbo Sherman counterpart. He wasn't even in a position to decide what did and didn't get built. \n\nUnfortunately US tank doctrine was decided by a career artilleryman, and intended as a reaction to Blitzkrieg tactics; dedicated tank fighting groups were separate from the main US forces and intended to move from fire fight to fire fight (which explains why the US was the only major nation in WW2 building tank destroyers with very light armor, fully operational turrets *and* open tops) while the M4 Sherman was intended as an infantry support tank. In that sense it was a fantastic tank- it excelled at the same role that the Panzer 4 was intended for (the soviets and the British had no clear contemporary tanks) but was grossly inadequate at fighting late war tanks like panthers and tigers. That was a job intended for the M10, M18 and M36.\n\nUS tank doctrine was largely inflexible because everything had to be shipped 3000 miles from US factories to the European front. Which is why the M26 joins a laundry list of potent tanks that never made it past prototype phases or saw only limited production. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "441229",
"title": "6th Armored Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Official history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "At the end of World War II, two 6th Armored Division G3 officers, Majors Paul L. Bogen and Clyde J. Burke along with Aide-de-Camp Captain Cyrus R. Shockey, compiled a \"Combat Record of the Sixth Armored Division in the European Theatre of Operations 18 July 1944-8 May 1945\". The official history by George F. Hofmann, \"The Super Sixth: History of the 6th Armored Division in World War II\" (1975, reprinted 2000) has been called by World War II scholar Martin Blumenson, a \"first-rate military history.\" He also noted that General Patton called the 6th AD one of the two best divisions in his Third Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14124238",
"title": "70th Armor Regiment",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- Roberts, Charles C. \"Armored Strike Force, The Photo History of the American 70th Tank Battalion in World War II \". Lanham, Maryland:Stackpole Books, 2016. https://www.amazon.com/Armored-Strike-Force-American-Battalion/dp/0811717658\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2382838",
"title": "Battle of Norfolk",
"section": "Section::::Objective Dorset.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "At the height of the battle, the 3rd Armored Division included 32 battalions and 20,533 personnel. It was the largest coalition division in the Gulf War and the largest U.S. armored division in history. In its moving arsenal were 360 Abrams main battle tanks, 340 Bradley Fighting Vehicles, 128 self-propelled 155 mm howitzers, 27 Apache attack helicopters, 9 multiple-launch rocket systems, and more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "28639711",
"title": "825th Tank Destroyer Battalion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The 825th Tank Destroyer Battalion was a tank destroyer battalion of the United States Army active during the Second World War. It was organized as a towed battalion, with 3\" anti-tank guns, and initially saw service during the Battle of Normandy as a rear-area security unit. Parts of the unit were sent into combat as part of an ad hoc task force on 16 December 1944, on the northern flank of the Ardennes Offensive, where it defended Amblève river bridges at Malmedy and Stavelot. It returned to security duties at the end of January 1945, and served in rear areas for the remainder of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "441253",
"title": "12th Armored Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::12th Armored Division Memorial Museum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "\"The Twelfth Armored Division Memorial Museum is located in Abilene, Texas, near (9 miles south of) the site of the former Camp Barkeley where the Division trained prior to being sent overseas into the European Theater of Operations. The Museum holds collections of the 12th Armored Division, World War II archives, memorabilia, and oral histories, along with selected equipment and material loaned or donated by others. The education plan focuses on expanding academic access to World War II historical materials, veterans, and their families; preserving the history of the 12th Armored Division for study, research, and investigations by future generations; providing training in public history professions, developing new education programs for students and establishing a technology bridge between the 12th Armored Division Historical Collection and the public.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65574",
"title": "M4 Sherman",
"section": "Section::::U.S. design prototype.:Doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "As the United States approached entry into World War II, armored employment was doctrinally governed by Field Manual 100–5, Operations (published May 1941, the month following selection of the M4 tank's final design). That field manual stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22026034",
"title": "612th Tank Destroyer Battalion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The 612th Tank Destroyer Battalion was a unit of the United States Army during World War II. It played an instrumental role in defending Hofen during the Battle of the Bulge. The specialized tank destroyer unit was attached to various organizations during the war. In December, 1944, the twelve 3 inch guns of Company A were integrated into the defensive positions of the 395th Infantry Regiment and were key to keeping the attacking Sixth Panzer Army from gaining essential objectives in the first days of the offensive. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14y0p2
|
I'm interested in the history of the addition of Hawaii to the United States. What was the reasoning behind it? Did the people accept it with open arms?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hawaii was a major importer of sugar to the United States in the mid and late 19th century. However, after the McKinley Tariff (1890), which raised taxes on imports significantly, the sugar growers realized that they could bypass the costly tariff by becoming annexed into the US. They staged a rebellion against the local regent, Queen Luliokalani (who was staunchly against foreign influence in Hawaii), and with the help of US marines, forced her to abdicate. President Grover Cleveland, however, had not authorized the action, and after various inquiries into the legitimacy of the uprising (and as something of an anti-imperialist), refused to annex the ripe territory. Hawaii, despite pressure from the US to reinstate Luliokalani to the throne, remained the Republic of Hawaii (ruled essentially by the American sugar plantation owners) until in 1898 William McKinley signed an annexation treaty, largely motivated by Hawaii's usefulness as a staging area in the Spanish-American War. Hawaii remained a US territory until 1959 when Eisenhower signed it into the union as a state, and the residents of Hawaii accepted accepted the referendum nearly unanimously. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides the obvious economic interest, Hawaii was geopolitically important as the last major piece of land that a naval fleet attacking the West Coast of the United States would have to pass. Thus after the acquisition of Alaska, getting Hawaii all but secured the US from Pacific assaults. \nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to KingCharlesMarlowes' answer, the sugar plantation owners formed the Annexation Club and a Committee of Safety. This group lobbied the US to annex Hawaii. Not all sugar plantation bosses were enthusiastic about annexation because at the time the contract labor regime was still in place and would probably be outlawed if Hawaii joined the US because it violated the constitution as a form of slavery. Nevertheless, on Jan 16, 1893, Minister Stevens landed troops in Honolulu. The Monarchy was easily overthrown. There were unsuccessful counter revolts attempted. On February 1, 1893, Minister Stevens declared Hawai'i to be a protectorate of the US. The \"revolutionaries\" sent a delegation to Wahington to negotiate an official treaty with the US, which was signed by lame duck President Harrison. However, President Cleveland withdrew the treaty and disavowed the annexation when he took office in early March of 1893. Cleveland then appointed James Blount to conduct an investigation of the overthrow. He concluded US diplomatic and military reps had abused their power. Annexation was temporarily put on hold. In 1896 McKinley defeated Cleaveland. On June 16, 1897, a new annexation treaty was concluded, but it could not get the 2/3rd approval of the Senate. The opposition was slip into differing groups. Some thought the initial overthrow of a sovereign government was an injustice, others felt the US had enough trouble dealing with the mainland Native Americans and weren't enthusiastic about adding more indigenous. The Senatorial and House debates are a fun read if you're looking for contemporary accounts. \n\nThe Spanish-American war began in 1898 and the military advantages of annexing Hawai'i became clear. While it was unlikely necessary votes for a treaty could be obtained, a straight majority was possible. So, on May 4, 1898, nine days after fighting began in the war, Rep Newlands of Nevada introduced in the house a joint resolution to annex Hawa'i. This only required a simple majority in both houses to pass. It passed the house by a vote of 209 to 91 and the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 with 26 abstentions. President McKinley singed it into law on July 7, 1898.\n\nI'm on my IPad right now and about to eat. I'll add sources later and edit grammar. Was just really excited to finally be able to contribute to my favorite subreddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "u/KingCharlesMarlow and u/dumbassthenes have provided the details here, and they look fine to me. \n\nBut I would add that the annexation of Hawai'i needs to be understood as a part of the larger, contemporaneous groundswell for overseas expansion and what we now call the new imperialism. So the actions of the White House and Congress here should be understood in the same political moment that produced American interest in trade with China, expansion of merchant and military coaling stations throughout the Pacific, and the Spanish-American war. A meaningful number of congressmen, foreign policy intellectuals, and the general public were supportive of actions that seemed to support the expansion of trade overseas, including both access to resources and access to potential markets.\n\nN.B.; I am not saying that the annexation of Hawai'i is a *part* of the Spanish American War; instead I'm saying that the mindset and rationalization behind the annexation has roots in the same set of ideas.\n\nOn this, I like Michael H. Hunt's *Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy*.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBut there are certainly other works on the same topic; I think that Michael Krenn has something that's similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "187015",
"title": "Republic of Hawaii",
"section": "Section::::End and annexation of the Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Upon the inauguration of William McKinley as the 25th President of the United States on March 4, 1897, the Republic of Hawaii resumed negotiations for annexation, which continued into the summer of 1898. In April 1898, the United States went to war with Spain, and Republic of Hawaii declared its neutrality. In practice, it gave enormous support to the United States, demonstrating its value as a naval base in wartime, and winning widespread American approval for its non-neutral behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23363583",
"title": "Hawaiian Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Foreign relations.:Anglo-Franco Proclamation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Hawaiʻi was the first non-European indigenous state whose independence was recognised by the major powers. The United States declined to join with France and the United Kingdom in this statement. Even though President John Tyler had verbally recognized Hawaiian independence, it was not until 1849 that the United States did formally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17213240",
"title": "Treaty rights",
"section": "Section::::Violations of treaty rights.:Annexation of Hawaii.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Throughout the nineteenth century, the United States made a number of treaties with the then Kingdom of Hawaii, the final being in 1887. These treaties recognized the Kingdom of Hawaii as being sovereign and independent. In 1893, John L. Stevens, US minister assigned to the Kingdom of Hawaii, led a group of non-indigenous people to overthrow Queen Lili‘uokalani, which was backed by United States naval forces. They established a Provisional government, which then declared itself the Republic of Hawaii. In 1899, the US annexed Hawaii. Many Hawaiian sovereignty activists feel that because of the aforementioned treaties, Hawaii should today be its own Nation instead of part of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788738",
"title": "Newlands Resolution",
"section": "Section::::Passage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "In 1897 President William McKinley signed the treaty of annexation for the Republic of Hawaii. It failed to gain two thirds support in the Senate, with only 46 out of 90 senators voting yes. In April 1898, the United States went to war with Spain, and the Republic of Hawaii declared its neutrality. In practice, it gave enormous support to the United States, demonstrating its value as a naval base in wartime, and winning widespread American approval for its non-neutral behavior. With the opposition weakened, Hawaii was supposedly annexed by means of the Newlands Resolution; a domestic congressional law, which required only majority vote in both houses, and no input from Native Hawaiians. Despite the bill being authored by a Democrat, most of the support came from Republicans. It passed the house by a vote of 209 to 91; the yeas included 182 Republicans. It was approved on July 4, 1898 and signed on July 7 by McKinley. On August 12 a ceremony was held on the steps of ʻIolani Palace to signify the official transfer of Hawaiian sovereignty to the United States. The majority of Hawaiian citizens did not recognize the legitimacy of this event and did not attend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624830",
"title": "Culture of the Native Hawaiians",
"section": "Section::::Western contact, colonization and immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "In 1898 United States Congress passed the “Newlands Resolution” it was signed into law by President McKinley on July 7, 1898. Sixty-one years later in 1959, the Hawaiian Islands were recognized as the 50th state of the United States. The Annexation caused many repercussions as their land and culture were effectively dominated by the culture of the United States. Hawaiians had no say in anything political or economic that had to do with their land. At the height of the Hawaiian population there were an estimated 683,000 Native Hawaiians on the island. By the year 1900 the population had dropped to below 100,000. Hawaiians have also been reduced to 20% of resident population. A huge factor of the decline of Native Hawaiians consisted of the spread of diseases by foreigners such as smallpox, cholera, influenza, and gonorrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3006483",
"title": "Legal status of Hawaii",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Annexation and anti-annexation campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "From 1893 to 1896, the Republic of Hawaii actively sought annexation to the United States. However, despite intensive debate on the matter in the legislature, annexation was strongly opposed by the U.S. Presidency, the people of Hawaii, and much of Congress; the Turpie Resolution in 1894 took annexation off the table entirely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61298769",
"title": "History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913",
"section": "Section::::Annexation of Hawaii.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Hawaii had long been targeted by expansionists as a potential addition to the United States, and a reciprocity treaty in the 1870s had made the Kingdom of Hawaii a \"virtual satellite\" of the United States. After Queen Liliʻuokalani announced plans to issue a new constitution designed to restore her power, she was overthrown by the business community, which requested annexation by the United States and eventually established the Republic of Hawaii. President Harrison tried to annex Hawaii, but his term ended before he could win Senate approval of an annexation treaty, and Cleveland withdrew the treaty. Cleveland deeply opposed annexation because of a personal conviction that would not tolerate what he viewed as an immoral action against the little kingdom. Additionally, annexation faced opposition from domestic sugar interests opposed to the importation of Hawaiian sugar, and from some Democrats who opposed acquiring an island with a large non-white population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zmla7
|
why do (most) countries have a tomb of the unknown soldier?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's mainly just a respect thing. War leaves a lot of dead bodies that no one can identify. I think the British or the French started the tradition around WW1.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quite some time. A famous example from antiquity is the [monument at Thermopylae](_URL_0_), although that hasn't survived.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "177497",
"title": "Burial",
"section": "Section::::Locations.:Marking the location of the burial.:Anonymous burial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Russia is in Alexander Garden in Moscow and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67988",
"title": "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier refers to a monument dedicated to the services of an unknown soldier and to the common memories of all soldiers killed in any war. Such tombs can be found in many nations and are usually high-profile national monuments. Throughout history, many soldiers have died in war with their remains being unidentified. Following World War I, a movement arose to commemorate these soldiers with a single tomb, containing the body of one such unidentified soldier. It is a tomb for unknown soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67988",
"title": "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The Tombs of the Unknown Soldiers typically contain the remains of a dead soldier who is unidentified (or \"known but to God\" as the stone is sometimes inscribed). These remains are considered impossible to identify, and so serve as a symbol for all of a country's unknown dead wherever they fell in the war being remembered. The anonymity of the entombed soldier is the key symbolism of the monument; it could be the tomb of anyone who fell in service of the nation, and therefore serves as a monument symbolizing all of the sacrifices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21591785",
"title": "Myrtle Hill Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Veteran's Plaza.:Tomb of the Known Soldier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1552,
"text": "The Tomb of the Known Soldier is the grave of Private Charles W. Graves (1893–1918). Private Graves was an infantryman in the American Expeditionary Force who fought in World War I. On October 5, 1918, Private Graves was killed by German artillery shrapnel on the Hindenburg Line. His mother received the telegram from the War Department that informed her about Private Graves' death; however, his body was not returned to America until March 29, 1922 when they brought American soldiers' remains from France and Belgium aboard the troopship \"Cambria\" to New York City. The U.S. Government had the idea of creating Unknown Soldier and \"Known Soldier\" in Arlington Cemetery to honor World War I soldiers. Private Graves was chosen for \"America's Known Soldier\" by a blindfolded sailor who picked Graves' name from American soldier remains list, but his mother objected to his burial at Arlington. The War Department wanted to give his body flag-draped coffin a parade on Fifth Avenue, in New York with generals, admirals, and politicians before his mother buried Graves in the cemetery near Antioch Church on April 6, 1922. On September 22, 1923, Romans decided to relocate Private Graves' body from Antioch Cemetery to Myrtle Hill Cemetery as \"America's Known Soldier\" after his mother's death and his brother's agreement. Private Graves was buried a third and final time. On November 11, 1923, Armistice Day, Private Graves and the other 33 young men from Floyd County who died in World War I were honored with three Maxim guns and 34 magnolia trees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67991",
"title": "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier or the Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to deceased U.S. service members whose remains have not been identified. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I \"Unknown\" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals. The monument has no officially designated name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337621",
"title": "The Unknown Warrior",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The British grave of The Unknown Warrior (often known as 'The Tomb of The Unknown Warrior') holds an unidentified British soldier killed on a European battlefield during the First World War. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, London on 11 November 1920, simultaneously with a similar interment of a French unknown soldier at the Arc de Triomphe in France, making both graves the first to honour the unknown dead of the First World War. It is the first example of a tomb of the Unknown Soldier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1027435",
"title": "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Warsaw)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier () is a monument in Warsaw, Poland, dedicated to the unknown soldiers who have given their lives for Poland. It is one of many such national tombs of unknowns that were erected after World War I, and the most important such monument in Poland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2q4otu
|
the perceived animosity of the nypd towards bill de blasio.
|
[
{
"answer": "The mayor has repeatedly come across as being in support of those who are angry with the police, even in instances where that anger is not justified. The mayor isn't seen as being on the side of his police force.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3897743",
"title": "Crime in New York City",
"section": "Section::::Administration.:Police commissioners.:Ray Kelly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 256,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 256,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Under Mayor Bloomberg, Kelly's NYPD also incurred criticism for its handling of the protests surrounding the 2004 Republican National Convention, which resulted in the City of New York having to pay out millions in settlement of lawsuits for false arrest and civil rights violations, as well as for its rough treatment of credentialed reporters covering the 2011 Occupy Wall Street demonstrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1615351",
"title": "Raymond Kelly",
"section": "Section::::41st NYC police commissioner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Under Mayor Bloomberg, Kelly's NYPD also incurred criticism for its handling of the protests surrounding the 2004 Republican National Convention, which resulted in the City of New York having to pay out millions in settlement of lawsuits for false arrest and civil rights violations, as well as for its rough treatment of credentialed reporters covering the 2011 Occupy Wall Street demonstrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7560179",
"title": "Police Benevolent Association of the City of New York",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with Mayor Bill de Blasio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Following NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio's election in 2013, running largely on a message of reining in abusive NYPD tactics, including \"Stop and Frisk\", the PBA began actively organizing against Mayor de Blasio, accusing him of failing to support the NYPD, as it has charged other mayors over the decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598829",
"title": "Letitia James",
"section": "Section::::Career.:City Council tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "With New York State Senator Eric Adams, Congressman Hakeem Jeffries, and NY city councilman Jumaane Williams, James called upon Mayor Bloomberg to investigate systemic corruption in the NYPD in November 2011. She was also one of four councilmembers to sue the NYPD over its treatment of protesters at Occupy Wall Street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21553083",
"title": "New York City Police Department corruption and misconduct",
"section": "Section::::Multiple-victim misconduct allegations and additional controversies.:Mafia cops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Louis Eppolito and Stephen Caracappa were simultaneously on the payrolls of the NYPD and the Lucchese crime family and were abusing their authority as officers of the NYPD. They would routinely violate the civil rights of the citizens of New York City, and moonlighted for the crime family. They would use NYPD files to track down the enemies of the crime family and were ultimately convicted of the murders of Eddie Lino, Michael Greenwald (an informant for the FBI) and innocent man Nick Guido who had the same name as a man targeted by the crime family. Eppolito received life in prison with an additional 100 years and Caracappa received life in prison with an additional 80 years. They were also fined a combined $4 million. They received a monthly salary of $5000 from the crime family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51955319",
"title": "The Alienist (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The team finds opposition within the NYPD, primarily from Captain Connor and the recently retired Chief Byrnes, both of whom are more committed to protecting the reputations of New York's high society than they are to finding the perpetrators of the crimes; as well as from the working poor and lower class citizens who distrust them for being outsiders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21553083",
"title": "New York City Police Department corruption and misconduct",
"section": "Section::::Multiple-victim misconduct allegations and additional controversies.:Federal corruption investigation of top NYPD officers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "NYPD Commissioner William Bratton reassigned four top NYPD officers as a consequence of a federal corruption investigation of the NYPD being led by the U.S. Attorney's Office and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Deputy Chief Michael Harringon, Deputy Inspector James Grant, Deputy Chief David Colon, and Deputy Chief Eric Rodriguez were each disciplined by being given desk jobs even before the outcome of the investigation was made clear. The investigation of the NYPD was reportedly connected to probes of two businessmen with ties to Mayor Bill de Blasio. Although the complete nature, and identity of all of the targets, of the federal investigation were not made clear, agents of the FBI's political corruption unit were participating in the probe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j649h
|
Where does the energy go when particle-antiparticle pairs spontaneously appear and annihilate?
|
[
{
"answer": "The energy doesn't go anywhere, because there was zero energy to begin with and zero energy after.\n\nThe particle-antiparticle pairs you're referring to are called *virtual particles*. They aren't real particles, and they don't actually exist. They're mathematical tools that are used in calculations, but they fail to have many of the properties of real particles. In particular, *real* particles have a relationship between their mass, energy, and momentum: E^2 = p^2 c^2 + m^2 c^4. In particular, their (mass+kinetic) energy is always positive. That relationship is not true for virtual particles, and one of the pair of virtual particles just has negative energy (so the pair has total energy zero).\n\nBut--just to reiterate because this causes so much confusion--virtual particles aren't real. They're just a mathematical tool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1327",
"title": "Antiparticle",
"section": "Section::::Particle–antiparticle annihilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can annihilate each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as + → + (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) are an example. The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, + → , cannot occur in free space because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. However, in the Coulomb field of a nucleus the translational invariance is broken and single-photon annihilation may occur. The reverse reaction (in free space, without an atomic nucleus) is also impossible for this reason. In quantum field theory, this process is allowed only as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the uncertainty principle. This opens the way for virtual pair production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may \"fluctuate\" into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the vacuum state and renormalization of a quantum field theory. It also opens the way for neutral particle mixing through processes such as the one pictured here, which is a complicated example of mass renormalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317",
"title": "Antimatter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner leads to their \"mutual annihilation\", giving rise to various proportions of intense photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and sometimes less-massive particle-antiparticle pairs. Annihilation usually results in a release of energy that becomes available for heat or work. The amount of the released energy is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accordance with the mass–energy equivalence equation, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041214",
"title": "Proportional counter",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "An ionizing particle entering the gas collides with an atom of the inert gas and ionizes it to produce an electron and a positively charged ion, commonly known as an \"ion pair\". As the ionizing particle travels through the chamber it leaves a trail of ion pairs along its trajectory, the number of which is proportional to the energy of the particle if it is fully stopped within the gas. Typically a 1 MeV stopped particle will create about 30,000 ion pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346133",
"title": "Annihilation",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Electron–positron annihilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "If one or both charged particles carry a larger amount of kinetic energy, various other particles can be produced. Furthermore, the annihilation (or decay) of an electron-positron pair into a \"single\" photon can occur in the presence of a third charged particle to which the excess momentum can be transferred by a virtual photon from the electron or positron. The inverse process, pair production by a single real photon, is also possible in the electromagnetic field of a third particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24038774",
"title": "1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers",
"section": "Section::::History.:The significance of requiring manifest covariance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "Most students who have taken a course in electromagnetism have encountered the Coulomb potential. It basically states that two charged particles attract or repel each other by a force which varies according to the inverse square of their separation. This is fairly unambiguous for particles at rest, but if one or the other is following an arbitrary trajectory the question arises whether one should compute the force using the instantaneous positions of the particles or the so-called retarded positions. The latter recognizes that information cannot propagate instantaneously, rather it propagates at the speed of light. However, the radiation gauge says that one uses the instantaneous positions of the particles, but doesn't violate causality because there are compensating terms in the force equation. In contrast, the Lorenz gauge imposes manifest covariance (and thus causality) at all stages of a calculation. Predictions of observable quantities are identical in the two gauges, but the radiation gauge formulation of quantum field theory avoids Goldstone's theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1327",
"title": "Antiparticle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Particle–antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. For example, the positrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays, a process exploited in positron emission tomography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xq3rl
|
How many molecules wide are the sharpest blades?
|
[
{
"answer": "Obisidian blades can be mere molecules thick, the preferred tool of optometrists. I'm not sure if its the SHARPEST but it is practically impossible to not cut yourself on one\n\nSource: History of art professor, the first hand experience.\n[and wikipedia as source](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: as others pointed out its actually Ophthalmologists",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a process called 'Ion milling' in which a material is put into a vacuum and single ions are shot at it until it is electron transparent. If I had to make the thinnest, sharpest blade I could, that is how I would do it. Limited info [here](_URL_0_). Wish I had more specs on it. Hopefully someone else can help out.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One atom thick. \n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nI could have a sheet of graphene which would be a single atom thick blade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in a research lab with access to some pretty spectacular electron microscopy equipment. Sadly, for most surgical blades all you need is an optical microscope to inspect the edge. A single crystal diamond blade is among the highest quailty blade you can get, and has an edge radius of about 1 micrometre, though it is very difficult to measure accurately - we did some work recently which involved measuring the edge radius of a few types of surgical blades.\n\nI also know that incredibly sharp blades are used to prepare sample for transmission electron microscopes, perhaps someone else who knows more about these could speak to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to do tech support for a company that produced RF chips. The machines that sliced the silicon wafers used a graphite-diamond blade that would crumble at the slightest touch, yet would slice you about 100 times in the time it took you to jerk your hand away. Ask me how I know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a great NOVA documentary on samurai swords : [here](_URL_0_)\n\nThis covers is great detail the metallurgical details in the crafting of samurai swords.\n\nHowever the prowess of samurai swords (Katanas) has been grossly embellished by Hollywood, and their effectiveness as weapons is indeed limited, as briefly summarized by Lindy Beige [here](_URL_2_)\n\nIf you are interested, I highly recommend watching [Reclaiming The Blade](_URL_3_) and [Secrets of the Viking sword](_URL_1_), they cover in great detail the physics of blades and swords, and well as the martial arts needed to use them. What sticks out in my mind from this documentary(the Viking sword), is a demonstration of a bastard sword, with no sharp edge at all (designed so), cutting various pieces of wood and fruit, clean in half with a single stroke.\n\nSorry if this is off topic, and more about history and weapons, but I thought it was relevant. \n\n**TL:DR blades do not need to be sharp to cut things.**\n\n*Edit : spelling and additional link*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a nitpick, since the experts have the main part of your question answered, but \"titanium\" razors aren't made of titanium, they're coated in titanium nitride or titanium carbonitride.\n\nTitanium itself it much too soft to make a good blade. Even 6Al4V alloy, AKA Grade 5, which to my knowledge is the best alloy for tools is significantly softer than a cheep steel you'd find in a $5 gas station knife. There are people that make blades out of it, but mostly dive knives or similar, things where steel would likely rust. Though that's less of an issue with modern nitrogen alloy steels like H-1 or N680. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My father worked on this technology in the late 80s and early 90s at a research lab. At the time, they were able to get a needle 3 atoms wide, as proved by a photo somewhere stored safely in his house. The best info I can find is from this abstract : _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To specifically answer your question:\n0.1 mm = 1 000 000 ångströms\n[This](_URL_3_) site mentions 0.1 mm blades, which ~~we can assume are~~ aren't likely to be the amongst the thinnest on the market, but probably amongst the thinnest blades for shaving. [Tungsten carbide](_URL_0_) is a durable material often used in (razor-) blades, composed of carbon and tungsten. Now, a carbon atom is about 1.82 Å in diameter, while tungsten atoms are around 2.82 Å ([Source](_URL_2_)).\n\nI wouldn't have a slightest clue as for how dense the atoms in a tungsten carbide molecule are, nor how tightly the molecules stack on the edge of a blade - but, ~~judging from~~ using the [structure illustration on Wikipedia](_URL_1_), ~~I'd **guess**~~ I've calculated that the molecule is around ~~15x11~~ 17x11,5 carbon atoms, which equals 30.94x20.93 Å. To allow a fairly simple estimate, let's assume now that the molecules are stacked tightly on top of each other *in the same fixed angle*. Depending on the angle, this gives us:\nA) 1 000 000/30.94 = **32 320 molecules**\nor\nB) 1 000 000/20.93 = **47 778 molecules**\n\nThese must not be considered accurate calculations, but it's damn sure the closest I can get.\n\nEDIT: I was on my phone when I first posted. I've now measured the image in Photoshop for a (much) more accurate molecule size estimation.\n\nEDIT: Using the above numbers you can also calculate that in a tungsten carbide blade, there are A) ~3 molecules per nanometer or B) ~2 molecules per nanometer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10243065",
"title": "Piercing saw",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Saw blades come in many different thicknesses and the choice of blade will depend on the material being sawn and nature of the work being done. For very fine delicate work, and for cutting very thin material use a finer blade, and for general purpose cutting a heavier blade. Saw blades have a range of sizes, from finest to coarsest: 8/0, 7/0, 6/0, 5/0, 4/0, 3/0, 2/0, 1/0, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47129698",
"title": "Splitting band knife",
"section": "Section::::Band knife machines.:Horizontal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "Horizontal band knife blades are wider usually 30-60mm wide for foam converting is popular, for leather goods 40-50mm wide blade is popular, 85-110mm width is popular for the tannery splitting band knife. There are other widths depending on the machine manufacturer. The horizontal machine band knife blade is supported by a guide to give dimensional accuracies while cutting/splitting. Therefore, only blades that have passed as one main manufacturing step a surface grinding process reach the necessary thickness tolerances of less than 0,02mm. A higher tolerance would lead to marks on the surface of the split material like leather or rubber. Blades are available in different grades of exactness depending on the required exactness on the material to be cut/split. On modern machines in combination with a high grade blade a splitting thickness of 0,2mm for 1500mm material width is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18633826",
"title": "Barong (sword)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Blade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Barung blades are thick and very heavy with the weight aiding in the slicing capability of the sword. Barong blade lengths range from 8 to 22 inches (20 to 56 cm) as the average blade length is originally 14 inch. Newer blades, on the other hand, tend to be longer measuring at 18 to 22 inches (46 to 56 cm). Damascene patterns are also thick but again most often not as controlled as the more widely known kalis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1067614",
"title": "Hacksaw",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Blades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The kerf produced by the blades is somewhat wider than the blade thickness due to the set of the teeth. It commonly varies between 0.030 and 0.063 inches / 0.75 and 1.6 mm depending on the pitch and set of the teeth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89869",
"title": "Circular saw",
"section": "Section::::Hand-held circular saws for wood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Blades for cutting wood are almost universally tungsten carbide tipped (TCT), but high-speed steel (HSS) blades are also available. The saw base can be adjusted for depth of cut and can tilt up to 45° and sometimes 50° in relation to the blade. Adjusting the depth of cut helps minimize kickback. Different diameter blades are matched to each saw and are available ranging from to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593338",
"title": "Bimetal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Blades for bandsaws and reciprocating saws are often made with bimetal construction. The teeth, made of high speed steel, are bonded (by various methods, for example, electron beam welding or laser beam welding) to the high-strength carbon steel base. Such construction makes for blades with a better combination of cutting speed and durability than shown by non-bimetal blades, because the advantages and disadvantages of each of the metals are applied in the best locations: the teeth are harder (and thus cut better), but therefore also brittler; meanwhile, the body area of the band is softer (which would make for poorer teeth), but also less brittle, and thus more resistant to cracking and breaking (which is desirable in the body area). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2585326",
"title": "Serrated blade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Cuts made with a serrated blade are typically less smooth and precise than cuts made with a smooth blade. Serrated blades can be more difficult to sharpen using a whetstone or rotary sharpener than a non-serrated, however, they can be easily sharpened with a diamond. Serrated blades tend to stay sharper longer than a similar straight edged blade. A serrated blade has a faster cut but a plain edge has a cleaner cut. Some prefer a serrated blade on a pocket knife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
273t89
|
how is it possible to have a hole in your heart, and not die of internal bleeding?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its not an expression, it is literally referring to a hole somewhere in the heart that there isn't supposed to be. Now bear in mind this doesn't mean there's a hole straight through the heart, or that the hole leads to the exterior of the heart. What it usually entails is that there is a defect in the walls that separate the chambers in the heart, or between the major vessels leading out of the heart.\n\nI presume your curiosity was piqued because of that AMA about the kid and his hole-in-the-heart. Without knowing the exact details of his condition, basically the kid has a hole in the wall between one of his atrium and the adjacent ventricle (there are four chambers in your heart, two atrium and two ventricles). In a healthy heart, the atrium contracts and pushes blood into the ventricle, and then ventricle contracts and pushes the blood out of your heart (either to your lungs or the other organs). The hole between the atrium and ventricle means that when the ventricle contracts, some of that blood gets pushed backwards, back into the atrium.\n\nYou can have holes elsewhere in the heart, but the results are usually the same. The flow of blood is disrupted as some of it backflows through the defect.\n\nThese are always congenital defects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2561583",
"title": "Atrioventricular septal defect",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.:Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "When there are holes in the septum that divide the four chambers of the heart the oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood mix this creates more stress on the heart to pump blood to where oxygen is needed. As a result, you get enlargement of the heart, heart failure (being unable to adequately supply body with needed oxygen, pulmonary hypertension, and pneumonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35409126",
"title": "Samuel Morcom",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "A coroner's inquiry into the death found that the cause of death was inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart, owing to the absorption of blood from the bruised parts of the thigh. Morcom's brother James testified that Morcom had been unwell recently and had been losing his eyesight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3727453",
"title": "Percutaneous coronary intervention",
"section": "Section::::Adverse events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "As with any procedure involving the heart, complications can sometimes, though rarely, cause death. The mortality rate during angioplasty is 1.2%. Sometimes chest pain can occur during angioplasty because the balloon briefly blocks off the blood supply to the heart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1339615",
"title": "Stopping power",
"section": "Section::::Wounding effects.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Permanent and temporary cavitation cause very different biological effects. A hole through the heart will cause loss of pumping efficiency, loss of blood, and eventual cardiac arrest. A hole through the liver or lung will be similar, with the lung shot having the added effect of reducing blood oxygenation; these effects however are generally slower to arise than damage to the heart. A hole through the brain can cause instant unconsciousness and will likely kill the recipient. A hole through the spinal cord will instantly interrupt the nerve signals to and from some or all extremities, disabling the target and in many cases also resulting in death (as the nerve signals to and from the heart and lungs are interrupted by a shot high in the chest or to the neck). By contrast, a hole through an arm or leg which hits only muscle will cause a great deal of pain but is unlikely to be fatal, unless one of the large blood vessels (femoral or brachial arteries, for example) is also severed in the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219051",
"title": "Cardiomegaly",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heart failure: One of the most serious types of enlarged heart, an enlarged left ventricle, increases the risk of heart failure. In heart failure, the heart muscle weakens, and the ventricles stretch (dilate) to the point that the heart can't pump blood efficiently throughout the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54694072",
"title": "Maternal mortality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Medical causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Embolism: blood vessels blocked likely due to deep vein thrombosis, a blood clot that forms in a deep vein, commonly in the legs but could be from other deep veins.* Pulmonary embolisms and strokes are blockages in the lungs and brain respectively and are severe, could lead to long term effects, or be fatal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219051",
"title": "Cardiomegaly",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heart valve surgery: If an enlarged heart is caused by a problem with one of the heart valves, one may have surgery to remove the valve and replace it with either an artificial valve or a tissue valve from a pig, cow or deceased human donor. If blood leaks backward through a valve (valve regurgitation), the leaky valve may be surgically repaired or replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ovo3v
|
Is there a scientific reason that the hexagon is 'nature's shape'?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good intention, bad wording. Hexagon is not natures shape. Nature has no shape as nature encompasses many amorphous blobs rather than shapes. HOWEVER!!! In organic chemistry there is are two molecules that are extraordinarily common in nature and they are cyclohexane and benzene, both of which are in a [on a general level] hexagonal formation. The molecules in question are so common in life because the six membered carbon ring structure is at almost the perfect bonding angle for carbon, and hence enjoys a unique stability. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hexagons represent the shape with the lowest possible energy when nested / packed. If you imagine a soap bubble, it pulls itself into a sphere for the same reason - the sphere is the least possible surface area which contains the maximum volume - the lowest energy shape. If you subsequently nest soap bubbles together, the membranes between cells pull themselves into straight walls forming hexagons, as this is the lowest energy configuration. Similarly, this is why bees evolved to construct honeycomb cells in their hives. The close packed hexagons use the least amount of wax in their construction than any other possible shape, conserving energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For one thing, a hexagonal grid is the perimeter-minimizing partition of a surface. This is why honeycombs are hexagonal: it takes the least wax to build them. The [honeycomb conjecture](_URL_0_) has been around for a long time, but was proven to be the case in 1999.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are also some curious hexagons and geometric patterns in nature: [Jupiters axis](_URL_1_), and [acoustic pattern formations](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's simple energy minimization and mathematics, imagine you have a surface broken by some sort of a boundary. That boundary could be a bubble or a grain boundary or honeycomb or whatever, where that boundary splits it is most likely to split in two. At this point we have a three sectioned point, like a banana interior or something, whatever. If that split is uneven then it's energy potential is greater than an even split, imagine holding an acute angle in a bubble for instance. So mathematically and energetically it makes sense for every corner of an equilibrium system to be a three sectioned 120 degree split. Continuing this line of reasoning, exclusively 120 degree angles imply regular hexagons. Q.E.D.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do not forget the lowly [snowflake.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does it make a difference to this matter that radius of a circle is the same lenght as the sides of the largest hexagon that can be fitted into that circle. In a way this is obvious, but this is mathematically relevant because hexagons are easily drawn inside a ring by a drafting compass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, it's incorrect to say that hexagon is \"nature's shape\". While I say this - there are a lot of events in nature where the hexagonal shape is preferred over any other shape. However, if you analyze the first picture you presented, there are also a lot of pentagons and heptagons as well. With a scientific mind, you should ask yourself, \"If there are also a lot of pentagons, hexagons, and heptagons... then the issue here should not be the overall shape, but how the shape is formed.\" Think cracks and angles.\n\nSo again, it would be a great risk on your scientific integrity to say \"hexagon is nature's shape\"; the better way to say it is, \"hexagon occurs very frequently in nature\". \n\nYou have to analyze this from a different perspective - how the shapes are formed. The pictures you show are defined by cracks on the ground or on volcanic rock as it dries/cools. This means that cracks begin to form.\n\nWhat is scientifically accurate is that cracks break into 120 degree angles because that provides the greatest amount of stress release. Consider how cracks are created; they're created when the surface tension of any material gains tensional stress - aka, when water evaporates from dirt or when hot lava cools suddenly. Each line begins to break in 120 angles. \n\nTry this on your own: Start with a line, begin dividing that into 120 angle split. After that, at any line starting point, continue dividing only in 120 splits. You'll soon realize that the smallest shape you can accomplish is a pentagon - but this requires for two cracks to gain length with \"cracking\", or relieving stress, for a while. \n\nTo emphasize why hexagons are more common than pentagons, consider this crude Madden-like drawing I have created. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nLet the black lines be the cracks and let the red arrows represent the direction of tension created by the process of evaporation or cooling. As the black line grows longer, the overall directional tension begins to accumulate. When the tension reaches a certain threshold (I don't know that much into geology), the crack splits since it requires less energy to do so. I haven't included it in the picture, but this also means that at the point of crack. This isn't the whole picture, obviously, but this is a general idea.\n\nIn other words, for pentagons to be created - there needs to be less cracks. Less cracks indicates that each line has to be longer, which also means a greater build up of surface tension. \n\n_URL_3_\n\n\nAs for mentioned in post about the honeycomb - this is relatively different. Hexagons aren't created in honeycombs because of cracks... although tension is a relevant topic. Honeycombs are created in that shape because a 3D hexagonal shape provides the greatest area for the least amount of surface area - or in other words, the most volume for each amount of wax used to create the structure. \n\n_URL_2_\n\nAbove is quite a difficult read. \nThis is a more general overview: _URL_0_\n\nHow do bees know that hexagons are the best structure? No idea... you'd probably have to consult a biologist. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's one of the most efficient ways to pack circles.\n\nIf you take a bunch of elastic circles, put them in a box, and apply pressure to them, they will naturally form to hexagons in order to reduce empty space between them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hopefully this isn't perceived harshly and downvoted but I always wonder the exact reasoning behind why the triangle is the strongest shape and why they aren't encountered more in nature. Can anyone help? Not to deter from the main question...sorry.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree with everything else posted here about conservation of energy in boundaries, etc. The reason honeycomb cells are hexagonal is exactly the same as why, for instance, convection cells are hexagonal, even though they are arrived at through different processes - in both cases it is the minimization of boundaries through natural feedback processes and so forth.\n\nAnyway, to your larger question: The term \"nature's shape\" is clearly rhetorical, and has perhaps no technical meaning (something the antihexagonalists here can't seem to acknowledge), but it is of course accurate - or at least can be said to reflect an accurate sentiment. (Indeed, it is entirely possible you heard that phrase from me, as I'm responsible for much of the pro-hexagonal material on the internet today, and it is a phrase I've used often.) The reason for this - to the extent the mysteries of the hexagon can be distilled to intelligible levels, and from there reduced even further to a single unitary principle - I think comes down, ultimately, to the fact that the hexagon can be understood as a two-dimensional projection of three-dimensional space. And representing the lowest dimensions that are capable of containing meaningful complexity, it becomes the archetype of _all_ ascent through dimensionality (and thus the ascent through all sets, and thus through all more complex orders of mathematical objects).\n\nTo understand this, consider the relationship between the cube and the hexagon. The hexagon as you are no doubt aware can be inscribed in a cube, and the cube can be projected as a hexagon. But there is a deeper relationship here when you consider centered hexagonal numbers. That is, in the fashion of square numbers, or triangular numbers, you have the number created by a figure consisting of a central hexagon surrounded by _n_ rings of additional hexagons. So the first such number n1=1, the second n2=7, the third n3=19, and so on in the fashion of adding (_n_-1)*6 to the previous number. Anyway, the interesting thing about these is that then the sum of all centered hexagonal numbers from 1 to _n_ equals the cube of _n_. So 1+7=8=2^3 , 1+7+19=27=3^3 , 1+7+19+37=64=4^3 , 1+7+19+37+61=125, et cetera. This can be understood by visualizing a cube vertex-on, projected as a hexagon. The centered subcube at the closest corner can be considered the first, centered hexagon of centered hexagonal number n1, the shell of 7 cubes around that corner cube can be thought of as the second number n2, and likewise out from there, in shells of additional cubes. (This helpful video should demonstrate it, sort of: [A Series of Cubes](_URL_0_)).\n\nAnyway, changing gears a bit, what is PARTICULARLY INTERESTING then is that the hexagon is a member of a class of polytopes known, somewhat bizarrely, as permutohedra. The _n_-dimensional permotohedron is characterized by having vertices that correspond to all possible permutations of the coordinates in n+1 dimensional space. So for instance a hexagon inscribed in a cube, which cube can be considered representative of three dimensional space, has the vertex coordinates 1,2,3; 1,3,2; 2,3,1; 3,2,1, 3,1,2; and 2,1,3. (This picture is demonstrates this clearly: [Perumutohedron order 3](_URL_1_).) One can do this for any dimension, so in 3 dimensions it is the truncated octahedron, which can be inscribed in 4-dimensional space with all possible permutations of 1,2,3,4, etc. What is particularly poignant about this - to me at least - is that in all dimensions these permutohedra correspond to the omnitruncated simplex in that dimension. That is, just as the hexagon can be seen as a truncated triangle with its ends removed, so the truncated octahedron can be considered a form of truncated tetrahedron - a regular truncated tetrahedron re-truncated again to turn the remaining triangular faces into hexagons. Thus they can be thought to emanate, in a sense, from the same triangulo-hexagonal symmetry that gives rise to the hexagon in two dimensions. Permutohedra in all dimensions also form a space-filling regular tessellationa, as the hexagon and the truncated octahedron can be tessellated in their respective spaces.\n\nSo because of their permutation-based vertices, every _n_-order permutohedron has n! vertices. (And here I should clarify that the hexagon is actually order-3, because it permutes the vectors of the three-dimensional space, not 2. The permutohedron is of the order of the dimension one higher than itself.) Likewise, the number of outer facets of every _n_-order permutohedron equals 2^_n_ -2. (8-2 for the hexagon, 16-2 for the truncated octahedron, etc.) For those who are paying attention, this fact ties back into the cube/centered hex number thing above. For if all permutohedra can tessellate space, and, having 2^_n_ -2 outer facets, is bordered by 2^_n_ -2 neighbors, it stands to reason that 1 initial permutohedron, plus the shell of 2^_n_ -2 permutohedra, plus the inner one on the second shell, will equal 2^n . Thus forming the gnomon of the _n_-dimensional cube for any order-n permutohedron. If that makes sense. For instance, the truncated octahedron, plus a truncated octahedron surrounded by 14 neighbors (which could be considered the order-2 centered truncated octahedral number), equals 16, which is 2^4 , in the same fashion that 1+7 hexagons = 2^3 . QED.\n\n(Bear in mind also that all two-dimensional faces in all permutohedra are, as with the truncated octahedron, either squares or hexagons - not only do these shapes bring the concept of hexagonality to higher dimensions, but they are themselves, in a sense, \"constructed\" with hexagons.)\n\nAnyway, my time grows short. All of this demonstrates to me, based on my hexagonal studies, that the hexagon is some sort of archetype or ontological primitive that defines or characterizes the nature of space and indeed perhaps existence itself on the most fundamental level. I would even conjecture that the universe itself may be a hexagon, and that as we become aware of our hexagonal nature, we will, as a species, move into a transcendental hexagonal future, when all will become a hexagon.\n\n[Edited to fix unexpected behavior vis-a-vis superscripting of carets.]",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20580209",
"title": "William Delbert Gann",
"section": "Section::::Trading techniques.:The Spiral Chart and the Hexagon Chart.:The Hexagon Chart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Very similar to the Spiral Chart, the Hexagon Chart is also a matrix of consecutive natural numbers, but the difference is that it starts with 0 in the central point, and the numbers spiral out in the form of a hexagon instead a square. The spiral direction in Gann's original course is also counterclockwise, because of its astrological overlay. Mathematically, the numbers in each additional layer represent the hexagonal numbers, which are the number of distinct dots consisting of the outlines of regular hexagons.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "76956",
"title": "Right angle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Closely related and important geometrical concepts are perpendicular lines, meaning lines that form right angles at their point of intersection, and orthogonality, which is the property of forming right angles, usually applied to vectors. The presence of a right angle in a triangle is the defining factor for right triangles, making the right angle basic to trigonometry.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1524030",
"title": "Cyclohexane conformation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 576,
"text": "The internal angles of a flat regular hexagon are 120°, while the preferred angle between successive bonds in a carbon chain is about 109.5°, the tetrahedral angle. Therefore, the cyclohexane ring tends to assume certain non-planar (warped) conformations, which have all angles closer to 109.5° and therefore a lower strain energy than the flat hexagonal shape. The most important shapes are called chair, half-chair, boat, and twist-boat. The molecule can easily switch between these conformations, and only two of them—\"chair\" and \"twist-boat\"—can be isolated in pure form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "302441",
"title": "Hexagram",
"section": "Section::::Usage in Dharmic religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Within Indic lore, the shape is generally understood to consist of two triangles—one pointed up and the other down—locked in harmonious embrace. The two components are called \"Om\" and the \"Hrim\" in Sanskrit, and symbolize man's position between earth and sky. The downward triangle symbolizes Shakti, the sacred embodiment of femininity, and the upward triangle symbolizes Shiva, or Agni Tattva, representing the focused aspects of masculinity. The mystical union of the two triangles represents Creation, occurring through the divine union of male and female. The two locked triangles are also known as 'Shanmukha'—the six-faced, representing the six faces of Shiva & Shakti's progeny Kartikeya. This symbol is also a part of several yantras and has deep significance in Hindu ritual worship and history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176244",
"title": "Geoid",
"section": "Section::::Spherical harmonics representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 429,
"text": "Spherical harmonics are often used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM96 (Earth Gravity Model 1996), determined in an international collaborative project led by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, or NGA). The mathematical description of the non-rotating part of the potential function in this model is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "59733",
"title": "Hexagon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In geometry, a hexagon (from Greek ἕξ \"hex\", \"six\" and γωνία, \"gonía\", \"corner, angle\") is a six-sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the internal angles of any simple (non-self-intersecting) hexagon is 720°.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29594530",
"title": "Logical hexagon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The logical hexagon (also called the hexagon of opposition) is a conceptual model of the relationships between the truth values of six statements. It is an extension of Aristotle's square of opposition. It was discovered independently by both Augustin Sesmat and Robert Blanché.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
] | null |
1ssojv
|
how do airlines know the exact departure and arrival times for flights months out in advance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plane routes don't change often. The same flight goes from NYC to LA everyday and comes back everyday. To do the same thing tomorrow. Pretty much only time schedules change is when some airline starts a new route. Or shuts down a route",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "They build the schedule first (months in advance). Sales & marketing does a lot of work to figure out when they want to be where.\n\nThen they assign types of airplanes to different flight segments (\"fleet assignment\"). That's how you can see what type of aircraft you'll be flying on, usually, when you book your ticket. \n\nIt's only very close to the flight that they actually assign a particular aircraft, and that might change right up to departure.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13431137",
"title": "Indoor positioning system",
"section": "Section::::Wireless technologies.:Time of arrival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 651,
"text": "Time of arrival (ToA, also time of flight) is the amount of time a signal takes to propagate from transmitter to receiver. Because the signal propagation rate is constant and known (ignoring differences in mediums) the travel time of a signal can be used to directly calculate distance. Multiple measurements can be combined with trilateration and multilateration to find a location. This is the technique used by GPS. Systems which use ToA, generally require a complicated synchronization mechanism to maintain a reliable source of time for sensors (though this can be avoided in carefully designed systems by using repeaters to establish coupling).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1289256",
"title": "Flight plan",
"section": "Section::::Flight plan timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Flight plans may be submitted before departure or even after the aircraft is in the air. However flight plans may be submitted up to 24 hours in advance either by voice or by data link; though they are usually filled out or submitted just several hours before departure. The minimum recommended time is 1 hour before departure for domestic flights, and up to three hours before international flights. This time depends on the country the aircraft is flying out of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6920627",
"title": "Flight Compensation Regulation 261/2004",
"section": "Section::::Applicability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- arrived in time for check-in as indicated on the ticket or communication from the airline, or, if no time is so indicated, no less than 45 minutes prior to the scheduled departure time of the flight\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "13773814",
"title": "On-time performance",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Airlines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Airlines are closely monitored on their on time performance. Numerous websites exist for reporting on punctuality for airlines, often operated by government departments. Virgin Australia, an airline, uses a rule that aircraft that depart within 15 minutes of scheduled departure are on time. The 15 minutes rules for on time performance is commonly applied throughout the airline industry. Airlines typically perform well when their on time performance reaches 90%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13773814",
"title": "On-time performance",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 522,
"text": "Passengers can be updated on the movement of transport vehicles with passenger information systems. These systems display the arrival time of vehicles to stops, stations or airports, and typical information displayed is the time in minutes to the next scheduled arrival. Some of these systems have been extended to include apps to show the movement of trains/buses/planes/ferries. Where services are delayed, more information can be provided, such as alternative transport options, or estimated time till services resume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12841534",
"title": "Layover",
"section": "Section::::Air.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "In air travel, a stop or transfer (from one airplane to another) is considered to be a layover or connection up to a certain maximum allowed connecting time, while a so-called stopover is a substantially longer break in the flight itinerary. The maximum time depends on many variables, but for most U.S. and Canadian itineraries, it is 4 hours, and for most international itineraries (including any domestic stops), it is 24 hours. In general, layovers are cheaper than stopovers, because notionally layovers are incidental to traveling between two other points, whereas stopovers are among the traveler's destinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269560",
"title": "Tracking (commercial airline flight)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"end_character": 239,
"text": "Flight/airline tracking, that is the use of flight trackers has been growing due to the obvious reason to know whether a flight has safely landed or whether everything goes according to the schedule so it is the time to go to the airport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
4ypn1f
|
why are all of our fingers different lengths?
|
[
{
"answer": "Having all fingers the same length would decrease dexterity and grip strength. When we were brachiating from the treetops this would have been a great disadvantage. The thumb in particular is very strong. The neural output equates to all other fingers combined and its ability to oppose helps with fine motor skills and precision grips. Different finger lengths also helps in creating a good fist which delivers a more forceful blow. The difference between the fourth digit and second digit is due to greater exposure to androgens in utero which has been linked to other physical and behavioral traits. ",
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{
"answer": "[I made a quick video to answer your question](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you prefer reading here is what I ran over:\n\n- That it's due to evolution, we need it to improve our grip. We started using tools millions of years ago and we need the grip to use them! We still need the grip to date obviously, for items such as pens, tools and even phones. Try and grab an orange yourself and you will find that you can grip it so well due to the curvature of your fingers, and how because of the different length of each finger you end up holding it in various places which makes for great grip.\n\n- We also need different length fingers to make fists to use as a defensive weapon. We wouldn't be able to make a fist if all our fingers were the same length! \n\nTake it easy!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "They evolved to match the thumb. Each of them is the optimal length for pressure against the thumb when the thumb is rotated to meet that digit. Because the palm has more flexibility on the index and pinkie, those two are significantly shorter. \n \nI made this up because everything else in this thread makes no sense, so why not.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "1555658",
"title": "Digit (unit)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mesopotamia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In the classical Akkadian Empire system instituted in about 2250 BC during the reign of Naram-Sin, the finger was one-thirtieth of a cubit length. The cubit was equivalent to approximately 497 mm, so the finger was equal to about 17 mm. Basic length was used in architecture and field division. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1555658",
"title": "Digit (unit)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The digit or finger is an ancient and obsolete non-SI unit of measurement of length. It was originally based on the breadth of a human finger. It was a fundamental unit of length in the Ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Ancient Greek and Roman systems of measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5810",
"title": "Classical guitar",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, use the little finger independently, compensating for the little finger's shortness by maintaining an extremely long fingernail. Rak and Yamashita have also generalized the use of the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb (the same technique as in the rasgueado of the Flamenco: as explained above the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side) both as a free stroke and as a rest stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5445373",
"title": "Fingerpost",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:Local variation in historic designs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Fingers can be square-ended (such as in Cornwall and Norfolk), curved (as in Dorset) or triangular-ended (as is common in Somerset). Where timber was used for the fingers, place names are composed of individually affixed metal letters. Mileage is typically measured to the nearest quarter mile, with fractions being mounted on a separate ready-made plate, although measurements to the fifth or eighth of a mile are given in East Lothian. Due to their age, some fingerposts have 'fossilised' the historic spelling of places which was dominant at the time of their construction. Examples include \"Portisham\", rather than the modern spelling \"Portesham\" and the pre-decimal \"6D Handley\" for Sixpenny Handley in Dorset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "92149",
"title": "Oud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "\"[and the] length [of the \"‛ūd\"] will be: thirty-six joint fingers – with good thick fingers – and the total will amount to three \"ashbār\". And its width: fifteen fingers. And its depth seven and a half fingers. And the measurement of the width of the bridge with the remainder behind: six fingers. Remains the length of the strings: thirty fingers and on these strings take place the division and the partition, because it is the sounding [or \"the speaking\"] length. This is why the width must be [of] fifteen fingers as it is the half of this length. Similarly for the depth, seven fingers and a half and this is the half of the width and the quarter of the length [of the strings]. And the neck must be one third of the length [of the speaking strings] and it is: ten fingers. Remains the vibrating body: twenty fingers. And that the back (soundbox) be well rounded and its \"thinning\"(kharţ) [must be done] towards the neck, as if it had been a round body drawn with a compass which was cut in two in order to extract two \"‛ūds\"\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "525310",
"title": "Middle finger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The middle finger, long finger, or tall finger is the third digit of the human hand, located between the index finger and the ring finger. It is typically the longest finger. In anatomy, it is also called \"the third finger\", \"digitus medius\", \"digitus tertius\" or \"digitus III\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89977",
"title": "Brachydactyly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Nomograms for normal values of finger length as a ratio to other body measurements have been published. In clinical genetics the most commonly used index of digit length is the dimensionless ratio of the length of the 3rd (middle) finger to the hand length. Both are expressed in the same units (centimeters, for example) and are measured in an open hand from the fingertip to the principal creases where the finger joins the palm and where the palm joins the wrist.\n",
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}
] | null |
ezbl6h
|
During the decolonization of Africa, was there any serious discussion/suggestions for the redrawing of colonial borders? (3rd try)
|
[
{
"answer": "I touched on this answer in [this thread](_URL_3_), and I discussed the [OAU charter and Cairo Declaration here](_URL_2_). [This thread](_URL_4_) focuses mainly on the formation and adjustment of borders in french Africa, but I do touch on origins of anti-colonial nationalism in the WW2 era.\n\nThose answers amount to this observation: the leadership of newly independent African states were interested in either promoting a coherent Nigerian or Tanzanian & c. national identity, or were interested in a pan-african unionist project. By and large, political leaders feared and opposed \"tribalism\" and sought to equate it with backwardness, while multi-ethnic nation-state and cross-ethnic national solidarity were vehicles to modernity.\n\nAt the same time, Marxist or Maoist revolutionaries also condemned tribalism or ethnic chauvinism. For example, here is a Muleleist manifesto from _les Cahiers de Gamboma_, from 1965:\n\n > Tribalists think, more or less consciously, that the men and women of\ntheir tribe and clan are superior to others, and that as a result the others\nshould serve and obey them. The tribalist tries to impose the hegemony,\nthe predominance ol his tribe and his clan. In practice, tribalist ideas and\nfeelings are used most often to create a clientele who can help them to\nsatisfy their selfish interests and ambitions. Tribalism is expressed in\ndifferent forms, of which the following the main ones:\n\n > 1 The tribalist constantly exaggerates and boasts about the qualities,\nmerits and good deeds ofthe people ofits tribe and its clan; on the\nother hand he refuses to recognise their faults,and even tries\nsystematically to hide them. With respect to other tribes, exactly the\nopposite attitude prevails [...].\n\n > 2 The tribalist indulges freely in liberalism and favouritism towards the people of his tribe and his clan [...]. By contrast, he is in general very\nsectarian towards people of other tribes and other clans [...].\n\n > 3 The tribalist tries to grant all the privileges and posts of responsibility\nto the people of his tribe and his clan [...].\n\n > 4 Conversely, the tribalist seeks to exempt his own people from their\nduties and obligations, from any difficult work, or from the most\ndangerous, difficult or humiliating missions\n\n > 5 The tribalist practises this favouritism in the division of material\nbenefits and the distribution of services [...].\n\n > 6 Occasionally, the tribalist even believes that those who are not of his\ntribe and his clan are too rich and fortunate to deserve his help [...]\n\n > 7 Some extend tribalism as far as preferring marriage between black\nwomen and white men to marriage between tribes [...].\n\n > 8 In politics, the supreme expression of tribalism consists of demanding\nthe formation of so-called independent republics which in fact have a\ntribal basis; failing this, tribalists demand ‘federation with regional\nautonomy’ with the distribution of political and administrative power following tribalist lines.\n\nSo, you have both Nationalist leadership and Marxist/Maoist revolutionaries condemning tribalism as obstacle in the path towards liberal nationalist or socialist modernity (respectively).\n\nNationalist leaders adopted a variety of strategies to contain or channel ethnic consciousness. For example, colonial Northern Rhodesia the territory of the Lozi monarch (Barotseland) was treated as a protectorate, associated with Northern Rhodesia but granted substantial autonomy. When Northern Rhodesia gained independence in 1964, President Kenneth Kaunda quickly negotiated the Barotseland treaty of 1964 which amounted to continuing recognition of autonomy of Barotseland.\n\nOn the other hand, in Algeria, the 1962 constitution declared the national language to be Islam. This led to a systematic program of enforcing Arab language education in schools, and use of Arab language in public life. This program led to the \"Arabization\" of the substantial Berber minority, and a backlash in the 1980s with the rise of Berber rights movement.\n\n---\n\nSo, all of this is to say that despite efforts of Liberal Nationalist, Maoist or Marxist Leninist governments to get beyond tribalism, and encourage people to think in terms of national or class consciousness; ethnicity continued to have a political logic. With the ratification of the OAU charter and Cairo declaration, national governments pledged themselves to the principle of only adjusting national borders through mutual agreement from the respective states involved. No military conquest to adjust borders. \n\nIn that scenario, the process of negotiating border adjustments to either bring the territory of an ethnic group into the state, or to cede territory (thus excluding an ethnic group from your state); would have been seen by the public through the lens of ethnic political calculus.\n\nTo use a hypothetical example: the state of Cameroon entered independence with a heavily Muslim population in the north, and a Christian or Animist population in the south of the country. At independence, leaders from the Northern, muslim portion of the country had power in the country.\n\nNow, let's imagine that the [Fang population](_URL_1_) in the south of Cameroon would like to live in a state with kinsmen in Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. Gabon and Equatorial Guinea are on board to adjust the borders. \n\nHowever, the non-Fang population in the south, and their politicians, all oppose the deal in Cameroon. They decry it as a trick by Northern politicians to weaken the southern opposition, and castigate their Fang colleagues for leaving them out in the cold.\n\nThe deal goes through, but now with a politically weaker Southern population, the [Baka and Gur](_URL_5_) also want to exercise the \"exit option\" and become part of the Central African Republic. But let's imagine that the government of Central African Republic is uninterested in negotiating, because Baka and Gur are opponents of the current government and that would strengthen Baka and Gur power. \n\nWhat are the Baka and Gur to do now? Do they secede? OAU and Cairo declaration pledge African states to oppose secessionism. And there is some doubt about how viable such a small secessionist state could be.\n\nOr, from a completely different perspective. What are we to make of populations like the Fula/Fulani? They are primarily herders, and their populations and herds move, and cross borders. Ditto, the Tuareg exist across borders in Mauritania, Mali, Algeria and Niger.\n\nThere is also the issue of what to do about ethnic diasporas who live in cities. Immediately before the start of the Nigerian Civil War, there were pogroms against Igbo bureacrats and merchants who lived in the Middle Belt and in northern Nigeria. In an imagined scenario where Biafra seceded peacefully, what would be done about this Igbo commercial diaspora living outside Biafra? Would they be repatriated? We can look to the historical example in Uganda and Tanzania where South Asian merchant communities were persecuted or forced into exile for being \"outsiders\" who threatened African merchant enterprise.\n\n---\n\nSo, that is the logic of the Cairo declaration of accepting existing borders, and many African leaders probably supposed that seeking border adjustments might inflame tribalist sentiments.\n\nHowever, there is the example of Somalia, which is the big exception. Somalia sought to encourage secessionist movement of ethnic Somalis in northeast Kenya from 1964-1967 in the Shifta war. Later, in 1977 Somalia invaded Ethiopia in order to annex the Ogaden region which had an ethnic Somali population. Both of these actions were in pursuit of the idea of [Greater Somalia](_URL_0_). However, these actions managed to anger Kenya and Ethiopia over Somali expansionism and drove those two countries into alliance with each other to thwart Somali aims.\n\nBoth Kenya and Ethiopia wished to keep Northwest Territory and Ogaden region as part of their states, despite viewing the Somali population of these regions as subversive elements. Partly this was a concern with natural resources in the region, partly it was a belief that the population *could* be Kenyan or Ethiopian as long as they kept in line. Partly it was a matter of national honor, where Haile Selassie or Jomo Kenyatta would not want their respective countries to be smaller. In the case of the Derg in Ethiopia in 1978, their Marxist-Leninist reaction to socialist Somalia invading was 1) feeling of betrayal that a socialist neighbor would put the Derg's nascent revolution in danger by invading. 2) that Siad Barre was a national chauvinist who would suborn the greater goal of spreading socialism in East Africa to the lesser goal of creating a larger Somali state. In the Derg's analysis, nationalist chauvinism was a deviation from the goal of transcending ethnicity and achieving socialism for all.",
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"wikipedia_id": "1815296",
"title": "Decolonisation of Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The decolonisation of Africa took place in the mid-to-late 1950s and 1960s, with sudden and radical regime changes on the continent as colonial governments made the transition to independent states; this was often quite unorganized and marred with violence and political turmoil. There was widespread unrest and organized revolts in both Northern and sub-Saharan colonies, especially in French Algeria, Portuguese Angola, the Belgian Congo and British Kenya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43794815",
"title": "Revolutionary wave",
"section": "Section::::20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Decolonisation of Africa were waves of revolution in Africa, cresting in the 1970s, including the communist revolutions and pro-Soviet military coups in Somalia, the Congo-Brazzaville, Benin and Ethiopia, and the fight of the communist parties allied under CONCP against the Portuguese Empire in the Portuguese Colonial War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131068",
"title": "Economic history of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Independence and the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "After World War II, European attitudes towards Africa began to change. In the aftermath of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, 'Western' powers were averse to the idea of using outright conquest to annex territory. At the same time, agitation against colonial rule was becoming persistent in Africa. Between 1945 and 1948 there was a series of strikes and protests, in Senegal, Tanzania, on the French West African railway system, and along West Africa's Gold Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15130265",
"title": "Colonisation of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Decolonisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The main period of decolonisation in Africa began after World War II. Growing independence movements, indigenous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the United States ensured the decolonisation of the majority of the continent by 1980. While some areas, in particular, South Africa, & Namibia retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla and the islands of Réunion, the Canary Islands, and Madeira remain under European control, the latter two of which were never part of any African polity and have an overwhelmingly European population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738221",
"title": "History of communism",
"section": "Section::::Cold War and revisionism (1958–1979).:African communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1114,
"text": "During the decolonization of Africa, the Soviet Union took a keen interest in that continent's independence movements and initially hoped that the cultivation of Marxist–Leninist client states there would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. Soviet foreign policy with regards to Africa assumed that newly independent African governments would be receptive to Marxist–Leninist ideology and that the Soviets would have the resources to make them attractive as development partners. During the 1970s, the ruling parties of several sub-Saharan African states formally embraced communism, including Burkina Faso, the People's Republic of Benin, the People's Republic of Mozambique, the People's Republic of the Congo, the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the People's Republic of Angola. Most of these regimes ensured the selective adoption and flexible application of Marxist–Leninist theory set against a broad ideological commitment to Marxism or Leninism. The adoption of Marxism–Leninism was often seen as a means to an end and used to justify the extreme centralization of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34573",
"title": "1950s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Decolonization and Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::- Large-scale decolonization in Africa first began in the 1950s. In 1951, Libya became the first African country to gain independence in the decade, and in 1954 the Algerian War began. 1956 saw Sudan, Morocco, and Tunisia become independent, and the next year Ghana became the first sub-saharan African nation to gain independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286469",
"title": "Scramble for Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the ultimate point of the Scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from \"informal imperialism\" by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18yvyf
|
What did Lucifer, as a Roman God, represented for the people of Rome?
|
[
{
"answer": "Lucifer was not a Roman god.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27694",
"title": "Satan",
"section": "Section::::Allegations of worship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, the Cathars, practitioners of a dualistic religion, were accused of worshipping Satan by the Catholic Church. Pope Gregory IX stated in his work \"Vox in Rama\" that the Cathars believed that God had erred in casting Lucifer out of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful. On the other hand, according to Catharism, the creator-god of the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1019093",
"title": "Luciferianism",
"section": "Section::::General beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Though associated with Satanism, a philosophy based on the Christian interpretation of the fallen angel, Luciferianism differs in that it does not revere merely the devil figure or Satan but the broader figure of Lucifer, an entity representing various interpretations of \"the morning star\" as understood by ancient cultures such as the Greeks and Egyptians. In this context, Lucifer is a symbol of enlightenment, independence, and human progression and is often used interchangeably with similar figures from ancient beliefs, such as the Greek titan Prometheus or the Jewish Talmudic figure Lilith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18309",
"title": "Lucifer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Lucifer ( ; 'light-bringer') is a Latin name for the planet Venus as the morning star in the ancient Roman era, and is often used for mythological and religious figures associated with the planet. Due to the unique movements and discontinuous appearances of Venus in the sky, mythology surrounding these figures often involved a fall from the heavens to earth or the underworld. Interpretations of a similar term in the Hebrew Bible, translated in the King James Version as \"Lucifer\", led to a Christian tradition of applying the name Lucifer and its associated stories of a fall from heaven to Satan. Most modern scholarship regards these interpretations as questionable, and translates the term in the relevant Bible passage (Isaiah 14:12) as \"morning star\" or \"shining one\" rather than as a proper name, \"Lucifer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27706",
"title": "Satanism",
"section": "Section::::Religious Satanism.:Forerunners and early forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Levi was not the only occultist who wanted to use the term \"Lucifer\" without adopting the term \"Satan\" in a similar way. The early Theosophical Society held to the view that \"Lucifer\" was a force that aided humanity's awakening to its own spiritual nature. In keeping with this view, the Society began production of a journal titled \"Lucifer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1019093",
"title": "Luciferianism",
"section": "Section::::Theistic Luciferianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Some Luciferians believe in Lucifer as an actual deity. However, Lucifer is not worshipped as the Judeo-Christian God but is revered and followed as a teacher and friend. Theistic Luciferians are followers of the Left-Hand Path and may adhere to different dogmata put forth by organizations such as the Neo-Luciferian Church or other congregations which are heavily focused on ceremonial magic, the occult, and literal interpretations of spiritual stories and figures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4144550",
"title": "Theistic Satanism",
"section": "Section::::Currents within recent and contemporary theistic Satanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Theistic Luciferian groups are particularly inspired by Lucifer (from the Latin for ‘bearer of light’), who they may or may not equate with Satan. While some theologians believe the Son of the Dawn, Lucifer, and other names were actually used to refer to contemporary political figures, such as a Babylonian King, rather than a single spiritual entity (although on the surface the Bible explicitly refers to the King of Tyrus), those that believe it refers to Satan infer that by implication it also applies to the fall of Satan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58948411",
"title": "Venus in culture",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greece and Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "In the classical Roman period, Lucifer was not typically regarded as a deity and had few, if any, myths, though the planet was associated with various deities and often poetically personified. Cicero pointed out that \"You say that Sol the Sun and Luna the Moon are deities, and the Greeks identify the former with Apollo and the latter with Diana. But if Luna (the Moon) is a goddess, then Lucifer (the Morning-Star) also and the rest of the Wandering Stars (Stellae Errantes) will have to be counted gods; and if so, then the Fixed Stars (Stellae Inerrantes) as well.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t9evf
|
Plate Tectonics on Venus
|
[
{
"answer": "Interesting explanation here: _URL_0_\n\nEssentially, it doesn't have Earth like plate tectonics because it's too hot. It's a definitions issue, not a process one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "256567",
"title": "Magellan (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "BULLET::::- The typical signs of terrestrial plate tectonics - continental drift and basin floor spreading - are not evident on Venus. The planet's tectonics is dominated by a system of global rift zones and numerous broad, low domical structures called coronae, produced by the upwelling and subsidence of magma from the mantle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2200368",
"title": "Geology of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Despite the fact that Venus appears to have no global plate tectonic system as such, the planet's surface shows various features associated with local tectonic activity. Features such as faults, folds, and volcanoes are present there and may be driven largely by processes in the mantle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24944",
"title": "Plate tectonics",
"section": "Section::::Other celestial bodies (planets, moons).:Venus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42070435",
"title": "Geodynamics of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Resurfacing hypotheses.:Episodic plate tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Turcotte (1993) suggested that Venus has episodic tectonics, whereby short periods of rapid tectonics are separated by periods of surface inactivity lasting on the order of 500 Ma. During periods of inactivity, the lithosphere cools conductively and thickens to over 300 km. The active mode of plate tectonics occurs when the thick lithosphere detaches and founders into the interior of the planet. Large scale lithosphere recycling is thus invoked to explain resurfacing events. Episodic large scale overturns can occur due to a compositionally stratified mantle where there is competition between the compositional and thermal buoyancy of the upper mantle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12607134",
"title": "Geology of solar terrestrial planets",
"section": "Section::::Surface geology of inner solar planets.:Venus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved impact craters has been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are the dominantly in the range ~500 Mya–750Mya, although ages of up to ~1.2 Gya have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressionable thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent. There are almost 1,000 impact craters on Venus, more or less evenly distributed across its surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24944",
"title": "Plate tectonics",
"section": "Section::::Other celestial bodies (planets, moons).:Venus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 1160,
"text": "Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range , although ages of up to have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2200368",
"title": "Geology of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The tectonic deformations on Venus occur on a variety of scales, the smallest of which are related to linear fractures or faults. In many areas these faults appear as networks of parallel lines. Small, discontinuous mountain crests are found which resemble those on the Moon and Mars. The effects of extensive tectonism are shown by the presence of \"normal faults\", where the crust has sunk in one area relative to the surrounding rock, and superficial fractures. Radar imaging shows that these types of deformation are concentrated in belts located in the equatorial zones and at high southern latitudes. These belts are hundreds of kilometers wide and appear to interconnect across the whole of the planet, forming a global network associated with the distribution of volcanoes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
82bf59
|
why do anesthetic needles hurt so much when numbing a nerve?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they fairly directly poke the nerve (or very close to it) before injecting. Poking a nerve directly tends to hurt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way I had it explained by my doctor is that local anaesthetic doesn't actually \"numb\" your nerves. Instead it *over-stimulates* the nerves, so that the subsequent cutting/stitching pales in comparison. It's like the nerve is so full of the original pain that any other intrusion just doesn't register at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41564423",
"title": "Local anesthetic nerve block",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity and nerve injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Local anesthetic toxicity is indicated by numbness and tingling around the mouth, metallic taste, or ringing in the ears. Additionally, this may lead to seizures, arrhythmias, and may progress to cardiac arrest. This reaction may stem from an allergy, excessive dose, or intravascular injection. Other complications include nerve injury which has an extremely low rate of 0.029-0.2%. Some research even suggests that ultrasound lowers the risk to 0.0037%. The use of ultrasound and nerve stimulation has greatly improved practitioners’ ability to safely administer nerve blocks. Nerve injury most often occurs from ischaemia, compression, direct neurotoxicity, needle laceration, and inflammation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56561",
"title": "Anesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Regional anesthesia.:Nerve blocks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "When local anesthetic is injected around a larger diameter nerve that transmits sensation from an entire region it is referred to as a nerve block or regional nerve blockade. Nerve blocks are commonly used in dentistry, when the mandibular nerve is blocked for procedures on the lower teeth. With larger diameter nerves (such as the interscalene block for upper limbs or psoas compartment block for lower limbs) the nerve and position of the needle is localized with ultrasound or electrical stimulation. The use of ultrasound may reduce complication rates and improve quality, performance time, and time to onset of blocks. Because of the large amount of local anesthetic required to affect the nerve, the maximum dose of local anesethetic has to be considered. Nerve blocks are also used as a continuous infusion, following major surgery such as knee, hip and shoulder replacement surgery, and may be associated with lower complications. Nerve blocks are also associated with a lower risk of neurologic complications compared to the more central epidural or spinal neuraxial blocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3941454",
"title": "Articaine",
"section": "Section::::Paresthesia controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Paresthesia, a short-to-long-term numbness or altered sensation affecting a nerve, is a well-known complication of injectable local anesthetics and has been present even before articaine was available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20373503",
"title": "Yttrium",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Medical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord, and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243325",
"title": "Trigeminal nerve",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The areas of cutaneous distribution (dermatomes) of the three branches of the trigeminal nerve have sharp borders with relatively little overlap (unlike dermatomes in the rest of the body, which have considerable overlap). The injection of a local anesthetic, such as lidocaine, results in the complete loss of sensation from well-defined areas of the face and mouth. For example, teeth on one side of the jaw can be numbed by injecting the mandibular nerve. Occasionally, injury or disease processes may affect two (or all three) branches of the trigeminal nerve; in these cases, the involved branches may be termed:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311890",
"title": "Trigeminal neuralgia",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Surgical.:Destructive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "BULLET::::- Percutaneous techniques which all involve a needle or catheter entering the face up to the origin where the nerve splits into three divisions and then damaging this area, purposely, to produce numbness but also stop pain signals. These techniques are proven effective especially in those where other interventions have failed or in those who are medically unfit for surgery such as the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342304",
"title": "Lumbar puncture",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Contact between the side of the lumbar puncture needle and a spinal nerve root can result in anomalous sensations (paresthesia) in a leg during the procedure; this is harmless and people can be warned about it in advance to minimize their anxiety if it should occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ofw28
|
why do addicts of hard drugs tend to lose many of their teeth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Drug addicts don't typically have the best hygiene. Depending on the drug of choice, they may have no appetite and end up malnourished. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Addicts can tend to have bad hygiene practices and ingest things that aren't good for their teeth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Option 1: Getting super high causes you to disregard general hygiene practices like bathing and brushing, and bad teeth are very obvious.\n\nOption 2: Some drugs contain corrosive/basic substances that will cause tooth decay over prolonged usage that will eat away at your enamel and cause decay to occur faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the case of meth, there's physical effects of the drugs and behavioral effects of addiction. In the first case, the drug dries your mouth out - saliva has antibacterial properties but if your mouth dries out, bacteria has an easier time eating and multiplying in your mouth causing cavities. It also makes you twitchy and prone to grinding your teeth which weakens the enamel. Together, this results in increased amounts of cavities which, left untreated, leads to tooth decay and ultimately dead teeth (and worse). \n\nAll of this is made worse by the fact that an addicted person is usually much less likely to take care of themselves. That means dental hygiene is not observed, compounding problems. You're more likely to eat crappy, sugary foods which makes the damage the bacteria do when they feed on it worse. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "short version: instead of spending time caring for their teeth \"they spend their time under the influence or trying to acquire more drugs.\" [source](_URL_2_)\n\nadditional stuff: \n\nMany drugs cause dry mouth which increases the risk for tooth decay, because saliva protects your mouth.\n\nSome drugs can even affect oral health which makes the affect worse.\n\nSome drugs may cause grinding of the teeth which damage them.\n\nDrugs are expensive, and addiction is a real problem, so instead of paying for the dentist to address issues, they use the money to buy drugs.\n\n\nedit: [webmd](_URL_3_)\n\n[better health](_URL_1_)\n\n[delta dental](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681345",
"title": "Crack cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.:Addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The intense desire to recapture the initial high is what is so addictive for many users. On the other hand, Reinarman et al. wrote that the nature of crack addiction depends on the social context in which it is used and the psychological characteristics of users, pointing out that many heavy crack users can go for days or weeks without using the drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28264248",
"title": "Fair Sentencing Act",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Sentencing disparity and effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "A study released in 1997 examined the addictive nature of both crack and powder cocaine and concluded that one was no more addictive than the other. The study explored other reasons why crack is viewed as more addictive and theorized, \"a more accurate interpretation of existing evidence is that already abuse-prone cocaine users are most likely to move toward a more efficient mode of ingestion as they escalate their use. The \"Los Angeles Times\" commented, \"There was never any scientific basis for the disparity, just panic as the crack epidemic swept the nation's cities.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27158894",
"title": "Addiction",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Reward system.:Role of dopamine and glutamate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of mesolimbic dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1021072",
"title": "Gregory Isaacs",
"section": "Section::::International success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Isaacs' drug addiction had a major impact on his voice, with most of his teeth falling out as a result. Isaacs said of his addiction in 2007: \"Drugs are a debasing weapon. It was the greatest college ever, but the most expensive school fee ever paid – the Cocaine High School. I learnt everything, and now I've put it on the side.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197980",
"title": "Downregulation and upregulation",
"section": "Section::::Downregulation and upregulation in drug addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Especially among genetically vulnerable individuals, repeated exposure to a drug of abuse in adolescence or adulthood causes addiction by inducing stable downregulation or upregulation in expression of specific genes and microRNAs through epigenetic alterations. Such downregulation or upregulation has been shown to occur in the brain's reward regions, such as the nucleus accumbens. (See, for example, Epigenetics of cocaine addiction.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28332061",
"title": "Prenatal cocaine exposure",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Confounding factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Addiction to any substance, including crack, may be a risk factor for child abuse or neglect. Crack addiction, like other addictions, distracts parents from the child and leads to inattentive parenting. Mothers who continue to use drugs once their babies are born have trouble forming the normal parental bonds, more often interacting with their babies with a detached, unenthusiastic, flat demeanor. Conversely, low-stress environments and responsive caregiving may provide a protective effect on the child's brain, potentially compensating for negative effects of PCE. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Chronic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Chronic cocaine intake causes strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it, resulting more or less in an \"off\" or \"working mode\" respectively, or they change their susceptibility for binding partners (ligands)mechanisms called downregulation and upregulation. However, studies suggest cocaine abusers do not show normal age-related loss of striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) sites, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective properties for dopamine neurons. Possible side effects include insatiable hunger, aches, insomnia/oversleeping, lethargy, and persistent runny nose. Depression with suicidal ideation may develop in very heavy users. Finally, a loss of vesicular monoamine transporters, neurofilament proteins, and other morphological changes appear to indicate a long term damage of dopamine neurons. All these effects contribute a rise in tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
278eq5
|
Why are bike wheels so big?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is partly because mechanically it offers the opportunity of higher road speeds on a pedal bike without having to pedal furiously or without the need of excessive gearing.\nAlso, larger wheels traditionally were used before bike had suspension to try to smooth out the uneven roads that bikes were used on when they were first invented. \nsurface area is a factor in dynamic friction because the surface area of the wheel determines the shear strength of the surface of the wheel, so a thinner/smaller wheel will skid easier, whereas a wide wheel will skid and leave marks less easily, which is why rear wheel drive sports cars and motorbikes have larger rear tires.\nbut not all bike wheels have a large diameter, city bikes that pack up into a suitcase have much smaller wheels for obvious reasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188773",
"title": "Mountain biking",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s–2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1327,
"text": "Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. One of the more prevalent is the new, somewhat esoteric and exotic 650B (27.5 inch) wheelsize, based on the obscure wheel size for touring road bikes. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the front, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5\" travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17669604",
"title": "Small-wheel bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Smaller wheels are more maneuverable. For this reason, and in some cases for comic effect, they are used in some clown bicycles. Smaller wheels more faithfully follow the terrain, giving a harsher ride on bumpy roads that are effectively smoothed by larger ones. It may be desirable for bicycles with smaller wheels to also be fitted with some form of suspension to improve riding characteristics. Bicycles with small wheels normally have their gearing adjusted to provide the same effective wheel radius as large ones, so pedalling cadence is not different. Smaller wheels tend to weigh less than larger ones, thus bringing the performance benefits of light wheels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "384775",
"title": "Touring bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Road touring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Other touring bikes use 26-inch wheels for both off-road and on-road use. Advantages of the slightly smaller wheel include additional strength, worldwide tire availability, and lighter weight. Some touring bicycles, such as the Rivendell Atlantis and Surly Long Haul Trucker, offer frames designed for 26-inch (ISO 559) wheels or for 700C wheels, with the frame geometry optimal for the selected wheel size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134572",
"title": "Mountain bike",
"section": "Section::::Wheel and tire design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "622 mm wheels are standard on road bikes and are commonly known as 700C. In some countries, mainly in Continental Europe, 700C (622 mm) wheels are commonly called 28 inch wheels. 24 inch wheels are used for dirt jumping bikes and sometimes on freeride bikes, rear wheel only, as this makes the bike more maneuverable. 29 inch wheels were once used for only Cross Country purposes, but are now becoming more commonplace in other disciplines of mountain biking. A mountain bike with 29\" wheels is often referred to as a 29er, and a bike with 27.5 inch wheels is called a 27.5 mountain bike or as a marketing term ″650B bike″.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797533",
"title": "Mountainboarding",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Board components.:Wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Wheels are made up of plastic or metal hubs and pneumatic tires ranging in size of 8–13 inches. The 8\" wheel has evolved into the best choice for freestyle riding, and also an all purpose wheel for general riding. Larger wheels (generally 9\" and 10\") are more useful to the downhill rider; granting the rider access to high-speed runs and more stability when travelling at speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2139138",
"title": "Kite buggy",
"section": "Section::::Frame, Wheels and Weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Possible styles of wheels vary from very thin (like a speed-sail's wheels) over standard size (like a wheelbarrow's) to very large, also known as \"big foot\". Wheels are not constructed with exposed bare spokes (like bicycle wheels are) because this would put the buggy driver's hands and kite handles at risk of getting caught in the wheel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195144",
"title": "Bicycle wheel",
"section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Most road and racing bicycles today use 622 mm diameter (700C) rims, though 650C rims are popular with smaller riders and triathletes. The 650C size has the ISO diameter size of 571 mm. Size 650B is 584 mm and 650A is 590 mm. 650B is being promoted as a 'best of both worlds' size for mountain biking. Most adult mountain bikes use 26 inch wheels. Smaller youth mountain bikes use 24 inch wheels. The larger 700C (29 inch) wheels have enjoyed some recent popularity among off-road bicycle manufacturers. The formerly popular (27 inch) wheel size is now rare. These rims are slightly larger in diameter than 700C wheels and are non-compatible with bicycle frames and tires designed for the 700C standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pxg6c
|
why do public women's toilets have lids if they're never going to be lifted up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Standard parts for efficient manufacturing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you mean seats? You'd have to lift up a lid to use the toilet, regardless of sex. Seats keep people from falling into the toilet while sitting down, which women have to do 100% of the time they use the toilet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it is cheaper to have 1 manufacturing process and mass produce it than it is to have 2 manufacturing processes. It also saves money in inventory; instead of keeping track of 2 items, you only need to keep track of 1.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Women might like clean toilet bowls too but also ease of manufacturing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you could lift it up in order to vomit",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "411727",
"title": "Toilet seat",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Toilet seats often have a lid. This lid is frequently left open. It can be closed to prevent small items from falling in, to reduce odors, for aesthetic purposes or to provide a chair in the toilet room. Some people also close the lid to prevent the spread of aerosols on flushing (\"toilet plume\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42137175",
"title": "Open defecation",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.:Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- Presence of toilet but not privacy: Some toilets do not have a real door, but have a cloth hung as a door. In some communities, toilets are located in places where women are shy to access them due to the presence of men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134910",
"title": "Toilet roll holder",
"section": "Section::::Public toilets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The holders in many public toilets are designed to make it difficult for patrons to steal the toilet rolls. Various contraptions have been devised to lock the spare rolls away, and release them only when the active roll is used up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1154739",
"title": "Pit latrine",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Lids on the drop hole or toilet seat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A lid on the drop hole keeps light out of the pit and helps to stop flies and odors entering the toilet's superstructure. The lid can be made from plastic or wood and is used to cover the hole in the floor when the pit latrine is not in use. In practice, such a lid is not commonly used for squatting type pit latrines but only for sitting type pit latrines with a toilet seat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748062",
"title": "Bucket toilet",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Unimproved toilets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In those settings, bucket toilets are more likely to be used without a liner, or the liner is not removed each time the bucket is emptied. This is because the users cannot afford to regularly discard suitably sized, sturdy liners. Instead, the users may place some dry material in the base of the bucket (newspaper, sawdust, leaves, straw, or similar) in order to facilitate easier emptying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239932",
"title": "Flush toilet",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Mechanical flush from a high pressure water supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Toilets without cisterns are often flushed through a simple flush valve or \"Flushometer\" connected directly to the water supply. These are designed to rapidly discharge a limited volume of water when the lever or button is pressed then released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053470",
"title": "Public toilet",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Cisterns (tanks).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "Older toilets infrequently have service ducts and often in old toilets that have been modernized, the toilet cistern is hidden in a tiled over purpose-built 'box'. Often old toilets still have high-level cisterns in the service ducts. On the outside, the toilet is flushed by a handle (just like an ordinary low-level cistern toilet) although behind the wall this handle activates a chain. Sometimes a long flushing trough is used to allow closets to be flushed repeatedly without waiting for the cistern to refill. This trend of hiding cisterns and fittings behind the walls started in the late 1930s in the United States and in the United Kingdom from the 1950s, and by the late 1960s it was unusual for toilet cisterns to be visible in public toilets. In some buildings such as schools, however, a cistern can still be visible, although high-level cisterns had become outdated by the 1970s. Many schools now have low-level cisterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2o2xiq
|
what is isis trying to accomplish with the beheading incidents and how do they release the videos?
|
[
{
"answer": "ISIS believes that they can punish the US for conducting air strikes against itself, by executing American citizens who are so unfortunate as to fall into their hands, and that when America sees that it has been punished for its crimes, it will feel suitably remorseful and will then refrain from its criminal activities in order to avoid further punishment. I would say that this is a misreading of American psychology which is not generally inclined to surrender to extortion.\nReleasing the videos is not difficult. A large fraction of the world's population has the means to release videos if they so desire, and ISIS has many sympathizers around the world who would assist in such a release.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35328973",
"title": "Terrorism and social media",
"section": "Section::::Use of social media.:Terror groups using social media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "In addition to beheading videos, ISIS has released videos of their members doing nonviolent acts. For example, Imran Awan described one such instance in his article \"Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media\" where one video showed members of the Islamic State were seen helping people and visiting hospitals. These videos gave a humanistic nature to the terrorist group members, therefore, contradicting what civilians think terrorist groups should be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43694501",
"title": "Camp Speicher massacre",
"section": "Section::::Attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "ISIL released the videos of the massacre as part of their propaganda video \"Upon the Prophetic Methodology\". The cadets are seen being crammed into trucks, some of them wearing civilian clothes to hide their military uniforms. Most of them are lying on the ground, with their jeans stripped to reveal camouflage uniforms underneath. Some of the prisoners were forced to defame Iraq's prime minister Nuri al-Maliki, while others were forced to shout \"long live the Islamic State\". Some of them lined up as a cadet was beaten to death with a rifle. The killing methods varied, from shooting the cadets one by one to shooting them while lying down many times to ensure death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45229332",
"title": "Destruction of Mosul Museum artifacts",
"section": "Section::::Destruction (2015).:Contents of ISIL video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In a video shared on February 26, 2015, ISIL entered the Mosul Museum with the purpose of destroying artifacts they deemed \"idolatrous\". Members of the group can be seen pushing over many statues, while using jackhammers and sledgehammers to damage the faces of others. A spokesperson appears in the beginning of the video, explaining the rationale behind the group's actions. The rationale pertains to the assumption that these objects (statues, figurines, etc.) were once worshiped instead of Allah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44044572",
"title": "Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency",
"section": "Section::::Examples of sexual violence by ISIL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Amnesty International infers that ISIL has “launched a systematic campaign of ethnic cleansing in northern Iraq,” where “many of those held by IS have been threatened with rape or sexual assault or pressured to convert to Islam. In some cases entire families have been abducted”. Thus, these crimes extend beyond gender-based violence as males, in addition to females, are being targeted. In this case sexual violence is employed to achieve a political goal, religious conversion to Islam as interpreted by ISIL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58979370",
"title": "Nadia's Initiative",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "In 2017, as part of the goal to counter terrorism, the Initiative pressured the United Nations Security Council to launch an investigation into the actions of ISIS against the Yazidi people. The result, UN Resolution 2379, was passed on September 21st, 2017 and \"authorized the creation of an independent team to investigate crimes committed by ISIL in Iraq ... this team is designed to investigate and preserve evidence relating to genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. This is to aid in bringing charges against those responsible for such atrocities.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52019122",
"title": "Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)",
"section": "Section::::Humanitarian issues and human rights abuses.:ISIL abuses, abductions and atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Shortly after the battle began, news surfaced of ISIL kidnapping and executing civilians in Mosul. Pentagon spokesman Capt. Jeff Davis stated that ISIL was using civilians as human shields and holding people against their will in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61028212",
"title": "Human rights abuses during the Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)",
"section": "Section::::Human rights abuses.:ISIL abuses, abductions and atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Shortly after the battle began, news surfaced of ISIL kidnapping and executing civilians in Mosul. Pentagon spokesman Capt. Jeff Davis stated that ISIL was using civilians as human shields and holding people against their will in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bs0vv2
|
how do frogs, toads and other amphibians know how and where to find new bodies of water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Amphibians explore and migrate during cool moist weather. They can cover a lot of distance that way, especially if they can find damp places to take shelter in between stages of their journey.\n\nMost animals (including us) are also perfectly capable of smelling water from a good distance. Wind blowing across a body of water will have more moisture in its air than the surrounding air. An exploring frog that smells water on the wind will likely come to check it out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I heard it's because of birds too. They walk/swim through water and might get some eggs stuck on their legs. Then when they visit your pond, they might lose some. Eggs hatch and you have toads and frogs. \n\nAlso some of your neighbours might have a pond too so they might not have migrated that far at all.\n\nEdit: spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "well when birds land in one body of water, the eggs of amphibians/fish can stick to the birds and be transported to another body of water. Also, amphibians do explore land and can travel some pretty good distances on damp evenings, nights, mornings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tornadoes, strong storms and floods can carry animals like fish, and fish eggs from other bodies of water as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "a lot of stuff that lives in water will lay eggs capable of sticking to ducks and other water foul. Frogs don't need to walk from one pond to the next. they just need their eggs to stick on bird feet.\n\nEventually you'll find fish or minnows in your pond.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer most likely lies in the taste and odor chemicals 2-MIB and Geosmin. They can be detected in such small quantities and are produced by Cyanobacteria and algae. The smell that makes a lake smell like a lake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did you post your pond on Twitter? There you go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have a few water tanks (maniacs ponds) on our deer lease that somehow always have turtles in them. No idea where they came from or how they find them but they always do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are explaining how animals can sense water, but another thing to think about is how many animals just die. If frogs from a pond head in several different directions, some will find new water and others will just die, either from dehydration or from predation/accidents along the way. \n\nThis kind of reminds me of the relatively frequent question about how animals manage to eat raw meat or drink stagnant water without dying, while humans can’t. And the answer is that many of them do die, and that humans could do the same if we were willing to have a much higher mortality rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I trunk it has encoded in their instincts. We really depend more on our technology now verses our natural instincts today. The same way salmon instinctively know how to find their original breeding grounds, sea turtles travel thousands of miles to the beaches they hatched from and so on...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are toads that live in the desert where they hibernate for most of the year in these weird sacks that preserve their moisture underground. When it rains the few times a year, they wake and reproduce, but most of the time they are underground.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insects and some animals take notice of polarized light which is what happens when light reflects off of a body of water especially at night. A full moon over a still pond becomes like a beacon to them. This is how mosquitoes know where to lay their eggs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I lived in southern Georgia as a kid, the subtropical rain would leave water standing in ditches and low places for months. Invariably small minnows and crayfish as well as the typical tadpoles would appear. I always attributed it to the white heron (egret) who loved to mill about these places and maybe somehow transported eggs along on their feet. Just a guess though..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Little known fact: frogs can fly when we're not looking.\n\nSorry, just had to throw that out, it was a great question, one I've often wondered about, and the first answer by TheSecretMe is right on the money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know, I’m kinda pissed. I tried making an ELI5 post about animal behavior about a week ago, and it was automatically removed because animal behavior questions are against ELI5 rules. Instead I had to search for 3 different subreddits who would take my question, and none of them answered as sincerely as ELI5 would have, so I basically never got my question answered. But this person?? And many others here??? Can all have their animal behavior posts put up and not taken down. I’m fricken sick of feeling like my posts get targeted for removal by bots when other people can get away with exactly the same kind of benign posts. TOO MANY RULES!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2526753",
"title": "Saddleback toad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The first \"Brachycephalus\" species was identified in 1824, but most of the frog species were discovered since the year 2000. The discovery of new frog species is difficult. Field work requires climbing steep mountain trails to the sites where the frogs live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12399636",
"title": "Synapturanus salseri",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The frog was originally discovered by Dr. William F. Pyburn (former head of the Biology department of the University of Texas at Arlington) and J. K. Salser Jr. an amateur biologist. While collecting specimens in the Colombian rain forest near the village of Timbo on the Vaupes river, Dr. Pyburn heard the frog call. Using flashlights to triangulate the call the two determined where the call originated and began searching for the frog. After the leaf litter on the forest floor had been removed it became apparent that the frog was underground and it was captured after a careful excavation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12375742",
"title": "Pseudis fusca",
"section": "Section::::Habitat and conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "This aquatic frog occurs in permanent ponds and still-water pools of slow moving streams near larger rivers at an elevation of about above sea level. It can also occur in large water reservoirs. Breeding takes place in pools and streams. It is a locally common species that can suffer from habitat loss caused by agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development, and agricultural pollution. Its presence in protected areas is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38498",
"title": "Frog",
"section": "Section::::Life history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Like other amphibians, the life cycle of a frog normally starts in water with an egg that hatches into a limbless larva with gills, commonly known as a tadpole. After further growth, during which it develops limbs and lungs, the tadpole undergoes metamorphosis in which its appearance and internal organs are rearranged. After this it is able to leave the water as a miniature, air-breathing frog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10325214",
"title": "Perennial stream",
"section": "Section::::Indicators.:Biological Indicators.:Vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Fish and amphibians are secondary indicators when it comes to assessing for a perennial streams because some fish and amphibians can inhabit areas without persistent water regime. When assessing for fish, all available habitat should be assessed; from pools, riffles, root clumps and other obstructions. Fish will seek cover if alerted to human presence but should be easily observed in perennial streams. Amphibians also indicate a perennial stream and range from tadpoles, frogs, salamanders, and newts. These amphibians can be found in stream channels, along streambanks, and even under rocks. Frogs and tadpoles usually inhabit shallow and slow moving waters near the sides of stream banks. Frogs will typically jump into water when alerted to human presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55854047",
"title": "Muhalnitsa",
"section": "Section::::Other amphibian and reptile species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "In addition to the common frog, 8 other amphibian species have been registered in the swamp: common newt (\"Lissotriton vulgaris\"), Balkan crested newt (\"Triturus ivanbureschi\"), yellow-bellied toad (\"Bombina variegata\"), common toad (\"Bufo bufo\" ), European green toad (\"Bufotes viridis\"), tree frog (\"Hyla orientalis\"), agile frog (\"Rana dalmatina\") and marsh frog (\"Pelophylax ridibundus\"). There is also a single registration of European pond turtle (\"Emys orbicularis\"). This relatively rich biodiversity in a rather small area confirms the significance of protected area “Muhalnitsa” for the conservation of the local fauna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3451702",
"title": "Mountain yellow-legged frog",
"section": "Section::::Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The frog occurs in mountain creeks, lakes and lakeshores, streams, and pools, preferring sunny areas. It rarely strays far from water, and can remain underwater for a very long time, likely through cutaneous gas exchange. The tadpoles require a permanent water habitat for at least two years while they develop. The frog has been noted at elevations of between about 1,214 and 7,546 feet (370 and 2,300 meters) in Southern California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55n7k7
|
How easy was to get new identity and "vanish" at the end of WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up: If there were people that did this and were caught, what would the punishment be? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up: How plausible would it have been for an American to do this, during the Korean War, a la Don Draper from Mad Men?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Were there cases of Allied solders vanishing to avoid criminal charges at home or bad marriages for example?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kathrine Hulme mentions in \"The Wild Place\" that they had Russians pretending to be Poles in the displaced persons camps. They were able to get DP papers because \n\na) there had been ethnic Russians in the old borders of Poland, so it was a bit easier to blend in, and there were similarities of language \n\nb) with the Soviet occupation of Poland, there was no way to check to see if they were who they claimed to be, & \n\n c) those few Russians in the camps got along well with the Poles, and so the Poles covered for them. \n\nFrom this, 1) you had to be plausible for that ethnic/social group. (Can't claim to be French and not speak it.) \n\n2) The harder it was to check out your new identity, the better. (The Nazi party archives were captured intact, with member photos. Hunted groups like the SS had unique blood type tattoos under their arms, and allied soldiers almost always checked prisoners for those. \n\n3)You better have sympathetic locals willing to hide you or at least overlook any discrepancies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7725337",
"title": "List of Axis personnel indicted for war crimes",
"section": "Section::::Others.:Dutch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 629,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 629,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "That list has been adapted in that the persons who simply disappeared after the war, who were eliminated by the resistance during the war or who committed suicide before being convicted, have been taken off the list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "930714",
"title": "Cotgrave",
"section": "Section::::History.:Memorials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The surnames of those noted lost in the First World War are Lacey, Hind, Middleton, Herapath, Simpson, Henson, Hayes, Harrison, Marshall, Moulds, Carrington, Woolley, Henstock. Those from the Second World War; Cole, Pryor, Pepper, Phillips. The epitaph reads: \"Be thou faithful into death and I will give you a crown of life.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4083754",
"title": "Arolsen Archives-International Center on Nazi Persecution",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In 1943, the international section of the British Red Cross was asked by the Headquarters of the Allied Forces to set up a registration and tracing service for missing people. The organization was formalized under the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces and named the \"Central Tracing Bureau\" on February 15, 1944. As the war unfolded, the bureau was moved from London to Versailles, then to Frankfurt am Main, and finally to Bad Arolsen, which was considered a central location among the areas of Allied occupation and had an intact infrastructure unaffected by war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47436493",
"title": "Bucky Barnes",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Retroactive continuity, beginning with \"The Avengers\" #4 (March 1964), established that the original Captain America and Bucky went missing near the end of World War II and were secretly replaced by then-U.S. President Harry S. Truman with successor heroes using those identities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9810429",
"title": "How to Disappear Completely and Never Be Found",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "How to Disappear Completely and Never Be Found is a book by Doug Richmond, originally released in 1985, which is a how-to guide on starting a new identity. It includes chapters on planning a disappearance, arranging for new identification, finding work, establishing credit, pseudocide (creating the impression of one's own death), and more. The book recommends a method of disappearing by assuming the identity of a dead person with similar vital statistics and age, and also includes a section on avoiding paper trails which, due to the age of the book, may no longer be relevant or useful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22691609",
"title": "This May Be the Year I Disappear",
"section": "Section::::Writing and production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "\"This May Be the Year I Disappear\" was recorded in summer of 2003 at World War 4 in Austin, Texas with producer Rory Phillips originally as demos, later re-mixed by Andy Wallace in Los Angeles, California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52238242",
"title": "Schostal",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "After the Second World War, in 1948, the agency, which was then under Soviet control, closed. Robert made unsuccessful efforts from America to recover the archive. However, some of the photos were hidden in a basement, and Friedrich Gondosch vanished, perhaps fearing reprisal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yqhi6
|
how effective medical marijuana is. is it actually useful compared to other meds? or is it just used to get people to see the good side to marijuana
|
[
{
"answer": "To be clear I'm not bashing marijuana or those who use it in any way. I'm just curious if medical marijuana is actually effective compared to other meds or if it's more a propaganda related ordeal to stop people from falsely accusing marijuana as some 'terrible drug'. \n\nFeedback from people who have used medical marijuana before would be greatly appreciated! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A simple example would be people undergoing chemo. Sometimes they can get nauseous and have trouble eating. Other illnesses cause this as well. Marijuana brings back their appetite. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey! I have Crohn's disease, which is essentially a disease of the gastrointestinal system that has varying effects on the people afflicted. For me, when my Crohn's \"flares\" as my wife calls it, I am unable to properly digest anything. As a result, I have severe diarrhea, stomach cramps, and a loss of appetite. These symptoms started around 15 years of age, but symptoms weren't really severe until I was in college. \n\nPrior to trying marijuana, I would have no appetite during my flare ups. It was not uncommon for me to lose 30 pounds in 2 weeks, simply because while you're stomach is in intense pain, food just is not palatable. I live in a state where it is not medicinal yet, though it will be on the ballot this fall, and I was really hesitant because of the illegality. Three years later, I am glad I did. It saved my life because it saved my friendships and my marriage.\n\nThere are a few medications on the market for Crohn's, from corticosteroids to immune modifiers to dietary supplements... though none of them are as effective for me as marijuana, and all of them presented different side effects that were equally troublesome as the Crohn's to my everyday life. For example, the steroids gave me increased blood pressure and occasional, serious mood swings.\n\nFor me, weed doesn't solve my stomach problems. I still have diarrhea, I still have cramps and stomach pain. What weed does is something more beneficial than any other medication I've been exposed to; it removes my pain from my focus. I am still in pain, but I don't mind it. I still gush water out of my asshole and, eventually, end up showering instead of wiping because my ass is raw, but my mind ignores the pain more easily because I'm focused on whatever else I am doing. It also gives me an appetite, not enough of one that I can't control myself, but just enough to make food taste enough that I don't get nauseous trying to swallow it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have tried anti depressants of a billion varieties through my childhood; nothing has allowed me to function on a day to day basis as well as marijuana. It does not eliminate, but mitigates my symptoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74748",
"title": "Glaucoma",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Cannabis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In 2003, the American Academy of Ophthalmology released a position statement stating that cannabis was not more effective than prescription medications. Furthermore, no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of cannabis use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7361062",
"title": "Boston University School of Public Health",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Substance Use studies, including showing that patients who use marijuana have lower odds of achieving abstinence from other drugs and alcohol, that recreational drug use on weekends often turns into more frequent use, and that benzodiazepines increase the risk of opioid overdose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53289635",
"title": "Cannabis policy of the Donald Trump administration",
"section": "Section::::Position on cannabis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Spicer said: \"There is a big difference between the medical use […] that is very different from the recreational use, which is something the Department of Justice will be further looking into.\" \"There’s two distinct issues here: medical marijuana and recreational marijuana. I think medical marijuana, I’ve said before, that the president understands the pain and suffering that many people go through, who are facing especially terminal diseases, and the comfort that some of these drugs, including medical marijuana, can bring to them. And that’s one that Congress, through a rider in 2014, put an appropriations bill saying that the Department of Justice wouldn’t be funded to go after those folks.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60920",
"title": "Tetrahydrocannabinol",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as euphoria and dizziness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144837",
"title": "Chronic pain",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Alternative medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Preliminary studies have found medical marijuana to be beneficial in treating neuropathic pain, but not other kinds of long term pain. As of 2018 even for neuropathic pain the evidence is not strong for any benefit and further research is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175440",
"title": "Medical cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial effects. Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic pain and muscle spasms. Low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome. When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also been recommended for anorexia, arthritis, migraine, and glaucoma. It is unclear whether American states might be able mitigate the adverse effects of the opioid epidemic by prescribing medical cannabis as an alternative pain managament drug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37019293",
"title": "Massachusetts Medical Marijuana Initiative",
"section": "Section::::Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- The American Nurses Association, American Public Health Association, Institute of Medicine, National Cancer Institute, and state medical societies of Rhode Island, California, and New York have attested to the significant therapeutic benefits of marijuana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79x9le
|
To what extent can parents' DNA be reverse-engineered from their child's DNA?
|
[
{
"answer": "research engineer here:\n\nA haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of genes in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent.\n\nAs the human genome consists of two homologous sets of chromosomes, understanding the true genetic makeup of an individual requires delineation of the maternal and paternal copies or haplotypes of the genetic material.\n\nRecognizing the importance of haplotypes, several groups have sought to expand our understanding of haplotype structures at the level of both populations and individuals. Initiatives such as the International Hapmap Project and the 1000 Genomes Project have attempted to systematically reconstruct haplotypes through linkage disequilibrium measures based on populations of unrelated individuals. However, the average length of accurately phased haplotypes generated using this approach is limited to ~300 kb. Alternatively, genotyping parent-child trios can determine whole-genome haplotypes in the child, but such methods are constrained by their higher cost and the sample availability of the two biological parents.\n\nNumerous experimental methods have also been developed to facilitate direct haplotype phasing of an individual, including long-fragment-read sequencing, mate-pair sequencing, fosmid sequencing, and dilution-based sequencing. At best, these methods can reconstruct haplotypes ranging from several kilobases to about a megabase, but none can achieve chromosome-spanning haplotypes. Whole-chromosome haplotype phasing has been achieved by sequencing based on fluorescence-activated cell sorting, chromosome-segregation followed by sequencing and chromosome microdissection–based sequencing. However, these methods only phase a fraction of the heterozygous variants in an individual, and more importantly, they are technically challenging to perform or require specialized instruments. Recently, whole-genome haplotyping has been performed using genotyping from sperm cells; however, this approach is not applicable to the general population and requires the deconvolution of complex meiotic recombination patterns.\n\nComputational analysis has shown that an important factor in haplotype reconstruction from DNA shotgun sequencing methods is the length of the sequenced genomic fragment. For example, longer haplotypes can be obtained using mate-pair sequencing (fragment or insert size, ~5 kb) compared with conventional genome sequencing (fragment or insert size ~500 bp) (Supplementary Fig. 1a). However, it is technically difficult to isolate and sequence DNA fragments that are longer than what is already obtained using fosmid clones. Hence, using existing shotgun sequencing approaches, it is difficult to generate haplotype blocks longer than 1 million bases, even at ultra-deep sequencing coverage.\n\nIn the human cell line, ...they obtained chromosome-spanning haplotypes at ~81% resolution with an accuracy of ~98% using just 17× coverage of genome sequencing. These results establish the utility of proximity ligation and sequencing for haplotyping in human populations.\n\n[source 1](_URL_0_)\n\nsource 2: I've modeled genetics and complex protein interactions for my job",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "854294",
"title": "DNA repair",
"section": "Section::::DNA damage.:Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The replication of damaged DNA before cell division can lead to the incorporation of wrong bases opposite damaged ones. Daughter cells that inherit these wrong bases carry mutations from which the original DNA sequence is unrecoverable (except in the rare case of a back mutation, for example, through gene conversion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29027916",
"title": "Gene transfer agent",
"section": "Section::::GTA-mediated transduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "If the cell's recombinational repair machinery finds a chromosomal sequence very similar to the incoming DNA, it replaces the former with the latter by homologous recombination, mediated by the cell's RecA protein. I the sequences are not identical this will produce a cell with a new genetic combination. However, if the incoming DNA is not closely related to DNA sequences in the cell it will be degraded, and the cell will reuse its nucleotides for DNA replication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2940858",
"title": "Rejuvenation",
"section": "Section::::Modern developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Most attempts at genetic repair have traditionally involved the use of a retrovirus to insert a new gene into a random position on a chromosome. But by attaching zinc fingers (which determine where transcription factors bind) to endonucleases (which break DNA strands), homologous recombination can be induced to correct and replace defective (or undesired) DNA sequences. The first applications of this technology are to isolate stem cells from the bone marrow of patients having blood disease mutations, to correct those mutations in laboratory dishes using zinc finger endonucleases and to transplant the stem cells back into the patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49205189",
"title": "Ariosa v. Sequenom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The point of the invention is that the inventors discovered in 1996 that fetal DNA might be floating around in the mother’s blood (not just in the blood of the fetus, which was accessible only by invasive methods, such as amniocentesis, that created risks of miscarriage). Then they realized that they could selectively amplify the fetal DNA by focusing on the paternally inherited portion of its DNA (rather than the maternally inherited DNA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558596",
"title": "Leigh syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Genomics.:Nuclear DNA mutations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Nuclear DNA comprises most of the genome of an organism and in sexually reproducing organisms is inherited from both parents, in contrast to mitochondrial DNA's maternal pattern of inheritance. Leigh syndrome caused by nuclear DNA mutations is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. This means that two copies of the mutated gene are required to cause the disease, so two unaffected parents, each of whom carries one mutant allele, can have an affected child if that child inherits the mutant allele from both parents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137227",
"title": "DNA methylation",
"section": "Section::::In mammals.:During embryonic development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Due to the phenomenon of genomic imprinting, maternal and paternal genomes are differentially marked and must be properly reprogrammed every time they pass through the germline. Therefore, during gametogenesis, primordial germ cells must have their original biparental DNA methylation patterns erased and re-established based on the sex of the transmitting parent. After fertilization the paternal and maternal genomes are once again demethylated and remethylated (except for differentially methylated regions associated with imprinted genes). This reprogramming is likely required for totipotency of the newly formed embryo and erasure of acquired epigenetic changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1357514",
"title": "Recombinant DNA",
"section": "Section::::Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One mechanism by which this happens is insertional inactivation, in which the rDNA becomes inserted into a host cell's gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to \"knock out\" genes to determine their biological function and importance. Another mechanism by which rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes. This can happen, for example, when a recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previously silent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
74hz97
|
If you shine a white light through a blue filter, does it actually change the wavelength of the color?
|
[
{
"answer": "Filters do exactly what their name implies: they filter certain wavelengths of light. In general, light can do one of three things when interacting with a surface. First, it can be absorbed. This is what happens when you see things that are black in color, especially things like [Vantablack](_URL_0_) that actually trap the light. Second, it can be reflected. This is what objects do for you to see their color. It reflects the light into your eye so that you perceive it as a certain color. Third, the light can simply pass through, like with a clear object such as glass (note that clear objects may absorb wavelengths that are not in the visible spectrum). White light, such as sunlight, is made of the visible spectrum and can be split out like with a prism. A blue filter will take out the blue from the white light, leaving you with the other colors, meaning that theoretically the light will shift towards a more yellow color. This is actually similar to why the Sun might appear yellow: the blue light is being scattered away! Hope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Filters *remove* certain colors from the light beam. White light has all the colors mixed together: the blue filter removes everything but blue.\n\nIf the color isn't there to begin with, the filter can't add it. You can test this by getting a red laser pointer (which is *only* red) and shining it through a colored liquid like, say, apple juice or Mountain Dew. It'll change the brightness of the laser, but it'll stay red.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23228834",
"title": "Colorimetry (chemical method)",
"section": "Section::::Absorption colorimeter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The filter on a colorimeter must be set to red if the liquid is blue. The size of the filter initially chosen for the colorimeter is extremely important, as the wavelength of light that is transmitted by the colorimeter has to be same as that absorbed by the substance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788660",
"title": "Anaglyph 3D",
"section": "Section::::Types.:ColorCode 3-D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The blue filter is centered around 450 nm and the amber filter lets in light at wavelengths at above 500 nm. Wide spectrum color is possible because the amber filter lets through light across most wavelengths in spectrum and even has a small leakage of the blue color spectrum. When presented the original left and right images are run through the ColorCode 3-D encoding process to generate one single ColorCode 3-D encoded image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24087494",
"title": "ColorCode 3-D",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The blue filter is centred on 450 nm and the amber filter lets in light at wavelengths at above 500 nm. Wide spectrum colour is possible because the amber filter lets through light across most wavelengths in spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181898",
"title": "Infrared cut-off filter",
"section": "Section::::IR transmitting/passing filters in photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "In contrast to the naming convention of optical filters where the name of the filter denotes the wavelengths that are blocked, and in line with the convention for air filters and oil filters, photographic filters are named for the color of light they \"pass\". Thus a blue filter makes the picture look blue. A \"blue filter\" marginally allows more light in the blue wavelength to pass resulting in a slight shift of the color temperature of the photo to a cooler color. Because of this, the term \"IR filters\" is commonly used to refer to filters that pass infrared light while completely blocking other wavelengths. However, in some applications the term \"IR filter\" still can be used as a synonym of infrared cut-off filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23228834",
"title": "Colorimetry (chemical method)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The color or wavelength of the filter chosen for the colorimeter is extremely important, as the wavelength of light that is transmitted by the colorimeter has to be the same as that absorbed by the substance being measured. For example, the filter on a colorimeter might be set to red if the liquid is blue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300830",
"title": "Standard illuminant",
"section": "Section::::CIE illuminants.:Illuminants B and C.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Each filter uses a pair of solutions, comprising specific amounts of distilled water, copper sulfate, mannite, pyridine, sulfuric acid, cobalt, and ammonium sulfate. The solutions are separated by a sheet of uncolored glass. The amounts of the ingredients are carefully chosen so that their combination yields a color temperature conversion filter; that is, the filtered light is still white.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507728",
"title": "Photographic filter",
"section": "Section::::Uses of filters in photography.:Contrast enhancement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Colored filters are commonly used in black and white photography to alter the effect of different colors in the scene, changing contrast recorded in black and white of the different colours. For example, a yellow or, more dramatically, orange or red, filter will enhance the contrast between clouds and sky by darkening the blue sky. A deep green filter will also darken the sky, and additionally lighten green foliage, making it stand out against the sky. A blue filter mimics the effect of older orthochromatic film, or even older film sensitive only to blue light, rendering blue as light and red and green as dark, showing blue skies as overcast with no contrast between sky and clouds, darkening blond hair, making blue eyes nearly white and red lips nearly black. Diffusion filters reduce contrast in addition to softening resolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ysjjh
|
Do certain activities increase/decrease brain activity during sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the main functions of sleep and dreaming is to consolidate (new) memories and reorganise the brain's neural architecture accordingly. Because of this, dream experience seems to have a strong relation with what you have experienced and encoded in waking life.\n \nIt is not entirely clear if there are reliable causes of more intense dreams, but some possibilities might be inferred. Firstly, one could argue that the novelty, emotional valence, and arousal related to your novel experience could translate to a necessarily more 'thorough' reorganisation, and vivid dream experience, if the emotion and arousal of episodic events are co-activated during dreaming.\n \nSecondly, one could argue that especially meaningful experiences could lead to more vivid dreams, if we assume meaningful experience to translate to more diverse and informative connections with existing memories/information in the brain.\n \nThe latter is based partly on the perspective that consciousness -and thus dream consciousness too- is dependent on a state of integrated information, which is still well possible during dreaming (as 'proven' by the fact that there's a subjective dream experience). To emphasize though, the above are not scientific knowledge, but a hypothesised answer based on it!\n\nHope the answer was satisfying, happy dreaming!\n\nSources: \nStickgold, R. (2005). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Nature, 437(7063), 1272-1278.\nTononi, G. (2008). Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional m\nWamsley, E. J., & Stickgold, R. (2011). Memory, sleep, and dreaming: Experiencing consolidation. Sleep medicine clinics, 6(1), 97-108.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "490620",
"title": "Human brain",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The function of sleep is not fully understood; however, there is evidence that sleep enhances the clearance of metabolic waste products, some of which are potentially neurotoxic, from the brain and may also permit repair. Evidence suggests that the increased clearance of metabolic waste during sleep occurs via increased functioning of the glymphatic system. Sleep may also have an effect on cognitive function by weakening unnecessary connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312297",
"title": "Memory consolidation",
"section": "Section::::Systems consolidation.:Sleep consolidation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep has been thought of to be an important concept in the overnight learning in humans by establishing information in the hippocampal and cortical regions of the brain. REM sleep elicits an increase in neuronal activity following an enriched or novel waking experience, thus increasing neuronal plasticity and therefore playing an essential role in the consolidation of memories. This has come into question in recent years however and studies on sleep deprivation have shown that animals and humans who are denied REM sleep do not show deficits in task learning. It has been proposed that since the brain is in a non-memory encoding state during sleep, consolidation would be unlikely to occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582180",
"title": "Wakefulness",
"section": "Section::::Effects upon the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Sleep function.:Renormalizing the synaptic strength.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Sleep can also serve to weaken synaptic connections that were acquired over the course of the day but which are not essential to optimal functioning. In doing so, the resource demands can be lessened, since the upkeep and strengthening of synaptic connections constitutes a large portion of energy consumption by the brain and tax other cellular mechanisms such as protein synthesis for new channels. Without a mechanism like this taking place during sleep, the metabolic needs of the brain would increase over repeated exposure to daily synaptic strengthening, up to a point where the strains become excessive or untenable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740746",
"title": "Adult neurogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Implications.:Effects of sleep reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "One study has linked lack of sleep to a reduction in rodent hippocampal neurogenesis. The proposed mechanism for the observed decrease was increased levels of glucocorticoids. It was shown that two weeks of sleep deprivation acted as a neurogenesis-inhibitor, which was reversed after return of normal sleep and even shifted to a temporary increase in normal cell proliferation. More precisely, when levels of corticosterone are elevated, sleep deprivation inhibits this process. Nonetheless, normal levels of neurogenesis after chronic sleep deprivation return after 2 weeks, with a temporary increase of neurogenesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25096340",
"title": "Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance",
"section": "Section::::Attention.:Visuospatial attention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Deficits in cognitive performance due to continuous sleep restriction are not well understood. However, there have been studies looking into physiological arousal of the sleep-deprived brain. Participants, whose total amount of sleep had been restricted by 33% throughout one week, were subjected to reaction time tests. The results of these tests were analyzed using quantitative EEG analysis. The results indicate that the frontal regions of the brain are first to be affected, whereas the parietal regions remain active until the effects of sleep deprivation become more severe, which occurred towards the end of the week. In addition, EEG and ERP analysis reveals that activation deficits are more apparent in the non-dominant hemisphere than in the dominant hemisphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Sleep function.:Behavior change with sleep deprivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "The neurobehavioral basis for these has been studied only recently. Sleep deprivation has been strongly correlated with increased probability of accidents and industrial errors. Many studies have shown the slowing of metabolic activity in the brain with many hours of sleep debt. Some studies have also shown that the attention network in the brain is particularly affected by lack of sleep, and though some of the effects on attention may be masked by alternate activities (like standing or walking) or caffeine consumption, attention deficit cannot be completely avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31y38c
|
how do you enter a gas giant?
|
[
{
"answer": " > but is there a uniform boundary or is it just Space and then the planet kinda just \"starts\"?\n\nAtmospheres tail off roughly exponentially as you go up in height. Earth's does too - there's no sharp \"you're suddenly in space\" line for Earth, either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, at the top it's like the Earth: gently fading from vacuum to thin air to thicker air. \n\nBut the air just keeps getting hotter and denser and at higher pressures. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "401440",
"title": "Broken Bow (Star Trek: Enterprise)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Episode 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Within the gas giant is the Helix, a Suliban aggregate structure composed of hundreds of Suliban ships, which the \"Enterprise\" crew scan to find Klaang. Using the grappler, \"Enterprise\" successfully grabs an attacking Suliban ship, the pilot ejecting. After studying the captured ship and its controls, Archer and Tucker pilot it to the Helix. Becoming separated, Tucker returns with Klaang to \"Enterprise\". After a brief physical confrontation between Archer and Silik in a temporally altered audience room, Tucker uses \"Enterprise\"s new transporter to beam Archer out of the Helix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2588111",
"title": "Strombolian eruption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Instead the gas coalesces into bubbles, called gas slugs, that grow large enough to rise through the magma column, bursting near the top due to the decrease in pressure and throwing magma into the air. Each episode thus releases volcanic gases, sometimes as frequently as a few minutes apart. Gas slugs can form as deep as 3 kilometers, making them difficult to predict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270811",
"title": "Lowest temperature recorded on Earth",
"section": "Section::::Laboratory cooling.:Early experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Consider a gas in a box of set volume. If the pressure in the box is higher than atmospheric pressure, then upon opening the box our gas will do work on the surrounding atmosphere to expand. As this expansion is adiabatic and the gas has done work\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227519",
"title": "Operation Crossroads",
"section": "Section::::Test \"Baker\".:Sequence of blast events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "When the gas bubble's diameter equaled the water depth, , it hit the sea floor and the sea surface simultaneously. At the bottom, it started digging a shallow crater, ultimately deep and wide. At the top, it pushed the water above it into a \"spray dome\", which burst through the surface like a geyser. Elapsed time since detonation was four milliseconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6767264",
"title": "Mu Arae c",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "If an eroded gas giant, the sun would have boiled the planet from a larger protoplanet, of 20 Earth masses up to half Jupiter's mass. If the latter, its current radius could be as high as 0.6 Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961349",
"title": "Hot Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Atmospheric loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "If the atmosphere of a hot Jupiter is stripped away via hydrodynamic escape, its core may become a chthonian planet. The amount of gas removed from the outermost layers depends on the planet's size, the gases forming the envelope, the orbital distance from the star, and the star's luminosity. In a typical system, a gas giant orbiting at 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of a substantially larger fraction of the planet's mass. No such objects have been found yet and they are still hypothetical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34508926",
"title": "Caverns of Minos",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Unlike the original \"Caverns of Mars\", the ship in \"Caverns of Minos\" does not descend at a fixed rate: it is sped up gradually by gravity and the player can choose to fire thrusters to slow it down or move it upwards. As the ship moves down through the cavern, it encounters numerous enemies, some of which can be destroyed by firing at them. The ship fires continuously but the bullets fired can be steered by tilting the mobile device. The ship also encounters minotaurs which can be rescued by landing the ship on the ground near them. Landing without damage requires careful use of the thruster and smoother landings are rewarded with bonus points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
688f4v
|
what does the f/stop in a camera do?
|
[
{
"answer": "It determines the size of the aperture which then, along with the shutter speed determines how much light reaches the film or sensor. A larger number means a smaller aperture, which means less light, but also a wider depth of field (how much of the image is in focus)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "when you take a picture there are two things you need to tell the picture to do. how long to keep the lenses open and how much light to let into the camera. F/stop tells your camera how much light to let in",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Building on the other two responses... \nThe F/stop works with the shutter speed to get the appropriate amount of light on the film. The smaller the F/stop number, the more light is being let in at once, and the larger fraction on the shutter speed, the longer time the light is allowed to reach the film. \n\nSo if you turn the F/stop up (closing the aperture more) you need to turn the shutter speed down to keep the same amount of light on the film (the same exposure). And if you turn the shutter speed up, you need to turn the F/stop down (opening the aperture) to keep the same exposure. \n\nFor fast moving objects, you'll want a fast shutter speed to cut down on blur, so that means you'll need a wide open aperture to match. \nBut the more open the aperture, the shallower depth of field you have. Depth of field is how far in front of and behind what you're focusing on is also in focus. If you have a very shallow depth of field, pretty much only the specific thing you're focusing on is sharp; everything else is fuzzy. If you have a deep depth of field, things are in focus for a long distance before and behind your subject. \nSo you need to decide how much you want in focus for how big you want your aperture, which affects the shutter speed you need. And you have to take into account how fast you need to take your picture for motion blur, which affects the F/stop you can use. It can be a frustrating dance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it this way.\n\nIt takes a very precise number of photons to create a photograph in a camera. Too few and the image is all black, too many and it's all white. To control the number of photons that enter your camera when you hit the button, there is a shutter.\n\nYou can control this shutter in two ways. You can control how long it stays open for when you hit the button (obviously longer let's in more photons), or you can control how wide it opens. The F stop sets how wide the shutter should open. A low F number means that when you press the button, the shutter opens all the way and stays open for however long you set. A high F number means that when you press the button the shutter opens just a fraction and stays only this far open for however long you set before closing. Obviously, when the shutter opens all the way it let's in more photons in the same time than when it opens only a fraction.\n\nThe reason there's two different ways of controlling the amount of photons is that each one involves a compromise. Opening the shutter wider makes the camera harder to focus, while keeping the shutter open longer makes it harder to prevent blur. If you are shooting in below maximum daylight you have to choose between motion blur or some degree of out of focus. You use the shutter speed and f stop to control this trade off.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " The smaller the f/ is the wider the aperture f/1.4 has opens the lens as wide as it will go whereas f/32 is narrow so it won't let in much light. Think of it's like the pupil in your eye, when it's dark it gets bigger and when it's a bright sunny day it's small. When set correctly the aperture with shutter speed and ISO can also be referred to as ASA on older cameras makes the foreground stand out and give a 3D effect this is called depth of field. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Always remember that the number in the f stop is the *denominator* in a fraction that describes the size of the hole letting light in.\n\nWhen i learned this, i totally got it after a long struggle with understanding it.\n\n1/1 (doesn't exist as far as i know) would be a fully open aperture with nothing impeding the intake of light.\n\n1/22 is a very tiny number and is thus a very tiny hole letting light in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4609840",
"title": "Canon Pellix",
"section": "Section::::The First Canon with TTL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "The stop-down lever at the right-hand camera front also operates the self-timer. Pushing the lever towards the lens activates the stop down match-needle meter, while pulling in the opposite direction winds the timer. As with the Canon FX and FP, the camera back is opened turning a key at the base. The film speed is set lifting and turning the rim of the shutter speed dial. The camera is designed for the obsolete 1.35 volt mercury battery, which may be directly replaced by a similar 1.4 volt hearing aid battery, it is usable for about a year after activation whether used or not. The battery compartment is at the left-hand edge of the camera, next to the rewind knob. The Pellix was replaced by the improved Canon Pellix QL first marketed in March 1966. Improvements included the addition of a quick film loading mechanism and contacts in the base of the battery compartment for a separately available electronic booster for the internal exposure meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9039472",
"title": "Shutter button",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "In photography, the shutter-release button (sometimes just shutter release or shutter button) is a push-button found on many cameras, used to record photographs. When pressed, the shutter of the camera is \"released\", so that it opens to capture a picture, and then closes, allowing an exposure time as determined by the shutter speed setting (which may be automatic). Some cameras also utilize an electronic shutter, as opposed to a mechanical shutter. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14471727",
"title": "Digital camera modes",
"section": "Section::::Secondary modes.:Autofocus.:Back button focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In most digital cameras, by default autofocus is only activated (AF-on) when the shutter button is pressed halfway down, which helps to preserve battery life. However, some photographers find that having AF-on and the shutter release on the same button makes it harder to establish the correct focus point, or hold it once the desired point is established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168244",
"title": "F-number",
"section": "Section::::Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure.:Fractional stops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop ( EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of film speeds. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions are clicked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than 2.8 is 3.2, two-thirds smaller is 3.5, and one whole stop smaller is 4. The next few f-stops in this sequence are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303501",
"title": "Focal-plane shutter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In camera design, a focal-plane shutter (FPS) is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24697734",
"title": "Kodak Stereo Camera",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "The shutter speed and aperture controls are located at the top of the camera. Shutter speed control is through a sliding bar which is marked B 25 50 100 and 200. The number 50 is red, the other numbers are black. The other side, next to the f stop numbers, has markings that say BRIGHT (in red), HAZY and CL'DY BRT (both black). These words have lines pointing to different f stops, depending on where the shutter speed is set. The Aperture lever has 9 positive clicks labeled 3.5, 4, (black dot), 5.6, (red dot), 8, 11, 16, 22. The red dot indicated f 6.3. These exposure suggestions are based on ASA 10 (not 100!) film which in 1954 was still the standard film for color slides just as it had been when the Realist was introduced. The recommended setting for bright sun was a shutter speed of 1/50th with an aperture of f 6.3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1412580",
"title": "Science of photography",
"section": "Section::::Motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "A tripod may be used to avoid motion blur due to camera shake. This will stabilize the camera during the exposure. A tripod is recommended for exposure times more than about 1/15 seconds. There are additional techniques which, in conjunction with use of a tripod, ensure that the camera remains very still. These may employ use of a remote actuator, such as a cable release or infrared remote switch to activate the shutter, so as to avoid the movement normally caused when the shutter release button is pressed directly. The use of a \"self timer\" (a timed release mechanism that automatically trips the shutter release after an interval of time) can serve the same purpose. Most modern single-lens reflex camera (SLR) have a mirror lock-up feature that eliminates the small amount of shake produced by the mirror flipping up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ue285
|
Is there such a thing as space coordinates?
|
[
{
"answer": "There aren't any absolute coordinates in the universe. However, you can broadcast our location relative other parts of the universe. For example, if you wanted to send a message within our [local group](_URL_1_), such as communicating our location to a civilization in the Andromeda galaxy, you could send our galaxy's location relative to others in the local group, [like this](_URL_0_). Then you could include a second message communicating our location within our own galaxy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are really two parts to this answer: it would basically be impossible for another planet to use our current coordinate system, the [galactic coordinate system](_URL_0_) since we define \"north\" to be towards the galactic center from where the Sun is in the galaxy. In other words, we do have coordinates for 3-dimensional space, but they are based on the Sun. Luckily, we have already figured out and sent a message out into space showing our coordinates on board the Voyager spacecraft, etched onto [golden plates or records](_URL_2_). We etched on a bunch of lines that is actually is a 3-d visual representation of the [pulsars](_URL_1_) in our neighborhood to scale. Pulsars are super useful because they are relatively bright but more importantly they have a very regular period to their rotation, or pulse (hence the name). Unfortunately pulsar beams can only be seen along the axis of the neutron star/white dwarf emitting them, but may be otherwise detectable with more advanced technology. If the extraterrestrials know which pulsars we are referring to on the etching, then they can deduce our location! Hope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "81931",
"title": "Coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Coordinates of geometric objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example, Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term \"line coordinates\" is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9284",
"title": "Equation",
"section": "Section::::Geometry.:Analytic geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form formula_23, where formula_24 and formula_25 are real numbers and formula_26 are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values formula_24 are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in formula_28 or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in formula_29\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1772303",
"title": "Coordinate space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In mathematics, a coordinate space is a space in which an ordered list of coordinates, each from a set (not necessarily the same set), collectively determine an element (or point) of the space – in short, a space with a coordinate system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29181",
"title": "Spherical coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global weather simulation in a planet's atmosphere. A sphere that has the Cartesian equation has the simple equation in spherical coordinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230488",
"title": "Minkowski space",
"section": "Section::::History.:Four-dimensional Euclidean spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "on coordinate space. The naming and ordering of coordinates, with the same labels for space coordinates, but with the imaginary time coordinate as the \"fourth coordinate\", is conventional. The above expression, while making the former expression more familiar, may potentially be confusing because it is \"not\" the same that appears in the latter (\"time coordinate\") as in the former (\"time itself\" in some inertial system as measured by clocks stationary in that system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5826",
"title": "Complex number",
"section": "Section::::Visualisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "A complex number can thus be identified with an ordered pair of real numbers, which in turn may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a two-dimensional space. The most immediate space is the Euclidean plane with suitable coordinates, which is then called complex plane or Argand diagram, named after Jean-Robert Argand. Another prominent space on which the coordinates may be projected is the two-dimensional surface of a sphere, which is then called Riemann sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65913",
"title": "Equations of motion",
"section": "Section::::Analytical mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Using all three coordinates of 3D space is unnecessary if there are constraints on the system. If the system has degrees of freedom, then one can use a set of generalized coordinates , to define the configuration of the system. They can be in the form of arc lengths or angles. They are a considerable simplification to describe motion, since they take advantage of the intrinsic constraints that limit the system's motion, and the number of coordinates is reduced to a minimum. The time derivatives of the generalized coordinates are the \"generalized velocities\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1blxym
|
What is the probability of a couple having identical non-twins?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's [my answer](_URL_0_) to this question from about a month ago. The figures I give are for the probability of being unrelated (or rather of being substantially less related than the expectation), but the calculation is symmetric, so those probabilities are the same for the other half of the distribution.\n\nIt's not explicitly impossible, but the probability is so low that it basically won't even happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18362292",
"title": "Randomness extractor",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Von Neumann extractor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "More generally, it applies to any exchangeable sequence—it only relies on the fact that for any pair, 01 and 10 are \"equally\" likely: for independent trials, these have probabilities formula_105, while for an exchangeable sequence the probability may be more complicated, but both are equally likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1554044",
"title": "Wilhelm Weinberg",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Additional contributions by Weinberg to statistical genetics included the first estimate of the rate of twinning – Realizing that identical twins would have to be same-sex, while dizygotic twins could be either same or opposite sex, Weinberg derived the formula for estimating the frequency of monozygotic and dizygotic twins from the ratio of same sex and opposite twins to the total of maternities. Weinberg also estimated that the heritability of twinning itself was close to zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44290",
"title": "DNA profiling",
"section": "Section::::Considerations when evaluating DNA evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1384,
"text": "When using RFLP, the theoretical risk of a coincidental match is 1 in 100 billion (100,000,000,000), although the practical risk is actually 1 in 1000 because monozygotic twins are 0.2% of the human population. Moreover, the rate of laboratory error is almost certainly higher than this, and often actual laboratory procedures do not reflect the theory under which the coincidence probabilities were computed. For example, the coincidence probabilities may be calculated based on the probabilities that markers in two samples have bands in \"precisely\" the same location, but a laboratory worker may conclude that similar—but not precisely identical—band patterns result from identical genetic samples with some imperfection in the agarose gel. However, in this case, the laboratory worker increases the coincidence risk by expanding the criteria for declaring a match. Recent studies have quoted relatively high error rates, which may be cause for concern. In the early days of genetic fingerprinting, the necessary population data to accurately compute a match probability was sometimes unavailable. Between 1992 and 1996, arbitrary low ceilings were controversially put on match probabilities used in RFLP analysis rather than the higher theoretically computed ones. Today, RFLP has become widely disused due to the advent of more discriminating, sensitive and easier technologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10511",
"title": "Epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "In identical twins, if one is affected there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected. In non-identical twins the risk is 15%. These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures. If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%). Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population. Between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "Section::::Types and zygosity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Among non-twin births, male singletons are slightly (about five percent) more common than female singletons. The rates for singletons vary slightly by country. For example, the sex ratio of birth in the US is 1.05 males/female, while it is 1.07 males/female in Italy. However, males are also more susceptible than females to die \"in utero\", and since the death rate \"in utero\" is higher for twins, it leads to female twins being more common than male twins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79449",
"title": "Multiple birth",
"section": "Section::::Human multiple births.:Triplets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Identical triplets or quadruplets are very rare and result when the original fertilized egg splits and then one of the resultant cells splits again (for triplets) or, even more rarely, a further split occurs (for quadruplets). The odds of having identical triplets is unclear. News articles and other non-scientific organizations give odds from one in 60,000 to one in 200 million pregnancies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1559036",
"title": "Farkle",
"section": "Section::::Probabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Three-pair is the only scoring variation that alters the likelihood of farkling, and only on the initial throw of six dice. If three pairs are not scored, the probability of farkling on the initial throw increases to 1 in 32.4 (5 in 162).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39jqe6
|
why do people stand along roads holding signs to promote sales of some stores? (e.g. furniture stores, stores going out of business, etc.,.) is there a law against posting signs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Generally yes it is illegal in many towns to post signs and flyers because no one ever removes the signs later and they usually become trash in the streets, but that is not why they do it. They do it because people like you notice them. How many signs and posters do you stop to read that are posted to telephone poles and taped to windows? Unlike those signs that you don't even see any more, sign spinners get noticed, commented on and even talked about. Being noticed boots sales.\n\nThey, like most other simple jobs get payed minimum wage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32212067",
"title": "Road signs in Pakistan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "There have often been complaints about road signs and infrastructure not being up to date in some parts of the country, with a traffic report in 2008 disclosing that local governments in many cases have not addressed damaged, vanished or outdated road regulatory signs. In Lahore alone, the report estimated that at least Rs. 800 million were required to furnish all scanty road signs in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33267151",
"title": "Commercial road, Ooty",
"section": "Section::::Footpath concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The road has had concerns over congestion in the footpath adjoining the road due to vegetable sale outlets being run on the footpath. As the pedestrian traffic is high on the footpath, these vegetable sale outlets had added to the congestion in addition to increasing the risk of injury to the pedestrians. Concerns of environmental damage had also been raised as these illegal sales outlets promote banned plastic carry bags. This issue also has had an effect on the business routine of regular authorized shopkeepers and retailers near the roadway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232169",
"title": "Shoplifting",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Many stores will put up signs warning about the consequences of shoplifting or signs warning about the use of surveillance cameras in the store. This is intended to deter people from trying to shoplift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459689",
"title": "Warning sign",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Street sign theft by pranksters, souvenir hunters, and scrappers has become problematic: removal of warning signs costs municipalities money to replace lost signs, and can contribute to traffic collisions. Some authorities affix to the back sides of signs. Some jurisdictions have criminalized unauthorized possession of road signs or have outlawed their resale to scrap metal dealers. In some cases, thieves whose sign-removal lead to road fatalities have been charged with manslaughter. Artistically inclined vandals sometimes paint additional details onto warning signs: a beer bottle, a handgun, or a boom box added to the outstretched hand of the \"Pedestrian Crossing\" person, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23071",
"title": "Prince Edward Island",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The province has very strict laws regarding use of roadside signs. Billboards and the use of portable signs are banned. There are standard direction information signs on roads in the province for various businesses and attractions in the immediate area. The by-laws of some municipalities also restrict the types of permanent signs that may be installed on private property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246415",
"title": "Billboard",
"section": "Section::::Placement of billboards.:Road safety concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "It is possible that advertising signs in rural areas reduce driver boredom, which many believe is a contribution to highway safety. On the other hand, drivers may fixate on a billboard which unexpectedly appears in a monotonous landscape, and drive straight into it (a phenomenon known as \"highway hypnosis\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246415",
"title": "Billboard",
"section": "Section::::Placement of billboards.:Visual and environmental concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Many groups such as Scenic America have complained that billboards on highways cause excessive clearing of trees and intrude on the surrounding landscape, with billboards' bright colors, lights and large fonts making it difficult to focus on anything else, making them a form of visual pollution. Other groups believe that billboards and advertising contribute negatively to the mental climate of a culture by promoting products as providing feelings of completeness, wellness and popularity to motivate purchase. One focal point for this sentiment would be the magazine AdBusters, which will often showcase politically motivated billboard and other advertising vandalism, called culture jamming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jt9c9
|
how / why water goes "bad" when you leave it out but is fine in bottles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually, water in plastic bottles CAN and does go bad (look at the expiration date!)\n\nExposed water will have dust settle in it, it will have smells and other floating stuff fall in to it, etc. Bacteria might get in it and start to multiply.\n\nBottled water will stay fresher longer, but since plastic does have very small pores/holes in it, eventually contaminants with find their way through the plastic in to the water (over the span of several years).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, water in plastic bottles CAN and does go bad (look at the expiration date!)\n\nExposed water will have dust settle in it, it will have smells and other floating stuff fall in to it, etc. Bacteria might get in it and start to multiply.\n\nBottled water will stay fresher longer, but since plastic does have very small pores/holes in it, eventually contaminants with find their way through the plastic in to the water (over the span of several years).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "487247",
"title": "Reuse of bottles",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Bacterial concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "487247",
"title": "Reuse of bottles",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Bacterial concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Some experts state that there's generally no harm in reusing your own drinking bottle, but the risk for ingesting harmful bacteria increases if you share your bottle with others. University of Nebraska Medical Center Microbiologist Pete Iwen, Ph.D., says, “If it’s my bottle, my germs, I probably would not be all that paranoid about reusing the bottle. The main issue occurs when sharing bottles. Microbes present in my mouth may be harmful to others.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007779",
"title": "Water bottle",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The lowest impact water bottles are those made of glass or metal. They are not made from petroleum and are easily recyclable. By choosing to continuously fill any multi-use water bottle, the consumer keeps disposable bottles out of the waste stream and minimizes environmental impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30863822",
"title": "Solar water disinfection",
"section": "Section::::Process for household application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The filled bottles are then exposed to the fullest sunlight possible. Bottles will heat faster and hotter if they are placed on a sloped Sun-facing reflective metal surface. A corrugated metal roof (as compared to thatched roof) or a slightly curved sheet of aluminum foil increases the light inside the bottle. Overhanging structures or plants that shade the bottles must be avoided, as they reduce both illumination and heating. After sufficient time, the treated water can be consumed directly from the bottle or poured into clean drinking cups. The risk of re-contamination is minimized if the water is stored in the bottles. Refilling and storage in other containers increases the risk of contamination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2128541",
"title": "Toyol",
"section": "Section::::Characteristic of a Toyol/Kwee Kia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "BULLET::::15. In the event that the bottle/jar is broken, they will be stronger as they are now freed and there is nothing to restrain/control them. The owner will also be punished for breaking the bottle. The owner will then have to get the bottle replaced and get it refilled with corpse oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2892588",
"title": "Glass bottle",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Once made, bottles may suffer from internal stresses as a result of unequal, or too rapid cooling. An annealing oven, or 'lehr' is used to cool glass containers slowly to prevent stress and make the bottle stronger. When a glass bottle filled with liquid is dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic stress, breaking the bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13246989",
"title": "LifeSaver bottle",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "To filter the water, one puts contaminated water in the back of the bottle, then screws the lid on. The lid has a built in pump which is operated manually with a hand; the pumping action forces the contaminated water through the nano-filter and safe drinking water collects in another chamber in the bottle. The drinker then opens the top of the bottle from which safe drinking water comes out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zmv28
|
why does a doughnut get nice and fluffy after 20 seconds in the microwave but hard after 40 seconds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Microwaves act by making water molecules bounce around faster (increasing its kinetics) \n\n\nThe energy from this movement is released through the form of heat and it is dispersed evenly through the body of what you are heating.\n\n\nIf you overdo it you just completely dry out the object of the microwaves. Your doughnut becomes dehydrated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46875",
"title": "Puff pastry",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The production of puff pastry dough can be time-consuming, because it must be kept at a temperature of approximately 16 °C (60 °F) to keep shortening from becoming runny, and must rest in between folds to allow gluten strands time to link up and thus retain layering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59732521",
"title": "List of Dutch inventions and innovations",
"section": "Section::::Inventions and innovations.:Foods and drinks.:Doughnut (17th century).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 276,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 276,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Many people believe it was the Dutch who invented doughnuts. A Dutch snack made from potatoes had a round shape like a ball, but, like Gregory's dough balls, needed a little longer time when fried to cook the inside thoroughly. These potato-balls developed into doughnuts when the Dutch finally made them into ring-shapes reduce frying time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496755",
"title": "Yakitate!! Japan",
"section": "Section::::Techniques and special terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Process whereby bread is baked at 300 °C or above for 3 minutes, instead of the normal 200 °C for 15 minutes. Steam from inside the dough explodes causing the dough to puff out. The greater the difference in temperature between the dough and the oven, the better; however, in the case of dough that is mixed with chocolate, etc., it is more difficult to get the temperature high enough, quickly enough.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25075386",
"title": "Fudge doughnut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "According to the Dictionary of Biological Psychology, fudge doughnuts are a potent reinforcer that loses its standard measure of influence as additional portions are consumed (so that the fourth or fifth does not have the original influence).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6203320",
"title": "Proofing (baking technique)",
"section": "Section::::Dough processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "\"Overproofing\" occurs when a fermenting dough has rested too long. Its bubbles have grown so large that they have popped and tunneled, and dough baked at this point would result in a bread with poor structure. Length of rest periods, including proofing, can be determined by time at specific temperatures or by characteristics. Often the \"poke method\" is used to determine if a dough has risen long enough. If the dough, when poked, springs back immediately it is \"underproofed\" and needs more time. Some breads are considered fully proofed if the indent left by the poke springs back slowly, while others are considered fully proofed when the indent remains and does not spring back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164372",
"title": "Croissant",
"section": "Section::::Ingredient functionality during processing.:Baking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48238616",
"title": "Old-fashioned doughnut",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Primary ingredients in an old-fashioned doughnut include flour, sugar, eggs, sour cream or buttermilk, and leavening agents such as baking powder or baking soda. Additional ingredients may include milk, butter, vanilla extract and salt. The use of buttermilk or sour cream may impart a rich flavor to the doughnut. It is typically deep-fried, and may be deep fried at a lower temperature compared to other doughnut styles, having a crunchier texture compared to other cake doughnut styles. Frying at a lower temperature contributes to its rough, cracked texture. Being turned several times while cooking in the oil also contributes to its texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17em7e
|
why do i have horrendous farts after a night of drinking?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have bugs in your stomach that like to eat carbohydrates. When they eat they produce gas. Alcohol contains carbs. The diarrhea is probably a side effect of not eating as well as you should while drinking.\n\nIf this happens every time you drink, you should see a doctor. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL I am not alone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This happens to me whenever i have an early shift at work. By early i mean like 0530. Any idea if this is related?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of what you eat on the night you're drinking. Are you eating a nice home cooked meal or greasy fast food, or even worse nothing at all. If your diet is ok, it might just be your stomach reacting to he alcohol in a weird way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're five, you really shouldn't be drinking so much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Also, loose stool. Just thought I'd throw that in there\n\nI got nothing to add.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may be sensitive to wheat or have some sort of yeast overgrowth. Are you on antibiotics or any other medication?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23772937",
"title": "Dhruggi Rajgan",
"section": "Section::::Initial history of Dharuggi and vicinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "After drinking it, the person will get cramps and loose motion are caused which ultimately will clean the bowels. This was a primitive method for purging and treating intestinal cleansing as well as worms. Now this practice is almost given up owing to access to health facility of allopathic medicines and lethargy of people for going to this so-called far-flung area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3390671",
"title": "Cribbing (horse)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Boredom, stress, habit and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study that the link between intestinal conditions such as gastric inflammation or colic and abnormal oral behavior was attributable to environmental factors. There is evidence that stomach ulcers may be correlated to a horse becoming a cribber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3657336",
"title": "Rumination syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Rumination syndrome, or Merycism, is an under-diagnosed chronic motility disorder characterized by effortless regurgitation of most meals following consumption, due to the involuntary contraction of the muscles around the abdomen. There is no retching, nausea, heartburn, odour, or abdominal pain associated with the regurgitation, as there is with typical vomiting. The disorder has been historically documented as affecting only infants, young children, and people with cognitive disabilities (the prevalence is as high as 10% in institutionalized patients with various mental disabilities).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6090406",
"title": "Delirium tremens",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Delirium tremens is mainly caused by a long period of drinking being stopped abruptly. Withdrawal leads to a biochemical regulation cascade. It may also be triggered by head injury, infection, or illness in people with a history of heavy use of alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6572159",
"title": "Red-collared lorikeet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Every year at the end of the dry season in Darwin, many of them display symptoms of apparent drunkenness. What causes this condition is unclear, though it is thought to be most likely due to a seasonal virus. Intoxication with fermented nectar has been ruled out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002473",
"title": "Gastritis",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Acute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Also, note that alcohol consumption does not cause chronic gastritis. It does, however, erode the mucosal lining of the stomach; low doses of alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46864621",
"title": "Ruminal tympany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Ruminal tympany, also known as bloat, is a disease of ruminant animals, characterized by an excessive volume of gas in the rumen. Ruminal tympany may be primary, known as frothy bloat, or secondary, known as free-gas bloat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vet8s
|
how are digital devices functional in an mri room? how do they operate the mri in that strong magnetic field?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the most part, magnetic fields are not as bad to electronics as people would lead you to believe. Specifically, magnetism isn't an important thing in the operation of electronics, and it doesn't somehow stop them from working. Really traditional hard drives are the only thing in a modern computer that has any meaningful sensitivity to magnets.\n\nElectronics however do use electricity, and current is directly tied to magnetism, specifically a change in current by definition generates a change in the magnetic field, and a change in a magnetic field generates a change in current (that could have a huge effect on electronics). In an EMP, there is a rapid change in magnetic fields, and that's how an EMP destroys electronics. In an MRI though, it's really just one big constant magnetic field, never changing. A magnetic field that doesn't change really has a minor effect on electronics.\n\nAnd finally to mitigate whatever sensitivity is left, we use [Mu-Metal](_URL_0_), basically you can make a case of metal, and the magnetic field lines will go through the case, not inside it (letting you make a hole of low magnetic field, inside a stronger one). Stop just put your computer inside a case made of Mu-Metal and it's thousands of times less sensitive to magnetic fields.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53913590",
"title": "Gantry (medical)",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "An MRI gantry remains fixed, and contains strong electromagnets and radio receivers that manipulate hydrogen atoms in the human body via proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The machine then receives and processes the signals given off by the hydrogen atoms in order to produce a 3D image of the interior of the patient's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152623",
"title": "Radiology",
"section": "Section::::Diagnostic imaging modalities.:Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen protons) within body tissues, then uses a radio signal to disturb the axis of rotation of these nuclei and observes the radio frequency signal generated as the nuclei return to their baseline states. The radio signals are collected by small antennae, called coils, placed near the area of interest. An advantage of MRI is its ability to produce images in axial, coronal, sagittal and multiple oblique planes with equal ease. MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all the imaging modalities. With advances in scanning speed and spatial resolution, and improvements in computer 3D algorithms and hardware, MRI has become an important tool in musculoskeletal radiology and neuroradiology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3557219",
"title": "Neuroimaging",
"section": "Section::::Brain imaging techniques.:Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without the use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24247569",
"title": "Pacemaker failure",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Indirect factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "BULLET::::- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnet to produce images of internal organs and their functions. Metal objects are attracted to the magnet and are normally not allowed near MRI machines. The magnet can interrupt the pacing and inhibit the output of pacemakers. If MRI must be done, the pacemaker output in some models can be reprogrammed. In February 2011, the FDA approved an MRI-safe pacemaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "920238",
"title": "Peroneal nerve paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:MRI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan is an imaging test that uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create pictures of the body. It does not use radiation. Single MRI images are called slices. The images can be stored on a computer or printed on film. One exam produces dozens or sometimes hundreds of images. To locate nerve palsy, MRI is used by physicians to detect the position and location of damaged peroneal nerve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234714",
"title": "Medical imaging",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1620,
"text": "A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI scanner), or \"nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging\" scanner as it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei (i.e., single protons) of water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in images of the body. The MRI machine emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules. Radio frequency antennas (\"RF coils\") send the pulse to the area of the body to be examined. The RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction with respect to the primary magnetic field to change. When the RF pulse is turned off, the protons \"relax\" back to alignment with the primary magnet and emit radio-waves in the process. This radio-frequency emission from the hydrogen-atoms on water is what is detected and reconstructed into an image. The resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole (of which protons are one example) is called the Larmor frequency and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the nuclei of interest. MRI uses three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (typically 1.5 to 3 teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the primary field; gradient fields that can be modified to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, often simply called gradients; and a spatially homogeneous radio-frequency (RF) field for manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals, collected through an RF antenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8769719",
"title": "Fast low angle shot magnetic resonance imaging",
"section": "Section::::Physical Basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The physical basis of MRI is the spatial encoding of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal obtainable from water protons (i.e. hydrogen nuclei) in biologic tissue. In terms of MRI, signals with different spatial encodings that are required for the reconstruction of a full image need to be acquired by generating multiple signals - usually in a repetitive way using multiple radio-frequency excitations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1clprr
|
Stem Cells for Rejuvenation
|
[
{
"answer": "Cells from your body (eg your skin) can be manipulated and turned into [induced pluripotent stem cells](_URL_1_). These cells are, in theory, stem cells that can become any other type of cell in your body. Under the proper conditions, they can be induced to become neurons, blood cells, or any other cell type.\n\nIn theory, this technology could be used to produce organs (hearts, kidneys, livers) that could replace your organs as they became worn out over time. This would be difficult to do for complex organs that have multiple types of cells (the heart must contain muscle cells, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) This is the end goal of current research- however, this branch of research is still in its infancy, and it will be some time before it is ready for clinical application.\n\nIf your question is whether stem cells themselves can be injected into a patient and have them 'do their own thing' at the site of injection, it is unclear whether this will work or not. Wikipedia has a good [article](_URL_0_) describing potential treatments, although this line of research is also in its preliminary stages, and may or may not be successful in practice. It is currently being attempted for spinal regeneration and a few other areas.\n\nIf your question is whether the injection of a whole bunch of stem cells could rejuvenate someone in terms of reversing the aging process, this is unlikely. Stem cells, in general, do not have properties that are related to 'youth'- they are capable of becoming any type of cell, and they are capable of dividing infinitely, but they have no intrinsic properties that would remove wrinkles, restore cartilage, remove cholesterol buildup, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1029022",
"title": "Embryonic stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Self-Renewal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Under defined conditions, embryonic stem cells are capable of self-renewing indefinitely in an undifferentiated state. Self-renewal conditions must prevent the cells from clumping and maintain an environment that supports an unspecialized state. Typically this is done in the lab with media containing serum and leukemia inhibitory factor or serum-free media supplements with two inhibitory drugs (\"2i\"), the MEK inhibitor PD03259010 and GSK-3 inhibitor CHIR99021.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12223532",
"title": "Induced pluripotent stem cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Pluripotent stem cells hold promise in the field of regenerative medicine. Because they can propagate indefinitely, as well as give rise to every other cell type in the body (such as neurons, heart, pancreatic, and liver cells), they represent a single source of cells that could be used to replace those lost to damage or disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27783",
"title": "Stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Self-renewal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "When a stem cell self-renews it divides and does not disrupt the undifferentiated state. This self-renewal demands control of cell cycle as well as upkeep of multipotency or pluripotency, which all depends on the stem cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54114",
"title": "Vitamin A",
"section": "Section::::Metabolic functions.:Immune function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Hematopoietic stem cells are important for the production of all blood cells, including immune cells, and are able to replenish these cells throughout the life of an individual. Dormant hematopoietic stem cells are able to self-renew and are available to differentiate and produce new blood cells when they are needed. In addition to T cells, Vitamin A is important for the correct regulation of hematopoietic stem cell dormancy. When cells are treated with all-trans retinoic acid, they are unable to leave the dormant state and become active, however, when vitamin A is removed from the diet, hematopoietic stem cells are no longer able to become dormant and the population of hematopoietic stem cells decreases. This shows an importance in creating a balanced amount of vitamin A within the environment to allow these stem cells to transition between a dormant and activated state, in order to maintain a healthy immune system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2777285",
"title": "Adult stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Adult stem cells can, however, be artificially reverted to a state where they behave like embryonic stem cells (including the associated DNA repair mechanisms). This was done with mice as early as 2006 with future prospects to slow down human aging substantially. Such cells are one of the various classes of induced stem cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3889704",
"title": "Emerging technologies",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Stem-cell therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "\"Stem cell therapy\" is an intervention strategy that introduces new adult stem cells into damaged tissue in order to treat disease or injury. Many medical researchers believe that stem cell treatments have the potential to change the face of human disease and alleviate suffering. The ability of stem cells to self-renew and give rise to subsequent generations with variable degrees of differentiation capacities offers significant potential for generation of tissues that can potentially replace diseased and damaged areas in the body, with minimal risk of rejection and side effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27783",
"title": "Stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "In practice, stem cells are identified by whether they can regenerate tissue. For example, the defining test for bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is the ability to transplant the cells and save an individual without HSCs. This demonstrates that the cells can produce new blood cells over a long term. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to self-renew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3h6us4
|
when an app crashes and i send a report, what exactly does that do, and how is it used?
|
[
{
"answer": "It tells the developer that the app has crashed, first of all.\n\nBut it can also tell the developer what you were doing, what screen you were viewing, what data you were using, what route you took to get to that screen, and so on.\n\nAll of this can help fix the bug. Obviously the developer needs to know what screen you're looking at. But it's not uncommon to find find bugs where the app crashes every time you enter a \" character, for example. By sending the data to the developer, the developer can look at the report from dozens or even hundreds of similar crashes, and can realise that the \" character is the common denominator.\n\nObviously this has privacy issues - it's up to you to decide whether your privacy is worth sacrificing in order to help make the app better. If you use the app for banking or drug dealing, then probably not. If you use it for looking at pictures of cats you might be happy to share this data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43030141",
"title": "Firebase",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Stability.:Crashlytics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Crash Reporting creates detailed reports of the errors in the app. Errors are grouped into clusters of similar stack traces and triaged by the severity of impact on app users. In addition to automatic reports, the developer can log custom events to help capture the steps leading up to a crash. Before acquiring Crashlytics, Firebase was using its own Firebase Crash Reporting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5416311",
"title": "List of macOS components",
"section": "Section::::Other applications and accessories.:Crash Reporter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "When reporting a crash, the top text field of the window has the crash log, while the bottom field is for user comments. Users may also copy and paste the log into their e-mail client to send to a third-party application developer for the developer to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001700",
"title": "Crash reporter",
"section": "Section::::macOS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "In macOS there is a standard crash reporter in /System/Library/CoreServices/Crash Reporter.app. Crash Reporter.app sends the Unix crash logs to Apple for their engineers to look at. The top text field of the window has the crash log, while the bottom field is for user comments. Users may also copy and paste the log in their email client to send to the application vendor for them to use. Crash Reporter.app has 3 main modes: display nothing on crash, display \"Application has crashed\" dialog box or display Crash Report window.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279631",
"title": "Crash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Application crashes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "An application typically crashes when it performs an operation that is not allowed by the operating system. The operating system then triggers an exception or signal in the application. Unix applications traditionally responded to the signal by dumping core. Most Windows and Unix GUI applications respond by displaying a dialogue box (such as the one shown to the right) with the option to attach a debugger if one is installed. Some applications attempt to recover from the error and continue running instead of exiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001700",
"title": "Crash reporter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "A crash reporter is usually a system software whose function is to identify reporting crash details and to alert when there are crashes, in production or on development / testing environments. Crash reports often include data such as stack traces, type of crash, trends and version of software. These reports help software developers- Web, SAAS, mobile apps and more, to diagnose and fix the underlying problem causing the crashes. Crash reports may contain sensitive information such as passwords, email addresses, and contact information, and so have become objects of interest for researchers in the field of computer security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5416311",
"title": "List of macOS components",
"section": "Section::::Other applications and accessories.:Crash Reporter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In basic mode, if Crash Reporter notices an application has crashed twice in succession, it will offer to rename the application's preference file and try again (corrupted preference files being a common cause of crashes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279631",
"title": "Crash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Security and privacy implications of crashes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Depending on the application, the crash may contain the user's sensitive and private information. Moreover, many software bugs which cause crashes are also exploitable for arbitrary code execution and other types of privilege escalation. For example, a stack buffer overflow can overwrite the return address of a subroutine with an invalid value, which will cause a segmentation fault when the subroutine returns. However, if an exploit overwrites the return address with a valid value, the code in that address will be executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ycgf8
|
Why do trash cans smell even after they've been washed?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can only speak in generalities -- but I think it's pretty reasonable that those smell molecules have simply diffused into the plastic. At the molecular level, the plastic will be quite porous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3599694",
"title": "Hobo stove",
"section": "Section::::Construction and uses.:Cautions and considerations of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Some types of cans may have interior coatings containing chemicals such as Bisphenol A. Reusing containers originally holding paints and other types of chemicals may be injurious to the health of the user if the can is not properly cleaned and decontaminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406213",
"title": "Trade-off",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Similarly, trash cans that are used inside and then taken out to the street and emptied into a Dumpster can be small or large. A large trash can does not need to be taken out to the Dumpster so often, but it may become so heavy when full that the user risks strain or back injury when moving it. The choice of waste receptacle is a trade-off between the frequency of needing to take the trash out for the Dumpster versus the ease and safety of use. In the case of food waste, a second trade-off presents itself as large trash cans are more likely to sit for a long time in the kitchen, leading to higher levels of decomposing food indoors and a potential pest attraction. With a small trash can, the can will be taken out to the Dumpster more often, thus eliminating the persist rot that attracts pests. Of course, a user of a large trashcan could carry the can outside frequently anyway, but the heavier can would weigh more and the user would have to think more about when to take the can out, or confine themselves to a schedule, compared to a smaller can which is evidently full when it takes taking out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390765",
"title": "Housekeeping",
"section": "Section::::Housecleaning.:Removal of litter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured specifically for the collection of litter. Many are sized to fit common waste baskets and trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things, although most people use plastic bins for glass since it could break and tear through the bag. Recycling of some kinds of litter is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12511620",
"title": "Manshiyat Naser",
"section": "Section::::Garbage and recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "The city's garbage is brought to the Garbage City in Manshiyat Naser by the Zabbaleen (garbage collectors), who then sort through the garbage to attempt to retrieve any potentially useful or recyclable items. As a passerby walks or drives down the road he will see large rooms stacked with garbage with men, women or children crouching and sorting the garbage into unsellable or sellable. Families typically specialize in a particular type of garbage they sort and sell — one room of children sorting out plastic bottles, while the next of women separating cans from the rest. Anything that can be reused or recycled is saved by one of the numerous families in Manshiyat Naser. Various recycled paper and glass products are made and sold from the city, while metal is sold by the kilo to be melted down and reused. Carts pulled by horse or donkey are often stacked high with the recyclable goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3411618",
"title": "Waste collection",
"section": "Section::::Commercial waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Waste collection considerations include type and size of bins, positioning of the bins, and how often bins are to be serviced. Overfilled bins result in rubbish falling out while being tipped. Hazardous rubbish like empty petrol cans can cause fires igniting other trash when the truck compactor is operating. Bins may be locked or stored in secure areas to avoid having non-paying parties placing rubbish in the bin. The cost of old waste is also a concern in collection of waste across the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3893619",
"title": "Bear-resistant food storage container",
"section": "Section::::Bear bagging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In areas where trash cannot be burned (much of the United States and especially during dry seasons) and no fortified trash containers are available, trash may also be raised in a separate bear bag to keep the food smells from attracting bears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045528",
"title": "Ashcan copy",
"section": "Section::::Original use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "At the time, garbage cans were commonly called \"ash cans\" because they were used to hold soot and ash from wood and coal heating systems. The term was applied to these editions of comics because they had no value and were meant to be thrown away after being accepted by the Trademark Office. Some spare copies were given to editors, employees, and visitors to keep as souvenirs. Changes to the United States trademark law in 1946 allowed publishers to register a trademark with an intent to use instead of a finished product, and the practice of creating and submitting ashcans was abandoned when publishers began to consider it an unnecessary effort lawyers used to justify a fee. Because of their rarity, ashcans from this era are desired by collectors and often fetch a high price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a8avg2
|
why does closing a credit card account hurt your credit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Having less credit cards is easier to manage, but people looking at your credit score don’t care how you do when things are easy, they want to see that you can have multiple lines of credit and balance them wisely. Also, closing a credit card could be saying “I’m in over my head” and they don’t want to see that either. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, to build great credit you want to have as much available credit (and **debt**) as possible. \n\nYour credit score is a reflection of how trustworthy you are with credit. It's based on how **reliably you pay off your debt**, not how little debt you have. If you have a lot of credit cards, you use them all, and you pay the recommended amount on the recommended time schedule without fail, you are building your credit score. \n\nClosing a credit card account means you're willingly lowering your maximum credit and debt situation, which tells lenders that you don't want that credit/debt, which hurts your overall ability to lend in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It hurts your score for a number of reasons:\n\nCredit utilization goes up, meaning the percentage of your balance relative to overall credit line. This is one of the biggest factors in credit score. Let's say you have a $1000 balance on your cards, and your 2 cards have a total credit line of $10,000. Your utilization ratio is 10%. Now, you cancel a card with a $4000 line, and your utilization jumps to 17% with the same balance.\n\nAverage credit age might go down. Removing an account that has been open a while can reduce your average credit age, which is a factor in your score.\n\nYour number of accounts goes down. Showing more accounts, all in good standing, helps your score. It's better to show more accounts, and different types of accounts, than to have fewer accounts... provided they are all current and in good standing. Your rationale for thinking that fewer accounts is better actually plays more into the utilization rate mentioned above, where they don't want to see you maxed out/over extended on accounts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "A simple solution to this problem is to call the credit card company, request a new card with a different account number, and cancel the previous account. They will transfer the debt amount from the old account to the new account. This makes companies that have the credit card information unable to continue charging the credit card of the person. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2183979",
"title": "Universal default",
"section": "Section::::Ban on forms of universal default.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "However, this law did not prohibit all forms of universal default. Credit card companies have begun the practice of canceling altogether the accounts of customers who are delinquent or in default with other credit agencies even if the customer is still in good standing with the credit card company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6025411",
"title": "UK default charges controversy",
"section": "Section::::The OFT ruling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The report explicitly states that while the investigation was into default charges levied towards credit card customers, there is no reason why the same principle should not extend to personal banking. Some customers have successfully demanded the return of penalty charges for returned cheques, direct debits and unauthorised overdraft charges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1471699",
"title": "Credit card debt",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Declines in credit card debt are often misinterpreted because they fail to include information about charge-offs. The possible causes for a decline in credit card debt are consumers paying down their debt, credit card companies writing charged-off debt off their books, or a combination of the two. Inclusion of charged-off debt can therefore significantly impact debt trends and the characterization of a nation's financial health. For example, the $10.3 billion decrease in outstanding credit card debt in Q3 2010 relative to the previous quarter might at first glance seem to be a significant consumer pay down. However, considering that the Q3 credit card charge-off rate was $16.9 billion, consumers actually increased their overall debt by $6.6 billion during this quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Secured credit cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Although the deposit is in the hands of the credit card issuer as security in the event of default by the consumer, the deposit will not be debited simply for missing one or two payments. Usually the deposit is only used as an offset when the account is closed, either at the request of the customer or due to severe delinquency (150 to 180 days). This means that an account which is less than 150 days delinquent will continue to accrue interest and fees, and could result in a balance which is much higher than the actual credit limit on the card. In these cases the total debt may far exceed the original deposit and the cardholder not only forfeits their deposit but is left with an additional debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "This second form of credit card hijacking was created by marketers who recognized that subscription based services generally have relatively low periodic billing amounts which will generally go unnoticed on any given credit card statement. So what happens is that long after the user loses interest in the subscription, they forget to cancel the subscription and because the periodic billing is so low, they don’t tend to notice it on their credit card statement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273279",
"title": "Debits and credits",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Debit cards and credit cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "From the bank's point of view, when a debit card is used to pay a merchant, the payment causes a decrease in the amount of money the bank \"owes to\" the cardholder. From the bank's point of view, your debit card account is the bank's liability. A decrease to the bank's liability account is a debit. From the bank's point of view, when a credit card is used to pay a merchant, the payment causes an increase in the amount of money the bank \"is owed by\" the cardholder. From the bank's point of view, your credit card account is the bank's asset. An increase to the bank's asset account is a debit. Hence, using a debit card \"or\" credit card causes a debit to the cardholder's account in either situation when viewed from the bank's perspective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mzyr6
|
why aren't there bigger pushes to abandon the political party system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it would be impossible. What are you going to do, ban people from working together?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally there were no parties. Like- minded individuals formed parties organically.\n\nIf they got rid of the current parties the only thing that would happen is new ones would form, officially or othrwise it doesn't matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[*This ended up being a long answer. Sorry.*]\n\nYou can't make anyone \"abandon\" the system -- there's no constitutional way to tell people they can't work together. How could you prevent a group of people from saying \"we're not all going to run for president, but instead we'll vote amongst ourselves to select just one person to run, and then the rest of us will support that person\"? That's what a political party is, and you can't stop people from doing it.\n\nThe more realistic solution would be to end the two-party system and provide more options than just Republicans and Democrats, such that alternative parties could also compete. However this would be very difficult to do.\n\nWe currently have a plurality system (rather than a majority system). This means that you don't need to win half the vote, only have more votes than anyone else. If we have three candidates, and one gets 40% and the others each get 30%, the person with 40% would win...even though 60% of the voters voted against them! \n\nThe problem with this system is that if a third-party candidate runs, they're actually *taking votes away* from the major-party candidate closer to their interests. And we've seen both parties lose elections as a result. In 1992, Ross Perot ran independently, however he was a fairly conservative candidate -- his appeal was with Republicans looking for an alternative to George Bush. Clinton won with 43% of the vote, however it's very likely that the majority of Perot voters (who made up 19% total) would have preferred Bush as their second-choice. This means that having a second conservative candidate actually gave the election to the one liberal candidate. And the inverse happened in 2000, when Ralph Nader ran for the Green Party. Nader only took 1 or 2% of the vote, however Nader was even more liberal than Al Gore -- clearly anyone who voted for Nader would have taken Gore as their second-choice over Bush Jr, and that small difference would have given Gore Florida and won him the election. So this time, splitting the liberal vote gave the conservative candidate the election.\n\nSo as it stands, it's generally a bad idea to run a third-party candidate. You may not like the Republican or Democrat, but if you run a third option, you'll likely be taking votes away from the major candidate who you prefer (i.e. if you're liberal but dislike Hillary Clinton, running Bernie Sanders as a third-party candidate would split the vote and give the election to Republicans; if you're conservative but dislike the Republican candidate, running Trump will split the conservative vote and give the election to Democrats).\n\nThe solution would be to have a majority system, which means that you cannot win until you get at least 50%+1. There are two main ways to do this:\n\n* You can hold a run-off election between the top two vote-getters. Let's say the totals for 4 candidates are 40%, 30%, 25%, and 5%; we hold a run-off between the candidates who got 40% and 30%, and the remaining 30% of voters can recast their vote in order to get the candidate most preferred by everyone.\n* Alternately, you can allow voters to select a second choice on election day. Polls would initially tally the first choices, however if no candidate gets more than 50%, then we go through some process of switching to second choices.\n\nEither of these would insure that the ultimate winner is the one most agreed upon by the electorate. It may not be everyone's top choice, but we wouldn't have a situation where more than half the electorate voted against the winner.\n\nBut here's the problem: more than 95% of our politicians are from one of the two major political parties. Currently, the worst case scenario for either party is to be the *second*-most powerful party at any given moment, which means neither party has any interest in changing the system. In order to change our voting process, you would need support from enough politicians to push through such legislation...but why would they want to do that? While Republicans and Democrats are at odds over a lot of things, one thing they both agree on is that the two-party system (and the voting process that supports it) is in their best interests, because it keeps both parties powerful and relevant.\n\nThis is why you didn't see Republicans pushing to change the voting system after Ross Perot cost them the 1992 election, even though a different system would have given Bush Sr. a second term. They recognized that, yes, they did lose this one election, but in the long-term, they'd rather keep that system and always be #1 or #2 than to change the system and potentially lose power not only to the Democratic Party, but also, perhaps, the Libertarian Party, Tea Party, and Green Party.\n\nTL;DR: you can't get rid of political parties, but you can change the electoral process that gives rise to a two-party system. Unfortunately, the politicians capable of changing that system are in their positions because of that very system, so they have no interest in changing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All that would happen is instead of having parties outright youd just have a lot of \"wink, wink, nudge, nudge\" going on. Oh, no im not a memeber of the liberal party, parties are illegal, but im a liberal and all my political signage is in red and im going to work with all of the other liberals who use red signage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you're proposing makes no sense. The term \"party\" is just a label. A party is just a group of people who share similar ideas. Your friends are a party. Vegetarians are a party. Christians are a party. Political parties are simply people who share similar ideas in the political sector of society. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you wanted to get rid of the two party system in the US you could do these two things:\n\n1) Switch to approval voting. When you vote, you can vote for as many candidates as you want. Whoever gets the most votes wins.\n\n2) Switch to an additional member system for Congress. Basically this means that is some political party gets a substantial percentage of the vote nationwide and doesn't win any seats, you add some seats. The party fills those seats however it wants.\n\nThose two things would make a huge difference in how things happen in the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A political party gives a politician brand recognition. But more importantly it gives their opponents brand recognition. \"He's a democrat/republican/NDP/liberal/conservative so he's got my vote/he's a crook\". I'm from Toronto-- one of Rob Ford's favourite tactics is/was to call anyone who criticized an NDP hack, even though municipal politics doesn't have a party system and the provincial and federal parties rarely speak on municipal matters, but it played to his base who thought there was a vast left-wing conspiracy behind everything allegedly wrong with the city.\n\nAs far as why the US has had a two-party system for such a long time, I think it has to do with the perceived stakes by all voters of their less preferred candidate winning that they don't want to split the vote by voting for a third party candidate, and with the overall trend of binary logic in American culture: there are only two possible diametrically opposed and exclusive solutions to any problem and a consideration of nuance or flexibility is a sign of indecisiveness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The below video really helped me understand how political parties in America work and why we only really have two. I'm not sure this is what you're looking for, but it's definitely worth a watch or three. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not a system. The only system is, people vote for their representatives.\n\nCandidates then freely associate into parties for brand recognition and simplicity. People don't have to know everything about a candidate - just that they share the main goals of their party and will work towards them.\n\nIt makes voting more efficient for the public, and then during actual legislating, being in organized groups with common goals gives you more weighg to demand, compromise, and get things passed.\n\nIt's just a valuable spontanious self-assembly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason we still have an electoral college. The only people who have the authority to stop it are the people who gained that authority through the current system. So they have nothing to gain by changing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "155434",
"title": "By-election",
"section": "Section::::Significance and consequences.:Direct effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "By-elections can be crucial when the ruling party has only a small majority. In parliamentary systems, party discipline is often so strong that the governing party can only lose a vote of no confidence after losing enough by-elections for it to become a minority government. Examples are the Labour government of James Callaghan 1976–1979 and Conservative government of John Major 1992–1997. In the United States Senate, Scott Brown's election in 2010 ended the filibuster-proof supermajority formerly enjoyed by Democrats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3191896",
"title": "Apportionment (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Apportionment by country.:United States.:Prospects for change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Arguments for or against change to these institutions often have political overtones. The Democratic Party often advocates change, as it is generally more popular in large cities and many of the more populated states, while the Republican Party often defends the current system, as that party is more popular in rural areas and many of the less populated states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31605",
"title": "Two-party system",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "There have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views. Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses \"the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties.\" One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better \"centralization of policy expertise\" in government. Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions. Analyst Chris Weigant of \"the Huffington Post\" wrote that \"the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system\". After an election in which the party changes, there can be a \"polar shift in policy-making\" when voters react to changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political parties and elections.:Organization of American political parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The result is that American political parties have weak central organizations and little central ideology, except by consensus. A party really cannot prevent a person who disagrees with the majority of positions of the party or actively works against the party's aims from claiming party membership, so long as the voters who choose to vote in the primary elections elect that person. Once in office, an elected official may change parties simply by declaring such intent. An elected official once in office may also act contradictory to many of his or her party's positions (this had led to terms such as \"Republican In Name Only\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23996",
"title": "Political party",
"section": "Section::::Partisan style.:Multi-party systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems. If factions in a two-party system are in fundamental disagreement on policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which appears to be the case now in the U.S. with power split between Democrats and Republicans. Still coalition governments struggle, sometimes for years, to change policy and often fail altogether, post World War II France and Italy being prime examples. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can be both swift and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of such fortuitous circumstances, as were Republicans as far removed in time as Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama briefly had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1910846",
"title": "Party switching",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In many countries, party-switching takes the form of politicians refusing to support their political parties in coalition governments. This happens particularly commonly in countries without firmly-established political parties, such as Vanuatu and French Polynesia where in 2004, a few members of various parties left the governing coalition, forcing it to collapse. Party switches often occur with the formation of new parties — witness the situation in the United Kingdom, where some Liberals moved to the Labour Party in the early twentieth century. In formerly communist countries in Europe, de-Sovietisation saw many Communist-Party representatives switch to other parties ranging on the political spectrum from socialist to conservative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37553",
"title": "Duverger's law",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "A third party can enter the arena only if it can exploit the mistakes of a pre-existing major party, ultimately at that party's expense. For example, the political chaos in the United States immediately preceding the Civil War allowed the Republican Party to replace the Whig Party as the progressive half of the American political landscape. Loosely united on a platform of country-wide economic reform and federally funded industrialization, the decentralized Whig leadership failed to take a decisive stance on the slavery issue, effectively splitting the party along the Mason–Dixon line. Southern rural planters, initially attracted by the prospect of federal infrastructure and schools, aligned with the pro-slavery Democrats, while urban laborers and professionals in the northern states, threatened by the sudden shift in political and economic power and losing faith in the failing Whig candidates, flocked to the increasingly vocal anti-slavery Republican Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49a9ti
|
where does energy go in a short-circuited battery?
|
[
{
"answer": "It all turns into heat. Short out a battery, and it'll heat up and get warm, hot, or even on fire.\n\nAll batteries have internal resistance. That is to say, the inside of the battery isn't superconducting. So even if you had a superconducting wire shorting the battery, it would still get hot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10339",
"title": "Electrochemical cell",
"section": "Section::::Secondary cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A secondary cell, commonly referred to as a \"rechargeable battery\" is an electrochemical cell that can be run as both a galvanic cell or as an electrolytic cell. This is used as a convenient way to store electricity, when current flows one way the levels of one or more chemicals build up (charging), while it is discharging they reduce and the resulting electromotive force can do work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22535079",
"title": "Penny battery",
"section": "Section::::Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Batteries convert the chemical energy of the two metals (electrodes) interacting with the acid on the matboard (electrolyte) into electrical energy. In this situation, the metal surface serves as the electrode and an electric current (movement of electrons from one metal to the other) is created when the wire connects both metal surfaces. In the first hour, a five cell penny battery is able to provide about watts. Each cell is defined as a stack of a zinc penny, matboard, and a copper penny. Each cell can provide about 0.6 volts. Indicating that to power an LED light, needing 1.7 volts, only three cells need to be used. As time goes on the amount of energy that the battery can provide decreases. A five cell penny battery can last up to 6 1/2 hours providing minimal voltage. The stack of cells is also known as a voltaic pile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23702522",
"title": "Joule thief",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "It can use nearly all of the energy in a single-cell electric battery, even far below the voltage where other circuits consider the battery fully discharged (or \"dead\"); hence the name, which suggests the notion that the circuit is \"stealing\" energy or \"joules\" from the source - the term is a pun on the age-old expression \"jewel thief\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2392",
"title": "Anode",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal, which receives current from an external generator. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254510",
"title": "Galvanic cell",
"section": "Section::::Electrochemical thermodynamics of galvanic cell reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Galvanic cells and batteries are typically used as a source of electrical power. The energy derives from a high-cohesive-energy metal dissolving while to a lower-energy metal is deposited, and/or from high-energy metal ions plating out while lower-energy ions go into solution. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3270043",
"title": "Electric power",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage and current through them. For example, a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it provides power to a circuit, but as a load when it is connected to a battery charger and is being recharged, or a generator as a power source and a motor as a load.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Secondary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Secondary batteries, also known as \"secondary cells\", or \"rechargeable batteries\", must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
742pry
|
why does falling down hurt more/ longer when you get older
|
[
{
"answer": "* your body is frailer and takes more damage\n* you are less able to react and control how you fall, meaning you are more likely to fall hard\n* any injury you suffer from the fall will heal more slowly",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you get older, you get taller. As you get taller, more of your body gets farther away from the ground. As they get farther from the ground, they have farther to fall. \n\nKnock a three year old over.\n\nThen hold that same three year old up to where his head is level with yours and drop him.\n\nDon't actually do that unless you record it. For science.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm 60, if I get cold I get stiff. If I stumble I'm not as good at balance or catching a stumble and recovering so sometimes I flail around to land on the ground in a heap. Very frustrating and now I'm not as limber and strong as I once was so a impact hurts more, does more damage and takes longer to heal, also Many aches and pains seem to heal to 90% but linger and become part of my life.\n\nSometimes I remember doing a activity and think I am as good as I ever was until I am out for a fast walk and get passed by old people or on the bicycle. Cleaning the eves troughs, moving a ladder, simple things that now take more concentration and am sore for days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17507532",
"title": "Falls in older adults",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Falls in older adults are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and are an important class of preventable injuries. The cause of falling in old age is often multifactorial, and may require a multidisciplinary approach both to treat any injuries sustained and to prevent future falls. Falls include dropping from a standing position, or from exposed positions such as those on ladders or stepladders. The severity of injury is generally related to the height of the fall. The state of the ground surface onto which the victim falls is also important, harder surfaces causing more severe injury. Falls can be prevented by ensuring that carpets are tacked down, that objects like electric cords are not in one's path, that hearing and vision are optimized, dizziness is minimized, alcohol intake is moderated and that shoes have low heels or rubber soles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9827339",
"title": "Aging in place",
"section": "Section::::Home modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "There exist many risks for injury to older adults in the common household, therefore impacting upon their capability to successfully age in place. Among the greatest threats to an ability to age in place is falling. According to the CDC, falls are the leading cause of injurious death among older adults. Therefore, engagement in fall prevention is crucial to one's ability to age in place. Common features in an everyday household, such as a lack of support in the shower or bathroom, inadequate railings on the stairs, loose throw rugs, and obstructed pathways are all possible dangers to an older person. However, simple and low-cost modifications to an older person's home can greatly decrease the risk of falling, as well as decreasing the risk of other forms of injury. Consequently, this increases the likelihood that one can age in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22461",
"title": "Osteoporosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Risk of falls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness). Causes of syncope are manifold, but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up), and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with gait or balance disorders, are most at risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5486225",
"title": "Fall prevention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Falls and fall related injuries are among the most serious and common medical problems experienced by older adults. Nearly one-third of older persons fall each year, and half of them fall more than once. Over 3 million American over the age of 65 visited hospital emergency departments in 2015 due to fall related injuries with over 1.6 million being admitted. Because of underlying osteoporosis and decreased mobility and reflexes, falls often result in hip fractures and other fractures, head injuries, and even death in older adults. Accidental injuries are the fifth most common cause of death in older adults. In around 75% of hip fracture patients, recovery is incomplete and overall health deteriorates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14662238",
"title": "Balance (ability)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "There are balance impairments associated with aging. Age-related decline in the ability of the above systems to receive and integrate sensory information contributes to poor balance in older adults. As a result, the elderly are at an increased risk of falls. In fact, one in three adults aged 65 and over will fall each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18498968",
"title": "Falling (accident)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Older people and particularly older people with dementia are at greater risk than young people to injuries due to falling. Older people are at risk due to accidents, gait disturbances, balance disorders, changed reflexes due to visual, sensory, motor and cognitive impairment, medications and alcohol consumption, infections, and dehydration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Signs.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- Falls. Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a younger person. Every year, about one-third of those 65 years old and over half of those 80 years old fall. Falls are the leading cause of injury and death for old people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61jsas
|
why are salmon from the pacific prone to parasites while salmon from the atlantic safe to eat raw?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't believe this is actually a thing? Atlantic Salmon also frequently have warnings put out about parasite risks. [The NHS publishes warnings in the UK](_URL_0_) about it. \n\nNow you can get sushi-grade fish, of course, but that's fish that has been flash frozen to kill any potential parasites in the fish. That can also be done with Pacific salmon. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work in an industry servicing Atlantic breeding farms and I can tell you, salmon here is not, in any way, parasite free. I would regularly see salmon swimming around with large pieces of skin and flesh missing. They do have methods to kill off the parasites in the breeding rings, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting video on a sushi chef discovering a fish contaminated with parasites:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What information are you basing your question on?\n\n99.5% of Atlantic Salmon is Farmed salmon. There is no longer a commercial Wild Atlantic salmon fishery. \n\nPacific salmon is Wild. There is a large fishery in Alaska, BC, Washington, Oregon and California. \n\nAtlantic Salmon are more susceptible to disease because they are raised in Pens. I believe there biggest challenge is Sea Lice, which they are sharing with the Wild Pacific Salmon (not good).\n\nWild Pacific Salmon is as good as it gets. Salmon truly support the whole ecosystem of the West Coast and I will be eating salmon I caught off the west coast of Vancouver Island last summer for dinner tonight. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there a way to see it in a cut up filet in the supermarket? I often see some stringy white stuff after my salmon is cooked, but I'm not sure if it is a parasite... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there is no such thing [US] as \"wild\" Atlantic salmon in the market. In fact something like 70% of salmon in all US markets that are labeled wild are actually farmed. Why does this matter? Farming conditions for salmon increase the risk of parasites\n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GF works for a large fish distributor and wants me to tell you guys that parasites, not only in salmon but fish in general, are ubiquitous. It's not about if there are parasites but how big and how many.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I saw something recently about using computer vision and FRICKIN LASERS to combat sea lice on salmon in Norway...\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be unrelated, but in Norway they have little robots that live in their oceans that shoot lasers at parasites so fish are less likely to have them. This is not a joke.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22726521",
"title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
"section": "Section::::Species.:Atlantic salmon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Many Atlantic salmon escape from cages at sea. Those salmon that further breed tend to lessen the genetic diversity of the species leading to lower survival rates, and lower catch rates. On the West Coast of North America, the non-native salmon could be an invasive threat, especially in Alaska and parts of Canada. This could cause them to compete with native salmon for resources. Extensive efforts are underway to prevent escapes and the potential spread of Atlantic salmon in the Pacific and elsewhere. The risk of Atlantic Salmon becoming a legitimate invasive threat on the Pacific Coast of N. America is questionable in light of both Canadian and American governments deliberately introducing this species by the millions for a 100-year period starting in the 1900s. Despite these deliberate attempts to establish this species on the Pacific coast; no established populations have been reported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12843792",
"title": "Genetic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Gene flow to wild population.:Domestic populations.:Aquaculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife cites that \"commonly expressed concerns surrounding escaped Atlantic salmon include competition with native salmon, predation, disease transfer, hybridization, and colonization\" A report done by that organization in 1999 did not find that escaped salmon posed a significant risk to wild populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51648836",
"title": "Salmonellosis in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "An outbreak of salmonellosis caused by a rarer subspecies, \"Salmonella bareilly\", was reported in multiple US states primarily on the East Coast. No deaths were reported, but many episodes of sickness and some hospitalizations were linked to the consumption of raw scraped ground tuna product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35640555",
"title": "Diseases and parasites in salmon",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The European Commission (2002) concluded “The reduction of wild salmonid abundance is also linked to other factors but there is more and more scientific evidence establishing a direct link between the number of lice-infested wild fish and the presence of cages in the same estuary.” It is reported that wild salmon on the west coast of Canada are being driven to extinction by sea lice from nearby salmon farms. Antibiotics and pesticides are often used to control the diseases and parasites, as well as lasers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1202747",
"title": "Atlantic salmon",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Adult Atlantic salmon are considered much more aggressive than other salmon, and are more likely to attack other fish than others. A matter of concern is where they have become an invasive threat, attacking native salmon, such as Chinook salmon and coho salmon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457601",
"title": "Salmonella enterica",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Most cases of salmonellosis are caused by food infected with \"S. enterica\", which often infects cattle and poultry, though other animals such as domestic cats and hamsters have also been shown to be sources of infection in humans. Investigations of vacuum cleaner bags have shown that households can act as a reservoir of the bacterium; this is more likely if the household has contact with an infection source (i.e., members working with cattle or in a veterinary clinic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1202747",
"title": "Atlantic salmon",
"section": "Section::::Aquaculture.:Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Despite being the source of considerable controversy, the likelihood of escaped Atlantic salmon establishing an invasive presence in the Pacific Northwest is considered minimal, largely because a number of 20th century efforts aimed at deliberately introducing them to the region were ultimately unsuccessful. From 1905 until 1935, for example, in excess of 8.6 million Atlantic salmon of various life stages (predominantly advanced fry) were intentionally introduced to more than 60 individual British Columbia lakes and streams. Historical records indicate, in a few instances, mature sea-run Atlantic salmon were captured in the Cowichan River; however, a self-sustaining population never materialized. Similarly unsuccessful results were realized after deliberate attempts at introduction by Washington as late as the 1980s. Consequently, environmental assessments by the US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and the BC Environmental Assessment Office have concluded the potential risk of Atlantic salmon colonization in the Pacific Northwest is low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k3395
|
how can a spinning top stay upright while it's rotating?
|
[
{
"answer": "When something spins, it has inertia just like an automobile and just like an automobile, it is very easy to move it in certain directions in respect to the direction of the movement and difficult in other directions. The trick is that with a top, the inertia isn't all in one direction, it is in all directions along a plane. Shifting that plane up, down, or to the side takes very little energy, but turning the orientation of it requires disrupting the inertia, so you will experience a force if you try to do so. As long as the force which tends to topple the top is less than the force resisting it, the top will stay up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is called the law of Conservation of Angular Momentum.\n\nImagine you are spinning a bike wheel. If you want to completely stop its rotation and spin it the other way, that will require some effort, right?\n\nNow imagine that instead, as it is spinning you turn the bike wheel 180 degrees around (like turning a coin on its edge.) This would be surprisingly difficult. The reason is that the wheel is now spinning in the other direction. The law of CoAM requires that you have done as much work as in the previous scenario where you totally stop the wheel and spin it the other way. The faster the spin, the stronger this effect will be.\n\nOk, now you are spinning a top. Gravity wants to pull it down. That will tilt the top and change the axis of rotation, like you did with the bike wheel. Since the top is spinning, it resists this change. Again, gravity has to work for any change in the rotation like it was doing it \"by hand.\" So as long as the top is spinning fast enough, it can stay upright.\n\nTL;DR It is difficult to change the rotation of a spinning object.\n\nThis is also how gyroscopes work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An object can be balanced on a point without spinning, but it's fiendishly difficult to do. By spinning the object fast, you are, in a sense, constantly averaging the centre of gravity about the axis, so a slight unbalance in one direction is quickly moved before it has a chance to fell the top in that direction. Instead, you just get a slight wobble as it continually self-corrects. \n\nThe angular momentum comments are true, but this is ELI5.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10025116",
"title": "Tippe top",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "When a tippe top is spun at a high angular velocity, its stem slowly tilts downwards more and more until it suddenly lifts the body of the spinning top off the ground, with the stem now pointing downward. Eventually, as the top's spinning rate slows, it loses stability and eventually topples over, like an ordinary top.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10025116",
"title": "Tippe top",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Once the top is spinning on its stem, it does \"not\" spin in the opposite direction to which its spin was initiated. For example, if the top was spun clockwise, as soon as it is on its stem, it will be spinning clockwise viewed from above. This constant spin direction is due to conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22094",
"title": "Nutation",
"section": "Section::::Rigid body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "If a top is set at a tilt on a horizontal surface and spun rapidly, its rotational axis starts precessing about the vertical. After a short interval, the top settles into a motion in which each point on its rotation axis follows a circular path. The vertical force of gravity produces a horizontal torque about the point of contact with the surface; the top rotates in the direction of this torque with an angular velocity such that at any moment\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24714",
"title": "Precession",
"section": "Section::::Torque-induced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity – via the pitching motion – elicits gyroscopic precession (which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "761055",
"title": "Euler's Disk",
"section": "Section::::Components and operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The disk, when spun on a flat surface, exhibits a spinning/rolling motion, slowly progressing through different rates and types of motion before coming to rest. Most notably, the precession rate of the disk's axis of symmetry accelerates as the disk spins down. The rigid mirror is used to provide a suitable low-friction surface, with a slight concavity which keeps the spinning disk from \"wandering\" off a support surface. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "341083",
"title": "Spin (aerodynamics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "A spin is a special category of stall resulting in autorotation about the vertical axis and a shallow, rotating, downward path. Spins can be entered intentionally or unintentionally, from any flight attitude if the aircraft has sufficient yaw while at the stall point. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "341083",
"title": "Spin (aerodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Entry and recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Inverted spinning and erect or upright spinning are dynamically very similar and require essentially the same recovery process but use opposite elevator control. In an upright spin, both roll and yaw are in the same direction, but an inverted spin is composed of opposing roll and yaw. It is crucial that the yaw be countered to effect recovery. The visual field in a typical spin (as opposed to a flat spin) is heavily dominated by the perception of roll over yaw, which can lead to an incorrect and dangerous conclusion that a given inverted spin is actually an erect spin in the reverse yaw direction (leading to a recovery attempt in which pro-spin rudder is mistakenly applied and then further exacerbated by holding the incorrect elevator input).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nx04a
|
does my breastmilk have healthier properties if i eat healthier food?
|
[
{
"answer": "Regarding healthy and unhealthy fats:\ngenerally speaking: the membranes of your cells always feflect the stuff you eat. Of course the body has its own fattyacid metabolism and can contribute here. but regarding the fats the general rule applies: you are what you eat.\nOn the other hand: the milk you produce contains still certain healthy components eitherway. like omega3 fats that are important for the brain of the baby. Thats a propriety of breastmilk that should not be influenced by diet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1235987",
"title": "4-Hydroxynonenal",
"section": "Section::::Pathology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The increasing trend to enrich foods with polyunsaturated acyl groups entails the potential risk of enriching the food with some OαβUAs at the same time, as has already been detected in some studies carried out in 2007. PUFA-fortified foods available on the market have been increasing since epidemiological and clinical researches have revealed possible effects of PUFA on brain development and curative and/or preventive effects on cardiovascular disease. However, PUFA are very labile and easily oxidizable, thus the maximum beneficial effects of PUFA supplements may not be obtained if they contain significant amounts of toxic OαβUAs, which as commented on above, are being considered as possible causal agents of numerous diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7619431",
"title": "Soy protein",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "In 2006, an American Heart Association review of soy protein benefits indicated only weak confirmation for the cholesterol-lowering claim about soy protein. The panel also found soy isoflavones do not reduce postmenopause \"hot flashes\" in women, nor do isoflavones lower risk of cancers of the breast, uterus, or prostate. Among the conclusions, the authors stated, \"In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54711372",
"title": "Postpartum physiological changes",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Other foods or substances are not recommended postpartum if breastfeeding because they may have effects on the baby via breastmilk. Some clinicians discourage the use of caffeine. This could produce fussiness in the baby. Alcohol use is strongly discouraged. Consuming fish is healthy and provides vitamins, minerals and proteins. Consumption of oily fish like haddock, herring, sardines, grouper, and tuna may need to be limited due to pollutants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208092",
"title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
"section": "Section::::USDA food pyramid.:History.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Historically, adults were recommended to consume three cups of dairy products per day. More recently, evidence is mounting that dairy products have greater levels of negative effects on health than previously thought and confer fewer benefits. For example, recent research has shown that dairy products are not related to stronger bones or less fractures; on the flip side, another study showed that milk (and yogurt) consumption results in higher bone mineral density in the hip. Overall, the majority of research suggests that dairy has some beneficial effects on bone health, in part because of milk's other nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18735",
"title": "Lycopene",
"section": "Section::::Research and potential health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "A 2017 review concluded that tomato products and lycopene supplementation had small positive effects on cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated blood lipids and blood pressure. A 2010 review concluded that research has been insufficient to establish whether lycopene consumption affects human health. Lycopene has been studied in basic and clinical research for its potential effects on cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, although results through 2017 have not changed the prevailing FDA view that evidence of benefit remains inconclusive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1860654",
"title": "Center for Science in the Public Interest",
"section": "Section::::Programs and campaigns.:1% or Less campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Current research as of 2018 suggests higher-fat-content dairy products carry greater nutritional benefit, with neutral impact on cardiovascular disease from milk, and neutral to favorable impact from fermented dairy products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13267336",
"title": "Bionade",
"section": "Section::::Product.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The manufacturer emphasises that Bionade tastes like a soft drink, but is healthier than conventional high-sugar soft drinks. They support the claim of healthiness by referring to the relatively low level of sugar, sodium and flavor-enhancing additives, the absence of phosphorus or a stabilising agent, while both calcium and magnesium are present. The website makes more health claims and suggests that calcium is needed for bones and teeth, for nerves and muscles, while magnesium is said to work against listlessness and fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w4mn7
|
is it possible to have a mind like sherlock holmes?
|
[
{
"answer": "That doesn't really happen in the BBC series so much. Deductive reasoning is a real thing. I'm sure you're not seriously asking if you can slow down time with your mind though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1337774",
"title": "The Adventure of the Three Students",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson find themselves in a university town when a tutor and lecturer of St Luke's College, Mr. Hilton Soames, brings him an interesting problem. Soames had been reviewing the galley proofs of an exam he was going to give when he left his office for an hour. When he returned, he found that his servant, Bannister, had entered the room but accidentally left his key in the lock when he left, and someone had disturbed the exam papers on his desk and left traces that show it had been partially copied. Bannister is devastated and collapses on a chair, but swears that he did not touch the papers. Soames found other clues in his office: pencil shavings, a broken pencil lead, a fresh cut in his desk surface, and a small blob of black clay speckled with sawdust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49416479",
"title": "Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes, released January 3, 2013, is a book written by Maria Konnikova exploring ways to improve mindfulness, logical thinking and observation using Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional character Sherlock Holmes as an exemplar. Konnikova intertwines her analysis of Holmes's \"habits of mind\" with findings from the modern-day fields of neuroscience and psychology and offers advice on how to become a more rational thinker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30888982",
"title": "The Hound of the Baskervilles (2000 film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "In order to make his interpretation of Holmes stand out, Frewer decided to tap deeper into Holmes' genius side. In an interview with \"The Globe and Mail\", Frewer commented on his take of the infamous sleuth, saying, \"I decided Holmes has these literal brainstorms. He can hardly keep up with his own ideas. His brain is working quickly but he's always hot this calm reserve and demeanour. So that's exactly how I decided to play him.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567081",
"title": "The Seven-Per-Cent Solution",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The heart of the novel consists of an account of Holmes' recovery from his addiction. Knowing that Sherlock would never willingly see a doctor about his addiction and mental problems, Watson and Holmes' brother Mycroft induce Holmes to travel to Vienna, where Watson introduces him to Dr. Freud. Using a treatment consisting largely of hypnosis, Freud helps Holmes shake off his addiction and his delusions about Moriarty, but neither he nor Watson can revive Holmes' dejected spirit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1273596",
"title": "House (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Conception.:References to Sherlock Holmes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1312,
"text": "References to the famous fictional detective Sherlock Holmes created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle appear throughout the series. Shore explained that he was always a Holmes fan and found the character's indifference to his clients unique. The resemblance is evident in House's reliance on deductive reasoning and psychology, even where it might not seem obviously applicable, and his reluctance to accept cases he finds uninteresting. His investigatory method is to eliminate diagnoses logically as they are proved impossible; Holmes used a similar method. Both characters play instruments (House plays the piano, the guitar, and the harmonica; Holmes, the violin) and take drugs (House is dependent on Vicodin; Holmes uses cocaine recreationally). House's relationship with Dr. James Wilson echoes that between Holmes and his confidant, Dr. John Watson. Robert Sean Leonard, who portrays Wilson, said that House and his character—whose name is very similar to Watson's—were originally intended to work together much as Holmes and Watson do; in his view, House's diagnostic team has assumed that aspect of the Watson role. Shore said that House's name itself is meant as \"a subtle homage\" to Holmes. House's address is 221B Baker Street, a direct reference to Holmes's street address. Wilson's address is also 221B.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43586210",
"title": "Sherlock Holmes (2014 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise and character adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In the show, Sherlock Holmes is a strange but clever pupil who lives in room 221B of Baker House, one of the houses of Beeton School. He sleeps during class and has poor grades, especially in literature, philosophy and astronomy. He is thought by teachers to be a troublemaker, but has brilliant reasoning powers and blows a party horn when he thinks about something.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212179",
"title": "Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge",
"section": "Section::::People associated with the college.:Sherlock Holmes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Author Dorothy L. Sayers suggested that, given details in two of the stories, the fictional character Sherlock Holmes must have been at Cambridge rather than Oxford and that \"of all the Cambridge colleges, Sidney Sussex (College) perhaps offered the greatest number of advantages to a man in Holmes's position and, in default of more exact information, we may tentatively place him there\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kwo7h
|
Did any groups still cling to the Roman deities after the fall of Rome?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Roman Empire was of course not entirely Christian by the end of the fifth century, but it was pretty close. Pagans were never wiped out, but pretty much all our sources for this period and later were written by Christians, so we can't be entirely sure if they are accurate in their accounts of surviving pagans or not. I've written fairly detailed answers on paganism in the later Roman Empire and the early Byzantine empire [here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_), outlining in broad terms the evidence for pagans in a Christian empire. If you have any questions, I'll do my best to answer them :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Fall of the Western Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1647611",
"title": "How Should We Then Live?",
"section": "Section::::Table of Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chapter 1: Ancient Rome - The finite Graeco-Roman gods were not a sufficient inward base for the Roman society: Rome crumbled from within, and the invasions of the barbarians only completed the breakdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35708764",
"title": "Roman Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Religion and social history.:Religion and imperial cults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "While Roman imperial cult maintained significance up until the late 4th century, the ancient pantheon of gods slowly faded out of existence along the way. Following the emperor Caracalla's death in 217 A.D., inscriptions have nothing more to say about cults such as the Paphian Aphrodite, the Zeus of Salamis, or the Apollo of Hyle at Curium. Each of these cults had enjoyed a long and prosperous history on the island, and, like the imperial cult, seemed to disappear rather suddenly around the 3rd and 4th centuries—the period of Severan rule. All across the island, both imperial cult and the traditional gods began to lack the necessary power to sustain religious faith; after the Roman period, the citizens of Cyprus began to turn to newer, more private gods that were easily accessible and suited to the needs of the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476593",
"title": "Pompeii",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Roman Period.:AD 62–79.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption. Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38005076",
"title": "History of Western civilization before AD 500",
"section": "Section::::The fall of Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In 476 the western Roman Empire, which had ruled modern-day Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and England for centuries, collapsed due to a combination of economic decline, and drastically reduced military strength which allowed invasion by barbarian tribes originating in southern Scandinavia and modern-day northern Germany. Historical opinion is divided as to the reasons for the fall of Rome, but the societal collapse encompassed both the gradual disintegration of the political, economic, military, and other social institutions of Rome as well as the barbarian invasions of Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621178",
"title": "Christianization",
"section": "Section::::Late antiquity (4th-6th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "A turning point came after the Battle of the Frigidus of 395, ending the last serious attempt at a pagan revival in the now Christianized Roman Empire. After the defeat of Eugenius, the conservative pagan families of Rome gave up their resistance to Christianity and began to re-invent themselves to maintain their social leadership. By this time the Christian hierarchy had adopted classical education and culture as the marks of the civilized person, thus bringing the two social groups into alliance. Under the regency of Stilicho (395-408), some paganism was still tolerated, but later in the 5th century, legislation against pagan possessions, and other pagan practices, became increasingly strict. There appear to have been later attempts at a pagan revival, in 456 in circles surrounding the general Marcellinus and under Anthemius (r. 467-472), but these came to nothing. Marcian in 451 put the death penalty on the practice on pagan rites, and Leo I in 472 reinforced this by penalizing anyone who was aware that pagan rites were performed on his property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291925",
"title": "Revolt of the Batavi",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war for a century, the Year of the Four Emperors. The cause was the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The descendants of Augustus had enjoyed the automatic and fervent loyalty of ordinary legionaries in the frontier armies. But Galba possessed no such legitimacy in their eyes. Supreme power was now open to whichever general was strong enough to seize it (and keep it). First, in AD 69, Galba's deputy, Otho, carried out a coup d'état in Rome against his leader, who was killed by the Praetorian Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
95jj8g
|
How did the ancient Romans think of what we today call race?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some previous answers to this question while we wait for any further answers: \n\nfrom /u/cleopatra_philopater -\n_URL_3_\n\nAnd another from cleopatra_philopater with further links to the origins of race perception -_URL_0_\n\nFrom /u/medieval_pants - \n_URL_2_\n\nAnd some consolidated links from the FAQ - _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins of racial classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The modern concept of race emerged as a product of the colonial enterprises of European powers from the 16th to 18th centuries which identified race in terms of skin color and physical differences. This way of classification would have been confusing for people in the ancient world since they did not categorize each other in such a fashion. In particular, the epistemological moment where the modern concept of race was invented and rationalized lies somewhere between 1730 to 1790. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409919",
"title": "Historical race concepts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The concept of race as a rough division of anatomically modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\") has a long and complicated history. The word \"race\" itself is modern and was used in the sense of \"nation, ethnic group\" during the 16th to 19th centuries and acquired its modern meaning in the field of physical anthropology only from the mid-19th century. The politicization of the field under the concept of racism in the 20th century led to a decline in racial studies during the 1930s to 1980s, culminating in a poststructuralist deconstruction of race as a social construct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409919",
"title": "Historical race concepts",
"section": "Section::::Decline of racial studies after 1930.:Criticism of racial studies (1930s–1980s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Apart from its function as a vernacular term, the term \"race\" – as Nancy Stepan notes in her 1982 book, \"The Idea of Race in Science, Great Britain 1800–1960\" – varied widely in its usage, even in science, from the 18th century through the 20th; the term referred \"at one time or another\" to \"cultural, religious, national, linguistic, ethnic and geographical groups of human beings\" — everything from \"Celts\" to \"Spanish Americans\" to \"Hottentots\" to \"Europeans\" (p. xvii).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins of racial classification.:Colonialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "According to Smedley and Marks the European concept of \"race\", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution, which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds, and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade, which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409919",
"title": "Historical race concepts",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The word \"race\", interpreted to mean an identifiable group of people who share a common descent, was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French ' (1512), from Italian '. An earlier but etymologically distinct word for a similar concept was the Latin word \"\" meaning a group sharing qualities related to birth, descent, origin, race, stock, or family; this Latin word is cognate with the Greek words \"genos\", () meaning \"race or kind\", and \"gonos\", which has meanings related to \"birth, offspring, stock ...\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31830292",
"title": "White Aethiopians",
"section": "Section::::Modern interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Speaking of the difference between modern thought and ancient times, Richard Smith warns that even apparently well-defined categories \"like 'race' can be confusing\". According to him, Ptolemy placed two peoples, the Leukaethiopes and Melanogaetulians ('Black Gaetulians'), in the far west of North Africa; namely, in southern Morocco. Smith suggests that the Leukaethiopes, \"literally, 'white Ethiopians'\", could also be described as \"white black men\" since in ancient times \"the term 'Ethiopian' referred to skin color\". He further asserts that Pliny the Elder places the Leukaethiopes south of the (Sahara) desert, between the white Gaetulians and the black Nigritae; the closest neighbours would then have been the Libyaegyptians, \"literally the 'Egyptian Libyans', another oxymoron\". However, Smith indicates that Pliny does not mention any black Gaetulians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816797",
"title": "Race and society",
"section": "Section::::Social interpretation of physical variation.:Incongruities of racial classifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1348,
"text": "Marks (1995) argued that even as the idea of \"race\" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one racial group to adjacent racial groups emphasized that \"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them,\" as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation. In parts of the Americas, the situation was somewhat different. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World—western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia and southern and eastern Europe. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors—in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of Jamaicans to ∼23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans. In a survey of college students who self-identified as white in a northeastern U.S. university, the west African and Native American genetic contribution were 0.7% and 3.2%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1108nf
|
Can someone explain the dark trail in front of a plane in the sky?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the contrail creating a shadow in the low haze.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "153050",
"title": "The Odyssey of Flight 33",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "A flash of light is seen, accompanied by severe turbulence, although the captain thinks it might be something else. There is no apparent damage to the aircraft. Still unable to contact anyone on the ground, and at the risk of potential collision with other aircraft, Farver finally decides to descend below the clouds: the crew is able to identify the coastline of Manhattan Island and other geographic landmarks, but there is no city. The crew realizes that they have traveled far back in time when they look out the window and see grazing dinosaurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36805927",
"title": "Dark Flight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Dark Flight () is a 2012 Thai horror film. The film was directed by Issara Nadee. It shows the journey of a passenger plane haunted by ghosts that gradually trick the passengers into going insane and killing each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33253560",
"title": "Volcanic ash and aviation safety",
"section": "Section::::Volcanic hazards to aviation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Pilots can't see ash clouds at night. Also, ash particles are too small to return an echo to on-board weather radars on commercial airliners. Even when flying in daylight, pilots may interpret a visible ash cloud as a normal cloud of water vapour and not a danger—especially if the ash has travelled far from the eruption site. In the image from the Chaitén volcano, the ash cloud has spread thousands of kilometers from the eruption site, crossing the width of South America from the Pacific coast and spreading over the Atlantic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14872825",
"title": "Kenji Yanagiya",
"section": "Section::::Yanagiya’s Reminiscences about April 18, 1943.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "\"Some 10 minutes passed and it was time when we would start approaching to the airstrip. Then we found many airborne aircraft in the direction over Shortland Island, south of Buin base. At altitude about 1,500 m (5,000 ft), they were in groups of P-38s. Their fuselages and wings were painted in green, they positioned at lower altitude, which helped them camouflaged. It was obvious that we were late to find them. I saw P-38s dropped their extra fuel tanks and were already zooming up to engage our two land-base attackers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17455429",
"title": "Morpho adonis",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In 1913, Hans Fruhstorfer wrote: \"Dr. Hahnel reports its capture at Iquitos and Pebas. There it flies quickly and impetuously (sometimes at an elevation of 12 ft.), dashing out from among the branches, crossing the road and following clearings among the trees, in which they sail along just over the tops or in and out among the branches.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "341172",
"title": "Chase plane",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "A chase plane is an aircraft that \"chases\" a \"subject\" aircraft, spacecraft or rocket, for the purposes of making real-time observations and taking air-to-air photographs and video of the \"subject aircraft\", during flight. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1433230",
"title": "Rendlesham Forest incident",
"section": "Section::::Primary and secondary sources.:The Halt affidavit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "A 1983 Omni article says \"Colonel Ted Conrad the base commander... recalls five Air Force policemen spotted lights from what they thought was a small plane descending into the forest. Two of the men tracked the object on foot and came upon a large tripod-mounted craft. It had no windows but was studded with brilliant red and blue lights. Each time the men came within 50 yards of the ship, Conrad relates, it levitated six feet in the air and backed away. They followed it for almost an hour through the woods and across a field until it took off at 'phenomenal speed.' Acting on the reports made by his men, Colonel Conrad began a brief investigation of the incident in the morning. He went into the forest and located a triangular pattern ostensibly made by the tripod legs. ...he did interview two of the eyewitnesses and concludes, 'Those lads saw something, but I don't know what it was'.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27wwvs
|
When an atom emits a photon, is it one blob of energy shot out like a bullet? Or is it a radiating wavefront coming from any one side of the atom? Or does the wave carry in a full sphere around the atom? Does the nucleus cause an eclipse?
|
[
{
"answer": "The photon at atomic scales can be thought of like a blob of energy, representing an excitation in the [discrete nature of the electromagnetic field](_URL_0_). It's only at larger scales that light appears to behave like a classical wavefront.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16133434",
"title": "Optically active additive",
"section": "Section::::Physics of optically active technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1111,
"text": "If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons \"jumps\" to a \"higher orbit\". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55236",
"title": "Compton scattering",
"section": "Section::::Description of the phenomenon.:Derivation of the scattering formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "A photon with wavelength collides with an electron in an atom, which is treated as being at rest. The collision causes the electron to recoil, and a new photon ' with wavelength ' emerges at angle from the photon's incoming path. Let ' denote the electron after the collision. Compton allowed for the possibility that the interaction would sometimes accelerate the electron to speeds sufficiently close to the velocity of light as to require the application of Einstein's special relativity theory to properly describe its energy and momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53622964",
"title": "Resonance ionization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An initial photon from this beam is absorbed by one of the sample atoms, exciting one of the atom's electrons to an intermediate excited state. A second photon then ionizes the same atom from the intermediate state such that its high energy level causes it to be ejected from its orbital; the result is a packet of positively charged ions which are then delivered to a mass analyzer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18616290",
"title": "Gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Radioactive decay (gamma decay).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to any electrons, but most probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, causing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally termed the photoelectric effect (external gamma rays and ultraviolet rays may also cause this effect). The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which a gamma ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a \"virtual gamma ray\" may be thought to mediate the process).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2178380",
"title": "Induced gamma emission",
"section": "Section::::Distinctive features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- If an incident photon is absorbed by an initial state of a target nucleus, that nucleus will be raised to a more energetic state of excitation. If that state can radiate its energy only during a transition back to the initial state, the result is a \"scattering process\" as seen in the schematic figure. That is not an example of IGE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55236",
"title": "Compton scattering",
"section": "Section::::Description of the phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Compton found that some X-rays experienced no wavelength shift despite being scattered through large angles; in each of these cases the photon failed to eject an electron. Thus the magnitude of the shift is related not to the Compton wavelength of the electron, but to the Compton wavelength of the entire atom, which can be upwards of 10000 times smaller. This is known as \"coherent\" scattering off the entire atom since the atom remains intact, gaining no internal excitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2229944",
"title": "Pound–Rebka experiment",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Now consider two copies of this electron-atom system, one in the excited state (the emitter), the other in the lower energy state (the receiver). If the two systems are stationary relative to one another and the space between them is flat (i.e. we neglect gravitational fields) then the photon emitted by the emitter can be absorbed by the electron in the receiver. However, if the two systems are in a gravitational field then the photon may undergo gravitational redshift as it travels from the first system to the second, causing the photon frequency observed by the receiver to be different to the frequency observed by the emitter when it was originally emitted. Another possible source of redshift is the Doppler effect: if the two systems are not stationary relative to one another then the photon frequency will be modified by the relative speed between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4qnfeo
|
Why were siege engines not used more often in ancient times?
|
[
{
"answer": "Siege engines were expensive in terms of expertise to design, materials to gather for construction and (for some types) ammunition, time to build, and men to operate. They were also difficult to move and ranges were limited. [This interview with Peter Vemming](_URL_1_) discusses his work recreating a 22-ton trebuchet that was expected at the time to have a range of about 300m (about 328 yards). His was not the first attempt to recreate a medieval trebuchet, either, suggesting that despite our knowledge, authentic trebuchets required a great deal of knowledge to build properly.\n\nOn the topic of the range, a siege engine in the wrong place might be targeted by archers either trying to pick off crew or to damage or destroy the siege engine. CJ Longman wrote in 1894 of [attempts to replicate claims of longbow ranges above 300 yards](_URL_0_), and while he never quite reached it, he opined that a trained longbowman could probably reach 350 yards. Add in a little more distance due to shooting from a height (either a wall or a tower) and the range of the trebuchet suddenly becomes a potential problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "233403",
"title": "Siege engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Siege engines are fairly large constructions—from the size of a small house to a large building. From antiquity up to the development of gunpowder, they were made largely of wood, using rope or leather to help bind them, possibly with a few pieces of metal at key stress points. They could launch simple projectiles using natural materials to build up force by tension, torsion, or, in the case of trebuchets, human power or counterweights coupled with mechanical advantage. With the development of gunpowder and improved metallurgy, bombards and later heavy artillery became the primary siege engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1299991",
"title": "Roman siege engines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Relatively small efforts were made to develop the technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare that brought them repeated success. Up to the first century BC, the Romans utilized siege weapons only as required and relied for the most part on ladders, towers and rams to assault a fortified town. \"Ballistae\" were also employed, but held no permanent place within a legion's roster, until later in the republic, and were used sparingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233403",
"title": "Siege engine",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Ancient Assyria through the Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1169,
"text": "The first two rulers to make use of siege engines to a large extent were Philip II of Macedonia and Alexander the Great. Their large engines spurred an evolution that led to impressive machines, like the Demetrius Poliorcetes' \"Helepolis\" (or \"Taker of Cities\") of 304 BC: nine stories high and plated with iron, it stood 40 m (132 ft) tall and 21 m (69 ft) wide, weighing 180 t (360,000 lb). The most utilized engines were simple battering rams, or \"tortoises\", propelled in several ingenious ways that allowed the attackers to reach the walls or ditches with a certain degree of safety. For sea sieges or battles, seesaw-like machines (\"sambykē\" or \"sambuca\") were used. These were giant ladders, hinged and mounted on a base mechanism and used for transferring marines onto the sea walls of coastal towns. They were normally mounted on two or more ships tied together and some sambykē included shields at the top to protect the climbers from arrows. Other hinged engines were used to catch enemy equipment or even opposing soldiers with opposable appendices which are probably ancestors to the Roman corvus. Other weapons dropped heavy weights on opposing soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7788962",
"title": "Roman military engineering",
"section": "Section::::Proactive and routine military engineering.:Engineering siege machines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Although most Roman siege engines were adaptations from earlier Greek designs, the Romans were adept at engineering them swiftly and efficiently, as well as innovating variations such as the repeating ballista. The 1st century BC army engineer Vitruvius describes in detail many of the Roman siege machines in his manuscript De Architectura.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21012786",
"title": "Torsion siege engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "A torsion siege engine is a type of artillery that utilizes torsion to launch projectiles. They were initially developed by the ancient Greeks, specifically Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, and used through the Middle Ages until the development of gunpowder artillery in the 14th century rendered them obsolete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3986617",
"title": "Lithobolos",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Siege engines of all types have been recorded as mounted on ships, with perhaps their first successful use at the Battle of Salamis (306 BCE) under the command of Demetrius \"The Besieger\". The enormous transport \"Syracusia\" possibly had the largest ship-mounted catapult of the ancient world, an machine that could fire arrows or stones up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2148",
"title": "Armoured fighting vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of AFVs.:History.:Siege machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Siege engines, such as battering rams and siege towers, would often be armoured in order to protect their crews from enemy action. Polyidus of Thessaly developed a very large movable siege tower, the \"helepolis\", as early as 340 BC, and Greek forces used such structures in the Siege of Rhodes (305 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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