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33ns50
|
i hang around my friend who is sick for one day and i get sick, but my dog who lives with me all the time doesn't get sick from me... why is that?
|
[
{
"answer": "The germs that get humans sick, don't necessarily make other animals sick. That's why malaria doesn't kill mosquitos, and the avian flu was so scary. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "353069",
"title": "Gastric dilatation volvulus",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Symptoms are not necessarily distinguishable from other kinds of distress. A dog might stand uncomfortably and seem to be in extreme discomfort for no apparent reason. Other possible symptoms include firm distension of the abdomen, weakness, depression, difficulty breathing, hypersalivation, and retching without producing any vomitus (\"non-productive vomiting\"). A high rate of dogs with GDV have cardiac arrhythmias (40 percent in one study). Chronic GDV may occur in dogs, symptoms of which include loss of appetite, vomiting and weight loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31653028",
"title": "Tongue-Tied (short story collection)",
"section": "Section::::The stories.:Spot the Dog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "While sick in bed, a boy is asked to play a game of Spot the Dog by his mother, whose pictures of landmarks in their home town are very detailed, but lack people. While looking over the picture, the boy seems to end up sucked into the game, because 1) he ends up looking for dogs around town personally; 2) the town seems to be deserted during his search, just like it is in his mother's pictures; and 3) whenever he finds the dogs, they run away faster than normal to their new location. The last page of the story contains a distorted picture of the town, and a chance for the reader to play Spot the Dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1620133",
"title": "Graham Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "I was often asked if he had cancer or AIDS. In fact at 67, he had diabetes, some rheumatism, the odd creaky joint, a healthy capacity to whinge and the usual symptoms connected with smoking and drinking. But by now the horses were gone and the dog had died. He was eating less and drinking more. One night, he fell down the stairs. He was discovered the next morning on the floor by his housekeeper. He was rushed to the local hospital where pneumonia in one lung was treated effectively and efficiently, a fracture near his hip was repaired and he was diagnosed with brain damage. We were to learn he had Korsakoff's syndrome (an alcohol-related condition) and we decided to keep it private.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2650522",
"title": "Canine parvovirus",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Dogs that develop the disease show signs of the illness within 3 to 7 days. The signs may include lethargy, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea (usually bloody). Generally, the first sign of CPV is lethargy. Secondary signs are loss of weight and appetite or diarrhea followed by vomiting. Diarrhea and vomiting result in dehydration that upsets the electrolyte balance and this may affect the dog critically. Secondary infections occur as a result of the weakened immune system. Because the normal intestinal lining is also compromised, blood and protein leak into the intestines leading to anemia and loss of protein, and endotoxins escape into the bloodstream, causing endotoxemia. Dogs have a distinctive odor in the later stages of the infection. The white blood cell level falls, further weakening the dog. Any or all of these factors can lead to shock and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41726017",
"title": "Canine cognitive dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Any medical causes for these symptoms must be ruled out. Medical diagnoses that may contribute to these symptoms include thyroid disorders, Cushing's disease, diabetes, kidney disease, musculoskeletal disease, cancer, liver problems, and sensory loss. Also, behavioral problems in dogs may be factors that influence these symptoms (i.e. lack of housetraining, lack of social interaction, separation anxiety, phobias, aggression and compulsive disorders).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3952518",
"title": "Bilious vomiting syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Dogs with this condition usually vomit in the morning after not eating all night. Treatment is to feed late at night. H2 blockers and antiemetics can also be used. Bilious vomiting syndrome is a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that the dog is normal otherwise and no other causes of the vomiting have been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97839",
"title": "Canine distemper",
"section": "Section::::Clinical signs.:Lasting signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Life-threatening signs usually include those due to the degeneration of the nervous system. Dogs that have been infected with distemper tend to suffer a progressive deterioration of mental abilities and motor skills. With time, the dog can develop more severe seizures, paralysis, reduction in sight, and incoordination. These dogs are usually humanely euthanized because of the immense pain and suffering they face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26itaj
|
the eu election results. can't really find a broken down explanation online.
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ for an overall result.\n\nEurosceptics were the first party in important nations such as UK or France, but they overall get around a fifth of the seats in the European Parliament.\n\nTraditional, eurosupporter parties such as EEP or S & D still have over the 50% of the seats together.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111039",
"title": "2004 Ukrainian presidential election",
"section": "Section::::International influence and reaction.:European Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The European Union made it clear that they would not recognize the results of the election. All 25 member countries of the EU summoned their ambassadors from Ukraine in order to register a sharp protest against what is seen as election fraud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54689553",
"title": "Caviar diplomacy",
"section": "Section::::2013 Presidential elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Varying estimates of the elections led to a scandal. On October 11, the representative of the European Union, Catherine Ashton and European Commissioner Stefan Fule, ignored the assessment of the European Parliament, including in its statement the results of the ODIHR. The Commission on Foreign Relations of the EU discussed the report of Arlacchi. During the discussion, representatives of the “green” condemned the report and said that it discredited the European Parliament. The head of the Socialists’ faction in the EU said that the PACE report cannot be considered reliable at all. It later emerged that a number of EU representatives traveled to Azerbaijan unofficially and on the dime of Azerbaijani organizations, which was regarded by the “European Voice” as “stupidity or corruption”, these trips were labeled “electoral tourism”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22765442",
"title": "Ilham Aliyev",
"section": "Section::::Party affiliation and electoral history.:2013 election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "Varying estimates of the elections led to a scandal. On October 11, the representative of the European Union, Catherine Ashton and European Commissioner Stefan Fule, ignored the assessment of the European Parliament, including in its statement the results of the ODIHR. The Commission on Foreign Relations of the EU discussed the report of Arlacchi. During the discussion, representatives of the “green” condemned the report and said that it discredited the European Parliament. The head of the Socialists’ faction in the EU said that the PACE report cannot be considered reliable at all. It later emerged that a number of EU representatives traveled to Azerbaijan unofficially and on the dime of Azerbaijani organizations, which was regarded by the “European Voice” as “stupidity or corruption”, these trips were labeled “electoral tourism”.The US State Department in its turn discredited the observers from the House of Representatives, describing the elections as not meeting international standards, and expressing solidarity with the ODIHR's assessment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51529326",
"title": "2018 Venezuelan presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.:International.:Unrecognized.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The European Union, after calling for the suspension of the elections, stated that they would not recognize the results. On 28 May 2018, the Council of the European Union, with its members representing the executive governments of members states including Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom, refused to recognize the election results and called for new, democratic elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2059542",
"title": "2006 Mexican general election",
"section": "Section::::Presidential election.:Calls for electoral reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "On Thursday November 23, 2006 the European Union (EU) election observer mission presented its final report. The report was generally positive and defended the official result of the July 2 presidential election saying they \"reflect[ed] the legitimate will of the Mexican people.\" However, the report also expressed concerns and raised several criticisms, both general and specific, of the electoral process and the election. The report includes 48 specific recommendations for future reform to \"strengthen the electoral process\", such as introducing random automatic recounts in the case of a close election, shortening the campaign period, considering the introduction of a two round run-off system for presidential elections, and general clarifications in the electoral law (e.g., clarifying the grounds for requesting a recount and for the annulling of the election).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6343949",
"title": "Controversies of the 2006 Mexican general election",
"section": "Section::::Results of opposition.:Calls for electoral reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "On Thursday November 23, 2006 the European Union (EU) election observer mission presented its final report. The report was generally positive and defended the official result of the July 2 presidential election saying they \"reflect[ed] the legitimate will of the Mexican people.\" However, the report also expressed concerns and raised several criticisms, both general and specific, of the electoral process and the election. The report includes 48 specific recommendations for future reform to \"strengthen the electoral process,\" such as introducing random automatic recounts in the case of a close election, shortening the campaign period, considering the introduction of a two round run-off system for presidential elections, and general clarifications in the electoral law (e.g., clarifying the grounds for requesting a recount and for the annulling of the election).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47802164",
"title": "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The United Kingdom's component of the 2019 European Parliament election was held on Thursday 23 May 2019 and the results were announced on Sunday 26 and Monday 27 May 2019, after all the other EU countries had voted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1huqtq
|
How strong/muscular were ancient warriors? Did they know enough about muscle growth to be the same build as many athletes/bodybuilders now? When did humans start becoming adept at bodybuilding?
|
[
{
"answer": "In general, the population today is much larger than they were during ancient or medieval times. Better access to food, especially rich in protein and fat has allowed the human population (at least in the western world) to become much taller.\n\nThat said, the population back then were much more accustomed to hardships and laborous work. The Athenian army that fought at Marathon marched out about 42km to fight the Persian army, donned their armour (the full equipment of the hoplite would weight about 60 kg) and charged the Persian army and forced them to retreat to their ships. Then they turned around and ran back towards Athens as they feared that the Persians were attacking the city in their absence.\n\nIt is not entirely certain if the Athenian hoplites all had heavy bronze armour, or if a majority of them were rich enough to have servants carry their equipment for them while on the march (the Spartans often had Helots do this for them), but almost none of them would have been professional soldiers, yet they had the stamina to march 42km, charge and fight the Persians and then RUN back to Athens, with all their equipment (regardless if someone else carried it for them or not).\n\nSomething that was trained a lot in ancient armies was an inverted tug of war, where two sides would form lines and try to push each other back (to be strong and coordinated enough to break the other side's line), somthing I suppose would train your strength and dexterity - and your stamina, doing that all day in the sun - a lot.\n\nFit is of course a relative term. A viking *Hirdman* would spend his days training, but also eating and drinking. Providing good food and drink and getting your *hirdmän* large was a matter of prestige. On campaign, food could be scarce, and having a reserve layer of fat for less bountiful days was seen as a wise precaution for soldiers, as long as they kept their strength and stamina up. A heavy soldier is also in a better position to push when the shield walls meet.\n\nRoman gladiators were known to consume huge amounts of barley gruel in an attempt to develop a thick layer of underskin fat, which would protect the muscles and organs beneath from superficial cuts and wounds.\n\nSo, to answer your question, most soldiers from those times would be strong, have a great stamina, be very much used to harships and hard labour, but would not necessarily look fit as we define it in modern terms.",
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"answer": "I can't directly answer your question about 'ancient warriors', but what I will give you is a short history of modern bodybuilding and weightlifting. (**Edit:** and the reason I'm doing that is to answer how and why humans got adept at bodybuilding, and how that doesn't really apply back in pre-modern times)\n\nHistories of weightlifting and strength training often point back to Ancient Greece, but the fact is we don’t really know as much as we’d like about ancient strength training and military practice. It seems that the ‘ancients’ tended to do lifting with stones, although early forms of dumbbells seem to have existed as well (I’m think Halteres, which Gardiner *Athletics in the Ancient World* and Pearl *Gettering Stronger: Weight Training for Sports* both mention. Galen seems to have mention of weight training regimes, which is noted in medieval texts such as Camerarius 1544 *Dialogue de gymnasius* and also de Montaigne in the 16th mentions filling objects with lead to use as weights.\n\nIt’s not, however, until the late 19th century that you get the development of the barbell. And it’s not until much later that you get the use of stands that enable things like modern benchpressing or the squat (prior to that you had techniques like the Steinborn Lift, which is basically holding the barbell vertical and then letting it half-fall onto you as you lift it up).\n\nIn the mid 19th century you get the growth of strongmen as travelling performers. This created greater interest in ‘physical culture’ and a Prussian named Friedrich Muller, later known as Eugene Sandow, became well known as a travelling strongman, in both Europe and America, but also actively promoted ‘bodybuilding’, through designing equipment and a magazine (at first “Physical Culture”, later “Sandow’s Magazine of Physical Culture”. 1891 there were World Weightlifting Championships, and at the 1896 Olympics there were 2 weightlifting events (a clean and jerk, and a one hand lift which was kind of like the snatch, but done one handed, and had to be matched with the other hand. WL was omitted in 1900, appeared in 1904, again omitted in 08 and 12, and resumed in 1920. The 1920 games introduced weight divisions. In 1928 there were 3 exercises: clean and press, snatch, and clean and jerk, but the clean and press was dropped in 1972.\n\nIn the 1900s-1930s figures like Bernarr Macfadden (originally ‘Bernard’) and Charles Atlas promoted bodybuilding and the like. Atlas in particular promoted bodyweight training. Throughout these first two periods the main emphasis is on aesthetics, symmetry, and the ‘Grecian’ ideal of physique. \n\nIn the 1930s you see the emergence of physique competitions, but most of the competitors come from other athletic divisions. 1939 is the start of Mr America competition. Weightlifting is still not really thought of as a sport, but its importance to building muscle mass is beginning to become apparent.\n\nIn the 1940s John Grimek dominates the Mr America competition, and is primarily a weight lifter. You also see the split organisationally between bodybuilding and weightlifting, with the formation of the International Federation of Body Builders in 1949.\nThe public exposure of bodybuilding grows greatly in the 50s, in large part due to Steve Reeves, who won Mr America in 47, 48, and 50, and became a star actor. \n\nThe 60s represent a new stage, as better understanding of bio-science and nutrition leads to much bigger body builders. You also see the Weider create Mr Olympia in 1965, creating an ongoing competition for bodybuilding of the highest caliber. Furthermore there is a greater emphasis on sheer muscle mass. \n\nI’ll leave off the history of bodybuilding after the 70s, but basically this is the history of its development into a ‘sport’. You do see the influx and influence of anabolic steroids in the late 70s. But to go back to some of your other major questions, there’s no doubt that ancients understood basic nutrition and basic exercise well. But modern biochemistry and sports science, not so much. You also need to realise that becoming a mass monster involves a lot of luxury – your society needs to be producing quality caloric excess for you to be able to eat a lot, and you need to be free from other labour to exercise fairly relentlessly. At the same time, historical counterparts generally had much more physical and enduring lifestyles, which modern militaries do not attempt to emulate (because they obviously do not fight hand to hand all the time. If they did we would train our armies differently).\n\n\n",
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"answer": "Modern weight training requires fairly specialized equipment; well-made iron barbells and plates that can handle heavy (and often dynamic) loads, for example, as well as iron plates (although early barbell training used globes filled with sand or shot instead of heavy plates), or at least a selectorized machine capable of mimicking correct joint functions. This is equipment to which the ancients did not have access.\n\nThe ancients also likely did not understand the proper role of strength training (indeed, many modern coaches do not), which is to provide \"general physical preparedness\" on top of which sport- (or combat-) specific conditioning and skill training can be applied, not something that should be done at the same time and in the same way as sport- or combat-specific training. This is not an obvious intuition at all, but it is backed up by modern research showing that (for example) basketball players who train with a weighted ball, or boxers who train with weighted gloves, actually tend to perform worse than athletes who do not. It's why baseball pitchers train by bench pressing and practicing their throwing technique with a normal ball rather than merely practicing with a weighted ball (trying to combine strength and skill training and ruining both in the process)\n\nModern bodybuilders apply this in a direction that would have been further alien to the ancients; for example, a big, muscular chest can most easily be developed with benching exercises (barbell or dumbbell bench presses or chest flyes), but a flat bench is a piece of equipment that did not begin to feature prominently in weightlifting or sport training until the mid-20th century (and arguably did not really take off until the rise of bodybuilding and powerlifting, and decline of weightlifting, in the '70s and '80s). So it's unlikely that Roman gladiators had massive pecs; even early 20th century weightlifters didn't have those. Furthermore, training for muscular size, muscular strength, and explosiveness are not the same thing (the rep ranges, rest intervals, timing of workouts, training volume, and training intensity are totally different). So even an unusually strong warrior wouldn't necessarily have been comparable to a modern bodybuilder.\n\nHowever, they did understand the concept of progressive overload. The earliest mention of this concept comes from the (embellished) story of Milo of Croton, a 6th century BC Greek wrestler born in Italy. As the legend goes, Milo lifted a calf over his shoulder every day; as the calf grew larger, so did he, until he could shoulder a full-grown ox. He allegedly subsisted on a daily diet of 20 pounds of bread, 20 pounds of meat, and 18 pints of wine. Sadly, no food logs or YouTube videos from the period catalogue these feats of muscular and digestive fortitude.",
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"answer": "A related question to this : Tacitus, when he talks about the germanians, says that their \"free way of life, unburdened by any laws and rules, lead to them being of great physical stature\" (not the exact quote, but you get the idea). Many historians have dismissed the idea that the \"barbarians\" would be bigger than the romans/greeks (as most movies like to portray them), because most of the time they didn't have enough food. \n\nIs Tacitus right in that \"free\" societies such as the barbarian tribes produced more muscular/taller men, even though it should be physically improbable?",
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"answer": "I do not know if they were of the same build as bodybuilders, but both the ancients and the medieval people understood the importance of endurance,strength, agility and flexibility. \n\nOne of the ancient military manuals - Vegetius' De Re Militari spends some time on the physical training of soldiers. \nHere is something from the [1940's reprint](_URL_0_)\n\n > But the young recruits in particular must be exercised in running, in order to charge the enemy with great vigor; occupy, on occasion, an advantageous post with greater expedition, and prevent the enemy in their designs upon the same; that they may, when sent to reconnoiter, advance with speed, return with greater celerity and more easily come up with the enemy in a pursuit.\nLeaping is another very necessary exercise, to enable them to pass ditches or embarrassing eminences of any kind without trouble or difficulty. There is also another very material advantage to be derived from these exercises in time of action; for a soldier who advances with his javelin,.running and leaping, dazzles the eyes of his adversary, strikes him with terror, and gives him the fatal stroke before he has time to put himself on his defense. Sallust, speaking of the excellence of Pompey the Great in these particulars, tells us that he disputed the superiority in leaping with the most active, in running with the most swift, and in exercises of strength with the most robust. Nor would he ever have been able to have opposed Serrorius with success, if he had not prepared both himself and his soldiers for action by continual exercises of this sort.\n\nLater texts also pick up on this - for example Machiavelli's book \"Of the art of war\". These manuals also include recommendations for the qualities of the soldiers - including size, build and which people are good for where...\n\nMedieval and Renaisance fencing manuals while not that directly also address manners of physical qualities - for example the Segno from the manual of [Fiore dei Liberi] (_URL_2_) where each animal represents strength, agility, braveness, etc. \n\nHere is another image of people [training](_URL_1_) from the XV-th century\n\nSo they did know the importance of certain qualities, and how to improve them trough training. \nPerhaps modern soldiers are not stronger, but are on equal grounds. I would argue that modern soldiers would have better diet, but I have no idea how that would factor, and do not have the data to make the argument. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For more info, you may want to reference past questions on this topic found in the \"[Did people in the past exercise/work out/lift weights?](_URL_0_)\" section of the FAQ, to which this question has been added.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Medieval illustrations are not as detailed at times as we would like them; of the instances where we have bare bodies protrayed, they can be [difficult to scrutinize for physique](_URL_3_). \"Herr Jacob von Warte\", Manesse Codex, 1340. \n\nMaster Fiore dei Liberi wrote in 1409 that wrestling is the beginning of studying the arts of war, and that wrestling calls for 8 qualities. The very first that he mentions is *sforteza*, strength/fortitude.\n\nNotable illustrations from the 14th and 15 centuries show warriors training in numerous ways, as seen in the [Wolfegg Hausbuch](_URL_1_). There are sizable rocks being lifted, but also wrestling. Wrestling builds an incredible amount of strength and stamina, as well as coordination and balance. \n\nDi Grassi wrote in his fencing treatise of 1594 \"Therefore let everie man that is desierous to practise this Art, indevor himselfe to get strength and agilitie of bodie\". It seems clear that he felt that strength and agility were qualities that could and must be cultivated.\n\nCapo Ferro published a fencing manual in 1610, with figures [more or less nude.]( _URL_0_) One can see that these fencers have [well-toned musculature](_URL_2_). While this might seem like splitting hairs, rapier is a weapon that was used in a manner very different from the swords that preceded it, necessarily cultivating a different physique. For one, wrestling was essentially eliminated from the historical rapier curricula, aside from the occasional throw. Consider that modern Olympic fencers tend to cultivate a very different physique from modern wrestlers. While they are not the same systems as the men-at-arms of the Middle Ages used, historical fencing researchers have shown that rapier vs previous swordsmanship systems encourage very different builds.\n\n*edit: formatting",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "946574",
"title": "Strength athletics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The origin of strength athletics lies within prehistory. Testing each other in feats of physical prowess has been something humans have done throughout their existence. This is encapsulated in the modern Olympic motto of \"Swifter, higher, stronger\". There are records in many civilizations of feats of strength performed by great heroes, mythological or otherwise. In ancient western culture Greek heroes such as Heracles are blessed with great strength. In the Bible, figures with exceptional physical strength are described such as Samson and Goliath. Man's obsession with those who possess extraordinary strength is an ancient and persistent one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32156908",
"title": "Muscular evolution in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Muscular evolution in humans is an overview of the muscular adaptations made by humans from their early ancestors to the modern man. Humans are believed to be predisposed to develop muscle density as early humans depended on muscle structures to hunt and survive. Modern man's need for muscle is not as dire, but muscle development is still just as rapid if not faster due to new muscle building techniques and knowledge of the human body. Humans are widely thought to be one of the fastest muscle growing organisms due to surplus of calories, specialized amino acids, and one of the lowest amounts of myostatin in the animal kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2383985",
"title": "Bodybuilding supplement",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "Athletes in ancient Greece were advised to consume large quantities of meat and wine. A number of herbal concoctions and tonics have been used by strong men and athletes since ancient times across cultures to try to increase their strength and stamina. In the 1910s, Eugen Sandow, widely considered to be the first modern bodybuilder in the West, advocated the use of dietary control to enhance muscle growth. Later, bodybuilder Earle Liederman advocated the use of \"beef juice\" or \"beef extract\" (basically, consomme) as a way to enhance muscle recovery. In 1950s with recreational and competitive bodybuilding becoming increasingly popular Irvin P. Johnson began to popularize and market egg-based protein powders marketed specifically at bodybuilders and physical athletes. The 1970s and 1980s marked a dramatic increase in the growth of the bodybuilding supplement industry, fueled by widespread use of modern marketing techniques and a marked increase in recreational bodybuilding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5652305",
"title": "Superhuman strength",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Superhuman strength is a common ability of many gods and demigods in ancient mythology, such as Hercules/Heracles (Roman/Greek), Beowulf (Norse), Karna (Hindu) and Achilles (Greek). Attempts to modify the human body in order to gain extraordinary strength is common throughout history, as seen in fiction through characters such as Terminator, Robocop, Iron Man and Cyborg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32156908",
"title": "Muscular evolution in humans",
"section": "Section::::Strength changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "Compared to our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, Homo sapiens' skeletal muscle is on average about 1.35 to 1.5 times weaker when normalized for size. As little biomechanical difference was found between individual muscle fibers from the different species, this strength difference is likely the result of different muscle fiber type composition. Humans' limb muscles tend to be more biased toward fatigue-resistant, slow twitch Type I muscle fibers. While there is no proof that modern humans have become physically weaker than past generations of humans, inferences from such things as bone robusticity and long bone cortical thickness can be made as a representation of physical strength. Taking such factors into account, there has been a rapid decrease in overall robusticity in those populations that take to sedentism. For instance, bone shaft thickness since the 17th and 18th centuries have decreased in the United States, indicating a less physically stressful life. This is not, however, the case for current hunter gatherer and foraging populations, such as the Andaman Islanders, who retain overall robusticity. In general, though, hunter gatherers tend to be robust in the legs and farmers tend to be robust in the arms, representing different physical load (i.e., walking many miles a day versus grinding wheat).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876467",
"title": "Kleobis and Biton",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Heroic Nudity.:Athletic Depiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Back to the legend by Solon for Kleobis and Biton, the greatest test of strength for the two young men came when they were challenged with having to take their mother to town as her oxen. The extent of their muscular depiction is emphasized to characterize them as to represent the brute strength of the Argive style, found in the High Archaic period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4360",
"title": "Bodybuilding",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.:Notable early bodybuilders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of bodybuilding's earliest books), Zishe Breitbart, Georg Hackenschmidt, Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of posing), Frank Saldo, Monte Saldo, William Bankier, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss, Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort (\"Strongfortism\"), Gustav Frištenský, Ralph Parcaut (a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on \"physical culture\"), and Alan P. Mead (who became an impressive muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War I). Actor Francis X. Bushman, who was a disciple of Sandow, started his career as a bodybuilder and sculptor's model before beginning his famous silent movie career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mdkwx
|
If the heart is a muscle that needs blood to function how does it and whose blood does it pump at first?
|
[
{
"answer": "The interesting thing about flow to the heart is that blood basically flows to the heart only when it's not contracting. During contractions, the pressure peaks and the body gets its blood flow, but the contraction of the muscles pushes blood back out of the arteries. In diastole, when the muscle relaxes and aortic pressure drops, blood then flows into the coronary arteries and supplies the heart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's an [oddly useful for being so amateurish page](_URL_0_) describing the development of the fetal heart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The heart gets its blood supply from two coronary arteries, and their branches. These arteries begin immediately after the aortic valve, the valve that prevents blood from flowing back into the heart from the aorta. It is composed of three leaflets, two of which have the opening to a coronary artery immediately adjacent to them. These arteries then branch and spread out on the surface of the heart.\n\nDuring systole (contraction) blood flows into the aorta. During diastole it attempts to flow from the aorta back into the heart but the aortic valve snaps shut. Thus there is an increase in pressure on the aortic side of the aortic valve, which drives blood into the coronary arteries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The interesting thing about flow to the heart is that blood basically flows to the heart only when it's not contracting. During contractions, the pressure peaks and the body gets its blood flow, but the contraction of the muscles pushes blood back out of the arteries. In diastole, when the muscle relaxes and aortic pressure drops, blood then flows into the coronary arteries and supplies the heart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's an [oddly useful for being so amateurish page](_URL_0_) describing the development of the fetal heart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The heart gets its blood supply from two coronary arteries, and their branches. These arteries begin immediately after the aortic valve, the valve that prevents blood from flowing back into the heart from the aorta. It is composed of three leaflets, two of which have the opening to a coronary artery immediately adjacent to them. These arteries then branch and spread out on the surface of the heart.\n\nDuring systole (contraction) blood flows into the aorta. During diastole it attempts to flow from the aorta back into the heart but the aortic valve snaps shut. Thus there is an increase in pressure on the aortic side of the aortic valve, which drives blood into the coronary arteries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19827221",
"title": "Arthropod",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Respiration and circulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The heart is typically a muscular tube that runs just under the back and for most of the length of the hemocoel. It contracts in ripples that run from rear to front, pushing blood forwards. Sections not being squeezed by the heart muscle are expanded either by elastic ligaments or by small muscles, in either case connecting the heart to the body wall. Along the heart run a series of paired ostia, non-return valves that allow blood to enter the heart but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19775833",
"title": "Acromyrmex",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The heart is a long, tubular organ running the entire length of the body, from the brain to the tip of the abdomen. It has valves within it that prevent blood from flowing the wrong way. The fluids bathing the internal organs is circulated by the heart; these fluids then filter through the organs and tissues. The pharynx, which is part of the gut, controlled by six muscles, pumps food into the oesophagus. Debris in the food, such as soil, is filtered before it enters the oesophagus and is collected in a tiny trap, the infrabuccal pocket. When this pocket becomes full, the \"Acromyrmex\" ant empties it into an area within or outside the nest designated as a waste-products area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424348",
"title": "Cardiac muscle",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Histology.:Cardiac muscle cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes are the contracting cells which allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighbouring cells - known as a functional syncytium - working to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424348",
"title": "Cardiac muscle",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Gross anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Contracting heart muscle uses a lot of energy, and therefore requires a constant flow of blood to provide oxygen and nutrients. Blood is brought to the myocardium by the coronary arteries. These originate from the aortic root and lie on the outer or epicardial surface of the heart. Blood is then drained away by the coronary veins into the right atrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25700707",
"title": "E/A ratio",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The heart is a biological pump designed to move blood through the brain and body. It has four chambers: two \"upper\" chambers called the atria, and two \"lower\" chambers called the ventricles. Anatomically, the atria are more posterior to the ventricles, but for ease of understanding, are often drawn \"above\" them. The atria are separated from the ventricles beneath by the atrioventricular valves, which open to allow blood into the ventricles and close when ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial node. These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic circulation, which enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation, through the lungs where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulation−where the oxygen is used and metabolized to carbon dioxide. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers resting heart rate in the long term, and is good for heart health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36808",
"title": "Heart",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assisting in the removal of metabolic wastes. In humans, the heart is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ec5532
|
I just read in a wikipedia page on Roman food that rations of wheat were distributed by the Roman state to as many as 200,000 individuals per month (1st century). What other kind of welfare programs did Rome have in place?
|
[
{
"answer": "[The Roman grain distributions were not, and should not be thought of, \"welfare\" in any really recognizable sense. Nor was the Augustan roll of 200,000 really particularly impressive, even compared to earlier grain distributions](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speaking about the republic and earlier empire, and quoting Greg Woolf (Food, Poverty, and Patronage: The Significance of the Epigraphy of the Roman Alimentary Schemes in Early Imperial Italy), “neither charity nor state welfare can be shown to have been significant sources of assistance to the poor in the ancient world,” and as u/XenophonTheAthenian noted above, you have to squint very hard at the Augustan grain dole to make it resemble modern welfare systems. \n\nSince you asked about other kinds of welfare, though, let’s at least go over a few other kinds of not‑welfare-except-if-you-squint. Alimentary schemes and public distributions provided by wealthy individuals are noteworthy among other Roman customs and institutions that might have been beneficial to the destitute. However, both are subject to basically the same type of caveats as the grain dole: there is not much evidence that they were specifically aimed at the lowest strata of society, and there is even contrary evidence, namely, that higher-status beneficiaries customarily were given more.\n\nPublic feasts and distributions of food or money were often paid for by wealthy members of a community (for instance, a certain town) for the benefit of other members, and in addition to being paid for as one-off gifts or to mark certain celebrations (weddings, holidays, etc.), were frequently set up in a wealthy individual’s will, by establishing a foundation to provide public giveaways in the deceased’s memory on recurring occasions. These foundations often functioned by being initially endowed with a lump sum of capital and then lending it out at interest, over time recycling the initial capital into new loans and using the interest to fund the benefit that had been set up. The benefit to the giver essentially lay in the purchase of prestige, influence, and/or remembrance.\n\nWhile such distributions of food and money were benefits to the donor’s community, they weren’t welfare and they weren’t even specifically aimed at the poor (which makes sense considering the aim to gain prestige in life or to be remembered after death; neither of these goals required, or was helped by, focusing particularly on the destitute.). The most that can be said of them from a welfare perspective is that a meal or a money gift might have been more important to the very poorest than to others who received it. But these feasts and distributions were occasional events and often offered smaller gifts to the poor than to the influential, whose gratitude was more valuable.\n\nSecond, there were various alimenta. An alimentum was a fund set up to benefit (typically) children of a certain community by paying for their subsistence until they come of age. We know of various privately funded alimentary schemes, often aimed at supporting a certain number of children in the donor’s home community. In the reign of Trajan (or possibly his predecessor Nerva) in the early second century A.D., the emperors got in on what had previously been a private and localized game, with numerous large alimenta schemes aimed at children in various communities in Italy. \n\nThese alimentary schemes often, though not always, had a very similar financial basis as that of the feast-providing or gift‑providing foundations: an initial endowment of money is loaned out at interest, and the interest income pays for the benefits. Next to the grain dole, these funds for the benefit of children are the Roman institutions that superficially most resemble modern welfare, and they very likely did help some destitute children, but we have the exact same caveats: there is not a lot of evidence that they were specifically for poor children (or even, in the case of the Imperial alimenta, specifically established in poorer communities and regions), and we do have some evidence that the payments were influenced not by how needy the child was but by their status in the eyes of society – such as boys receiving more than girls.\n\nWhile the grain dole was an enduring institution, these alimentary schemes generally do not seem to have lasted through the Crisis of the Third Century, which is not surprising considering what the crisis meant for the general Roman economy. There were general shocks to the economy and diminished prosperity during the period of military anarchy, which certainly decreased the resources available to set up these foundations and funds, likely reduced the opportunities for profitable loans for established funds, and likely increased the risks of failure to repay the loans at all. Also, for alimenta that relied on paying out interest while preserving and recycling a fixed sum of initial capital, the high inflation of the crisis years would have been even worse than it was for the economy as a whole.\n\nOther sources of financial aid… well, there were other Roman social institutions that may have been relevant to mitigating financial distress – colleges and societies prominent among them, such as the well-known burial societies – but these operated more along the lines of insurance. Members paid regular dues in return for the institution’s covering sudden, major expenses such as funerals. These have their own histories, being both socially and financially important for their members, but they were even less a form of welfare than the institutions discussed above.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "288612",
"title": "Legionary",
"section": "Section::::Pay and conditions.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "A Roman legionary had two meals per day: The \"prandium\"(breakfast) and the \"cena\"(dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack, a long-lasting biscuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38736209",
"title": "Food and dining in the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::\"Annona\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole \"(annona)\" to citizens who registered for it. About 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg per month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tonnes of wheat primarily from Sicily, Northern Africa, and Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47948609",
"title": "Cura Annonae",
"section": "Section::::History of the grain dole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "In the early centuries of the Republic (509-287 BC), the Roman government intervened sporadically to distribute free or subsidized grain to its population. Regular distribution began in 123 BC with a grain law proposed by Gaius Gracchus and approved by the Roman popular assembly. Adult male citizens (over 14 years of age) of Rome were entitled to buy at a below-market price five \"modii\", about , of grain monthly. Approximately 40,000 adult males were eligible for the grain. In 62 and 58 BC the number of Romans eligible for grain was expanded and grain became free to its recipients. The numbers of those receiving free or subsidized grain expanded to an estimated 320,000 before being reduced to 150,000 by Julius Caesar and then set at 200,000 by Augustus Caesar, a number that remained more or less stable until near the end of the Western Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288612",
"title": "Legionary",
"section": "Section::::Pay and conditions.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the \"cibaria\", rations other than grain. This included a variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine, vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork, cheese, and olive oil. However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508257",
"title": "Food distribution",
"section": "Section::::Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "The traditional Roman diet consisted of grain, fruits, olive oil, meat and wine. Of all these, grain was extremely important to the Roman people. During Rome's height, it is estimated that the city itself needed 150,000 tons of grain and millions of liters of water and wine every year to survive. It was traditionally the responsibility of the Roman government to guarantee that there was enough food for distribution among the people. In times of shortages, bad harvests, or interference by pirates, the government made sure to fulfill its obligation to food distribution. Officials would sometimes buy food themselves and then sell it back to the people at little to no cost. When Rome eventually established its Empire, foreign lands would send taxes in grain to Rome, which helped decrease the chance of a food distribution crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214980",
"title": "Ancient Roman cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods and ingredients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "From 123 BC, a ration of unmilled wheat (as much as 33 kg), known as the \"frumentatio\", was distributed to as many as 200,000 people every month by the Roman state. There was originally a charge for this but from 58 BC this charge was abolished by the plebeian tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher. Individuals had to be citizens and domiciled in Rome to receive the \"frumentatio\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:City and country.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (Cura Annonae) to citizens who registered for it. About 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg. per .month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily, north Africa, and Egypt. The dole cost at least 15% of state revenues, but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes, and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hag7d
|
why can certain electrical items turn on for a split second when they're not plugged in?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've never been able to see an item turn on when not plugged in, but certain ones I've seen remain on momentarily after being unplugged. \r\r\rEither way, the answer is the same, capacitors. Capacitors are devices that store small amount of electrical energy. They are kinda like really fast charging/discharging batteries, but they hold a very limited amount of energy. A capacitor is essentially just two metal plates separated by a distance. Charge can't cross the gap, but it can build up on either plate. Capacitors have many, many uses. \r\r\rMany electronic devices have pretty big capacitors in their power circuit. The wall uses AC power, the device uses DC. To convert you from AC to DC, one of the things you need is a capacitor. The capacitor helps smooth out the DC voltage. When unplugged, the capacitor can supply a limited amount of energy before it drains. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11691999",
"title": "Magnetic starter",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Due to the electromagnet in the contactor, if power to the machine should fail the contactor will automatically disengage. Unlike machines with an ordinary latching switch (such as a common light switch), when the power is resumed the machine will not operate until being turned on again. As a result, magnetic starters often use momentary switches for \"off\" and \"on\" functions, as this type of switch returns to a defined normal position when released. Latching switches do not have this feature and therefore are normally not used with a magnetic starter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4604136",
"title": "Commutation cell",
"section": "Section::::The structure of a commutation cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "In reality, it is impossible to have a perfect synchronization between the switches. At one point during the commutation, they would be either both on (thus shorting the voltage source) or off (thus leaving the current source in an open circuit). This is why one of the switches has to be replaced by a diode. A diode is a natural commutation device, i.e. its state is controlled by the circuit itself. It will turn on or off at the exact moment it has to. The consequence of using a diode in a commutation cell is that it makes it unidirectional (see figure 3). A bidirectional cell can be built, but it is basically equivalent to two unidirectional cells connected in parallel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24331218",
"title": "Multiway switching",
"section": "Section::::Two locations.:Carter system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The major problem with this method is that in one of the four switch combinations the socket around the bulb is electrified at both of its terminals even though the bulb is not lit. As the shell may be energized, even with the light switched off, this poses a risk of electrical shock when changing the bulb. This method is therefore prohibited in modern building wiring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4739163",
"title": "Standby power",
"section": "Section::::Magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "\"Many appliances continue to draw a small amount of power when they are switched off. These \"phantom\" loads occur in most appliances that use electricity, such as VCRs, televisions, stereos, computers, and kitchen appliances. This can be avoided by unplugging the appliance or using a power strip and using the switch on the power strip to cut all power to the appliance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28809",
"title": "Shabbat",
"section": "Section::::Prohibited activities.:Orthodox and Conservative.:Electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Another view is that a device plugged into an electrical outlet of a wall becomes part of the building, but is nonfunctional while the switch is off; turning it on would then constitute building (category 35) and turning it off would be demolishing (category 34). Some schools of thought consider the use of electricity to be forbidden only by rabbinic injunction, rather than because it violates one of the original categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9100515",
"title": "ADAT Lightpipe",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The lightpipe is \"hot-pluggable\", which means devices do not need to be turned off for plugging in or unplugging (although it is advisable to mute the receiving equipment, since there will be a large signal spike when the connection is made). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326821",
"title": "Appliance plug",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "The mains connectors of the appliance plug are two rounded sockets that accept two rounded pins from the appliance. They are unpolarised. The third connection, earth, is a large metal contact on each side of the plug body which makes contact with the sides of the plug receptacle, grounding the appliance body. Some appliances using these connectors incorporate a spring and plunger mechanism with a temperature-sensitive release system; if the temperature rises significantly above a preset limit - for example, if a kettle boils dry - the spring is released and (if all goes well) the plunger pushes the plug and socket apart. It must then be allowed to cool and reset manually by forcing the connector back into the appliance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ajrv2c
|
what is a bond and where does that money paid go to?
|
[
{
"answer": "A bond is a promise to pay someone money at a future date. Governments and business will issue bonds to raise money. Investors give money to the government or business and get the bond in exchange. When the bond matures the government or business will give whoever holds the bond the money that they promised. In between the initial sale and maturity the bond can be bought and sold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60737",
"title": "Bond (finance)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Thus a bond is a form of loan or IOU: the \"holder\" of the bond is the lender (creditor), the \"issuer\" of the bond is the borrower (debtor), and the \"coupon\" is the interest. Bonds provide the borrower with external funds to finance long-term investments, or, in the case of government bonds, to finance current expenditure. Certificates of deposit (CDs) or short-term commercial paper are considered to be money market instruments and not bonds: the main difference is the length of the term of the instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60737",
"title": "Bond (finance)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The bond is a debt security, under which the issuer owes the holders a debt and (depending on the terms of the bond) is obliged to pay them interest (the coupon) or to repay the principal at a later date, termed the maturity date. Interest is usually payable at fixed intervals (semiannual, annual, sometimes monthly). Very often the bond is negotiable, that is, the ownership of the instrument can be transferred in the secondary market. This means that once the transfer agents at the bank medallion stamp the bond, it is highly liquid on the secondary market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60737",
"title": "Bond (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Investing in bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Bonds are bought and traded mostly by institutions like central banks, sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds, and banks. Insurance companies and pension funds have liabilities which essentially include fixed amounts payable on predetermined dates. They buy the bonds to match their liabilities, and may be compelled by law to do this. Most individuals who want to own bonds do so through bond funds. Still, in the U.S., nearly 10% of all bonds outstanding are held directly by households.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695460",
"title": "Government debt",
"section": "Section::::Government and sovereign bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "A government bond is a bond issued by a national government. Such bonds are most often denominated in the country's domestic currency. Sovereigns can also issue debt in foreign currencies: almost 70% of all debt in 2000 was denominated in US dollars. Government bonds are sometimes regarded as risk-free bonds, because national governments can if necessary create money de novo to redeem the bond in their own currency at maturity. Although many governments are prohibited by law from creating money directly (that function having been delegated to their central banks), central banks may provide finance by buying government bonds, sometimes referred to as monetizing the debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152835",
"title": "Debt",
"section": "Section::::Types of borrowers.:Businesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "A company may also issue bonds, which are debt securities. Bonds have a fixed lifetime, usually a number of years; with long-term bonds, lasting over 30 years, being less common. At the end of the bond's life the money should be repaid in full. Interest may be added to the end payment, or can be paid in regular installments (known as coupons) during the life of the bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786751",
"title": "Accrued interest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "For a financial instrument such as a bond, interest is calculated and paid in set intervals (for instance annually or semi-annually). Ownership of bonds/loans can be transferred between different investors not just when coupons are paid, but at any time in-between coupons. Accrued interest addresses the problem regarding the ownership of the next coupon if the bond is sold in the period between coupons: Only the current owner can receive the coupon payment, but the investor who sold the bond must be compensated for the period of time for which he or she owned the bond. In other words, the previous owner must be paid the interest that accrued before the sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2029112",
"title": "Bond market",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The bond market is part of the credit market, with bank loans forming the other main component. The global credit market in aggregate is about 3 times the size of the global equity market. Bank loans are not securities under the Securities and Exchange Act, but bonds typically are and are therefore more highly regulated. Bonds are typically not secured by collateral (although they can be), and are sold in relatively small denominations of around $1,000 to $10,000. Unlike bank loans, bonds may be held by retail investors. Bonds are more frequently traded than loans, although not as often as equity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hdyiu
|
Is there a limit on the mass of a spaceship built in space? (Due to gravity, etc.?)
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't think of anything that would cause a limitation to building a ship. Adding more mass to a spaceship wouldn't cause the ship to become too heavy to crash into earth. The reason for this is because things in orbit aren't suspended there. They're constantly falling, so a larger ship would fall in the exact same manner as a smaller ship.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only theoretical limit would be the point at which it becomes a black hole. For a spherical spaceship with radius *r*, the upper limit on mass would be:\n\nm = r*c^(2)/2G\n\nWhere *c* is the speed of light and *G* is the Newtonian gravitational constant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's not really a hard limit. If you had something the size of Earth, you would have structural problems at the center (near the edges would be okay, we build stuff to withstand 1 g all the time), but until you get into that range, it should be fine.\n\nThe problem with having a large mass is that to get it moving, you need to accelerate it. F = M * A. More mass means more force. More force means more fuel, [a lot more fuel](_URL_0_). But if you don't care about fuel, or don't want to go anywhere, something the size of the Death Star should be possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23516569",
"title": "Space architecture",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:In space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "A notable difference between the orbital context of space architecture and Earth-based architecture is that structures in orbit do not need to support their own weight. This is possible because of the microgravity condition of objects in free fall. In fact much space hardware, such as the space shuttle's robotic arm, is designed only to function in orbit and wouldn't be able to lift its own weight on the Earth's surface. Microgravity also allows an astronaut to move an object of practically any mass, albeit slowly, provided he or she is adequately constrained to another object. Therefore, structural considerations for the orbital environment are dramatically different from those of terrestrial buildings, and the biggest challenge to holding a space station together is usually launching and assembling the components intact. Construction on extraterrestrial surfaces still needs to be designed to support its own weight, but its weight will depend on the strength of the local gravitational field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16619",
"title": "Kilogram",
"section": "Section::::Mass and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "While the weight of an object is dependent on the strength of the local gravitational field, the mass of an object is independent of gravity, as mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are \"weightless\". However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10kilogram object at the same rate as a 1kilogram object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40865977",
"title": "List of heaviest spacecraft",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "List of heaviest spacecraft is a listing of selected spacecraft by mass. Spacecraft may change mass over time such as by use of propellant. The heaviest artificial objects to reach space include space stations, various upper stages, and discarded Space Shuttle external tanks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194268",
"title": "Astronautics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "As with aeronautics, the restrictions of mass, temperatures, and external forces require that applications in space survive extreme conditions: high-grade vacuum, the radiation bombardment of interplanetary space and the magnetic belts of low Earth orbit. Space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the actual payload that reaches orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "While the \"weight\" of an object varies in proportion to the strength of the gravitational field, its \"mass\" is constant, as long as no energy or matter is added to the object. For example, although a satellite in orbit (essentially a free-fall) is \"weightless\", it still retains its mass and inertia. Accordingly, even in orbit, an astronaut trying to accelerate the satellite in any direction is still required to exert force, and needs to exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10ton satellite at the same rate as one with a mass of only 1 ton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178206",
"title": "Progress (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Reduction in mass was possible because the Progress was designed to be unmanned and disposable. This means that there is no need for bulky life support systems and heat shields. A small amount of weight is saved due to the lack of automatic rescue crews system and lack of parachutes. The spacecraft also has no ability to split into separate modules. After undocking, the spacecraft performs a retrofire and burns up in the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28506",
"title": "Spacecraft propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Without internal reaction mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "The law of conservation of momentum is usually taken to imply that any engine which uses no reaction mass cannot accelerate the center of mass of a spaceship (changing orientation, on the other hand, is possible). But space is not empty, especially space inside the Solar System; there are gravitation fields, magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves, solar wind and solar radiation. Electromagnetic waves in particular are known to contain momentum, despite being massless; specifically the momentum flux density P of an EM wave is quantitatively 1/c^2 times the Poynting vector S, i.e. P = S/c^2, where c is the velocity of light. Field propulsion methods which do not rely on reaction mass thus must try to take advantage of this fact by coupling to a momentum-bearing field such as an EM wave that exists in the vicinity of the craft. However, because many of these phenomena are diffuse in nature, corresponding propulsion structures need to be proportionately large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
szztz
|
If our stomachs churn/mix our food, why don't we feel it moving around?
|
[
{
"answer": "The stomach isn't innervated with sensory neurons so no feeling, same reason why you don't typically feel any other internal organ doing its job",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5600636",
"title": "Vagovagal reflex",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The vagovagal reflex is active during the receptive relaxation of the stomach in response to swallowing of food (prior to it reaching the stomach). When food enters the stomach a \"vagovagal\" reflex goes from the stomach to the brain, and then back again to the stomach causing active relaxation of the smooth muscle in the stomach wall. If vagal innervation is interrupted then intra-gastric pressure increases. This is a potential cause of vomiting due to the inability of the proximal stomach smooth muscle to undergo receptive relaxation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "353069",
"title": "Gastric dilatation volvulus",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1038,
"text": "The stomach twists around the longitudinal axis of the digestive tract, also known as \"volvulus\". Gas distension may occur prior to or after the stomach twists. The most common direction for rotation is clockwise, viewing the animal from behind. The stomach can rotate up to 360° in this direction and 90° counterclockwise. If the volvulus is greater than 180°, the esophagus is closed off, thereby preventing the animal from relieving the condition by belching or vomiting. The results of this distortion of normal anatomy and gas distension include hypotension (low blood pressure), decreased return of blood to the heart, ischemia (loss of blood supply) of the stomach, and shock. Pressure on the portal vein decreases blood flow to liver and decreases the ability of that organ to remove toxins and absorbed bacteria from the blood. At the other end of the stomach, the spleen may be damaged if the twisting interrupts its blood supply. If not quickly treated, bloat can lead to blood poisoning, peritonitis and death by toxic shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221221",
"title": "Stomach rumble",
"section": "Section::::Other causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "BULLET::::- Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29979736",
"title": "Snacking",
"section": "Section::::Healthy snacking.:Satiation and satiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "BULLET::::- Satiation occurs when the brain acknowledges that enough food has been eaten; there are triggers in the body that send these signals to the brain. Sizer and Whitney say a, “Greater exposure of the mouth to food triggers increased satiation. When the stomach stretches to accommodate a meal, nerve receptors in the stomach fire, sending a signal to the brain that the stomach is full”. Healthy snacks are ones that leave the body feeling filled so that it does not continue to signal to the brain that it still wants food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156932",
"title": "Peristalsis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "In much of a digestive tract such as the human gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle tissue contracts in sequence to produce a peristaltic wave, which propels a ball of food (called a bolus while in the esophagus and upper gastrointestinal tract and chyme in the stomach) along the tract. Peristaltic movement comprises relaxation of circular smooth muscles, then their contraction behind the chewed material to keep it from moving backward, then longitudinal contraction to push it forward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156932",
"title": "Peristalsis",
"section": "Section::::Human physiology.:Esophagus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "After food is chewed into a bolus, it is swallowed and moved through the esophagus. Smooth muscles contract behind the bolus to prevent it from being squeezed back into the mouth. Then rhythmic, unidirectional waves of contractions work to rapidly force the food into the stomach. The migrating motor complex (MMC) helps trigger peristaltic waves. This process works in one direction only and its sole esophageal function is to move food from the mouth into the stomach (the MMC also functions to clear out remaining food in the stomach to the small bowel, and remaining particles in the small bowel into the colon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18600477",
"title": "Hiccup",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Evolutionary causes.:Clearance of air from stomach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the diaphragm. This triggers the hiccup, which creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up and out through the mouth, effectively burping the animal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
6mstr8
|
if someone receives a full organ transplant will the organ be eventually replaced by the host's cells or will it remain as the the donor's cells for the rest of the host's life.
|
[
{
"answer": "It will always be the donor's cells. It can be possible to wean off of antirejection drugs as your body gets used to the new organ, but if your whole liver is replaced by a donor liver, you do not have any of your own liver cells to replicate and replace the donor cells. ",
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"answer": "Other responces have answered the question, but something else you may be interested in is graft vs host disease. It when the donated tissue actually mounts an immune response against the person who received the donation. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Obligatory not a doctor, but I believe I can answer your question. Cell replication is based upon reading the cell's DNA, duplicating the DNA, and then splitting the cell into two cells. Since the donor organ has the donor's DNA, it will always be the donor's DNA that is read and duplicated, thus cell replication will lead to a donor's cell rather than a host's. So the donated cells will always be donated cells, never host cells.\n\nHere is the [source](_URL_0_) I used to refresh my memory on cell division.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As an additional question, would it be possible to clone a DNA free organ and imprint it with a recipient's own DNA? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What if it's a hand transplant not an organ?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If there is a transplant, wether partial or full, it is always the donor's cells, no matter for how long you have had it. Even in a bone marrow transplant (one that is not autologous - not a self transplant) will result in the production of donor blood cell. This is the reason that an organ transplant also includes a lifetime of immunosuppresant drugs, resulting in an increased risk of infection for the patient.\n\nOn the other hand, there are three types of tissues (depending on replication potential):\n\n1. Liable tissues - new cells are continuously being produced from basal cells - e.g. the skin, mucosa (inner lining) of the intestines\n\n2. Stable tissues - which only undergo replication when there is significant stress to the organ - e.g. tge liver, kidneys... the liver is particularly special, if you cut a lobe of the liver or let's say half of it, it will mostly hypertrophy (the cells will increase in size), and even hyperplasia (increase number of cells) of hepatocytes (liver cells) [the missing lobe will never grow back, only the residual liver tissue grows] The new tissue will take up the same space as the full size liver, restoring most of the function. \nMORE INFO HERE: _URL_0_\n\n3. Permanent tissues - these never undergo cell replication (at least not after embryological development) - e.g. the brain and heart.\n\nAnother important not is that organs which have a higher replication potential and replicate more often, have an increased chance to accumulate mutations and cause tumours!\n\nEdit: added hyperplasia and cleared up some stuff, also provided a link :)",
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"answer": "No. And actually in some cases, it might lead to very interesting scenarios. I had leukemia when I was younger and went through a bone marrow trasnplant from my brother. Since your original bone marrow is destroyed before this procedure (by chemo in my case), it was fully replaced by bone marrow with my brother's DNA. Bone marrow produces the blood that courses through your body, which means that my blood has my brother's DNA and the rest of my body (for example a cheek swab or my skin cells) have my own DNA.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "As someone who has received a heart transplant, I can tell you, I will always be on immunoseppresent drugs and anti-rejection drugs for this reason. Its been 10 years and yes I take less than when I started but if I were to stop now, my body would reject my heart just as much as it would have 10 years ago\n\nEdit: I just wanna say thank you so much for all the lovely words and interesting questions. Honestly I get so used to the generic questions that normally come with this topic, so it's always nice to actually have to think hard about my answers. Thank you for making my morning cool. I love talking about my transplant with people who are actually interested. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Most of the top comments say what I was going to say: the cells remain largely to the transplant organ, not the host.\n\nThat said, this is connected to a field of research called [tissue engineering]( _URL_0_). Basically researchers are looking for ways to build viable organs from host cells to overcome organ rejection. One of the ways this is done is by taking an already removed organ and cleaning the cells out but leaving a protein structure. This is then innoculated with host stem cells which can then proceed to grow into a new organ using the protein scaffold. This is still in its infancy and has only been used for basic organs such as the bladder AFAIK though.",
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{
"answer": "There are some really good answers here. One other thing to look into which hasn't been mentioned is 'Ghost Organs'. The concept is essentially flushing out any parts of the organ that would be recognised by the host's immune system. In turn, some of the organ's cells are actually replaced with the hosts. In this instance, from what I've read and heard from researchers, its as close to 'replacing the donor cells' as we have currently. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can they live longer than 7 years? I thought every 7 years your body has completed replacing every cell? Wouldn't the new organ just decay?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL that immunosuppresants are a life long commitment if you have a donor organ. I never knew! I thought a heart transplant meant it was just plugged in and away you go.\n\nGood question. Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If a human has all of its organs replaced with other human's is it still the same human?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a note.. Mixed Chimerism is a way to get an organ and be drug free.. It's hard to do unless you have a live healthy donor..\nELI5 version\nIf you use part of the donors immune system, you can make the recipient tolerant to the received organ so their body thinks it's also theirs. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A brief rundown of cell regeneration in the Liver:\nThe main cells of the liver are called Hepatocytes. They undergo mitosis and proliferation when they are unable to fulfill demand. Injured cells themselves do not regenerate. Healthy cells exit G0 and divide. In a typical person, a few hepatotoxic substances (booze or drugs) kill a handful of cells, they're cleared and replaced with new cells. In chronic alcoholism, your liver tries to keep up by hypertrophy (swelling) of existing cells and by replacing the ones killed by booze. Initially, your liver swells or exhibits hepatomegaly. With continued drinking, however, cell death outpaces replacement. The number of healthy, mitosis-able cells is reduced, and instead fibrosis occurs. Your liver shrinks and becomes cirrhotic due to continuous cell death and inadequacy of proliferation-capable healthy cells.\n\nWhen you receive a liver txp, your existing liver is removed and replaced with a donor whole or segment. Thus, all of your hepatocytes, and ability to grow hepatocytes with your DNA, are gone. When the new liver cells are damaged, any new cells will be replaced by donor-derived cells.\n\nIn the case of a partial, the donated segment will regenerate to the approximate VOLUME of a normal liver in a few months. It will be composed entirely of donor cells, notwithstanding the blood you run through it. It will not have the typical 4-lobed macro-structure of a native liver and instead will be globular.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The only transplant where you can stop taking anti-rejection drugs is a bone marrow transplant.\n\nThat's as the TCells which do the rejecting are made from the bone-marrow, and they won't be rejecting themselves. As they mature, they go to your Thymus for education. (TCell university.) There they learn what \"self\" is, and so not to attack you, or themselves.\n\nThe result is after a bone marrow transplant, your blood will be made of the donor cells, but they will regard you as self. Essentially you've tamed them :)\n\n(Unless the mature TCells in the transplant attack you from the start, that's called Graft-vs-host disease, and is very nasty. The mature TCells went to TCell university in the donor rather than you, so won't necessarily see you as self.)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Follow up question - does a person who gets extensive blood transfusions - like my husband who had to have a quadruple heart bypass at age 34 and was in the ICU getting blood for three days after - retain any of the original blood cells of the blood donor? He developed extreme allergies after the surgery and we always wondered if the donor's blood transplanted antigens and antibodies too that might permanently affect the recipient's blood and health. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are the implications of receiving a kidney from your identical twin?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just tacking on to what others have said, although adults have stem cells to regenerate dying cells that have reached their Hayflick limit, they are very tissue specific (as opposed to the pluripotent stem cells in an embryo). A stem cell in the heart can only replace cells in the heart, probably only specific tissues within the heart as well. So it's not like a stem cell would somehow migrate to the new organ and start replacing its cells.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Similar but a bit different...I received a bone marrow transplant from my sister in 1985 and I now have all of her childhood immunities - chicken pox, mmr, etc - blood type, and if she donated a kidney (not that I need one, but she has 3), I would not need anti-rejection drigs because we have the same immune system. I think that's kind of badass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could stem cells play a part in regrowing the original organ? \n\nFor example they take part of your kidney and program the stem cells to grow a new one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My mom had three cornea transplants, unfortunately her eye rejected all three, but if they healed properly she still would have needed to get another transplant within 3 years because the eye would at that point naturally reject the implant aka the donors cells",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have pointed out the obvious with organs but how about blood transfusions? Blood could be considered as organ as well. After transferring red blood cells, host cell's replace donor's cells by time. RBCs usually die in 100 days and since these cells don't have ability to divide anymore, host will completely overtake all volume with own RBCs eventually. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I know Op asks about organs, but I also want to toss out bone transplant (allograft) facts because I received a knee. \n\n\nWith bones, there is little to no chance of rejection, so anti-rejection medication aren't required, and eventually your cells DO replace the donor's, eventually incorporating the bone fully. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shameless plug for /r/transplant! We love organ donors with all of ~~our~~ other people's hearts!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "So here's a trip for you: I'm currently dating a girl who had leukemia when she was younger. This resulted in her getting a full bone marrow transplant. Not only could her blood type change as a result of this, her immune system \nand her blood cells are now the same as the donor's.\n\nHere's the trip: The donor was male. (TMI warning) This means that when she has her period, the blood is XY, male blood, not XX female.\n\nThat thought always amazes me.\n\nEdit: Argh. I hope this isn't removed for Rule 3. It seems like it has been thoroughly explained already and I feel like this adds more clarifying examples to already-given explanations elsewhere.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I hope I'm not too late for this. I was at a conference for work and one of the companies there was an organ donation company. The person I spoke to said they were able to transplant a ring finger and within some time the cells were eventually replaced by the hosts cells and they no longer needed anti rejection drugs. Is this true? Everything I've heard before this was that a donated body part required anti rejection drugs for life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isn't it true that after some number of years, ALL the cells in your body are replaced, thereby making the you today, if you're old enough, not the you that you were originally? If that's true (and I'm not certain if it is, though I do remember it being said) then I'd expect that after enough time the donor organ would similarly not be the original organ, if you lived long enough for all its cells to be replaced.\n\nSeems like it all hinges on a (questionable?) bit of medical lore. Anyone smarter than me know if that's just urban legend or is actually science fact? Anyone? (anyone except Neil DeGrasse Tyson - you just sit down and shut up for a change Neil!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152776",
"title": "Organ (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Many societies have a system for organ donation, in which a living or deceased donor's organ is transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529578",
"title": "Transplant rejection",
"section": "Section::::Rejection treatment.:Marrow transplant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Bone marrow transplant can replace the transplant recipient's immune system with the donor's, and the recipient accepts the new organ without rejection. The marrow's hematopoietic stem cells—the reservoir of stem cells replenishing exhausted blood cells including white blood cells forming the immune system—must be of the individual who donated the organ or of an identical twin or a clone. There is a risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), however, whereby mature lymphocytes entering with marrow recognize the new host tissues as foreign and destroy them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "517879",
"title": "Liver transplantation",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Living donor transplantation.:Screening for donors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Living donor transplantation is a multidisciplinary approach. All living liver donors undergo medical evaluation. Every hospital which performs transplants has dedicated nurses that provide specific information about the procedure and answer questions that families may have. During the evaluation process, confidentiality is assured on the potential donor. Every effort is made to ensure that organ donation is not made by coercion from other family members. The transplant team provides both the donor and family thorough counseling and support which continues until full recovery is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46300441",
"title": "Intestine transplantation",
"section": "Section::::Pre-operative period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "Organ rejection is the unfortunate circumstance of the host immune system recognizing the transplanted organ as foreign. This is the most notable complication facing transplant recipients. Through T-cell receptors, T-lymphocytes are able to distinguish between self and non-self by recognizing human leukocyte antigens (HLA) bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein located on the surface of organ cells. Once identified as foreign, the immune system proceeds to destroy the transplanted tissue. The panel reactive antibody (PRA) test measures the proportion of the population to which a recipient will react via pre-existing antibodies to various HLA antigens; in other words, how likely a patient is to acutely reject their new transplant. Therefore, it is essential that HLA and PRA statuses are tested for and demonstrate low immunoreactivity of the patient to the graft. In some cases, a recipient may suffer from graft-versus-host disease, in which cells of the transplanted organ attack the recipient's cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1689405",
"title": "Alloimmunity",
"section": "Section::::Graft tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Transplanted tissue is accepted by immunocompetent recipient if it is functional in the absence of immunosuppressive drugs and without histologic signs of rejection. Host can accept another graft from the same donor but reject graft from different donor. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14074965",
"title": "Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine",
"section": "Section::::Issues addressed by the Convention.:Organs and Transplantation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The Convention provides the general rule that living donors for organ transplants are only to be utilised if there is no availability of organs from a deceased person. Any removed parts of the body must be disposed of respectfully in accordance with the wishes of the individual. In addition, there is to be no financial gain arising from the human body or its parts, however adequate compensation for expenses incurred for a medical procedure is not prohibited. The rules relating to consent laid out in \"Chapter II\" of the Convention also apply in the context of organ transplantation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457803",
"title": "Yusuf al-Qaradawi",
"section": "Section::::Views and statements.:Women, gender and other issues.:Organ transplant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "At the same time Qaradawi issued a fatwa (edict) that organ transplant from living to a living person is permissible in Islam but through donation as donation is considered charity. As for a dead person, only when the brain stops, the transplant can then be carried out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zsbf0
|
what is the process for getting a job with mi5/mi6/secret service?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the US Secret Service, candidates must be U.S. citizens and must submit to urinalysis screening for illegal drug use prior to appointment. All Secret Service positions require a Top Secret security clearance. All applicants must undergo a full, Secret Service-specific, Top Secret clearance process regardless of current existing clearance standings; certain positions may also require the applicant to successfully complete a polygraph and/or medical examination. Age, vision and excellent physical condition requirements may also apply.\n\nIf you want to be a secret agent and look like you belong in CSI, [this site](_URL_0_) lists the qualifications",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18106928",
"title": "Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service serves as the head of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS, also commonly known as MI6), which is part of the United Kingdom intelligence community. The Chief is appointed by the Foreign Secretary, to whom he directly reports. Annual reports are also made to the Prime Minister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525926",
"title": "Intelligence officer",
"section": "Section::::Role and responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The actual role carried out by an intelligence officer varies depending on the remit of his/her parent organization. Officers of foreign intelligence agencies (e.g. the United States' Central Intelligence Agency, the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)) may spend much of their careers abroad. Officers of domestic intelligence agencies (such as the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation, the UK's Security Service (MI5) and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO)) are responsible for counter-terrorism, counter-espionage, counter-proliferation and the detection and prevention of serious organized crime within their own countries (although, in Britain, the Serious Organised Crime Agency had been set up to take care of serious organized crime).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1062917",
"title": "List of James Bond allies",
"section": "Section::::MI6.:00 agents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The 00 Section of MI6 is considered the elite of the Secret Service. Agents with the 00 prefix have proven themselves capable enough in the field to be entrusted with the licence to kill: the authorisation to, at their own discretion, commit acts of assassination and other controversial activities in order to complete their missions, without having to first seek permission from headquarters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39923951",
"title": "Secret Intelligence Service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6, is the foreign intelligence service of the government of the United Kingdom, tasked mainly with the covert overseas collection and analysis of human intelligence (HUMINT) in support of the UK's national security. SIS is a member of the country's intelligence community and its Chief is accountable to the country's Foreign Secretary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39882553",
"title": "Joint Intelligence Organisation (United Kingdom)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The organisation supports the work of the Joint Intelligence Committee (tasked with directing the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), Security Service (MI5) and GCHQ) and National Security Council by providing intelligence assessments to Ministers and senior officials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238030",
"title": "Counterintelligence",
"section": "Section::::Types of offensive counterespionage operations.:Defector in place.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Another method is to directly recruit an intelligence officer (or terrorist member) from within the ranks of the adversary service (terrorist group) and having that officer (terrorist) maintain their normal duties while spying on their parent service (organization); this is also referred to as recruiting an \"agent\" or defector in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14193830",
"title": "Clandestine human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Recruit types.:Mole.:Defector in place.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Another method is to directly recruit an intelligence officer (or terrorist member) from within the ranks of the adversary service (terrorist group) and having that officer (terrorist) maintain their normal duties while spying on their parent service (organization); this is also referred to as recruiting an “agent” or defector in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hfq33
|
AskScience AMA Series: I am pfisico and I build instruments to study the cosmic microwave background radiation. Ask Me Anything!
|
[
{
"answer": "What technology would be required to succeed where BICEP2 didn't?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you were a betting scientist, what value of r would you put your money on?\n\nWho is your favorite CMB scientist, and why is it John Carlstrom?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's your take on the WMAP and Planck data supporting multipoles seem to align somewhat with the plane of the ecliptic and/or the Earth's equator? \n\nI'm referring to, for example, [this blog post](_URL_0_) which states\n\n > the low multipole alignments with themselves and the dipole and ecliptic/equinox are anomalous and not currently understood. \n\nIs it just a random fluke in the data? Is there a foreground factor that explains the anomaly? Is there possibly some new physics this points at? Is it too early to tell? When can we expect to learn more?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you work with NASA's CSBF for your balloon based experiments? What are the biggest constraints associated with the ballooning part? I have had the chance to work on a small student project with them and I was surprised by how \"hard\" balloons can be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My question is a bit more basic than the other's here. What is, as you see it, the most important, or most exciting, science currently going on that could use your CMB data? \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi pfisico! What is your take on the [CMB cold spot](_URL_0_)? Everything I read leads me to see this as a potentially interesting but not actually significant fluctuation (especially now in the wiki article it says: \"The probability of finding a deviation at least as high in Gaussian simulations was found to be 1.85%\"). Is this just people hoping something is there when it really isn't or is there something more to it that I've missed?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Great to see you here. Would you mind sharing some photos of your instruments? I am curious to see them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the best way for an amateur to\"hear\" the cbr, other than tune onto a blank uhf channel. Is there any way to eliminate extraneous noise so we hear the cbr? So basically how to build a home made radio telescope and eliminate all but the cbr?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People often scoff at researches who spend their time studying very complex (instead of immediately practical) phenomena, claiming it's a waste of money, \"you should concentrate on other things\"- and so on. These same people often fail to understand how much very theoretical research can later influence the world. What are your favorite arguments for shutting these kinds of people up?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a high school student I've always been told that most background radiation was rather random. So I'm guessing that you need to pull a lot of noise out of your data and I was wondering what techniques you use. Bayesian analysis (but that would introduce a basis and not sure if you can always prove its right?) or other more fun statistics? Not really a serious question I'm just bored and wondering how you can pull meaningful information besides just density? Thanks for doing this it's really cool to ask actual people questions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does your work relate to Inflation, and would it be more exciting for you to see it proven true or false?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "About the types of radiation that we know are there but that we can't measure, what do we now about them, other then that we can't measure them?\nWith what do they react?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Question on Antarctica! After working on data from IceCube in undergrad, I've always been fascinated by the people who winter at the South Pole and keep things running- and have met non-physicists who are too, and want to know more about the non-scientists there. What sorts of jobs need doing at the South Pole, and how do people 'end up' working there, usually? Do they leave for the few months weather allows, or do they generally stay there?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi there. I have heard that many cosmologists have been trying to develop ways to observe the universe beyond the CMB using gravity waves. This would allow cosmologists to see what the universe looked like prior to the end of the photon epoch. Would you be able to give any insights or information on the work that has been done on trying to do this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you build your instruments, is it from all off the shelf parts, or are there a lot of custom parts you have fabricated, machined or ordered from OEMs with custom specifications.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What discovery do you consider was your biggest breakthrough, or the one that excited you the most?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could you please explain the significance of the 21 cm line fluctuations ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are you hiring help? I have no background work in CMB analysis, but I have worked in a solar physics lab and helped produce two published papers in the Astrophysics Journal.\n\nPost desperate plea for work in the astronomy and science fields and kidding aside - I mostly just wish to say thank you for all the research and awesome dedication I know it takes to be in a research field. Several of the others have already asked questions that I was interested in getting answered and they have been answered well. \n\nThanks again for being great and brilliant!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Been trying to get my head around what this radiation is for a while. If understand correctly, what we see here, now, set out from the farthest visible reaches of the universe a very long time ago. When it started its journey to your sensors, the visible universe was infinitesimally small, so we are seeing the surface of a tiny region of space blown up to universal proportions. What have I misunderstood there?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh man, I know some balloon scientists that do CMB and have been down in Antarctica. You might even know them.\n\nWhat is your advice for grad students that feel like they are constantly building an instrument and never getting the data?\n\nAlso, do they build anything down in Antarctica? Do they have machine shops for repairs and such? What is that infrastructure like?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3154200",
"title": "Crawford Hill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Labs used the Holmdel Horn Antenna located on Crawford Hill to take measurements of the cosmic microwave background radiation. They were awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for these efforts that supported the Big Bang theory. For more information, see \"Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20097",
"title": "Microwave",
"section": "Section::::Microwave uses.:Radio astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is almost the same in all directions, is \"relic radiation\" from the Big Bang, and is one of the few sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive radio telescopes can detected the CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3355269",
"title": "List of cosmic microwave background experiments",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The design of cosmic microwave background experiments is a very challenging task. The greatest problems are the receivers, the telescope optics and the atmosphere. Many improved microwave amplifier technologies have been designed for microwave background applications. Some technologies used are HEMT, MMIC, SIS and bolometers. Experiments generally use elaborate cryogenic systems to keep the amplifiers cool. Often, experiments are interferometers which only measure the spatial fluctuations in signals on the sky, and are insensitive to the average 2.7 K background.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15951109",
"title": "List of space telescopes",
"section": "Section::::Microwave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Microwave space telescopes have primarily been used to measure cosmological parameters from the Cosmic Microwave Background. They also measure synchrotron radiation, free-free emission and spinning dust from our Galaxy, as well as extragalactic compact sources and galaxy clusters through the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19876261",
"title": "AMiBA",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The Yuan-Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy, also known as the Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy (AMiBA), is a radio telescope designed to observe the cosmic microwave background and the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7598694",
"title": "Charles L. Bennett",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Before leading WMAP, Bennett was the Deputy Principal Investigator for the Differential Microwave Radiometers (DMR) instrument on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) mission that discovered the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Bennett led the effort to rebuild the radiometer front-end microwave components that succeeded in significantly enhancing the sensitivity of the DMR instrument. The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) Science Team also precisely measured the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2172447",
"title": "Mauna Loa Solar Observatory",
"section": "Section::::Instruments.:Non-MLSO instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy (AMiBA) is a radio telescope array designed to observe the cosmic microwave background and the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect. It consists of seven receivers on a hexapod mount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1686tw
|
Can you heat a metal until it turns into a gas? If so, does this ever happen or is it just a theoretical state?
|
[
{
"answer": "All elements can be vaporized with sufficient energy.\n\nFor most metals this is over 1000 degrees Celsius, but it is possible and for most metals has been done in labs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Absolutely; mercury vapor lights, some metal plateing processes use vaporizing the plateting material.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sun's fusion pushes metals all the way to a plasma\n\nCorrection- stars eventually push metals to plasma",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Galvanized metal is dangerous to melt for this reason. The zinc plating melts and vaporizes at relatively low temperatures (420 and 907 C, respectively) and will basically boil off a piece of steel as it melts (~1500 C). You don't want to breathe zinc fumes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nuse the slider on the right side it will show you the state(solid,liquid,gas) of the elements at that temp.\n\nthe unknowns are elements that radioactively decay(break apart) to quickly for us to study that aspect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a very common practice.\n\nMost liquids are constantly evaporating to some degree, this includes liquid metals.\n\nA common industrial process called PVD (Physical vapor deposition) involves putting the metal into an evacuated chamber and heating it to the point of melting, and the metal evaporates up and deposits on the target you are trying to coat. End result is an extremely precise, controllable thin layer of metal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6191356",
"title": "Aluminium alloy",
"section": "Section::::Engineering use and aluminum alloys properties.:Heat sensitivity considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used can reverse or remove heat treating, therefore is not advised whatsoever. No visual signs reveal how the material is internally damaged. Much like welding heat treated, high strength link chain, all strength is now lost by heat of the torch. The chain is dangerous and must be discarded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248182",
"title": "Space charge",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Physical explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "When a metal object is placed in a vacuum and is heated to incandescence, the energy is sufficient to cause electrons to \"boil\" away from the surface atoms and surround the metal object in a cloud of free electrons. This is called thermionic emission. The resulting cloud is negatively charged, and can be attracted to any nearby positively charged object, thus producing an electric current which passes through the vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23761733",
"title": "Hot metal gas forming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Hot metal gas forming (HMGF) is a method of die forming in which a metal tube is heated to a pliable state, near to but below its melting point, then pressurized internally by a gas in order to form the tube outward into the shape defined by an enclosing die cavity. The high temperatures allow the metal to elongate, or stretch, to much greater degrees without rupture than are possible in previously utilized cold and warm forming methods. In addition, the metal can be formed into finer details and requires less overall forming force than traditional methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3629797",
"title": "Vacuum furnace",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "An inert gas, such as Argon, is often used to quickly cool the treated metals back to non-metallurgical levels (below ) after the desired process in the furnace. This inert gas can be pressurized to two times atmosphere or more, then circulated through the hot zone area to pick up heat before passing through a heat exchanger to remove heat. This process continues until the desired temperature is reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2151928",
"title": "M-SG reducing agent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The metal is either sodium or a sodium - potassium alloy (NaK). The molten metal is mixed with silica gel under constant agitation at room temperature. This phase 0 material must be handled in an inert atmosphere. Heating phase 0 at takes it to phase I. When this material is exposed to dry oxygen the reducing power is not affected. At further heating to phase II can be handled safely in an ambient environment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181983",
"title": "Fermi gas",
"section": "Section::::Typical values.:Metals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "where \"m\" is the electron rest mass. This Fermi energy corresponds to a Fermi temperature of the order of 10 kelvins, much higher than the temperature of the sun surface. Any metal will boil before reaching this temperature under atmospheric pressure. Thus for any practical purpose, a metal can be considered as a Fermi gas at zero temperature as a first approximation (normal temperatures are small compared to \"T\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40102613",
"title": "Tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "When heated to a temperature that is high enough for tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate to decompose, it gives off fumes of phosphorus and sulfur oxides, which are highly toxic. It can explode if containers of it are heated, and it can burn, although it does not do so easily. The chemical can also polymerize explosively. The chemical also reacts to form toxic and flammable gases in the presence of hydrides and other reducing agents. It is able to corrode iron. When it does this, it can release hydrogen gas. The chemical has a specific gravity of 1.196 at and its vapor density is 13.17 grams per liter at . Its melting point is and its boiling point is between and at 2mm Hg. The chemical's sorption coefficient is 2.87 Log L/kg. Its Henry's Law constant is 0.000174594 at . Its octanol-water partition coefficient is 3.9804 Log L/kg. Tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate's diffusion coefficient in air is 0.015 cm per second and its diffusion coefficient in water is 0.0000055 cm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9yqi39
|
does anything significant happen to our bodies when we are shocked with low-level electricity?
|
[
{
"answer": "We get shocked. We are mostly composed of water, which conducts electricity, and being exposed to electricity will jolt your whole body. That's why we react so quickly if we've ever been shocked. \n\nIt'll probably depend on voltage but it can be anything from muscle pain(including abnormal heart rhythm) all the way to burns. They did use electro shock therapy, maybe that's what ur referring to as low-level? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20587582",
"title": "Live-line working",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Electrical hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Electricity is hazardous: an electric shock from a current as low as 35 milliamps is sufficient to cause fibrillation of the heart in vulnerable individuals. Even a healthy individual is at risk of falling from a high structure due to loss of muscle control. Higher currents can cause respiratory failure and result in extensive and life-threatening burns. The first recorded human fatality occurred in 1879 when a stage carpenter in Lyon, France touched a 250 volt wire. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is energised, even at high voltages, makes electricity a particular hazard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54388709",
"title": "Electrical safety standards",
"section": "Section::::Physiological Effects of Electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Electrical shocks on humans can lead to permanent disabilities or death. Size, frequency and duration of the electrical current affect the damage. The effects from electric shock can be: stopping the heart beating properly, preventing the person from breathing, causing muscle spasms. The skin features also affect the consequences of electric shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Psychiatric effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "There are a variety of psychiatric effects that may occur due to electrical injuries. Recent research has found that functional differences in neural activation during spatial working memory and implicit learning oculomotor tasks have been identified in electrical shock victims. Frank behavioral changes can occur as well, even if the path of electrical current did not proceed through the head. Symptoms may include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238033",
"title": "Electrocution",
"section": "Section::::Medical aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The health hazard of an electric current flowing through the body depends on the amount of current and the length of time for which it flows, not merely on the voltage. However, a high voltage is required to produce a high current through the body. This is due to the relatively high resistance of skin when dry, requiring a high voltage to pass through. The severity of a shock also depends on whether the path of the current includes a vital organ. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "People who survive electrical trauma may suffer a host of injuries including loss of consciousness, seizures, aphasia, visual disturbances, headaches, tinnitus, paresis, and memory disturbances. Even without visible burns, electric shock survivors may be faced with long-term muscular pain and discomfort, fatigue, headache, problems with peripheral nerve conduction and sensation, inadequate balance and coordination, among other symptoms. Electrical injury can lead to problems with neurocognitive function, affecting speed of mental processing, attention, concentration, and memory. The high frequency of psychological problems is well established and may be multifactorial. As with any traumatic and life-threatening experience, electrical injury may result in post traumatic psychiatric disorders. There exist several non-profit research institutes that coordinate rehabilitation strategies for electrical injury survivors by connecting them with clinicians that specialize in diagnosis and treatment of various traumas that arise as a result of electrical injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904825",
"title": "Electrolyte imbalance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The most serious electrolyte disturbances involve abnormalities in the levels of sodium, potassium or calcium. Other electrolyte imbalances are less common and often occur in conjunction with major electrolyte changes. Chronic laxative abuse or severe diarrhea or vomiting (gastroenteritis) can lead to electrolyte disturbances along with dehydration. People suffering from bulimia or anorexia nervosa are at especially high risk for an electrolyte imbalance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Neurological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Electrical current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated or severe electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy at the site where the current entered the body. The neurologic symptoms of electrical injury may occur immediately, which traditionally have a higher likelihood for healing, though they may also be delayed by days to years. The delayed neurologic consequences of electrical injury have a worse prognosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vly14
|
Am I causing myself any harm by heating my food in a plastic container?
|
[
{
"answer": "What type of plastic container are you using? Some have known negative side effects. You can find out by examining the bottom for a recycling number. [This isn't a very reputable site, but it should help a bit](_URL_0_). I hope this extricates your situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat will thermally degrade some polymers into their constituent monomers and many of them are *potential* carcinogens. You are more likely to melt the polymer than break it down to monomers at microwave heat, however, so it isn't likely there is substantial contamination. Some contain plasticizers like BPA which may affect hormone signaling. If you want to know more about your specific polymer [this long PDF](_URL_0_) will educate you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13704917",
"title": "Risk factors for breast cancer",
"section": "Section::::Factors in the physical environment.:Xenoestrogens.:Bisphenol A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Consumer groups recommend that people wishing to lower their exposure to bisphenol A avoid canned food and polycarbonate plastic containers (which shares resin identification code 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol A-free. The National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding microwaving food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the dishwasher, or using harsh detergents on plastics, to avoid leaching.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4289261",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of photographs",
"section": "Section::::Types and Causes of Deterioration.:Other Factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Inappropriate storage containers and repair attempts: Cabinets made of inferior materials can give off harmful gases, while other reactive materials such as acidic paper sleeves, rubber bands, paper clips, pressure sensitive tape, and glues and adhesives commonly used for storage and repairs in the past can also cause chemical deterioration. Storing items too loosely, too tightly, or in enclosures that do not provide adequate physical protection can all cause physical damage such as curling and breakage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11614796",
"title": "Plastic bottle",
"section": "Section::::Health and environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "There is ongoing concern as to the use of plastics in consumer food packaging solutions, environmental impact of the disposal of these products, as well as concerns regarding consumer safety. Karin Michaels, Associate Professor at Harvard Medical School, suggests that toxins leaching from plastics might be related to disorders such as infertility and cancer in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40142",
"title": "Botulism",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Any container of food which has been heat-treated and then assumed to be airtight which shows signs of not being so, e.g., metal cans with pinprick holes from rust or mechanical damage, should be discarded. Contamination of a canned food solely with \"C. botulinum\" may not cause any visual defects to the container, such as bulging, or the food. Only assurance of sufficient thermal processing during production, and absence of a route for subsequent contamination, should be used as indicators of food safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1831174",
"title": "Plastic wrap",
"section": "Section::::Food use.:Health concern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "“It is true that substances used to make plastics can leach into food,” says Edward Machuga, Ph.D., a consumer safety officer in the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. “But as part of the approval process, the FDA considers the amount of a substance expected to migrate into food and the toxicological concerns about the particular chemical.” A couple of cases have caught media attention in recent years. One case is in regard to diethylhexyl adipate (DEHA). DEHA is a plasticizer, a substance added to some plastics in order to make them flexible. The public concerns about DEHA exposure while consuming food with plastic wraps. There are potentials of exposure to DEHA; however, the levels of the exposure are much lower than the no toxic effect levels in animal studies. Another case is in regard to the dioxins, labeled as “likely human carcinogen” by the Environmental Protection Agency. The public has been misled by the claims that plastics contain dioxins, while Machuga stated that no evidence that shows plastic containers or films contain dioxins was seen by the FDA. Overall the use of plastic wrap in the food industry does not pose danger to human health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7920832",
"title": "Food packaging",
"section": "Section::::Food safety and public health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Health risks of materials and chemicals used in food packaging need to be carefully controlled. Carcinogens, toxic chemicals, mutagens etc. need to be eliminated from food contact and potential migration into foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36080727",
"title": "Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Lightweight plastic bags are also blown into trees and other plants and can be mistaken for food. Plastic bags break down by polymer degradation but not by biodegradation. As a result, any toxic additives they contain—including flame retardants, antimicrobials, and plasticizers—will be released into the environment. Many of those toxins directly affect the endocrine systems of organisms, which control almost every cell in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12z94r
|
Historically, what has been the most successful form of government for an empire?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is hard to answer because most empires changed government over time. The Roman Republic lasted centuries, and the Empire lasted over a millennia if you count Byzantium. The Holy Roman Empire did too, but how it was run changed over time. It's impossible to find an unchanged system for any length of time, even if the State or government continues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Politically, it was typical for either a monarchy or an oligarchy, rooted in the original core territory of the empire, to continue to dominate. If governmental authority was maintained by controlling water supplies, vital to colonial subjects, such régimes were called hydraulic empires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19013",
"title": "Monarchy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where executive power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome (Roman Republic, 509 BC), and Athens (Athenian democracy, 500 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Many empires were the result of military conquest, incorporating the vanquished states into a political union, but imperial hegemony can be established in other ways. The Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the British Empire developed at least in part under elective auspices. The Empire of Brazil declared itself an empire after separating from the Portuguese Empire in 1822. France has twice transitioned from being called the French Republic to being called the French Empire while it retained an overseas empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99221",
"title": "World government",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins of the idea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "The idea and aspiration of world government has been known since the dawn of history. Bronze Age Egyptian Kings aimed to rule \"All That the Sun Encircles\", Mesopotamian Kings \"All from the Sunrise to the Sunset\", and ancient Chinese and Japanese Emperors \"All under Heaven\". These four civilizations developed impressive cultures of Great Unity, or Da Yitong as the Chinese put it. In 113 BC, the Han dynasty in China erected an Altar of the Great Unity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206246",
"title": "Abolition of monarchy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "History records transitions from monarchy to other forms of government from very early times, either through revolutions, coups d'état, wars, or legislative reforms (sometimes involving abdications). Athens had abandoned the principle of hereditary rule by 753 BCE. The founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BCE provides a well-known example and anti-monarchism became part of Rome's traditions, being cited as justification for the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Monarchical Carthage became an aristocratic republic in 308 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756685",
"title": "Monarchies in Europe",
"section": "Section::::History.:Archaic and classical antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "Since the beginning of antiquity, monarchy confronted several republican forms of government, wherein executive power was in the hands of a number of people that elected leaders in a certain way instead of appointing them by hereditary succession. During the archaic period (c. 750–500 BCE), kingship disappeared in almost all Greek poleis, and also in Rome (then still a barely significant town). After the demise of kingship, the Greek city-states were initially most often led by nobility (aristocracy), after which their economic and military power base crumbled. Next, in almost all poleis tyrants usurped power for two generations (tyranny, 7th and especially 6th century BCE), after which gradually forms of governments led by the wealthy (oligarchy) or assemblies of free male citizens (democracy) emerged in Classical Greece (mainly after 500 BCE). Athenian democracy (6th century–322 BCE) is the best-known example of the latter form; classical Sparta (c. 550–371 BCE) was a militaristic polis with a remarkable mix between monarchy (dual kingship), aristocracy (Gerousia) and democracy (Apella); the Roman Republic (c. 509–27 BCE) had a mixed constitution of oligarchy, democracy and especially aristocracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14605",
"title": "Indian religions",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE).:Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with \"countless vasal states\". The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. \"The great king was remote, was exalted and deified\", as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8jgp99
|
During the American Civil War, was Washington D.C. actually the "most fortified city on earth"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question, what would these fortifications look like? How large was DC's Garrison?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1504594",
"title": "Washington County, D.C.",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "During the American Civil War (1861–65), Washington County contained a partial circle of defensive fortifications that made Washington one of the most heavily fortified cities in the world at that time. The forts surrounding Union-held territory in Virginia completed the defense circle. The Battle of Fort Stevens, July 11–12, 1864, took place in Washington County.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985246",
"title": "Fort Foote",
"section": "Section::::Planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In the opening days of the American Civil War, the defenses of Washington D.C. were primarily concerned with an overland attack on the capital city of the United States. In 1861, the Arlington Line was constructed to help defend the city from attack via the direct, Virginia approach. Additional forts were constructed on the city's northern approaches to defend against any attacks from Maryland. At sea, however, only Fort Washington, a fort originally built to defend the city in the War of 1812 blocked the approach along the Potomac River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6736104",
"title": "Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Washington, D.C., during the American Civil War was the nerve-center of the Union war effort, which rapidly turned it from a small city into a major capital with full civic infrastructure and strong defenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21441414",
"title": "Civil War Defenses of Washington",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The Civil War Defenses of Washington were a group of Union Army fortifications that protected the federal capital city, Washington, D.C., from invasion by the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War (see Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War). The sites of some of these fortifications are within a collection of National Park Service (NPS) properties that the National Register of Historic Places identifies as the Fort Circle. The sites of other such fortifications in the area have become parts of state, county or city parks or are located on privately owned properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43394879",
"title": "Fort Lincoln (District of Columbia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Fort Lincoln was one of seven temporary earthwork forts part of the Civil War Defenses of Washington, DC during the Civil War built in the Northeast quadrant of the city at the beginning of the Civil War by the Union Army to protect the city from the Confederate Army. From west to east, the forts were as follow: Fort Slocum, Fort Totten, Fort Slemmer, Fort Bunker Hill, Fort Saratoga, Fort Thayer and Fort Lincoln.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4439839",
"title": "Fort Scott (Arlington, Virginia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The fort was one of the ring of Union Army fortifications that the Union Army constructed as part of the Civil War defenses of Washington (see Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War). It was one of 33 forts on the Virginia side of the Potomac River that made up a defense line (the Arlington Line) for the national capital city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21441414",
"title": "Civil War Defenses of Washington",
"section": "Section::::History.:Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The Washington area had 68 major enclosed forts, as well as 93 prepared (but unarmed) batteries for field guns, and seven blockhouses surrounding it during the American Civil War. There were also twenty miles of rifle pits and thirty miles of connecting military roads. These were Union forts, and the Confederacy never captured one. Indeed, most never came under enemy fire. These were used to house soldiers and store artillery and other supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qqaoj
|
Does climate change effect the occurrence of different cloud types?
|
[
{
"answer": "The effect that global warming has on clouds is actually a very difficult scientific question! To answer your questions directly though; 1) it would be difficult for a person to notice changes in cloud cover or cloud types without some systematic study - mostly because any significant changes will happen over 10, 20, 30 years and it's just very difficult for humans to notice changes on those timescales (this is also kind of a fundamental reason why we're so bad at dealing with global warming). 2) I can't think of any cloud types that will go \"extinct\" on a global scale. Most predicted changes involve increases or decreases of either high or low cloud in different regions of the world, so I guess it's possible that certain clouds types could become less common in specific regions. However, a prediction this specific is beyond our current abilities. I'll explain why.\n\nClouds exist on a huge range of spatial and temporal scales; from tiny water droplets to country-sized banks of clouds. They also depend on the global and local winds, temperatures, water availability, geography (i.e. mountain ranges), etc. Basically they're really complicated! One way we can make predictions about global warming is with computer models, where we divide up the global atmosphere into boxes, and for each box we have a set of equations to predict what will happen within it. The size of the boxes is the resolution (think of it like pixels on a screen). The difficult thing with clouds is they can be smaller than the box, which means you can't explicitly model every cloud. Instead you use equations that tell you the average effect of clouds within each box. On a global scale this is quite good at telling us how \"average\" clouds will change, and what that effect on the climate might be, but it's very difficult to say exactly what will happen on smaller scales, and clouds remain a major uncertainty in future climate change predictions, e.g. [ipcc](_URL_0_).\n\nHope that answers your question, happy to clarify anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "567472",
"title": "Cloud condensation nuclei",
"section": "Section::::Size, abundance, and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The number and type of CCNs can affect the precipitation amount, lifetimes and radiative properties of clouds as well as the amount and hence have an influence on climate change; details are not well understood but are the subject of research. There is also speculation that solar variation may affect cloud properties via CCNs, and hence affect climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164600",
"title": "General circulation model",
"section": "Section::::Projections.:Model accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Cloud effects are a significant area of uncertainty in climate models. Clouds have competing effects on climate. They cool the surface by reflecting sunlight into space; they warm it by increasing the amount of infrared radiation transmitted from the atmosphere to the surface. In the 2001 IPCC report possible changes in cloud cover were highlighted as a major uncertainty in predicting climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2202381",
"title": "Faint young Sun paradox",
"section": "Section::::Other proposed explanations.:Changes in clouds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Clouds continue to be the dominant source of uncertainty in 3-D global climate models, and a consensus has yet to be reached on exactly how changes in cloud spatial patterns and cloud type may have affected Earth's climate during this time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47518",
"title": "Cloud feedback",
"section": "Section::::Other effects of cloud feedback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "Changes in cloud cover are closely coupled with other feedback, including the water vapor feedback and ice-albedo feedback. Changing climate is expected to alter the relationship between cloud ice and supercooled cloud water, which in turn would influence the microphysics of the cloud which would result in changes in the radiative properties of the cloud. Climate models suggest that a warming will increase fractional cloudiness. The albedo of increased cloudiness cools the climate, resulting in a negative feedback; while the reflection of infrared radiation by clouds warms the climate, resulting in a positive feedback. Increasing temperatures in the polar regions is expected in increase the amount of low-level clouds, whose stratification prevents the convection of moisture to upper levels. This feedback would partially cancel the increased surface warming due to the cloudiness. This negative feedback has less effect than the positive feedback. The upper atmosphere more than cancels negative feedback that causes cooling, and therefore the increase of CO is actually exacerbating the positive feedback as more CO enters the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47515",
"title": "Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Effects on the troposphere, climate, and climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "As difficult as it is to evaluate the influences of current clouds on current climate, it is even more problematic to predict changes in cloud patterns and properties in a future, warmer climate, and the resultant cloud influences on future climate. In a warmer climate more water would enter the atmosphere by evaporation at the surface; as clouds are formed from water vapor, cloudiness would be expected to increase. But in a warmer climate, higher temperatures would tend to evaporate clouds. Both of these statements are considered accurate, and both phenomena, known as cloud feedbacks, are found in climate model calculations. Broadly speaking, if clouds, especially low clouds, increase in a warmer climate, the resultant cooling effect leads to a negative feedback in climate response to increased greenhouse gases. But if low clouds decrease, or if high clouds increase, the feedback is positive. Differing amounts of these feedbacks are the principal reason for differences in climate sensitivities of current global climate models. As a consequence, much research has focused on the response of low and vertical clouds to a changing climate. Leading global models produce quite different results, however, with some showing increasing low clouds and others showing decreases. For these reasons the role of tropospheric clouds in regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty in global warming projections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47514",
"title": "Cloud albedo",
"section": "Section::::What can change cloud albedo?:The Twomey Effect (Aerosol Indirect Effect).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Addition of cloud nuclei by pollution can lead to an increase in solar radiation reflected by clouds. Increasing aerosol concentration and aerosol density increases cloud droplet concentration, decreases cloud droplet size, and increases cloud albedo. In macrophysically identical clouds, a cloud with few larger drops will have a lower albedo than a cloud with more smaller drops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47518",
"title": "Cloud feedback",
"section": "Section::::Other effects of cloud feedback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In addition to how clouds themselves will respond to increased temperatures, other feedbacks affect clouds properties and formation. The amount and vertical distribution of water vapor is closely linked to the formation of clouds. Ice crystals have been shown to largely influence the amount of water vapor. Water vapor in the subtropical upper troposphere has been linked to the convection of water vapor and ice. Changes in subtropical humidity could provide a negative feedback that decreases the amount of water vapor which in turn would act to mediate global climate transitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22882h
|
portuguese drug laws
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, I'm portuguese. My only experience is with marijuana so I will only talk about it. Marijuana isn't legal, but it isn't really criminalized, I mean, you can have with you up to 5g, if you have more, you'll be charged with Possession of drugs, but less than that it's generally fine.\n\nAbout smoking, some places are cool with it, others may ask you to stop it, others may call the cops. Really depends on the person itself.\n\nSometimes cops that catch you smoking will take it from you and walk away, other times they'll just ask you to do it somewhere more privately. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24061093",
"title": "Drug policy of Portugal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The drug policy of Portugal was put in place in 2001, and was legally effective from July 2001. The new law maintained the status of illegality for using or possessing any drug for personal use without authorization. However, the offense was changed from a criminal one, with prison a possible punishment, to an administrative one if the amount possessed was no more than a ten-day supply of that substance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21427364",
"title": "Decree-Law 15/93",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "While drug use is illegal in Portugal, the law's introduction notes of occasional drug users: \"it is necessary above all to avoid them being labelled, marginalised, pushed into an impasse or towards avenues whose only way out is drugs.\" However, the Portuguese government condemned the Dutch pragmatic policy, well known for its absence of user punishment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15021761",
"title": "Crime in Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Tolerance of drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Portugal has arguably the most liberal laws concerning possession of illicit drugs in the Western world. In 2001 Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including, but not limited to, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is not a crime, trafficking and possession of more than \"10 days worth of personal use\" are still punishable by jail time and fines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24061093",
"title": "Drug policy of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Legal status of cannabis in Portugal.:Consumption and possession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "In Portugal, recreational use of cannabis is forbidden by law; also the medicinal use is not yet officially recognized (there is debate and legislators have proposed bills in the Portuguese Parliament). Portugal signed all the UN conventions on narcotics and psychotropic to date. With the 2001 decriminalization bill, the consumer is now regarded as a patient and not as a criminal (having the amount usually used for ten days of personal use is not a punishable crime) but repression persists. One can be sent to a dissuasion committee and have a talk or must pay a fee. According to the libertarian think tank Cato Institute, illegal drug use among Portuguese teenagers declined after 2001, and 45 percent of the country's heroin addicts sought medical treatment. But critics of the policy, such as the Association for a Drug-Free Portugal, say overall consumption of drugs in the country has actually risen by 4.2 percent since 2001 and claim the benefits of decriminalization are being \"over-egged.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23033",
"title": "Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Government and administration.:Law and drug policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Portugal is also known for having decriminalized the usage of all common drugs in 2001, the first country in the world to do so. Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is legal, trafficking and possession of more than \"10 days worth of personal use\" are still punishable by jail time and fines. People caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to go to a rehab facility, and may refuse treatment without consequences. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, overall drug use has declined along with the number of HIV infection cases, which had dropped 50 percent by 2009. Drug use among 16- to 18-year-olds also declined, however the use of marijuana rose only slightly among that age group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803076",
"title": "Drug liberalization",
"section": "Section::::Policies.:Drug decriminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In 2001 Portugal began treating use and possession of small quantities of drugs as a public health issue. This means rather than incarcerating those in possession they are referred to a treatment program. The drugs are still illegal, the police just handles the situation differently. This also decreases the amount of money the government spends fighting a war on drugs and money spent keeping drug users incarcerated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12686484",
"title": "Drug policy",
"section": "Section::::Drug policy by country.:Portugal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "In July 2001, a law maintained the status of illegality for using or possessing any drug for personal use without authorization. The offense was however changed from a criminal one, with prison a possible punishment, to an administrative one if the possessing was no more than up to ten days' supply of that substance. This was in line with the de facto Portuguese drug policy before the reform. Drug addicts were then aggressively targeted with therapy or community service rather than fines or waivers. Even if there are no criminal penalties, these changes did not legalize drug use in Portugal. Possession has remained prohibited by Portuguese law, and criminal penalties are still applied to drug growers, dealers and traffickers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ri2nr
|
what is the science behind being a good socialiser? what makes a 'good conversation'?
|
[
{
"answer": "The gift of bullshit is an important one. That's number one. Second, it does help to be educated across the board, but if this fails, fall back on number one. Don't talk about yourself either. Not everything has to relate back to you. Those people are the worst.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an expert, but someone who has to talk for a living. \n\nI've found that \"good\" socialization relies on watching/listening for cues that tell you what the other person wants out of the conversation (if they look annoyed when the subject moves away from a certain topic, or keep steering it back that way, if they get quiet after one type of thing is brought up, or talk more for something else, etc). \n\nMostly, when speaking with someone you don't know well, it is helpful not to have a clear plan for the conversation (so you will adjust based on the other person)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490105",
"title": "How to Win Friends and Influence People",
"section": "Section::::Major sections and points.:Six Ways to Make People Like You.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::4. Be a good listener. Encourage others to talk about themselves. The easiest way to become a good conversationalist is to become a good listener. To be a good listener, we must actually care about what people have to say. Many times people don't want an entertaining conversation partner; they just want someone who will listen to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18576207",
"title": "Social information processing",
"section": "Section::::Key concepts.:Social awareness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Participation of people in online communities, in general, differ from their participatory behavior in real-world collective contexts. Humans in daily life are used to making use of \"social cues\" for guiding their decisions and actions e.g. if a group of people is looking for a good restaurant to have lunch, it is very likely that they will choose to enter to a local that have some customers inside instead of one that it is empty (the more crowded restaurant could reflect its popularity and in consequence, its quality of service). However, in online social environments, it is not straightforward how to access to these sources of information which are normally being logged in the systems, but this is not disclosed to the users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22021031",
"title": "Social translucence",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Participation of people in online communities, in general, differ from their participatory behavior in real-world collective contexts. Humans in daily life are used to making use of \"social cues\" for guiding their decisions and actions e.g. if a group of people is looking for a good restaurant to have lunch, it is very likely that they will choose to enter to a local that have some customers inside instead of one that it is empty (the more crowded restaurant could reflect its popularity and in consequence, its quality of service). However, in online social environments, it is not straightforward how to access to these sources of information which are normally being logged in the systems, but this is not disclosed to the users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639277",
"title": "Institute of Mental Health (Singapore)",
"section": "Section::::The Institute of Mental Health Today.:Community-Based Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "CHAT is a national youth mental health programme that aims to make it easy and unthreatening for youths to seek advice and help for their emotional and mental health issues. The CHAT team does this by raising awareness of youth mental health, and providing a free, confidential assessment service and mental health information. CHAT also partners polytechnics and post-secondary institutions to reach out to and support their students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12616",
"title": "Gossip",
"section": "Section::::In psychology.:Evolutionary view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "It enabled people to keep up with what was going on in their social network. It also creates a bond between the teller and the hearer, as they share information of mutual interest and spend time together. It also helps the hearer learn about another individual’s behavior and helps them have a more effective approach to their relationship. Dunbar (2004) found that 65% of conversations consist of social topics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50700852",
"title": "Seven Poor Men of Sydney",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "\"Naturally, this is not always successful. Conversation is diffuse, disjointed, full of popular sayings and banalities local in time and place which do not express character at all, or very little. My purpose, in making characters somewhat eloquent, is the expression of two psychological truths; first, that everyone has a wit superior to his everyday wit, when discussing his personal problems, and the most depressed housewife, for example, can talk like Medea about her troubles; second, that everyone, to a greater or lesser extent, is a fountain of passion, which is turned by circumstances of birth or upbringing into conventional channels – as, ambition, love, money-grubbing, politics, but which could be as well applied to other objects and with less waste of energy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "603599",
"title": "Critique of Practical Reason",
"section": "Section::::Doctrine of method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Almost any time there is a social gathering of some sort, the conversation will include gossip and argumentation which entails moral judgments and evaluations about the rightness or wrongness of the actions of others. Even people who normally do not enjoy intricate arguments tend to reason acutely and with great attention to detail when they are caught about in the justification or condemnation of their next-door neighbors' behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
341m5j
|
in print, especially transcribed interviews, what is the reason for the brackets? "jane said [tom] never had a bad thing to say about anyone."
|
[
{
"answer": "The brackets are usually replacing a pronoun, a nick-name or first or last name only when context isn't present to make it clear who they're referring to.\n\nIt would say something like \"Jane said he never had a bad thing to say about anyone\", which is confusing if they haven't specified that it's Tom they're talking about (or she referred to him by, say, \"T-Dawg\" or some shit like that). It's always just to clarify and the brackets mean that those words were substituted for other words for the sake of understanding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The term may not be precisely what the person used, for instance they may have said \"he\" which could be unclear without the proper context. So the author is referencing that they've made a change to clarify an otherwise direct quote. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's to show that the wording of the quote has been changed, but that the meaning has not. In your example, the actual conversation likely included something like:\n\n\"I asked her about Tom, and Jane said he never had a bad thing to say about anyone.\"\n\nA quote of \"Jane said he never had a bad thing to say about anyone\" is not very useful, because you don't know who \"he\" is referring to. So you replace the pronoun with the word that it's actually referencing, and use the square-bracket syntax to be explicitly clear that you've made a modification to the quote.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4809959",
"title": "Easy Aces",
"section": "Section::::\"I am his awfully-wedded wife\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "That and almost everything else could be forgotten amidst Jane Ace's linguistic mayhem, much of it provided by her wry husband's scripts and enough improvised by her. (Mary Hunter's real laughter, at Jane's malaprops or Ace's arch barbs, was practically the show's laugh track, years before anyone ever thought of using canned laughter.) Known as often as not as \"Jane-isms,\" the better remembered of her twisted turns of phrase were more than a match for Gracie Allen's equally celebrated illogical logic, anticipating such later word and context manglers as Jimmy Durante, Lou Costello, Phil Harris, and, especially, \"All in the Family\"'s Archie Bunker. The famed Jane-isms included:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528733",
"title": "Blood Meridian",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "McCarthy told Oprah Winfrey in an interview that he prefers \"simple declarative sentences\" and that he uses capital letters, periods, an occasional comma, a colon for setting off a list, but never semicolons. He does not use quotation marks for dialogue and believes there is no reason to \"blot the page up with weird little marks\". Describing events of extreme violence, McCarthy's prose is sparse, yet expansive, with an often biblical quality and frequent religious references. McCarthy's writing style involves many unusual or archaic words, no quotation marks for dialogue, and no apostrophes to signal most contractions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13633893",
"title": "Clemence Dane",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "According to Arthur Marshall, she was famous for her indecent, though entirely innocent, remarks. \"The physical side of life had passed her by, together with the words, slang and otherwise, that accompany it. Time and again she settled for an unfortunate word or phrase. Inviting Noël Coward to lunch during the war, when food was difficult, she boomed encouragement down the telephone; 'Do come! I've got such a lovely cock.' ('I do wish you'd call it a hen', Noel answered). To use correctly, in a literary sense, the words 'erection', 'tool' and 'spunk' was second nature to her. When wishing to describe herself as being full of life and creative energy, she chose, not really very wisely, the word 'randy'.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324581",
"title": "Cormac McCarthy",
"section": "Section::::Writing style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "McCarthy makes sparse use of punctuation, even replacing most commas with \"and\" (a polysyndeton). He told Oprah Winfrey in an interview that he prefers \"simple declarative sentences\" and that he uses capital letters, periods, an occasional comma, a colon for setting off a list, but never semicolons. He does not use quotation marks for dialogue and believes there is no reason to \"blot the page up with weird little marks\". Erik Hage notes that McCarthy's dialogue also often lacks attribution, but that \"[s]omehow...the reader remains oriented as to who is speaking\". His attitude to punctuation dates to some editing work he did for a professor of English while he was enrolled at the University of Tennessee, when he stripped out much of the punctuation in the book being edited, which pleased the professor. McCarthy also edited fellow Santa Fe Institute Fellow W. Brian Arthur's influential article \"Increasing Returns and the New World of Business\", published in the \"Harvard Business Review\" in 1996, removing commas from the text. He has also done copy-editing work for physicists Lawrence M. Krauss and Lisa Randall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34968686",
"title": "Rush Limbaugh–Sandra Fluke controversy",
"section": "Section::::Reaction to Limbaugh's remarks.:Republican.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "David Frum, former special assistant to President George W. Bush (emphasis in the original): \"Limbaugh's verbal abuse of Sandra Fluke set a new kind of low. I can't recall \"anything\" as brutal, ugly and deliberate ever being said by such a prominent person and so emphatically repeated. This was not a case of a bad 'word choice'. It was a brutally sexualized accusation, against a specific person, prolonged over three days.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40818982",
"title": "My Transsexual Summer",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Politician and activist Zoe O'Connell described some of the wording in the narration as \"cringeworthy\", but felt that \"it’s more than just a step in the right direction, it’s a programme that pretty accurately reflected how many trans people carry on with each other in private.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22773322",
"title": "Count Arthur Strong's Radio Show!",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Count Arthur Strong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "A typical conversation for the Count will involve his confusing both himself and others, while becoming drastically sidetracked from the matter in hand. He is usually oblivious to the chaos he causes, often blaming his interlocutors for any confusion. On the rare occasions he realises he is at fault, he often attempts to divert the blame by lying. Inevitably becoming confused by his own lies, his last resort is usually to claim he was recording a stunt for a hidden camera show.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i45xm
|
Why does 2-stroke engine exhaust smell different from 4-stroke?
|
[
{
"answer": "Primarily because in a 2-stroke engine there's no dedicated lubrication system, so you have to mix oil directly into the gas. The combustion of that oil means you end up creating a lot of smoke compared to pure gas, which burns cleaner.\n\nAdditionally a car is going to have a lot more bells-and-whistles related to clean combustion, like a catalytic converter that cleans up exhaust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3092362",
"title": "Honda P50",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The engine is also 4-stroke — unusual when almost all pedal-equipped mopeds used simpler 2-strokes. Soichiro Honda disliked the sharp noise of 2-strokes, and the 4-stroke does not require oil to be mixed with the gasoline at every fill-up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2819592",
"title": "Two-stroke oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Unlike a four-stroke engine, whose crankcase is closed except for its ventilation system, a two-stroke engine uses the crankcase as part of the induction tract, and therefore, oil must be mixed with gasoline to be distributed throughout the engine for lubrication. The resultant mix is referred to as premix or petroil. This oil is ultimately burned along with the fuel as a total-loss oiling system. This results in increased exhaust emissions, sometimes with excess smoke and/or a distinctive odor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883632",
"title": "Junkers Jumo 204",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "As is typical of two-stroke designs, the Jumos used fixed intake and exhaust ports instead of valves, which were uncovered when the pistons reached a certain point in their stroke. Normally such designs have poor volumetric efficiency because both ports open and close at the same time and are generally located across from each other in the cylinder. This leads to poor scavenging of the burnt charge, which is why valve-less two-strokes generally run smoky and are inefficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82156",
"title": "Two-stroke engine",
"section": "Section::::Different two-stroke design types.:Piston-controlled inlet port.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A fundamental difference from typical four-stroke engines is that the two-stroke's crankcase is sealed and forms part of the induction process in gasoline and hot bulb engines. Diesel two-strokes often add a Roots blower or piston pump for scavenging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139719",
"title": "Schnuerle porting",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Apart from large diesels with separate superchargers, two-stroke engines are generally piston-ported and use their crankcase beneath the piston for compression. The cylinder has a transfer port (inlet from crankcase to cylinder) and an exhaust port cut into it. These are opened, as the piston moves downwards past them; with the higher exhaust port opening earlier as the piston descends; and closing later as the piston rises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8540",
"title": "Diesel engine",
"section": "Section::::Two-stroke engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 226,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 226,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Two-stroke diesel engines use only two strokes instead of four strokes for a complete engine cycle. Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke, and the power and exhaust strokes are combined. The compression in a two-stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine: As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward, compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Instead of a full set of valves, two-stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports, and exhaust ports (or exhaust valves). When the piston approaches bottom dead centre, both the intake and the exhaust ports are \"open\", which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore, some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust. This process is called \"scavenging\". The pressure required is approximately 10...30 kPa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139719",
"title": "Schnuerle porting",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Gas flow within the two-stroke engine is even more critical than for a four-stroke engine, as the two flows are both entering and leaving the combustion chamber simultaneously. A well-defined flow pattern is required, avoiding any turbulent mixing. The efficiency of the two-stroke engine depends on effective scavenging, the more complete replacement of the old spent charge with a fresh charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rdb3k
|
how a sql index works?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine I've got a pile of Lego, and I'm looking for a piece. Without an index is like looking at every piece individually until I find the one I'm looking for. \nIf I made a note of every piece of Lego was when I took it out of the box, when I wanted to find a piece, I could look up this list of Lego pieces and it would tell me where to find the one I wanted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a data structure, usually B-Tree*, that stores information about a column in a table.\n\nThat's a tough ELI5 question, becasue we have no idea where you are doming form. Are you an application developed who just never worked with them? Or are you jus a person who heard them but have no deep understanding of software?\n\nSome context would probably get you a better answer.\n\n\n\n*because they are quick and can be sorted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot like how an index of a traditional paper book works. Without the index, to find every occurrence of a word you would have to read through every page of the whole book. With an index, you can just look up the word in the index ( usually sorted by alphabetical order so you can easily \"seek\" to the word you are looking for) and the index will point to all the pages that contains that word.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you have a list of contacts and you needed to find your friend. Sure you can sort all your contacts alphabetically by first name and very quickly scroll down to find your friend by first name, but what if you wanted to search by last name instead? That list wouldn't be of much use, since you would have no quick way to find anybody and have to go one by one.\n\nAn index in this case allows you to sort the same information multiple ways. you can think of it as a new set of small tables with the column that's indexed and an id that's super quick to retrieve. You want to search the first names for John? Look up John, get contact Id, and pull it up from a list ordered numerically. You want Smith? Look up the last name index until you find smith, and get that id, then pull it up by id quickly. \n\nThe upside is quick search on multiple columns, but the downside is more space used to save data and slower inserts since you need to populate and organize other smaller index tables for quick lookup.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ordinarily to find something in a database table, you have to search through every item in the table.\n\nAn index is an extra piece of information keeps track of a column in the table, remembering things like \"the a's start here, the b's start there, etc.\".\n\nWhy don't all columns have indices? They take up space and it is extra work to manage an index, especially if the information frequently changes. You need to make sure that faster searches are worth this overhead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1711076",
"title": "Database index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "A database index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table at the cost of additional writes and storage space to maintain the index data structure. Indexes are used to quickly locate data without having to search every row in a database table every time a database table is accessed. Indexes can be created using one or more columns of a database table, providing the basis for both rapid random lookups and efficient access of ordered records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54355231",
"title": "SQL syntax",
"section": "Section::::Queries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "SQL includes operators and functions for calculating values on stored values. SQL allows the use of expressions in the \"select list\" to project data, as in the following example, which returns a list of books that cost more than 100.00 with an additional \"sales_tax\" column containing a sales tax figure calculated at 6% of the \"price\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25873",
"title": "Relational database",
"section": "Section::::Constraints.:Index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "An index is one way of providing quicker access to data. Indexes can be created on any combination of attributes on a relation. Queries that filter using those attributes can find matching tuples randomly using the index, without having to check each tuple in turn. This is analogous to using the index of a book to go directly to the page on which the information you are looking for is found, so that you do not have to read the entire book to find what you are looking for. Relational databases typically supply multiple indexing techniques, each of which is optimal for some combination of data distribution, relation size, and typical access pattern. Indices are usually implemented via B+ trees, R-trees, and bitmaps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1711076",
"title": "Database index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "An index is a copy of selected columns of data from a table that can be searched very efficiently that also includes a low-level disk block address or direct link to the complete row of data it was copied from. Some databases extend the power of indexing by letting developers create indexes on functions or expressions. For example, an index could be created on upper(last_name), which would only store the upper-case versions of the codice_1 field in the index. Another option sometimes supported is the use of partial indices, where index entries are created only for those records that satisfy some conditional expression. A further aspect of flexibility is to permit indexing on user-defined functions, as well as expressions formed from an assortment of built-in functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490598",
"title": "Index locking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "In databases an \"index\" is a data structure, part of the database, used by a database system to efficiently navigate access to \"user data\". Index data are system data distinct from user data, and consist primarily of pointers. Changes in a database (by insert, delete, or modify operations), may require indexes to be updated to maintain accurate user data accesses. Index locking is a technique used to maintain index integrity. A portion of an index is locked during a database transaction when this portion is being accessed by the transaction as a result of attempt to access related user data. Additionally, special database system transactions (not user-invoked transactions) may be invoked to maintain and modify an index, as part of a system's self-maintenance activities. When a portion of an index is locked by a transaction, other transactions may be blocked from accessing this index portion (blocked from modifying, and even from reading it, depending on lock type and needed operation). Index Locking Protocol guarantees that Phantom Phenomenon won't occur. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209503",
"title": "Database engine",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Database indexing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Indexing is a technique some storage engines use for improving database performance. The many types of indexes share the common property that they reduce the need to examine every entry when running a query. In large databases, this can reduce query time/cost by orders of magnitude. The simplest form of index is a sorted list of values that can be searched using a binary search with an adjacent reference to the location of the entry, analogous to the index in the back of a book. The same data can have multiple indexes (an employee database could be indexed by last name and hire date).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9020057",
"title": "Expression index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "An expression index, also known as a function based index, is a database index that is built on a generic expression, rather than one or more columns. This allows indexes to be defined for common query conditions that depend on data in a table, but are not actually stored in that table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3iu1fx
|
why are islamic extremist groups predominantly sunni muslims rather than shia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sunni Muslims make up about 85-90% of all muslim groups, however there are a pretty large percentage of Shia Muslim extremists, because of the Shiite population in Iran, Iraq and other areas in politically unstable regions (Sunni's are also in this area, but are more concentrated to Eastern Asian areas and Northern Africa.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Muslims are predominantly Sunni, period. Around 90% of Muslims in the world are Sunni.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "398489",
"title": "Sectarianism",
"section": "Section::::Religious sectarianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Within Islam, there has been conflict at various periods between Sunnis and Shias; Shi'ites consider Sunnis to be damned, due to their refusal to accept the first Caliph as Ali and accept all following descendants of him as infallible and divinely guided. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics or apostates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9761047",
"title": "Shia–Sunni relations",
"section": "Section::::Numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Sunnis are a majority in most Muslim communities in China and Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, most of the Arab World, Turkey and among Muslims in the United States (of which 85–90% are Sunnis). This can also be confusing because the majority of Arab Muslims in the United States are Shia, while the majority of Arab Americans are Christians, the conflation of Arab and Muslim being quite common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3404144",
"title": "Sunni fatwas on Shias",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Sunni and Shia are different sects of Islam and the difference of opinions have resulted in many Fatwas, non-binding but authoritative legal opinion or learned interpretation issues pertaining to the Islamic law. Fatwas are based on the question and answer process found in the Quran, which seeks to enlighten on theological and philosophical issues, hadith, legal theory, duties, and the Sharia law. Sunni fatwas have been used to justify the persecution of Shia throughout their history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13731602",
"title": "1966 Syrian coup d'état",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Consolidation of power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The majority of Sunni Muslims were Arab nationalists, but not Ba'athist, making them feel alienated. The party was chiefly dominated by minority groups such as Alawites, Druzes, and Isma'ilis, and people from the countryside in general; this created an urban–rural conflict based predominantly on ethnic differences. With its coming to power, the Ba'ath Party was threatened by the predominantly anti-Ba'athist sentiment in urban politics—probably the only reason why the Ba'athists managed to stay in power was the rather weakly organised and fragmented opposition it faced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3042468",
"title": "Tabarra",
"section": "Section::::Shia and Sunni differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "In some cases Sunni and Shia have the same view, for example regarding Abū Lahab, Amr ibn Hishām and Umayyah ibn Khalaf. But controversies arise concerning the Sahabah since Sunnis believe in the uprightness of all Sahaba while Shia do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4467554",
"title": "Mahdavia",
"section": "Section::::Mahdavis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The persecution of Mahdavis by Sunni militants as of 2014 has been part of the larger backlash against religious minorities in Pakistani Balochistan, targeting Hindus, Hazaras, Shias, and Zikris, resulting in the migration of over 300,000 Shias, Zikris, and Hindus from Pakistani Balochistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321175",
"title": "Political aspects of Islam",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:20th and 21st century.:Sunni and Shia differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "According to scholar Vali Nasr, political tendencies of Sunni and Shia Islamic ideology differ, with Sunni Islamic revivalism \"in Pakistan and much of the Arab world\" being \"far from politically revolutionary\", while Shia political Islam is strongly influenced by Ruhollah Khomeini and his talk of the oppression of the poor and class war. Sunni revivalism \"is rooted in conservative religious impulses and the bazaars, mixing mercantile interests with religious values.\" ... Khomeini's version of Islamism engaged the poor and spoke of class war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
193zez
|
what does it mean when the potus says that china is illegally manipulating it's currency.
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a few parts of this, so I'll try to break it down:\n\nHow is the Chinese government manipulating its own currency? Very basically, China is buying up United States debt. China, like most large countries, prints their own money, then uses it to buy US government debt, which then raises the value of Chinese currency. \n\nIs this legal? Probably not, though this isn't really well-established legal territory. What little international law exists about this suggests that sovereign nations can manage their own currency, however as a member of the International Monetary Fund, China's signed an agreement to avoid manipulating exchange rates to gain an unfair competitive advantage over other IMF members. \n\nDoes it matter if it's illegal? Nope. The IMF has no real mechanism for enforcement. Moreover, the United States does plenty to manipulate our currency, China's nowhere near the worst currency manipulator, and the problem itself is in the process of going away. China has allowed its currency to rise all on its own. \n\nWhy is President Obama making a big deal about this? He's a politician. Attacking China on anything, even if it's a relatively small problem that's going away on its own, earns politicians political capital in the United States, because there's a mistaken perception that we're in some kind of economic cold war with China. Despite the fact the real Cold War has been over for decades, there's still a remaining Cold War mentality among many, especially older voters who had to live through the Cold War. Democrats often look weak relative to their violent sociopathic rivals who are calling for an attack on Iran and insisting that every American needs an arsenal to fight back against the pending liberal martial law to take away guns, so a little meaningless tough talk from the Democratic president earns back ignorant voters who think being a stupid bully is the same thing as strength. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You trade 2 baseball cards for 2 candy pieces, or you can trade 2 cards for 2 sandwiches, or 2 cards for 2 books. But then a new kid shows up and starts giving you a trade at 2 cards for 4 candies. Pretty sweet deal, you start trading a lot with that new kid.\n\nBaseball Cards = $US Dollar. Candy = Chinese Dollar (Yuan).\n\nHere, someone is using $2 to buy 400 Yuan (2 cards for 4 candy). Normally if they do this a ton they you should charge $3 for the 400, then $4 for 400, and so on. So, normally the Chinese dollar should go up and the US vs Yuan would go down.\n\nHowever, the kid giving you the sweet deal is getting really good experience running his business, and he wants to keep it going (he was really poor before), but knows people will stop when it's more expensive. So what the kid does is artificially buy more baseball cards, so that his candy value goes back up, even if he has no plans on really using them. This continues the cheap trades for longer and longer.\n\n_____\n\nThis is what China is doing. They are keeping their dollar low so people can buy their goods cheap. Normally you'd need Chinese people buying US computers or US cars for the dollars to be more equal, but the Chinese government is just buying lots of US bonds/property/etc. on their behalf.\n\n > How does doing so effect the global economy?\n\nWhen I was last looking at global economics (2-ish years ago) most people considered the US/China relation to be a really unstable dance that was going faster and faster. Both sides were getting *really* rich off each other, China was growing super fast, American citizens were filling their house with more stuff from Walmart. People looking in were like \"jeezu christ!, grow at 2% a year not 12%!\".\n\n > Why does the US get so mad about it?\n\nIf the US wants to compete at candy (manufacturing, cheap factory work) they're fighting stacked terms. They can't compete with the cheaper Chinese dollar, which is kept artificially low. Note the POTUS needs to walk a fine line of complaining about their low dollar, while their businesses buy billions of dollars of stuff from them the very next minute.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll start with the how.\n\nChina chooses to print more of its currency than it needs to run its economy well. Then, China uses most of that currency to buy American dollar in the form of Treasury bonds. This causes the value of the Chinese Yuan to go down due to an additional supply and the value of the American dollar to go up due to the deceased supply.\n\nWhy does China do it? Well, by having a \"weak\" currency, China encourages economic growth by making items within its economy cheaper compared to the world. All of that labor is made cheaper because China chooses to make it cheaper.\n\nThe US gets mad about it because the Chinese goods are cheaper than American goods, hurting American manufacturers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52506620",
"title": "Economic policy of Donald Trump",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of economic policies.:Trade policy.:Trade with China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 392,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 392,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Trump has vowed to label China as a currency manipulator on his first day in office. \"Washington Post\" fact-checker Glenn Kessler, citing experts such as C. Fred Bergsten, found that \"Trump's complaints about currency manipulation are woefully out of date,\" noting that \"China has not manipulated its currency for at least two years.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21341288",
"title": "Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet",
"section": "Section::::Cabinet.:Secretary of the Treasury.:Tim Geithner (2009–2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "In a written statement, Geithner said that China is manipulating the Renminbi by purposefully keeping its value low in order to make its exported products seem cheaper on the world market. If confirmed, Geither said to the Senate Finance Committee that he would ask the Obama administration to pressure China diplomatically to change this practice, more strongly than the Bush administration did. The United States maintains that China's actions hurt American businesses and contributed to the financial crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20344106",
"title": "Currency intervention",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.:Chinese yuan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "The view that China manipulates its currency for its own benefit in trade has been criticized by Cato Institute trade policy studies fellow Daniel Pearson, National Taxpayers Union Policy and Government Affairs Manager Clark Packard, entrepreneur and Forbes contributor Louis Woodhill, Henry Kaufman Professor of Financial Institutions at Columbia University Charles W. Calomiris, economist Ed Dolan, William L. Clayton Professor of International Economic Affairs at the Fletcher School, Tufts University Michael W. Klein, Harvard University Kennedy School of Government Professor Jeffrey Frankel, Bloomberg columnist William Pesek, Quartz reporter Gwynn Guilford, The Wall Street Journal Digital Network Editor-In-Chief Randall W. Forsyth, United Courier Services, and China Learning Curve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21214078",
"title": "Timothy Geithner",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of the Treasury.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In written comments to the Senate Finance Committee during his confirmation hearings, Geithner stated that the new administration believed China was \"manipulating\" its currency and that the Obama administration would act \"aggressively\" using \"all the diplomatic avenues\" to change China's currency practices. The Obama administration would pressure China diplomatically to change this practice more strongly than the George W. Bush Administration had done. The United States maintained that China's actions hurt American businesses and contributed to the financial crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20344106",
"title": "Currency intervention",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.:Chinese yuan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Paul Krugman argued in 2010, that China intentionally devalued its currency to boost its exports to the United States and as a result, widening its trade deficit with the US. Krugman suggested at that time, that the United States should impose tariffs on Chinese goods. Krugman stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529536",
"title": "Offshoring",
"section": "Section::::Debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Currency manipulation by governments and their central banks cause differences in labor cost. On May 1, 2002, Economist and former Ambassador Ernest H. Preeg testified before the Senate committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs that China, for instance, pegs its currency to the dollar at a sub-par value in violation of Article IV of the International Monetary Fund Articles of Agreement which state that no nation shall manipulate its currency to gain a market advantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29269618",
"title": "Causes of the Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::Macroeconomic conditions.:Chinese mercantilism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Economist Paul Krugman also wrote similar comments during October 2009, further arguing that China's currency should have appreciated relative to the U.S. dollar beginning around 2001. Various U.S. officials have also indicated concerns with Chinese exchange rate policies, which have not allowed its currency to appreciate significantly relative to the dollar despite large trade surpluses. In January 2009, Timothy Geithner wrote: \"Obama -- backed by the conclusions of a broad range of economists -- believes that China is manipulating its currency...the question is how and when to broach the subject in order to do more good than harm.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15unr6
|
Is there information on the distribution of stars by metallicity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Overall disclaimer: The metallicity of any given star is a complex mess, especially when you start talking about stars cooler than our Sun (which represent the bulk of stars). It's really tough to measure the overall metallicity of a given star, even with high resolution spectroscopy, and it's doubly complicated when trying to talk about it using just [Fe/H]. Distances for most stars are difficult to pin down much past 500 parsecs (~1600 light years) until [ESA's GAIA mission](_URL_0_) launches, though it's possible to get rough approximations through other methods with significantly higher uncertianties.\n\nYou seem to be interested in what's usually called the metallicity distribution function, and in practice it's restricted to specific stellar populations to avoid contamination from other galactic components. Stars in the galactic halo, bulge, and disk represent different epochs of star formation, and, as such, will probably have different average metalicities. Low metallicity stars represent a much, much higher fraction for stars in the halo vs. those in the disk, for example, though the intense star formation in the galactic bulge during our galaxy's formation left a number of old, metal poor stars in the galactic bulge as well. The wiki page on [metallicity](_URL_1_) is...okay for an introduction to the stellar populations topic as a whole, though that figure is probably too simplistic. \n\nAll in all I don't want to throw off numbers off the top of my head since I'm not familiar with some of the newest work, but a galactic structure person might be able to chime in with more information. If you're up for a technical read, the [SEGUE project has a paper considering the MDF of G and K stars](_URL_2_). You can check out some of the figures attached at the end of the PDF, specifically Fig. 16, where they examine [Fe/H] trends for G and K stars as a function of height above the galactic plane, but again, this is a restricted population of stars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129919",
"title": "Metallicity",
"section": "Section::::Metallicities in various astrophysical objects.:Stars.:Relationship between stellar metallicity and planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine whether a star has planets and the type of planets, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the type of planets a star may have. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and gas giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn. The more metals in a star and thus its planetary system and proplyd, the more likely the system may have gas giant planets and rocky planets. Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and planetesimal formation. For two stars that have equal age and mass but different metallicity, the less metallic star is bluer. Among stars of the same color, less metallic stars emit more ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with 8 planets and 5 known dwarf planets, is used as the reference, with a [Fe/H] of 0.00.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9009961",
"title": "IK Pegasi",
"section": "Section::::IK Pegasi A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Astronomers define the metallicity of a star as the abundance of chemical elements that have a higher atomic number than helium. This is measured by a spectroscopic analysis of the atmosphere, followed by a comparison with the results expected from computed stellar models. In the case of IK Pegasus A, the estimated metal abundance is [M/H] = +0.07 ± 0.20. This notation gives the logarithm of the ratio of metal elements (M) to hydrogen (H), minus the logarithm of the Sun's metal ratio. (Thus if the star matches the metal abundance of the Sun, this value will be zero.) A logarithmic value of 0.07 is equivalent to an actual metallicity ratio of 1.17, so the star is about 17% richer in metallic elements than the Sun. However the margin of error for this result is relatively large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37555875",
"title": "Metallicity distribution function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The Metallicity distribution function is an important concept in stellar and galactic evolution. It is a curve of what proportion of stars have a particular metallicity ([Fe/H], the relative abundance of iron and hydrogen) of a population of stars such as in a cluster or galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129919",
"title": "Metallicity",
"section": "Section::::Common methods of calculation.:Chemical abundance ratios.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The overall stellar metallicity is often defined using the total iron content of the star, as iron is among the easiest to measure with spectral observations in the visible spectrum (even though oxygen is the most abundant heavy element – see metallicities in HII regions below). The abundance ratio is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun and is expressed thus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50650",
"title": "Astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Unsolved problems in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "BULLET::::- What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the initial mass function—apparently regardless of the initial conditions? A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements. Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure. The portion of heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1956052",
"title": "List of most massive stars",
"section": "Section::::List of the most massive stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In each list, the method used to determine the mass is included to give an idea of uncertainty: Binary stars being more securely determined than indirect methods such as conversion from luminosity, extrapolation from stellar atmosphere models, ... . The masses listed below are the stars’ \"current\" (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25ytax
|
if 0.1 amps can be lethal to a human, then why don't i die when touching the contacts of a phone battery, which is 3.8 v and 1500-3200 ma?
|
[
{
"answer": "0.1 A *in the right place* can be lethal -- and that place is directly across the heart. \n\nIf you just touch phone battery contacts, for one, resistance is too high for that amount of volts to establish current, and two, even if it were high enough, the path would not go across your heart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because our body, like other materials has electrical resistance which makes low voltages relatively harmless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because the 1500-3200 mA is mAH which is a measurement of storage potential not current. since a free standing battery has no current traveling through it, just by simple touching the contacts does not cause much current to flow through it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you touch the contacts of a battery, the current that flows through your body is governed by [Ohms law](_URL_0_).\n\nBecause your body, and in particular your skin, has a high electrical resitance, the current that results from a 3.8 Volt potential difference is in the range of micro Amperes, which typically will not register with your nervous system.\n\nThe number 1500-3200 that you mention is a measure for how much electrical energy can be stored in the battery, and it is usually expressed in milli Ampere hours (mAh). A capacity of 1500 mAh means that your battery is able to sustain a current of 1500 mA for the duration of one hour before it is depleted. Or 750 mA for a duration of two hours. Or 15 mA for a duration of 100 hours.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205325",
"title": "High voltage",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Voltages greater than 50 V applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if they produce electric currents in body tissues that happen to pass through the chest area. The voltage at which there is the danger of electrocution depends on the electrical conductivity of dry human skin. Living human tissue can be protected from damage by the insulating characteristics of dry skin up to around 50 volts. If the same skin becomes wet, if there are wounds, or if the voltage is applied to electrodes that penetrate the skin, then even voltage sources below 40 V can be lethal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18690388",
"title": "Cutoff voltage",
"section": "Section::::Batteries.:Voltage cut-off in portable electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "A high cut-off voltage is more widespread than perhaps assumed. For example, a certain brand of mobile phone that is powered with a single-cell Lithium-ion battery cuts off at 3.3V. The Li‑ion can be discharged to 3V and lower; however, with a discharge to 3.3V (at room temperature), about 92–98% of the capacity is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Lethality.:Factors in lethality of electric shock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with alternating current at 100–250 volts; however, death has occurred below this range, with supplies as low as 42 volts. Assuming a steady current flow (as opposed to a shock from a capacitor or from static electricity), shocks above 2,700 volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000 volts being usually fatal, though exceptional cases have been noted. According to a Guinness Book of World Records comic, seventeen-year-old Brian Latasa survived a 230,000 volt shock on the tower of an ultra-high voltage line in Griffith Park, Los Angeles on November 9, 1967. A news report of the event stated that he was \"jolted through the air, and landed across the line\", and though rescued by firemen, he suffered burns over 40% of his body and was completely paralyzed except for his eyelids. The shock with the highest voltage reported survived was that of Harry F. McGrew, who came in contact with a 340,000 volt transmission line in Huntington Canyon, Utah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205325",
"title": "High voltage",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Accidental contact with any high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim's airway is affected. Injuries may also be suffered as a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a great height or are thrown a considerable distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18690388",
"title": "Cutoff voltage",
"section": "Section::::Batteries.:Voltage cut-off in portable electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Importantly, particularly in the case of lithium ion batteries which are used in the vast majority of portable electronics today, a voltage cut-off below 3.2V can lead to chemical instability in the cell, with the result being a reduced battery lifetime. For this reason, electronics manufacturers tend to use higher cut-off voltages, removing the need for consumers to buy battery replacements before other failure mechanisms in a device take effect .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39519079",
"title": "Electromagnetic pulse",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "High-level EMP signals can pose a threat to human safety. In such circumstances, direct contact with a live electrical conductor should be avoided. Where this occurs, such as when touching a Van de Graaf generator or other highly-charged object, care must be taken to release the object and then discharge the body through a high resistance, in order to avoid the risk of a harmful shock pulse when stepping away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75049",
"title": "Electrostatic discharge",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "However, many ESD events occur without a visible or audible spark. A person carrying a relatively small electric charge may not feel a discharge that is sufficient to damage sensitive electronic components. Some devices may be damaged by discharges as small as 30 V. These invisible forms of ESD can cause outright device failures, or less obvious forms of degradation that may affect the long term reliability and performance of electronic devices. The degradation in some devices may not become evident until well into their service life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uv11d
|
How much gas could the world economy save daily by capturing the pump spillage after fueling up?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was something on Gizmodo about this the other day: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43135573",
"title": "Domestic Prosperity and Global Freedom Act",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The world's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia, New York, USA in 1825. By 2009, 66 trillion cubic meters (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850 trillion cubic meters of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas. Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3.4 trillion cubic meters of gas per year, the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8941842",
"title": "Low-carbon economy",
"section": "Section::::Primary sector.:Mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "The World Bank estimates that 134 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually (2010 datum), an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 16 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19406460",
"title": "Cubic mile of oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The global economy consumes approximately 30 billion barrels of oil (1.26 trillion U.S. gallons or 4.75 trillion litres) each year. Numbers of this magnitude are difficult to conceive by most people. The volume occupied by one trillion U.S. gallons is about one cubic mile. Crane felt that a cubic mile would be an easier concept for the general public than a trillion gallons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536075",
"title": "Oil depletion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The United States Energy Information Administration predicted in 2006 that world consumption of oil will increase to (mbd) in 2015 and 118 million barrels per day in 2030. With 2009 world oil consumption at 84.4 mbd, reaching the projected 2015 level of consumption would represent an average annual increase between 2009 and 2015 of 2.7% per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361384",
"title": "Liquefied petroleum gas",
"section": "Section::::Security of supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "According to 2010–12 estimates, proven world reserves of natural gas, from which most LPG is derived, stand at 300 trillion cubic meters (10,600 trillion cubic feet). Added to the LPG derived from cracking crude oil, this amounts to a major energy source that is virtually untapped and has massive potential. Production continues to grow at an average annual rate of 2.2%, virtually assuring that there is no risk of demand outstripping supply in the foreseeable future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12633123",
"title": "Prestige oil spill",
"section": "Section::::Leakage and environmental contamination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Initially, the government thought just 17,000 tons of the tanker's 77,000 tons of oil had been lost, and that the remaining 60,000 tons would freeze and not leak from the sunken tanker. In early 2003, it announced that half of the oil had been lost. As of August 2003, the figure had risen to about 63,000 tons, more than eighty percent of the tanker's 77,000 tons of fuel oil have been spilled off Spain's north-west coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31834473",
"title": "Associated petroleum gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The World Bank estimates that over 150 billion cubic metres of natural gas are flared or vented annually. Flared natural gas is worth approximately 30.6 billion dollars and equivalent to 25 percent of the United States' yearly gas consumption or 30 percent of the European Union's annual gas consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zj0ox
|
How ubiquitous are infectious germs on household surfaces?
|
[
{
"answer": "I wouldn't call any surface in a home sterile. Go ahead and take swabs of any surface and grow them, you will find growth. Even the dust from our skin contains germs, and that flies everywhere. Wind carries spores, and the air isn't pure since even a virtually airtight home still has it's doors opened and dirty occupants come in. Mold and fungus, bacteria, viruses, and possibly prions are everywhere that I've ever tested. Ahh, but now that I reread you question, I'll rephrase. Germies are everywhere; infectious germies are not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41300273",
"title": "2013 Eastern China smog",
"section": "Section::::Pollutants.:Bacteria in PM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Scientists are still trying to understand the microorganisms within PM particles and how they are spread through pollutants. Research indicated that many kinds of pathogens and bacteria can be spread through PM smog and cause diseases. For example, Chinese researchers have found that smog in Beijing contains significant amounts of inhalable microbial allergens and pathogenic species, which increase the risk of respiratory diseases. The same study also reported that among all the microorganisms within PM particles, 86.1% are bacteria, 13% eukaryota, 0.8% archaea, and 0.1% viruses. The smog contains a variety of microorganisms such as \"Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes,\" and \"Euryarchaeota.\" Many of these are not harmful to humans, but some pathogenic microorganisms are carried through smog, and their numbers increase as the pollutant level increases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51162073",
"title": "Microbiomes of the built environment",
"section": "Section::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Human Health and Microbiomes of the Built Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Pathogen transmission. Many pathogens are transmitted in the built environment and may also reside in the built environment for some period of time. Good examples include influenza, Norovirus, Legionella, and MRSA. The study of the transmission and survival of these pathogens is a component of studies of microbiomes of the built environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Antimicrobial surfaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Microorganisms are known to survive on non-antimicrobial in animate ‘touch’ surfaces (e.g., bedrails, over-the-bed trays, call buttons, bathroom hardware, etc.) for extended periods of time. This can be especially troublesome in hospital environments where patients with immunodeficiencies are at enhanced risk for contracting nosocomial infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29190384",
"title": "Microbead",
"section": "Section::::Environmental effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "One study suggested that environmentally relevant levels of polyethylene microbeads had no impact on larvae. Some wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the U.S. and Europe can remove microbeads with an efficiency of greater than 98%, others may not. As such, other sources of microplastic pollution (e.g. microfibers/fibers and car tires) are more likely to be associated with environmental hazards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The main sources of infection in the home are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals (in the U.S. more than 50% of homes have one or more pets). Sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths, etc. readily support microbial growth and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are mostly those that threaten \"at risk\" groups. Pathogens (potentially infectious bacteria, viruses etc.—colloquially called \"germs\") are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes, feces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people are exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407814",
"title": "Hygiene hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "There is a significant amount of evidence supporting the idea that microbial exposure is linked to allergies or other conditions, although scientific disagreement still exists. Since hygiene is difficult to define or measure directly, surrogate markers are used such as socioeconomic status, income, and diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26883388",
"title": "Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces",
"section": "Section::::Clinical trials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Microorganisms are known to survive on inanimate touch surfaces for extended periods of time. This can be especially troublesome in hospital environments where patients with immunodeficiencies are at enhanced risk for contracting nosocomial infections (hospital-acquired infection), often with fatal consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33clc4
|
Why didn't China save Pakistan from India in 1971?
|
[
{
"answer": "India had built up its forces on the Indo-Chinese border after the 1962 war. This being the height of the Sino-Soviet split also aggravated the concerns there. Following the Border Conflict in 1969, the Soviets had built up their troops along the Chinese border and there would certainly be concerns of a flare up again in the case of overt Chinese action to support the Pakistanis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "China wanted to avoid the war in South Asia as much as they could. They wanted Pakistan to come up with a political solution and to end it as soon as possible. Furthermore the Chinese realized that a war with India would not be as easy as it was in 1962.\n\nIndia had a 'friendship treaty' with the Soviet Union, meaning that \"Moscow and New Delhi [were] obliged to consult when either [was] threatened with attack. Since the Russians [were] known to want no part of a conflict that could bring China in on Pakistan's side, they [had] thus suggested that India move with care.\" \n\nIndia was advised by the Russians to try its best to not provoke the Chinese into joining the war. And of course this treaty meant that the Russians were now involved in the war (In a limited support and advisory role, but still involved) so the Chinese were also being cautious not to escalate.\n\nOne of the reasons why the Chinese were so successful during their war with India was because the Indian army was caught by surprise. This was no longer the case in 1971, as India had fortified the border with China and were preparing for a possible Chinese retaliation. On top of this the Himalayan region was facing heavy snowfall, which would have made a Chinese advance into India much more difficult.\n\nAnd finally, India's official involvement in the war only lasted 13 days. The Eastern Pakistan forces surrendered less than 2 weeks after Pakistan attacked India. A relatively short time for a war. The Indian army did not continue with its advance into West Pakistan. However, if it did and chose to continue the war, I doubt the Chinese wouldn't have stepped in.\n\nSource: Time. 12/6/1971, Vol. 98 Issue 23, p34. 7p. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29426",
"title": "Sino-Indian War",
"section": "Section::::World opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 2188,
"text": "While Western nations did not view Chinese actions favourably because of fear of the Chinese and competitiveness, Pakistan, which had had a turbulent relationship with India ever since the Indian partition, improved its relations with China after the war. Prior to the war, Pakistan also shared a disputed boundary with China, and had proposed to India that the two countries adopt a common defence against \"northern\" enemies (i.e. China), which was rejected by India. China and Pakistan took steps to peacefully negotiate their shared boundaries, beginning on 13 October 1962, and concluding in December of that year. Pakistan also expressed fear that the huge amounts of western military aid directed to India would allow it to threaten Pakistan's security in future conflicts. Mohammed Ali, External Affairs Minister of Pakistan, declared that massive Western aid to India in the Sino-Indian dispute would be considered an unfriendly act towards Pakistan. As a result, Pakistan made efforts to improve its relations with China. The following year, China and Pakistan peacefully settled disputes on their shared border, and negotiated the China-Pakistan Border Treaty in 1963, as well as trade, commercial, and barter treaties. On 2 March 1963, Pakistan conceded its northern claim line in Pakistani-controlled Kashmir to China in favour of a more southerly boundary along the Karakoram Range. The border treaty largely set the border along the MacCartney-Macdonald Line. India's military failure against China would embolden Pakistan to initiate the Second Kashmir War with India. It effectively ended in a stalemate as Calvin states that the Sino-Indian War had caused the previously passive government to take a stand on actively modernising India's military. China offered diplomatic support to Pakistan in this war but did not offer military support. In January 1966, China condemned the Tashkent Agreement between India and Pakistan as a Soviet-US plot in the region. In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Pakistan expected China to provide military support, but it was left alone as India successfully helped the rebels in East Pakistan to found the new nation-state of Bangladesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464071",
"title": "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971",
"section": "Section::::Foreign reaction and involvement.:China, Iran and Sri Lanka.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "When the war started, China reproached India for its direct involvement and infiltration in East Pakistan. It disagreed with Pakistani President Yahya Khan's consideration of military options, and criticised East Pakistan Awami League politicians' ties with India. China reacted with great alarm when the prospects of Indian invasion of Pakistan and integration of Pakistan-administered Kashmir into their side of Kashmir, became imminent. US President Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage the Indian assault, but the Chinese did not respond to this encouragement since the Indian Army's Northern Command was well prepared to guard the Line of Actual Control, and was already engaging and making advances against the Pakistan Army's X Corps in the Line of Control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34360",
"title": "Yahya Khan",
"section": "Section::::Last days of East Pakistan.:US role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "On 3 December, Yahya preemptively attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan. Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it because he favored a cease-fire. The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, reimbursing those countries despite Congressional objections. The US used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Pakistan forces in East Pakistan surrendered on 16 December 1971, leading to the creation of the independent state of Bangladesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69980",
"title": "Second Sino-Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:Entrance of the Western Allies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Most of China's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16018239",
"title": "Task Force 74",
"section": "Section::::1974.:Bangladesh War of Independence 1971.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "Pakistan came under increasing criticism from India, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Europe as the plight of the refugees and their impact on the Indian economy were highlighted by Indira Gandhi in the UN and on a number of global tours. However, the United States and China showed little interest in the crisis and actively opposed aid, intervention or support to the Mukti Bahini(Indian forces) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto at this time led a high-level delegation to Beijing to obtain commitment from China of support in case of Indian intervention while Pakistan pressed at the UN for an International Peacekeeping Force for the India-East Pakistan border. The Pakistani efforts at the UN were however blocked by the Soviet Union in the Security council. India's aid to the Mukti Bahini continued unabated and measured assistance to the Bangladesh Forces, and fighting between the Bangladesh Forces and the Pakistani Forces grew increasingly vicious. Mukti Bahini, Hemayet Bahini, Kaderia Bahini were active around different places of the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "672766",
"title": "Bangladesh Liberation War",
"section": "Section::::Foreign reaction.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43828216",
"title": "International recognition of Bangladesh",
"section": "Section::::Foreign reaction.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d3ysgt
|
why are brass knuckles called knuckle dusters?
|
[
{
"answer": "Duster comes from the type of coat, and I suspect that it refers to a covering for your knuckles. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "599009",
"title": "Brass knuckles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Brass knuckles, also sometimes called knuckles, knucks, brass knucks, knucklebusters, knuckledusters, an English punch or a classic, are weapons used in hand-to-hand combat. Brass knuckles are pieces of metal shaped to fit around the knuckles. Despite their name, they are often made from other metals, plastics or carbon fibers. Designed to preserve and concentrate a punch's force by directing it toward a harder and smaller contact area, they result in increased tissue disruption, including an increased likelihood of fracturing the victim's bones on impact. The extended and rounded palm grip also spreads across the attacker's palm the counter-force that would otherwise be absorbed primarily by the attacker's fingers, reducing the likelihood of damage to the attacker's fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235247",
"title": "Brass rubbing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Brass rubbings are created by laying a sheet of paper on top of a brass (actually called \"latten\" - an alloy of brass and nickel) and rubbing the paper with graphite, wax, or chalk, a process similar to rubbing a pencil over a piece of paper placed on top of a coin. In the \"old days\" rubbings were most commonly made using the equivalent of what nowadays is called \"butcher's paper\" [a roll of whitish paper] laid down over the brass and rubbed with \"heelball\", a waxy glob of black crayon once used to shine shoes. Now most brass rubbers purchase special paper rolls of heavy duty black velvety material, and the crayons are gold, silver or bronze (other colours are available).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599009",
"title": "Brass knuckles",
"section": "Section::::History and variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Some brass knuckles have rounded rings, which increase the impact of blows from moderate to severe damage. Other instruments (not generally considered to be \"brass knuckles\" or \"metal knuckles\" \"per se\") may have spikes, sharp points and cutting edges. These devices come in many variations and are called by a variety of names, including \"knuckle knives.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::Season cracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Brass is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, especially from ammonia or substances containing or releasing ammonia. The problem is sometimes known as season cracking after it was first discovered in brass cartridges used for rifle ammunition during the 1920s in the British Indian Army. The problem was caused by high residual stresses from cold forming of the cases during manufacture, together with chemical attack from traces of ammonia in the atmosphere. The cartridges were stored in stables and the ammonia concentration rose during the hot summer months, thus initiating brittle cracks. The problem was resolved by annealing the cases, and storing the cartridges elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5757742",
"title": "Polishing (metalworking)",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "When polishing brass (a softer metal) there are often minute marks in the metal caused by impurities. To smooth out the finer marks, the surface is polished with a very fine (600) grit, copper plated, then buffed to a mirror finish with an airflow mop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235247",
"title": "Brass rubbing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Brass rubbing was originally a largely British enthusiasm for reproducing onto paper monumental brasses – commemorative brass plaques found in churches, usually originally on the floor, from between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. The concept of recording textures of things is more generally called making a rubbing. What distinguishes rubbings from frottage is that rubbings are meant to reproduce the form of something being transferred, whereas frottage is usually only intended to use a general texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1564694",
"title": "Hardcore wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Common weapons.:Blunt objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- Brass knuckles: Sometimes abbreviated to brass knucks or just knucks. Brass knuckles, while seen as a cheap shot in traditional professional wrestling, these are a common weapon in hardcore wrestling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zab42
|
Was Atahualpa immune to smallpox?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you elaborate a bit? Are you asking if he contracted smallpox prior to Cajamarca?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23431",
"title": "History of Peru",
"section": "Section::::European Colonization of Peru (1532–1572).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "In the years between 1524 and 1526, the European germ smallpox, introduced from the conquistadores in Panama and preceding the Spanish conquerors in Peru through transmission among natives, had swept through the Inca Empire. Smallpox caused the death of the Incan ruler Huayna Capac as well as most of his family including his heir, caused the fall of the Incan political structure and contributed to the civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar. Taking advantage of this, Pizarro carried out a \"coup d'état\". On November 16, 1532, while the Atahualpa's victorious army was in an unarmed celebration in Cajamarca, the Spanish lured Inca Atahualpa into a trap during the Battle of Cajamarca. The well-armed 168 Spaniards killed thousands of barely armed Inca soldiers and captured the newly minted Inca ruler, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huáscar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39336090",
"title": "History of smallpox in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Introduction of smallpox into Mexican History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The introduction of smallpox among the Aztecs has been attributed to an African slave (by the name of Francisco Eguía, according to one account) but this has been disputed. From May to September, smallpox spread slowly to Tepeaca and Tlaxcala, and to Tenochtitlán by the fall of 1520. At this time, Cortes was returning to conquer the city after being thrown out on the Noche Triste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39336090",
"title": "History of smallpox in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Introduction of smallpox into Mexican History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Smallpox was an unknown disease not only in Mexico, but in the Americas, before the arrival of Europeans. It was introduced to Mexican lands by the Spanish and played a significant role in the downfall of the Aztec Empire. Hernán Cortés departed from Cuba and arrived in Mexico in 1521, sent to start trade relations on the Veracruz Coast. However, he disobeyed the Cuban governor and began to invade the mainland. The governor sent Pánfilo de Narváez after Cortés. Narvaez’s forces had at least one active case of smallpox, and when the Narvaez expedition stopped at Cozumel and Veracruz in 1520, the disease gained a foothold in the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16829895",
"title": "Smallpox",
"section": "Section::::History.:Disease emergence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "There are no credible descriptions of smallpox-like disease in the Americas before the westward exploration by Europeans in the 15th century CE. Smallpox was introduced into the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1509, and into the mainland in 1520, when Spanish settlers from Hispaniola arrived in Mexico, inadvertently carrying smallpox with them. Because the native Amerindian population had no acquired immunity to this new disease, their peoples were decimated by epidemics. Such disruption and population losses were an important factor in the Spanish achieving conquest of the Aztecs and the Incas. Similarly, English settlement of the east coast of North America in 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts was accompanied by devastating outbreaks of smallpox among Native American populations, and subsequently among the native-born colonists. Case fatality rates during outbreaks in Native American populations were as high as 80–90%. Smallpox was introduced into Australia in 1789 and again in 1829. Although the disease was never endemic on the continent, it was the principal cause of death in Aboriginal populations between 1780 and 1870.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3280313",
"title": "Ecological imperialism",
"section": "Section::::Cortes and the Aztecs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Even with the horses, bloodhounds, gunpowder, and steel, Cortés had a tough time with the Aztecs; Smallpox on the other hand was able to spread to those who have not been in contact with it yet, killing off many people regardless of being rich or poor; people high and low were being infected. Thus the introduction of smallpox that Cortes and his men brought with them, was the significant impact to the fall of the Aztec Empire. As most of the Spaniards have built up somewhat of an immunity to this disease; having brought it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1747334",
"title": "Tsilhqot'in",
"section": "Section::::History.:Disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The isolated position of the Tsilhqot’in may have protected them from the first of the smallpox epidemics, which spread up from Mexico in the 1770s. They may have been spared the smallpox epidemic of 1800 and the measles of the 1840s. Furniss in \"The Burden of History\" states that \"there is no direct evidence that these smallpox epidemics reached the central interior of British Columbia or the Secwepemc, Carrier, or Tsilhqot'in\". However, in the epidemic of 1836–38, the disease spread to Ootsa Lake and killed an entire Carrier band. Oral history of the bands has continued to recount the effects of the many deaths in these epidemics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39108393",
"title": "History of Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::European exploration and colonization.:Impact on native populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed entire village populations. While precise figures are difficult to determine, some historians estimate that at least 30% (and sometimes 50% to 70%) of some Native populations died after first contact due to Eurasian smallpox. One element of the Columbian exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples and carried it back to Europe, where it spread widely. Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas, but that they brought back a more virulent form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nleig
|
How can anything ever reach any event horizon ?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to an external observer, yes, that's completely correct. According to the poor bloke falling into the black hole, there's nothing special about the event horizon, just a continuation of the same old impending sense of utter doom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, There was a theoretical paper done suggesting that nothing ever does cross the event horizon; and this is a possible solution to one of the problems of black Holes and entropy. If I wasn't on my phone instead of a more reasonable computer, I'd see if I could find it. Hopefully this will jog someones memory though and I won't have to",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to an external observer, yes, that's completely correct. According to the poor bloke falling into the black hole, there's nothing special about the event horizon, just a continuation of the same old impending sense of utter doom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, There was a theoretical paper done suggesting that nothing ever does cross the event horizon; and this is a possible solution to one of the problems of black Holes and entropy. If I wasn't on my phone instead of a more reasonable computer, I'd see if I could find it. Hopefully this will jog someones memory though and I won't have to",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58507641",
"title": "Quantized inertia",
"section": "Section::::Unruh radiation and horizon mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "There is an event horizon in the universe where light (and therefore any information) cannot and will never be able to reach an object, because the cosmic acceleration outpaces the speed of light: the cosmological comoving horizon. If the object accelerates in one direction, a similar event horizon is produced: the Rindler horizon. Anything beyond these horizons is outside the observable universe, and therefore can't affect the object at the center of the Rindler space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 252,
"text": "In astrophysics, an event horizon is a boundary beyond which events cannot affect an observer on the opposite side of it. An event horizon is most commonly associated with black holes, where gravitational forces are so strong that light cannot escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Interacting with an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "In the case of a horizon perceived by a uniformly accelerating observer in empty space, the horizon seems to remain a fixed distance from the observer no matter how its surroundings move. Varying the observer's acceleration may cause the horizon to appear to move over time, or may prevent an event horizon from existing, depending on the acceleration function chosen. The observer never touches the horizon and never passes a location where it appeared to be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "In cosmology, the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from which light emitted \"now\" can ever reach the observer in the future. This differs from the concept of particle horizon, which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in the \"past\" could have reached the observer at a given time. For events beyond that distance, light has not had time to reach our location, even if it were emitted at the time the universe began. How the particle horizon changes with time depends on the nature of the expansion of the universe. If the expansion has certain characteristics, there are parts of the universe that will never be observable, no matter how long the observer waits for light from those regions to arrive. The boundary past which events cannot ever be observed is an event horizon, and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Interacting with an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "A misconception concerning event horizons, especially black hole event horizons, is that they represent an immutable surface that destroys objects that approach them. In practice, all event horizons appear to be some distance away from any observer, and objects sent towards an event horizon never appear to cross it from the sending observer's point of view (as the horizon-crossing event's light cone never intersects the observer's world line). Attempting to make an object near the horizon remain stationary with respect to an observer requires applying a force whose magnitude increases unboundedly (becoming infinite) the closer it gets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In this equation, \"a\" is the scale factor, \"c\" is the speed of light, and \"t\" is the age of the Universe. If (i.e., points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed), then no event horizon exists. If , a horizon is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Event horizon of a black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "One of the best-known examples of an event horizon derives from general relativity's description of a black hole, a celestial object so massive that no nearby matter or radiation can escape its gravitational field. Often, this is described as the boundary within which the black hole's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. However, a more accurate description is that within this horizon, all lightlike paths (paths that light could take) and hence all paths in the forward light cones of particles within the horizon, are warped so as to fall farther into the hole. Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time, and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so, depending on the spacetime coordinate system used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57bl5c
|
why can't the us (or any country in general) alleviate their external debt by collecting their external credit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you mean collecting on the debts they're owed by other countries?\n\nFor the same reason nobody wants to take the US to task for all the money it owes.\n\nDebt has a weird place at the macro-level of international economies, it's not like when I have debt where I want to pay it off as soon as possible and I get bothered to do so. It makes more sense when you think of cash in the older sense as a representative of debt, where it can be turned in to the government for its worth in gold.\n\nBasically, as long as everyone is confident that they could, in theory, collect on their debts, they don't need to because the debt is as good as money. If I have a ten million dollar US treasury bond, I don't need to turn it in and get my money. I can use the treasury bond as money because everyone knows that they could do it as well. So they're willing to take it in lieu of money. And so essentially government debt becomes money in itself, backed by the government's credit rating the way money used to be backed by metal.\n\nIn reality the treasury would never be able to pay off all its debts if they were all taken to task at the same time. What would happen is that the government would fail to do so and confidence would plummet in the ability of government debt to function as money. Then they wouldn't want it anymore, so its value would drop. You'd try to exchange it for cash which is valuable but nobody wants to make that trade so you either make the trade for way less than what the debt is supposed to be worth, or you can't sell it at all and you're stuck with piles of worthless paper.\n\nAttempting to collect on national debts is a good way to destroy the world economy. In the worst example, if the US's credit rating tanked trillions of dollars would basically vanish into thin air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you are talking about debt on a governmental scale, that is a highly structured, desirable investment option.\n\nIt is not like when you borrow fifty bucks to a friend and you can call up tomorrow and demand your money back. When money is loaned to the government, it is in the form of a bond. A bond has very specific terms of agreement, interest and payment times. You cannot collect early on a bond (you can sell it to someone else though if you need cash immediately). Everybody involved has to stick to the terms. It cannot be repaid early, but it can also not be demanded back early.\n\nWhat the US government could do, theoretically, is cancel out a lot of those bonds because the US government is one of the biggest holders of US bonds. Think of it as the right hand owing the left hand money.\n\nOf course the US government does not want to do this, because there is nothing wrong with government debt, at least not at the level it is at in the USA. Interest on government bonds is low, confidence in the US economy is high among investors. The US government has never missed a payment of interest on any of their outstanding bonds. Right now, again because the interest is so low, pretty much everything the USA government does with the money it borrow will make them more money than they have to pay back. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Debts are to be paid on a schedule. My bank can't show up on my doorstep and tell me they've decided they want all the money for my mortgage right now. Loans and credit *can't* work like that; it would be chaos. Loans would be pointless because you kind of couldn't actually use the money borrowed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "695460",
"title": "Government debt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Governments create debt by issuing government bonds and bills. Less creditworthy countries sometimes borrow directly from a supranational organization (e.g. the World Bank) or international financial institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17686310",
"title": "Sovereign default",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Since a sovereign government, by definition, controls its own affairs, it cannot be obliged to pay back its debt. Nonetheless, governments may face severe pressure from lending countries. In a few extreme cases, a major creditor nation, before the establishment of the UN Charter Article 2 (4) prohibiting use of force by states, made threats of war or waged war against a debtor nation for failing to pay back debt to seize assets to enforce its creditor's rights. For example, in 1882, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt. Other examples include the United States' \"gunboat diplomacy\" in Venezuela in the mid-1890s and the United States occupation of Haiti beginning in 1915.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2410012",
"title": "Debt-to-GDP ratio",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The World Bank and the IMF hold that “a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth.” According to these two institutions, external debt sustainability can be obtained by a country “by bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country’s exports or 250 percent of a country’s revenues.” High external debt is believed to have harmful effects on an economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "535650",
"title": "External debt",
"section": "Section::::External debt sustainability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The World Bank and IMF hold that \"a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth\". According to these two institutions, \"bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country's exports or 250 percent of a country's revenues\" would help eliminating this \"critical barrier to longer-term debt sustainability\". High external debt is believed to be harmful for the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15251",
"title": "International Monetary Fund",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Conditionality of loans.:Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "These loan conditions ensure that the borrowing country will be able to repay the IMF and that the country will not attempt to solve their balance-of-payment problems in a way that would negatively impact the international economy. The incentive problem of moral hazard—when economic agents maximise their own utility to the detriment of others because they do not bear the full consequences of their actions—is mitigated through conditions rather than providing collateral; countries in need of IMF loans do not generally possess internationally valuable collateral anyway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455150",
"title": "Causes of the Great Depression",
"section": "Section::::Specific theories of cause.:International debt structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The debtor nations put strong pressure on the U.S. in the 1920s to forgive the debts, or at least reduce them. The American government refused. Instead, U.S. banks began making large loans to the nations of Europe. Thus, debts (and reparations) were being paid only by augmenting old debts and piling up new ones. In the late 1920s, and particularly after the American economy began to weaken after 1929, the European nations found it much more difficult to borrow money from the U.S. At the same time, high U.S. tariffs were making it much more difficult for them to sell their goods in U.S. markets. Without any source of revenue from foreign exchange to repay their loans, they began to default.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31814768",
"title": "Philippine Labor Migration Policy",
"section": "Section::::Cost-Benefit Analysis of Labor Migration.:Economic Benefits.:Foreign Exchange Reserves and Debt Repayment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "As of 2012 the country has huge debts, but the overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) foreign exchange remittances have kept the country's debts from increasing to critical levels. Not only is foreign debt being paid with these remittances but they are also used as collateral for new loans. Furthermore, they help to improve the balance of payments and reduce the trade gap. Foreign exchange reserves mainly come from labor migration and OFW remittances have surpassed the export sector in producing foreign exchange. For this reason the government is supporting overseas deployment of the labor force which has reached around one million Filipinos per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v9e6s
|
At what level does the circulatory system of each indivdual start to differ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of the major named arteries follow the same course, but there's a great deal of variation. There isn't some set point at which they occur (it's not like you can say '3 branches off the aorta, things start to diverge'), but generally smaller vessels and areas with a lot of anastamoses tend to feature more variability. One common and clinically relevant example is in the coronary arteries of the heart - the posterior descending is usually a branch off the right coronary, but can also branch off the left circumflex, or both. Another common site of variation is in the circle of Willis, which supplies the brain. Capillaries pretty much just go where they are needed, and don't necessarily follow a set path. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7174190",
"title": "Circulatory anastomosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "A circulatory anastomosis is a connection (an anastomosis) between two blood vessels, such as between arteries (arterio-arterial anastomosis), between veins (veno-venous anastomosis) or between an artery and a vein (arterio-venous anastomosis). Anastomoses between arteries and between veins result in a multitude of arteries and veins, respectively, serving the same volume of tissue. Such anastomoses occur normally in the body in the circulatory system, serving as backup routes for blood to flow if one link is blocked or otherwise compromised, but may also occur pathologically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779933",
"title": "Serpula",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Circulatory system.:Vasculature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "In the central circulatory system, the blood moves anteriorly from the tip of the abdomen to the front of the thorax through a sinus enveloping the alimentary canal, and posteriorly through a ventral blood vessel. The ventral vessel and the sinus communicate with each other by segmentally arranged ring vessels, and by a dorsal vessel, a transverse vessel, and a pair of circumesophageal vessels situated at the anterior end of the thorax. The dorsal vessel in some of the larger serpulids, like \"Serpula\", possesses a valve and a muscular sphincter, probably to prevent backflow of blood from the transverse vessel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13496971",
"title": "Venous return curve",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The circulatory system is made up of two circulations (pulmonary and systemic) situated in series between the right ventricle (RV) and left ventricle (LV). Balance is achieved, in large part, by the Frank–Starling mechanism. For example, if systemic venous return is suddenly increased (e.g., changing from upright to supine position), right ventricular preload increases leading to an increase in stroke volume and pulmonary blood flow. The left ventricle experiences an increase in pulmonary venous return, which in turn increases left ventricular preload and stroke volume by the Frank–Starling mechanism. In this way, an increase in venous return can lead to a matched increase in cardiac output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779933",
"title": "Serpula",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Circulatory system.:Vasculature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The peripheral circulatory system has the following components: the two branchial vessels and their branches in the crown; the periesophageal vascular plexuses; the vessels of the collar and lips; the vessels supplying the body wall, thoracic membrane, and parapodia. The single vessels in each radiole of the branchial crown, and the vessels of opercula, are all branches of the two branchial vessels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115861",
"title": "Urorectal septum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The endodermal cloaca is divided into a dorsal and a ventral part by means of a partition, the urorectal septum, which grows downward from the ridge separating the allantois from the cloacal opening of the intestine and ultimately fuses with the cloacal membrane and divides it into an anal and a urogenital part. The dorsal part of the cloaca forms the rectum, and the anterior part of the urogenital sinus and bladder. The urorectal septum eventually becomes part of the perineal body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9137410",
"title": "Segmentation contractions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Unlike peristalsis, which predominates in the esophagus, segmentation contractions occur in the large intestine and small intestine, while predominating in the latter. While peristalsis involves one-way motion in the caudal direction, segmentation contractions move chyme in both directions, which allows greater mixing with the secretions of the intestines. Segmentation involves contractions of the circular muscles in the digestive tract, while peristalsis involves rhythmic contractions of the longitudinal muscles in the gastrointestinal tract. Unlike peristalsis, segmentation actually can slow progression of chyme through the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57330",
"title": "Circulatory system",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Open circulatory system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph. Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11csxc
|
How did medieval Russia interact with its nomadic Asian neighbors prior to the Mongol invasion?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have a great deal of information on the subject, but I'm a little busy looking for information on another subject right now. Reply to me and I'll get back to you after I've gotten some work done on my paper.\n\nHere's the real quick and dirty of it: Russian principalities interacted with steppe nomads a lot like how the nomads interacted with each other. There was a lot of raiding back and forth, some trade and diplomacy, and even intermarriage. Things were complicated by the fact that the Rus' were predominantly Christian and the steppe nomads were mostly Muslim. Russian writers of the time characterized any conflict, including the most bold-faced \"for profit\" raids, as holy war against infidels, and the trading and intermarriage was ignored as much as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56679747",
"title": "Sack of Chernigov",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Mongol invasion of Rus can be divided in two phases. In winter of 1237-38 they conquered Northern Russia (principalities of Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal) with the exception of Novgorod, but in spring of 1238 retreated back to Wild Fields. The second campaign, aimed to Southern Russia (principalities of Chernigov and Kiev) came in 1239.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34114636",
"title": "Muscovite Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The Mongol invasions of 1236-1241 left the Russian principalities subjugated by the Golden Horde. In the 13th-15th centuries, the Khan of the Golden Horde appointed the Great Prince, who in the 14th century resided in Moscow. In the 13th century the medieval Rus' consisted of a set of relatively small and weak principalities, fighting and making alliances against each other. The larger states (like the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Republic of Novgorod) progressively conquered or absorbed the smaller ones. One bigger principality, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, grew due to a series of clever policies and became the biggest one in central Rus'. In 1380 Dmitry Donskoy, the prince of Moscow, even managed to fight the troops of Golden Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo and win. Whereas formally Moscow remained dependent on the Horde, and the Khan needed to approve position of the Prince, the Grand Duchy of Moscow had become a major regional power, and the Moscow princes aimed to conquer the remaining lands around Moscow and to append them to their Grand Duchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29147260",
"title": "Mongol invasions of Durdzuketia",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "During what was the late Middle Ages of Western Europe, the Caucasus was invaded by Mongols and their Turkic vassals. The first appearance of Mongol troops in the Caucasus was an arrival of scouts in 1220-1222. Kypchak Turkic peoples - some of which becoming future affiliates of Genghis Khan - had been invading and settling areas further and further South and West (a process that had was continuing since the fall of the Khazars), including the fertile river valleys of the Terek and the Kuban. In the 1230s, the Mongols gained rule over the Kypchaks, and turned them into vassals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569009",
"title": "Mongol invasion of Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The Mongol invasion of Europe in the 13th century was the conquest of Europe by the Mongol Empire, by way of the destruction of East Slavic principalities, such as Kiev and Vladimir. The Mongol invasions also occurred in Central Europe, which led to warfare among fragmented Poland, such as the Battle of Legnica (9 April 1241) and in the Battle of Mohi (11 April 1241) in the Kingdom of Hungary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1815700",
"title": "Battle of Mohi",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Warnings and Hungarian preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "In 1223, the expanding Mongol Empire defeated an group of semi- allied Russian city states, at the time known as Rus, at the Kalka River using their famous tactic of the feigned retreat under Subutai and Jebe. This was part of their great cavalry raid to explore the lands beyond their knowledge under the direction of Genghis Khan. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115",
"title": "History of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Early history.:Mongol invasion (1223–1240).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The impact of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. The advanced city culture was almost completely destroyed. As older centers such as Kiev and Vladimir never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack, the new cities of Moscow, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod began to compete for hegemony in the Mongol-dominated Russia. Although a Russian army defeated the Golden Horde at Kulikovo in 1380, Mongol domination of the Russian-inhabited territories, along with demands of tribute from Russian princes, continued until about 1480.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22392889",
"title": "Siege of Kiev (1240)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "In 1237, the Mongols began their invasion of Rus by conquering the northern principalities of Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal. In 1239, they advanced against southern Rus, capturing the cities of Pereyaslav and Chernihiv.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
toxur
|
Is it possible that psychedelics like psilocybin increase the spectrum of colors that we can see?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really doesn't physically change how many colors we can see or how we hear. Your visual receptors have a specific range of wavelengths that they can detect, same with your ears. Taking a psychedelic won't change this fact. Psychedelics change your brain chemistry in certain ways that can make you see colors you wouldn't normally see or hear things you wouldn't normally hear, but this is due strictly to chemical balances in your brain. You aren't \"seeing\" these new colors with your eyes; your visual cortex is creating them while you are under the influence of the drug. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1173245",
"title": "Psychedelic experience",
"section": "Section::::Basic phenomenology.:Mystical/religious experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Psychedelic experience includes the full range of mystical or religious experiential phenomena. Two scientific studies have concluded that psilocybin (a typical psychedelic compound that occurs naturally in psilocybin mushrooms) reliably triggers mystical-type experiences. The more recent study at Johns Hopkins University identified mystical experiences by means of several questionnaires designed to categorise altered state 'non-ordinary' experiences, including one questionnaire called 'the mysticism scale'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57422127",
"title": "Psilocybin therapy",
"section": "Section::::Ethical concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A debate has been going on about whether psilocybin is an ethical, or even safe, treatment for depression and other mental illnesses such as anxiety. In comparison to other drugs, psychedelics in general are relatively harmless physiologically. Many of the currently known psychedelics, including psilocybin, are classified as having no accepted medical use in the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3028673",
"title": "Marsh Chapel Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Doblin's follow-up.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "In a 25-year follow-up to the experiment, all of the subjects given psilocybin described their experience as having elements of \"a genuine mystical nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life\". Psychedelic researcher Rick Doblin considered Pahnke's original study partially flawed due to incorrect implementation of the double-blind procedure, and several imprecise questions in the mystical experience questionnaire. Nevertheless, Doblin said that Pahnke's study cast \"a considerable doubt on the assertion that mystical experiences catalyzed by drugs are in any way inferior to non-drug mystical experiences in both their immediate content and long-term effects\". A similar sentiment was expressed by clinical psychologist William A. Richards, who in 2007 stated \"[psychedelic] mushroom use may constitute one technology for evoking revelatory experiences that are similar, if not identical, to those that occur through so-called spontaneous alterations of brain chemistry.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42052",
"title": "Mescaline",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral and non-behavioral effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Mescaline induces a psychedelic state similar to those produced by LSD and psilocybin, but with unique characteristics. Subjective effects may include altered thinking processes, an altered sense of time and self-awareness, and closed- and open-eye visual phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20264",
"title": "Mushroom",
"section": "Section::::Human use.:Psychoactive mushrooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as \"magic mushrooms\" or shrooms\", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38468",
"title": "Psilocybin",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Spiritual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1680,
"text": "While many recent studies have concluded that psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance, not all the medical community is on board. Paul R. McHugh, formerly director of the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at Johns Hopkins, responded as follows in a book review: \"The unmentioned fact in \"The Harvard Psychedelic Club\" is that LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and the like produce not a “higher consciousness” but rather a particular kind of “lower consciousness” known well to psychiatrists and neurologists—namely, “toxic delirium.”\" In response to Dr. McHugh’s denial that the mystical experience leads to insight, Michael Pollan points to Roland Griffiths, Johns Hopkins researcher and author of many studies finding that the experiences of many of the participants have actually involved substantial and sustained personal meaning bringing enduring positive changes in psychological functioning. According to Pollan, Griffiths admits that those taking psilocybin may be encountering a temporary psychosis, but notes that the patients McHugh describes are unlikely to report years later of their experience: \"Wow, that was one of the greatest and most meaningful experiences of my life\". Such responses argue that it is not appropriate to automatically equate a psilocybin-induced experience of profound insight with superficially similar experiences of psychiatric patients (characterized as mere toxic delirium), when it is only the “insight” reached in the psilocybin experience that is reported to often result in profound, beneficial and enduring life changes for the person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1172710",
"title": "Psychedelic art",
"section": "Section::::Digital age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Computer art has allowed for an even greater and more profuse expression of psychedelic vision. Fractal generating software gives an accurate depiction of psychedelic hallucinatory patterns, but even more importantly 2D and 3D graphics software allow for unparalleled freedom of image manipulation. Much of the graphics software seems to permit a direct translation of the psychedelic vision. The \"digital revolution\" was indeed heralded early on as the \"New LSD\" by none other than Timothy Leary. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xt3cj
|
is there a link between diet soda consumption (i.e. aspartame) and cancer? if not, why does the general public continue to think there is.
|
[
{
"answer": "There are biased, non-peer-reviewed studies that make this link, but there's no real evidence of any link. Unfortunately some people like to latch on to any study that promotes FUD without considering any of the facts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been a few studies that have found a link, but it doesn't seem like the results are accepted as true, due to potential issues and poor correlations. However, the general public doesn't seem to understand that feeding rats 4000mg/kg/day and seeing a *possible* increase in cancers does not mean \"OMG, aspartame is deadly poison.\"\n\nThere are also lots of studies failing to show any link.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2752",
"title": "Aspartame",
"section": "Section::::Intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In a report released on 10 December 2013, the EFSA said that, after an extensive examination of evidence, it ruled out the \"potential risk of aspartame causing damage to genes and inducing cancer,\" and deemed the amount found in diet sodas an amount safe to consume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23184143",
"title": "Sugary drink tax",
"section": "Section::::Countries.:United States.:Scientific studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Coca-Cola has been under fire since 2015 when emails revealed that funding for scientific studies sought to influence research to be more favorable to soda. Research funded by soda companies are 34 times more likely to find soda has no significant health impacts on obesity or diabetes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20359",
"title": "Mutagen",
"section": "Section::::Protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include mycotoxins from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as aflatoxins which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn; heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon (ascobate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate acrylamide, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive alcohol consumption has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599985",
"title": "Tab (drink)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Saccharin safety debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Studies on laboratory rats during the early 1970s linked high volumes of cyclamate and saccharin with the development of bladder cancer. As a result, the United States Congress mandated that further studies of saccharin be performed and required that all food containing saccharin bear a label warning that the sweetener had been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. Despite this, Tab remained commercially successful, and was the best-selling diet soda in 1982. In May 1984, Coca-Cola introduced Nutrasweet into the Tab formula, which maligned a significant portion of its market, and resulted in numerous consumer complaints regarding a perceived change in flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10588046",
"title": "Diet and cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, few have significant supporting scientific evidence. Obesity and drinking alcohol have been correlated with the incidence and progression of some cancers. Lowering the drinking of beverages sweetened with sugar is recommended as a measure to address obesity. A diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat has been implicated but not confirmed, and the effect may be small for well-nourished people who maintain a healthy weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292340",
"title": "Flavonoid",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Clinical studies investigating the relationship between flavonoid consumption and cancer prevention/development are conflicting for most types of cancer, probably because most studies are retrospective in design and use a small sample size. Two apparent exceptions are gastric carcinoma and smoking-related cancers. Dietary flavonoid intake is associated with reduced gastric carcinoma risk in women, and reduced aerodigestive tract cancer risk in smokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Dietary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce cancer risks, the evidence to support them is not definitive. The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption. Diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat have been implicated but reviews and meta-analyses do not come to a consistent conclusion. A 2014 meta-analysis find no relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer. Coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer. Studies have linked excess consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon that could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures. In 2015 the IARC reported that eating processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) and, to a lesser degree, red meat was linked to some cancers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aznht4
|
what determines the strength of someones vocal chords, e.g. how loud they are?
|
[
{
"answer": "Loudness comes much more from breathing than from your vocal chords. The more air you can push past them, the louder you can be. \n\nVocal coaches will tell you to practice breathing from the diaphragm which isn't as easy or natural as it may seem. There are tons of videos on YouTube demonstrating this. Basically try taking a deeper breath than usual and then exhale, pushing more air out of your lungs when you speak or sing, and you will notice your volume go up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32807",
"title": "Vocal cords",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Oscillation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The perceived pitch of a person's voice is determined by a number of different factors, most importantly the fundamental frequency of the sound generated by the larynx. The fundamental frequency is influenced by the length, size, and tension of the vocal folds. This frequency averages about 125 Hz in an adult male, 210 Hz in adult females, and over 300 Hz in children. Depth-kymography is an imaging method to visualize the complex horizontal and vertical movements of vocal folds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14918387",
"title": "Modal voice",
"section": "Section::::Physiological process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The physical limits of muscular strength of the internal thyroarytenoids or vocalis muscle are being approached. To sing or speak above this pitch level the voice must adopt a new phonatory pattern to change registers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38481",
"title": "Human voice",
"section": "Section::::Physiology and vocal timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14714237",
"title": "Vocal resonation",
"section": "Section::::The vocal resonators in detail.:The larynx.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Due to its small size, the larynx acts as a resonator only for high frequencies. Research indicates that one of the desirable attributes of good vocal tone is a prominent overtone lying between 2800 and 3200 hertz, with male voices nearer the lower limit and female voices nearer the upper. This attribute is identified as brilliance, or more frequently as \"ring\" or the \"singer's formant\", as fully described by Sundberg. There are several areas in or adjacent to the larynx which might resonate such a high pitch. Among them are the collar of the larynx, the ventricles of Morgani, the vallecula, and the pyriform sinuses. The larynx is not under conscious control, but whatever produces \"ring\" can be encouraged indirectly by awareness on the part of the student and the teacher of the sounds which contain it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38481",
"title": "Human voice",
"section": "Section::::Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Adult men and women typically have different sizes of vocal fold; reflecting the male-female differences in larynx size. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds (which would be measured vertically in the opposite diagram), are between 17 mm and 25 mm in length. The female vocal folds are between 12.5 mm and 17.5 mm in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553899",
"title": "Dominance signal",
"section": "Section::::Human dominance signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Physically, men's vocal folds and vocal tracts are longer than those of women, which produces a lower fundamental frequency and closer spacing of formant frequencies in men. These differences are not fully clear from an evolutionary perspective; However, it has been suggested that voice pitch is linked to male dominance competition. Current research on male voice pitch suggests that lower pitch is perceived as increasing dominance. Lower pitch voices also tend to be indicators of physical and social dominance. Other vocalization signals include loud rapid speaking tempo and clear articulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32807",
"title": "Vocal cords",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Males and females have different vocal fold sizes. Adult male voices are usually lower pitched due to longer and thicker folds. The male vocal folds are between 1.75 cm and 2.5 cm (approx 0.75\" to 1.0\") in length, while female vocal folds are between 1.25 cm and 1.75 cm (approx 0.5\" to 0.75\") in length. The vocal folds of children are much shorter than those of adult males and females. The difference in vocal fold length and thickness between males and females causes a difference in vocal pitch. Additionally, genetic factors cause variations between members of the same sex, with males' and females' voices being categorized into voice types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ejx48c
|
why does japan have such a high conviction rate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fewer rules against how evidence is gathered, so the discovery and investigation parts of the system are faster with fewer pieces of damning evidence thrown out due to \"procedural\" or \"paperwork\" errors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They also juke their stats. looks like you won’t be able to solve this murder? Better rule it a suicide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2945072",
"title": "Human rights in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Major issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Japan has a conviction rate of over 99%. In several cases, courts have acknowledged confessions were forced and released those imprisoned. To combat this, a law was passed in 2016 requiring some interrogations to be videotaped. However, this only applies to people accused of serious crimes, such as murder, arson and kidnapping, which make up only 3% of cases. In common law countries which practice trial by jury, a high conviction rate is seen as an indication that defendants are not receiving a fair trial. In civil law countries, where a magistrate decides the verdict, it is common because both the defense and the prosecutor can reliably predict the outcome of the trial. Japan also practices the death penalty, to which the U.N. objects, as do several prominent NGOs and the European Union (see Capital punishment in Japan).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2958292",
"title": "Criminal justice system of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Conviction rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The most likely reason why the Japanese conviction rate is so high is that prosecutors have a broad discretion to prosecute or not, taking into account many factors (similar to sentencing factors in Western countries). The prosecutors may decide, for example, not to prosecute someone even if there is sufficient evidence to win at trial, because of the circumstances of the crime or accused. Article 248 of the Japanese Code of Criminal Procedure states: \"Where prosecution is deemed unnecessary owing to the character, age, environment, gravity of the offense, circumstances or situation after the offense, prosecution need not be instituted.\" Thus, prosecutors in Japan have a very broad discretion in the decision to prosecute or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2313361",
"title": "Public order and internal security in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Police.:Legal process of arrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Prosecutors in Japan do not generally go to trial unless they have overwhelming evidence of guilt. Because of this tendency, they decline to prosecute nearly a quarter of all cases. For those that go to trial, Japanese prosecutors hold a conviction record of about 98%. These patterns contribute to public perceptions of the infallibility of the police and the legal system, and the perception that if a person is arrested, he or she must be guilty of the crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2958292",
"title": "Criminal justice system of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Conviction rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "In the matter relating to Japanese prosecutors being extremely cautious, the paper found ample evidence for it. In Japan, 99.7% of all the cases brought to court resulted in conviction, while in the U.S. the figure is 88%. According to a cited research, in the U.S. the accused contest guilt in 22% of federal cases and 11% of state cases, while in Japan, the ratio is modestly less. The paper attributes this difference to greater predictability of the outcome in Japanese cases. This is due to two reasons. One is that it is the judge rather than the jury who determines the verdict. As judges \"have seen it all before\" and the lawyers on both sides \"have seen them seeing it\", as they can read the judge's previous ruling (which includes written reasoning for the previous verdict), the way that the judge thinks and argues is very predictable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28060467",
"title": "Conviction rate",
"section": "Section::::Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In Japan, the criminal justice system has a conviction rate that exceeds 99%, including guilty plea cases. This has been attributed to low prosecutorial budgets impelling understaffed prosecutors to bring only the most obviously guilty defendants to trial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120226",
"title": "Japanese war crimes",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:International and Japanese law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the Treaty of San Francisco (1952). This is because the treaty does not mention the legal validity of the tribunal. Had Japan certified the legal validity of the war crimes tribunals in the San Francisco Treaty, the war crimes would have become open to appeal and overturning in Japanese courts. This would have been unacceptable in international diplomatic circles. Current Prime Minister Shinzō Abe has advocated the position that Japan accepted the Tokyo tribunal and its judgements as a condition for ending the war, but that its verdicts have no relation to domestic law. According to this view, those convicted of war crimes are not criminals under Japanese law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1880615",
"title": "End of World War II in Asia",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:International Military Tribunal for the Far East.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Twenty-eight Japanese military and political leaders were charged with Class A crimes, and more than 5,700 Japanese nationals were charged with Class B and C crimes, mostly entailing prisoner abuse. China held 13 tribunals of its own, resulting in 504 convictions and 149 executions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3487ht
|
why do some people get annoyed when you say america instead of the united states?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on what you mean by 'most people.' It's that attitude that annoys people. I don't have a problem with it myself, and am used to saying it, but that's because I'm from the U.S. Someone from outside the U.S. but who is also from 'the Americas' might take offense that we are claiming everything as our own like colonialists or ignoring everyone else like elitists , and I've been told that the rest of the world hates the U.S. for similar reasons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When speaking in English, in an English speaking country, yes it's widely understood that \"America\" means the USA.\n\nHowever in other languages such as Spanish, the word \"América\" does mean the American continents in general. The USA is \"Estados Unidos\". So some people from Latin America do consider themselves American.\n\nEven when speaking English, some people from Latin America think that people should use the equivalent terms to their language, and that other countries in the Americas have just as much right to be considered \"Americans\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3245483",
"title": "Geographical renaming",
"section": "Section::::Naming disputes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 369,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 369,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "BULLET::::- US/America/North America: The terms 'America' and 'American' are frequently used to refer only to the United States and its people. This sometimes causes resentment among some non-US Americans, especially Latin Americans, who tend to respond by referring to the people of the US as Unitedstatesian (or 'estadounidenses' in Spanish), at least when not using the unofficial term 'gringos'. The practice is sometimes also followed by native English speakers who wish to show they are sympathetic to Latin Americans, and/or when translating texts into English. The practice can also be found in Mexico, even though Mexico is normally considered part of North America. A Canadian may sometimes be described as 'un norteamericano de Canada' (a North American of Canada). See also use of the word American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6269066",
"title": "Stereotypes of Americans",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes with negative use.:Arrogance and nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Americans may be seen as arrogant people. They are frequently depicted in foreign media as obsessively nationalistic and obnoxiously patriotic, referring to the U.S. as \"the greatest country in the world\" and patronising people from other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80125",
"title": "John Foster Dulles",
"section": "Section::::Death and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "This quote is sometimes attributed to Dulles: \"The United States of America does not have friends; it has interests.\" The words were spoken by President Charles de Gaulle of France. This misquotation can be attributed to Dulles' visit to Mexico in 1958, during which anti-American protesters carried signs reading \"The U.S. has no friends, only interests.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15831721",
"title": "N*gger Wetb*ck Ch*nk: The Race Play",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "\"People ask us all the time, 'Why did it have to be these words? Couldn't you just call it \"African American/Latin American/Chinese?\"' My answer to that is, why not these words? What is it that people are so afraid of? It's a shame that someone's day is ruined if they see a poster of ours. When people are offended it's because of their own experiences they've had with these words. We're not out to offend anyone, and we're not using these words against people. When the three of us got together, the title just came and it was perfect: These are the words we've been dealing with our whole lives.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29762299",
"title": "Campaign rhetoric of Barack Obama",
"section": "Section::::American Exceptionalism.:Praise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "\"I know these are difficult times. I know folks are worried. But I also know this - we can steer ourselves out of this crisis. Because we are the United States of America. We are the country that has faced down war and depression; great challenges and great threats. And at each and every moment, we have risen to meet these challenges - not as Democrats, not as Republicans, but as Americans. We still have the most talented, most productive workers of any country on Earth. We're still home to innovation and technology, colleges and universities that are the envy of the world. Some of the biggest ideas in history have come from our small businesses and our research facilities. It won't be easy, but there's no reason we can't make this century another American century.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6269066",
"title": "Stereotypes of Americans",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes with negative use.:Workaholic culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "While the stereotype of hard-working Americans is often a positive one, the United States has also been criticized in recent years as a workaholic culture. In \"The Huffington Post\", Tijana Milosevic, a Serbian who had traveled to Washington, D.C. for a degree, wrote, \"In fact my family and friends had observed that I shouldn’t have chosen America, since I would probably feel better in Western Europe — where life is not as fast paced as in the US and capitalism still has a 'human face.'\" She noted that \"Americans still work nine full weeks (350 hours) longer than West Europeans do and paid vacation days across Western Europe are well above the US threshold.\" Researchers at Oxford Economics hired by the US Travel Association estimated that in 2014 \"about 169m [vacation] days, equivalent to $52.4bn in lost benefits\", went unused by American workers. Professor Gary L. Cooper argued Americans \"have a great deal to learn from Europeans about getting better balance between work and life\" and wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033785",
"title": "I'm Afraid of Americans",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "It's not as truly hostile about Americans as say \"Born in the U.S.A.\": it's merely sardonic. I was traveling in Java when [its] first McDonald's went up: it was like, \"for fuck's sake.\" The invasion by any homogenized culture is so depressing, the erection of another Disney World in, say, Umbria, Italy, more so. It strangles the indigenous culture and narrows expression of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sl3c8
|
What would happen to a single photon in a perfect vacuum?
|
[
{
"answer": "A photon in a perfect vacuum will travel in a perfectly strait line until it hits something. If you put a photographic plate in the way, you would see one dot of light surrounded by darkness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32502",
"title": "Vacuum",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- Perfect vacuum is an ideal state of no particles at all. It cannot be achieved in a laboratory, although there may be small volumes which, for a brief moment, happen to have no particles of matter in them. Even if all particles of matter were removed, there would still be photons and gravitons, as well as dark energy, virtual particles, and other aspects of the quantum vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236439",
"title": "Scharnhorst effect",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Owing to the Dirac sea, an empty space which appears to be a pure vacuum is filled with virtual subatomic particles. These are called vacuum fluctuations. As a photon travels through a vacuum it interacts with these virtual particles and is absorbed by them to give rise to a virtual electron–positron pair. This pair is unstable and quickly annihilates to produce a photon like the one which was previously absorbed. The time the photon's energy spends as subluminal electron-positron pairs lowers the observed speed of light in a vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84400",
"title": "Zero-point energy",
"section": "Section::::Quantum field theory.:The quantum electrodynamic vacuum.:Necessity of the vacuum field in QED.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In a process in which a photon is annihilated (absorbed), we can think of the photon as making a transition into the vacuum state. Similarly, when a photon is created (emitted), it is occasionally useful to imagine that the photon has made a transition out of the vacuum state. An atom, for instance, can be considered to be \"dressed\" by emission and reabsorption of \"virtual photons\" from the vacuum. The vacuum state energy described by is infinite. We can make the replacement:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4068",
"title": "Blaise Pascal",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to the physical sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "BULLET::::- Therefore, since there had to be an invisible \"something\" to move the light through the glass tube, there was no vacuum in the tube. Not in the glass tube or anywhere else. Vacuums – the absence of any and everything – were simply an impossibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Justifications.:Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1835,
"text": "The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However, the vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The vacuum has energy associated with it, called simply the vacuum energy, which could perhaps be altered in certain cases. When vacuum energy is lowered, light itself has been predicted to go faster than the standard value \"c\". This is known as the Scharnhorst effect. Such a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a Casimir vacuum. Calculations imply that light will go faster in such a vacuum by a minuscule amount: a photon traveling between two plates that are 1 micrometer apart would increase the photon's speed by only about one part in 10. Accordingly, there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction. A recent analysis argued that the Scharnhorst effect cannot be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates' rest frame would define a \"preferred frame\" for FTL signalling. However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could \"guarantee the total absence of causality violations\", and invoked Hawking's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create \"uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress-energy\" on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze. Other authors argue that Scharnhorst's original analysis, which seemed to show the possibility of faster-than-\"c\" signals, involved approximations which may be incorrect, so that it is not clear whether this effect could actually increase signal speed at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706278",
"title": "Squeezed coherent state",
"section": "Section::::Photon number distributions and phase distributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "For the squeezed vacuum state the photon number distribution displays odd-even-oscillations. This can be explained by the mathematical form of the squeezing operator, that resembles the operator for two-photon generation and annihilation processes. Photons in a squeezed vacuum state are more likely to appear in pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26000",
"title": "Ray tracing (graphics)",
"section": "Section::::Detailed description of ray tracing computer algorithm and its genesis.:What happens in (simplified) nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1640,
"text": "In nature, a light source emits a ray of light which travels, eventually, to a surface that interrupts its progress. One can think of this \"ray\" as a stream of photons traveling along the same path. In a perfect vacuum this ray will be a straight line (ignoring relativistic effects). Any combination of four things might happen with this light ray: absorption, reflection, refraction and fluorescence. A surface may absorb part of the light ray, resulting in a loss of intensity of the reflected and/or refracted light. It might also reflect all or part of the light ray, in one or more directions. If the surface has any transparent or translucent properties, it refracts a portion of the light beam into itself in a different direction while absorbing some (or all) of the spectrum (and possibly altering the color). Less commonly, a surface may absorb some portion of the light and fluorescently re-emit the light at a longer wavelength color in a random direction, though this is rare enough that it can be discounted from most rendering applications. Between absorption, reflection, refraction and fluorescence, all of the incoming light must be accounted for, and no more. A surface cannot, for instance, reflect 66% of an incoming light ray, and refract 50%, since the two would add up to be 116%. From here, the reflected and/or refracted rays may strike other surfaces, where their absorptive, refractive, reflective and fluorescent properties again affect the progress of the incoming rays. Some of these rays travel in such a way that they hit our eye, causing us to see the scene and so contribute to the final rendered image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3u9tn5
|
Can 3 objects orbit each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, it's not super rare. The most common configuration is that two of them are much closer together than the third one, and they orbit each other while the third one orbits both of them (Alpha Centauri may be like this).\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18272728",
"title": "Gravity tractor",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Considering possible hovering positions or orbits of the tractor around the asteroid, note that if two objects are gravitationally bound in a mutual orbit, then if one receives an arbitrary impulse which is less than that needed to free it from orbit around the other, because of the gravitational forces between them, the impulse will alter the momentum of both, together regarded as a composite system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44632031",
"title": "M-Theory (learning framework)",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical aspects.:From orbits to distribution measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "In other words, images of an object and of its transformations correspond to a orbit formula_20. If two orbits have a point in common they are identical everywhere, i.e. an orbit is an invariant and unique representation of an image. So, two images are called equivalent when they belong to the same orbit: formula_25 if formula_26 such that formula_27. Conversely, two orbits are different if none of the images in one orbit coincide with any image in the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80825",
"title": "Free fall",
"section": "Section::::Free fall in Newtonian mechanics.:Inverse-square law gravitational field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "It can be said that two objects in space orbiting each other in the absence of other forces are in free fall around each other, e.g. that the Moon or an artificial satellite \"falls around\" the Earth, or a planet \"falls around\" the Sun. Assuming spherical objects means that the equation of motion is governed by Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, with solutions to the gravitational two-body problem being elliptic orbits obeying Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This connection between falling objects close to the Earth and orbiting objects is best illustrated by the thought experiment, Newton's cannonball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8481594",
"title": "Co-orbital configuration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In astronomy, a co-orbital configuration is a configuration of two or more astronomical objects (such as asteroids, moons, or planets) orbiting at the same, or very similar, distance from their primary, i.e. they are in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance. (or 1:−1 if orbiting in opposite directions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35252232",
"title": "Co-location (satellite)",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Co-located satellites cannot actually be positioned at the same point on the geostationary satellite arc. In fact, they are just close enough together to appear to be at the same position so far as the beamwidth of the receiving dish is concerned. SES maintains its co-located satellites within an imaginary 150 km cube in space, centred on the notional orbital position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23470",
"title": "Polyhedron",
"section": "Section::::Symmetries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "All the elements that can be superimposed on each other by symmetries are said to form a symmetry orbit. For example, all the faces of a cube lie in one orbit, while all the edges lie in another. If all the elements of a given dimension, say all the faces, lie in the same orbit, the figure is said to be transitive on that orbit. For example, a cube is face-transitive, while a truncated cube has two symmetry orbits of faces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::Planetary orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest. (More specific terms are used for specific bodies. For example, \"perigee\" and \"apogee\" are the lowest and highest parts of an orbit around Earth, while \"perihelion\" and \"aphelion\" are the closest and farthest points of an orbit around the Sun.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l9s7o
|
How does heat transfer within a solid differ from heat transfer between a solid and air (convection)?
|
[
{
"answer": "In equilibrium, everything will reach the same temperature. If we assume that the room as a whole is a closed system, the answer is as easy as calculating the total heat capacity and the total heat. \n\nLet's make the problem even easier: We have a small room of 10 m^3 in volume. In this room, we have an iron cube that weighs 1 kg. Air has a heat capacity of about 1 J/(g K) (according to [this website](_URL_0_)), iron has about half that, 0.45 J/(g K). \n\nThe air inside the room has a density of about 1.2 kg/m^3 (wikipedia), so we have about 12 kg air inside our room. The total heat capacity of the air is, therefore, 12 J/K and the heat capacity of the iron cube is 0.45 J/K. \n\nSo, if we dump some amount of energy into the room, about 27 times as much energy would go into the air than the iron. Or, in other words, to heat the air by 1 K, the block would have to be 27 K above room temperature.\n\nIf you're asking about the dynamics of the heat transfer, the answer will be a lot more complex. It depends on the material properties and shape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "72536",
"title": "Thermal conduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "In conduction, the heat flow is within and through the body itself. In contrast, in heat transfer by thermal radiation, the transfer is often between bodies, which may be separated spatially. Also possible is transfer of heat by a combination of conduction and thermal radiation. In convection, internal energy is carried between bodies by a moving material carrier. In solids, conduction is mediated by the combination of vibrations and collisions of molecules, of propagation and collisions of phonons, and of diffusion and collisions of free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of molecules during their random motion. Photons in this context do not collide with one another, and so heat transport by electromagnetic radiation is conceptually distinct from heat conduction by microscopic diffusion and collisions of material particles and phonons. But the distinction is often not easily observed, unless the material is semi-transparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Convection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming. The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Conduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1828,
"text": "On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact. The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction, such as when placing a hand on a cold glass of water - heat is conducted from the warm skin to the cold glass, but if the hand is held a few inches from the glass, little conduction would occur since air is a poor conductor of heat. Steady state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after a time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further (see Fourier's law). In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out, since the change in temperature (a measure of heat energy) is zero. An example of steady state conduction is the heat flow through walls of a warm house on a cold night - inside the house is maintained at a high temperature, and outside the temperature stays low, so the transfer of heat per unit time stays near a constant rate determined by the insulation in the wall, and the spatial distribution of temperature in the walls will be approximately constant over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9662955",
"title": "Convective heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "The convection heat transfer mode comprises one mechanism. In addition to energy transfer due to specific molecular motion (diffusion), energy is transferred by bulk, or macroscopic, motion of the fluid. This motion is associated with the fact that, at any instant, large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer. Because the molecules in aggregate retain their random motion, the total heat transfer is then due to the superposition of energy transport by random motion of the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid. It is customary to use the term convection when referring to this cumulative transport and the term advection when referring to the transport due to bulk fluid motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9662955",
"title": "Convective heat transfer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of unknown conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid flow).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47526",
"title": "Convection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Convective heat transfer is one of the major types of heat transfer, and convection is also a major mode of mass transfer in fluids. Convective heat and mass transfer takes place both by diffusion – the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid – and by advection, in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of currents in the fluid. In the context of heat and mass transfer, the term \"convection\" is used to refer to the combined effects of advective and diffusive transfer. Sometimes the term \"convection\" is used to refer specifically to \"free heat convection\" (natural heat convection) where bulk-flow in a fluid is due to temperature-induced differences in buoyancy, as opposed to \"forced heat convection\" where forces other than buoyancy (such as pump or fan) move the fluid. However, in mechanics, the correct use of the word \"convection\" is the more general sense, and different types of convection should be further qualified, for clarity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47526",
"title": "Convection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Convection cannot take place in most solids because neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion of matter can take place. Diffusion of heat takes place in rigid solids, but that is called heat conduction. Convection, additionally may take place in soft solids or mixtures where solid particles can move past each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dimmd
|
why are languages all so different... but body language is so similar everywhere? eye-rolls, shrugs, clapping, skeptical eyebrow raises etc..
|
[
{
"answer": "Body language is *not* similar everywhere. In fact, some gestures mean exactly the opposite of what you expect in other cultures. [Here's a page](_URL_0_) that talks about the topic.\n\nAnd [another](_URL_1_) short page with some of the confusing gestures from around the world. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have an answer for you, but I have a tv series you could watch: If you're interested in \"subconscious ticks\" you could check out the TV series \"Lie to me\", (Trailer: _URL_0_ )\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.:Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them. Languages differ not only in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, but also through having different \"cultures of speaking.\" Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group as well as difference from others. Even among speakers of one language, several different ways of using the language exist, and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture. Linguists and anthropologists, particularly sociolinguists, ethnolinguists, and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.:Contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Through sustained language contact over long periods, linguistic traits diffuse between languages, and languages belonging to different families may converge to become more similar. In areas where many languages are in close contact, this may lead to the formation of language areas in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features. A number of such language areas have been documented, among them, the Balkan language area, the Mesoamerican language area, and the Ethiopian language area. Also, larger areas such as South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas, because of widespread diffusion of specific areal features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41831802",
"title": "American anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "However, languages, now understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them. Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. Even among speakers of one language several different ways of using the language exist, and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture. In linguistics such different ways of using the same language are called \"varieties\". For example, the English language is spoken differently in the US, the UK and Australia, and even within English-speaking countries there are hundreds of dialects of English that each signals a belonging to a particular region and/or subculture. For example, in the UK the cockney dialect signals its speakers' belonging to the group of lower class workers of east London. Differences between varieties of the same language often consist in different pronunciations and vocabulary, but also sometimes of different grammatical systems and very often in using different styles (e.g. cockney rhyming slang or lawyers' jargon). Linguists and anthropologists, particularly sociolinguists, ethnolinguists and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26915",
"title": "Linguistic relativity",
"section": "Section::::Empirical research.:Behavior-centered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Recent research with non-linguistic experiments in languages with different grammatical properties (e.g., languages with and without numeral classifiers or with different gender grammar systems) showed that language differences in human categorization are due to such differences. Experimental research suggests that this linguistic influence on thought diminishes over time, as when speakers of one language are exposed to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3072601",
"title": "Personal pronoun",
"section": "Section::::Types and forms.:Formality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Many languages have different pronouns, particularly in the second person, depending on the degree of formality or familiarity. It is common for different pronouns to be used when addressing friends, family, children and animals than when addressing superiors and adults with whom the speaker is less familiar. Examples of such languages include French, where the singular \"tu\" is used only for familiars, the plural \"vous\" being used as a singular in other cases (Russian follows a similar pattern); German, where the third-person plural \"sie\" (capitalized as \"Sie\") is used as both singular and plural in the second person in non-familiar uses; and Polish, where the noun \"pan\" (\"gentleman\") and its feminine and plural equivalents are used as polite second-person pronouns. For more details, see T–V distinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2510506",
"title": "Indo-Aryan migration",
"section": "Section::::Linguistics: relationships between languages.:Comparative method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Connections between languages can be traced because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41831802",
"title": "American anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The connection between culture and language has been noted as far back as the classical period and probably long before. The ancient Greeks, for example, distinguished between civilized peoples and bárbaroi \"those who babble\", i.e. those who speak unintelligible languages. The fact that different groups speak different, unintelligible languages is often considered more tangible evidence for cultural differences than other less obvious cultural traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6rnryu
|
How do the antibodies in a blood donors blood behave in the blood recipients body?
|
[
{
"answer": "They work just fine; this is basis of [immunoglobulin therapy](_URL_0_). However, they don't work very long; half-life of various immunoglobulins is only a few days.\n\nWhat blocks the significant response from the recipient's immune system is that the recipient has to be immunosuppressed to receive a transplant (in which I include whole-blood transfusion).\n\nAlso worth noting: most cases in which you receive blood from someone, you don't get whole blood — you get only some parts of it (for example, red blood cells or plasma), and those parts don't include antibodies. It's only when you receive whole blood that you are getting everything, and that works pretty much like any transplant does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "PhD here in a closely related topic. Your intuition is correct: the donor antibodies are simply too low in quantity to cause significant problems. \n\nA question on a more dangerous scenario is whether donated B and T cells specific to the ABO antigens can be encouraged to proliferate ( even hypermutate for B cells), thereby leading to the usual cascade of adaptive immune response. We know it doesn't happen too often because else transfusions won't be safe. As far as I know, literature is largely silent on which part of the chain is broken, or if the recipients' own adaptive immune system can somehow recognize and destroy the donor lymphocytes consistently regardless of genetic similarity between the individuals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Screening.:Blood testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "The donor's blood type must be determined if the blood will be used for transfusions. The collecting agency usually identifies whether the blood is type A, B, AB, or O and the donor's Rh (D) type and will screen for antibodies to less common antigens. More testing, including a crossmatch, is usually done before a transfusion. Type O negative is often cited as the \"universal donor\" but this only refers to red cell and whole blood transfusions. For plasma and platelet transfusions the system is reversed: AB positive is the universal platelet donor type while both AB positive and AB negative are universal plasma donor types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7637500",
"title": "Lung allocation score",
"section": "Section::::How the LAS score is used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- The blood type of the donor must match that of the recipient due to certain antigens that are present on donated lungs. A mismatch in blood type can lead to a strong response by the immune system and subsequent rejection of the transplanted organs. In an ideal case, as many of the human leukocyte antigens as possible would also match between the donor and the recipient, but the desire to find a highly compatible donor organ must be balanced against the patient's immediacy of need.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5665994",
"title": "Hh blood group",
"section": "Section::::Problems with blood transfusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Receiving blood which contains an antigen which has never been in the patient's own blood causes an immune reaction due to the immune system of a hypothetical receiver producing immunoglobulins not only against antigen A and B, but also against H antigen. The most common immunoglobulins synthesized are IgM and IgG (and this seems to have a very important role in the low frequency of hemolytic disease of the newborn among non-Bombay offspring of Bombay mothers).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an immune response. Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002590",
"title": "Plasmapheresis",
"section": "Section::::As a manufacturing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "BULLET::::- Antibodies: Donors are sometimes immunized against agents such as tetanus or hepatitis B so that their plasma contains the antibodies against the toxin or disease. In other donors, an intentionally incompatible unit of blood is transfused to produce antibodies to the antigens on the red cells. The collected plasma then contains these components, which are used in manufacturing of medications. Donors who are already ill may have their plasma collected for use as a positive control for laboratory testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33576920",
"title": "Bone marrow failure",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "The type of treatment depends on the severity of the patient’s bone marrow failure disease. Blood transfusion is one treatment. Blood is collected from volunteer donors who agree to let doctors draw blood stem cells from their blood or bone marrow for transplantation. Blood that is taken straight from collected blood stem cells is known as peripheral blood stem cell donation. A peripheral stem cell donor must have the same blood type as the patient receiving the blood cells. Once the stem cells are in the patient’s body through an IV, the cells mature and become blood cells. Before donation, a drug is injected into the donor, which increases the number of stem cells into their body. Feeling cold and lightheaded, having numbness around the mouth and cramping in the hands are common symptoms during the donation process. After the donation, the amount of time for recovery varies for every donor, “But most stem cell donors are able to return to their usual activities within a few days to a week after donation”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bnfnst
|
why does a muscle become stiff when cold and limber when hot?
|
[
{
"answer": "When cold, blood vessels contract so they are further from the skin's surface, losing less heat. This constriction means blood does not flow through the veins as much, limiting blood flow to muscles. \n\nWhen hot, blood vessels expand so they are closer to the skin's surface to release heat. Wider vessels means more blood flow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1189582",
"title": "Shivering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct. Most often, when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion, the heat is wasted energy. In shivering, the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "759166",
"title": "Thoracic outlet syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Physical measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Ice can be used to decrease inflammation of sore or injured muscles. Heat can also aid in relieving sore muscles by improving blood circulation to them. While the whole arm generally feels painful in TOS, some relief can be seen when ice or heat is intermittently applied to the thoracic region (collar bone, armpit, or shoulder blades).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3042704",
"title": "Coracobrachialis muscle",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "The overuse of the coracobrachialis can lead to stiffening of the muscle. Common causes of injury include chest workouts or activities that require one to press the arm very tight towards the body, e.g. work on the rings in gymnastics. Symptoms of overuse or injury are pain in the arm and shoulder, radiating down to the back of the hand. In more severe cases, the musculocutaneous nerve can get trapped, causing disturbances in sensation to the skin on the radial part of the forearm and weakened flexion of the elbow, as the nerve also supplies the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles. Actual rupture to the coracobrachialis muscle is extremely rare. Very few case reports exist in the literature, and it is reported to be caused by direct trauma to the contracted muscle. Avulsion of the muscle's origin from the coracoid as a result of indirect forces is even more unusual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1918901",
"title": "Arrector pili muscle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Contraction of the muscles has a number of different purposes. Its principal function in the majority of mammals is to provide insulation: air becomes trapped between the erect hairs, helping the animal retain heat. Erection of the porcupine's long, thick hairs causes the animal to become more intimidating, scaring predators. Pressure exerted by the muscle may cause sebum to be forced along the hair follicle towards the surface, protecting the hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48798515",
"title": "Thermoregulation in humans",
"section": "Section::::In hot conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "BULLET::::- The hair on the skin lie flat, preventing heat from being trapped by the layer of still air between the hair. This is caused by tiny muscles under the surface of the skin called arrector pili muscles relaxing so that their attached hair follicles are not erect. These flat hairs increase the flow of air next to the skin increasing heat loss by convection. When environmental temperature is above core body temperature, sweating is the only physiological way for humans to lose heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166810",
"title": "Rigor mortis",
"section": "Section::::Applications in meat industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Cold shortening is caused by the release of stored calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibers, in response to the cold stimulus. The calcium ions trigger powerful muscle contraction aided by ATP molecules. To prevent cold shortening, a process known as electrical stimulation is carried out, especially in beef carcasses, immediately after slaughter and skinning. In this process, the carcass is stimulated with alternating current, causing it to contract and relax, which depletes the ATP reserve from the carcass and prevents cold shortening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67193",
"title": "Testicle",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Temperature regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The cremasteric muscle is part of the spermatic cord. When this muscle contracts, the cord is shortened and the testicle is moved closer up toward the body, which provides slightly more warmth to maintain optimal testicular temperature. When cooling is required, the cremasteric muscle relaxes and the testicle is lowered away from the warm body and is able to cool. Contraction also occurs in response to stress (the testicles rise up toward the body in an effort to protect them in a fight). There are persistent reports that relaxation indicates approach of orgasm. There is a noticeable tendency to also retract during orgasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ba9hp
|
How do extended-reach oil wells change direction underground?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not my field of specialty but since no one has chimed in yet I'll give it a go:\n\n[Directional Drilling](_URL_1_) can be done by controlling the orientation of the drill-bit at the bottom of the hole. I think usually it is accomplished by [hydraulic actuators](_URL_0_) located on the sides of the drill bit. These actuators push against the walls of the hole and thus can control where the tip of the drill points. Of course you have to have some sensors so you can determine the current orientation of the bit. It also requires the walls of the hole to be strong enough to support the stress of the actuators so the rig-workers add casing and liners to strengthen the well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They use services called MWD (Monitoring While Drilling). These tools are placed down by the bit in the BHA (bottom hole assembly) and send pulses through the mud to tell the driller which direction in 3D space his bit is facing. Then he can control hydraulic actuators above the bit to direct the bit. If you wanted a deviated well from the start, there are drilling rigs that actually angle the derrick(tall mast thingy) therefore angling the pipe. \nAlso the position of collars on a BHA can turn the bit but I'm not very familiar with this method. I know it requires a lot more trips in and out vs a directional drilling tool.\nAnd in case you were wondering, the well I was running tools in today went from 0 degrees (vertical) at 10,200 ft to 90 degrees(horizontal) at 11,100 ft. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198570",
"title": "Oil well",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by repeatedly raising and dropping a cable tool into the earth. In the 20th century, cable tools were largely replaced with rotary drilling, which could drill boreholes to much greater depths and in less time. The record-depth Kola Borehole used non-rotary mud motor drilling to achieve a depth of over .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198570",
"title": "Oil well",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and mechanical imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly from true vertical. However, modern directional drilling technologies allow for strongly deviated wells which can, given sufficient depth and with the proper tools, actually become horizontal. This is of great value as the reservoir rocks which contain hydrocarbons are usually horizontal or nearly horizontal; a horizontal wellbore placed in a production zone has more surface area in the production zone than a vertical well, resulting in a higher production rate. The use of deviated and horizontal drilling has also made it possible to reach reservoirs several kilometers or miles away from the drilling location (extended reach drilling), allowing for the production of hydrocarbons located below locations that are either difficult to place a drilling rig on, environmentally sensitive, or populated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111473",
"title": "Well logging",
"section": "Section::::Wireline logging.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Many modern oil and gas wells are drilled directionally. At first, loggers had to run their tools somehow attached to the drill pipe if the well was not vertical. Modern techniques now permit continuous information at the surface. This is known as logging while drilling (LWD) or measurement-while-drilling (MWD). MWD logs use mud pulse technology to transmit data from the tools on the bottom of the drillstring to the processors at the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23195",
"title": "Petroleum",
"section": "Section::::Reservoirs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1421,
"text": "Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. \"Natural lift\" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using \"artificial lift\" means. Over time, these \"primary\" methods become less effective and \"secondary\" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is \"waterflood\" or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or \"wellbore.\" Eventually \"tertiary\" or \"enhanced\" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or \"bitumen\") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using \"in-situ\" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping the liquid back out saturated with oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67488",
"title": "Well drilling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The earliest wells were water wells, shallow pits dug by hand in regions where the water table approached the surface, usually with masonry or wooden walls lining the interior to prevent collapse. Modern drilling techniques utilize long drill shafts, producing holes much narrower and deeper than could be produced by digging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37522827",
"title": "Pipe recovery operations",
"section": "Section::::Causes of Stuck Pipe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In areas with a high concentration of oil wells, it is not unusual for wells to communicate through the formation for distances of up to mile. During a fracing operation thousands of gallons of fluid and sand are pumped down one well to open up the formation surrounding that wellbore. Often large amounts of that proppant and fluid will travel through the formation and into a nearby well. This sand can lodge on top of a packer or coil tubing in the well sticking the pipe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082027",
"title": "Extraction of petroleum",
"section": "Section::::Locating the oil field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Historically in the United States, in some oil fields the oil rose naturally to the surface, but most of these fields have long since been used up, except in parts of Alaska. Often many wells (called \"multilateral wells\") are drilled into the same reservoir, to an economically viable extraction rate. Some wells (\"secondary wells\") may pump water, steam, acids or various gas mixtures into the reservoir to raise or maintain the reservoir pressure and economical extraction rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
brr1re
|
how do radio signals (4g, wifi etc.) manage to retain their information after passing through trees, buildings and other obstacles? and how are they not mixed up, intertwined?
|
[
{
"answer": "Radio wavelengths are quite large (0,1m-meters) and get less attenuated compared to say, optical wavelengths. But there is reduction of the radio waves, as it will be absorbed along the way. But as long as the signal is intact (in phase), it can communicate. And the needed error correction algorithms of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First the not intertwined bit:\n\nDifferent types of radio signals are allocated to certain bands. Some bands are a free for all (like 2.4 GHz for cordless phones, bluetooth and early wifi routers), others are strictly regimented. In the states this is by the FCC. You (as a device manufacturer or a broadcaster) send waves out in a frequency band you aren't supposed to you get slapped big. Fines or even revoke your device licence. Each band of frequency is allocated for specific purposes (this band is UHF old school TV, this band is FM radio channels 97-108), another band is radar, another air traffic control, another is CDMA old school cell, another is 4G EDGE GSM whatever cell traffic. Other countries have same or similar, and have their own FCC and \"spectrum\" allocation which may or may not be similar. \n\nSo within each band, it may be further broken into channels. Most cell, radio, ATC communication is like this. AM/FM and broadcast TV too. Groups like the FCC make sure that one station on a channel doesn't clobber or cross talk with another by ensuring geographical separation. Two cities may both have a 107.9 FM station, but they won't be geographically near one another... or it is ensured that on most days the broadcast transmitter of one doesn't reach the broadcast area of another. \n\nFor communication channels, more traffic gets stacked into a single channel using digital multiplexing. There's various ways to do this but its akin to letting phone 1 talk during timeslot 1, phone 2 during timeslot 2 and so on (thats time division multiplexing). \n\nNext passing through stuff:\n\nDifferent frequency signals travel through different things to different degrees. Low frequency waves generally travel very far thru stuff, high frequency waves travel shorter distances or are \"attenuated\" more by various mediums. Whales use low frequencies and can hear each other over hundreds of miles. The loudest chipmunk in the world will only be heard a few hundred yards. AM signals are lower than FM signals, thus can be heard hundreds of miles away, only a few dozen miles for FM; given the same height of tower and strength of transmitter (and atmospheric conditions etc. etc.). \n\nNow add in error correction etc. - analogue signals travelling through walls, trees etc., well not much you can do to correct that - you get static. Digital signals however, you can use error correction. For broadcast signals, again, you can't ask for the last second to be rebroadcast, but perhaps there is some extra redundant data being sent and you can reconstruct part of the msg that is missing. Or, in the case if digital wifi or cell signals, if you didn't get a msg correctly you can ask for it again.\n\nAlso don't discount that a lot of these signals can travel through windows and bounce down hallways and around corners. [Here's a map someone did that shows how wifi signals get weaker as you move further away from the router in an apartment.](_URL_0_) Note that some signal is getting around corners but further and the more corners, less straight line you are the weaker the signal.\n\nIn wider area networks, this is where devices called repeaters come in. All they do is take the wifi or wireless signal and \"repeat\" it. Like all those relay fires in LoTR, signalling Gondor for aid. Emergency radio networks and public internet and cell networks all use repeaters to deep inside things like tunnels, the subway, really large buildings etc.\n\nA bit more on traffic congestion in certain frequency bands: there are some frequency bands where traffic is largely unregulated. The 2.4GHz band is one. Anyone who wants to broadcast there, go right ahead. No FCC van will pull up and give you a fine (within limits). So thats why in this band we have: cordless phones, baby monitors, early wifi routers, bluetooth runs here (I think)... and really cheap microwaves. My wifi would go down everytime I microwaved something. There are \"channels\" that you can change your device to, like your wifi things... if your wifi traffic sucks, try changing your router away from \"auto\" to use a particular wifi channel (0-11), see if it helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are, the key is there are error correction and detection algorithms that work to counter the problem. In bad environments they don't always work.\n\nAlso, many newer devices actually utilize the attenuation and reflections to improve signal quality. Take a look into [MIMO](_URL_0_) technology. They do what is called [beamforming](_URL_1_) where they vary the signal being output on multiple antennae to create hot spots in the signal at the receiving antenna(e) to improve reception. When multiple devices are connected it will actually change the beam forming per device moment to moment depending on the destination. It's really cool stuff.\n\nEdits: Links, typos.\n\nEdit 2: Figured I could expand as well. When you're dealing with reflections or other signals that could potentially interfere, they are usually a bit weaker than the main signal. This means that a receiver can filter them out by simply ignoring signals that are weaker than a certain level. This is called the noise floor of the radio. Think of it like being in a room full of people talking and ignoring all the background conversations because they're harder to hear and focusing on your current one.\n\nAttenuation of the main signal works similarly. As long as the signal isn't attenuated below the noise floor, it will work. If the operating environment for the radios is bad enough, it may be impossible to get a strong enough signal to overcome the noise floor, and then nothing works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83137",
"title": "Software-defined radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cognitive radio techniques: each radio measures the spectrum in use and communicates that information to other cooperating radios, so that transmitters can avoid mutual interference by selecting unused frequencies. Alternatively, each radio connects to a geolocation database to obtain information about the spectrum occupancy in its location and, flexibly, adjusts its operating frequency and/or transmit power not to cause interference to other wireless services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "663969",
"title": "Simplex communication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "For example, in TV and radio broadcasting, information flows only from the transmitter site to multiple receivers. A pair of walkie-talkie two-way radios provide a simplex circuit in the ITU sense; only one party at a time can talk, while the other listens until it can hear an opportunity to transmit. The transmission medium (the radio signal over the air) can carry information in only one direction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865641",
"title": "Telematics",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications of vehicle telematics.:Wireless vehicle safety communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Wireless units will be installed in vehicles and probably also in fixed locations such as near traffic signals and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in the cars and at the fixed locations, as well as possible connections to wider networks, will provide the information, which will be displayed to the drivers in some way. The range of the radio links can be extended by forwarding messages along multi-hop paths. Even without fixed units, information about fixed hazards can be maintained by moving vehicles by passing it backwards. It also seems possible for traffic lights, which one can expect to become smarter, to use this information to reduce the chance of collisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7041344",
"title": "PassPort NTS",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Radio signals have a limitations due to distance and terrain. If two radios are far apart, or there is a mountain in the way, they will not be able to communicate. To alleviate this, radio repeaters are installed on mountaintops to repeat the signal from one radio to another, or group of others. This is a standard repeater site. The signal is received by the repeater from the originating radio and re-broadcast so the receiving radio(s) can receive the radio signal. A repeater site gives approximately a 50-mile radius of coverage. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49669469",
"title": "QSK operation (full break-in)",
"section": "Section::::Signal level range considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "Depending upon the Engineering set up, radiotelegraph stations may use either a single antenna for both transmit and receive or, separate transmit and receive antennas. In either case, when receivers are operating on the same or nearby radio frequencies as used by their associated transmitters, while using the same or nearby antennas, the typical radio receiver is thus exposed to extremely large signals from the nearby transmitter. This situation would generally result in the destruction or degradation of the receiver front end circuitry and would be problematic at best and destructive at worst. As of this writing there has yet apparently been no receiver technology developed that can operate with full sensitivity over such a huge range of received signal levels whilst also safely withstanding the high power levels presented by the associated nearby transmitter. And so receiver inputs cannot simply be bridged across transmitting antenna terminals! Receivers must be isolated from the powerful transmitter signals by some means. These means are provided by the so-called T/R switches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175469",
"title": "Non-line-of-sight propagation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Many types of radio transmissions depend, to varying degrees, on line of sight (LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. Obstacles that commonly cause NLOS conditions include buildings, trees, hills, mountains, and, in some cases, high voltage electric power lines. Some of these obstructions reflect certain radio frequencies, while some simply absorb or garble the signals; but, in either case, they limit the use of many types of radio transmissions, especially when low on power budget.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12965568",
"title": "ExOR (wireless network protocol)",
"section": "Section::::Algorithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1932,
"text": "First, from the routing information, the sending radio constructs a list of radios that might be able to forward data from the sending radio to the destination. The radios' numbers are placed in a list sorted by distance to the destination, from closest to furthest. The destination radio is at the head of the list. Also, the source radio starts a list of the packets in the batch in order to measure packets' progress. This \"batch map\" is an array of radio numbers, one per packet. Each radio number is the radio that transmitted that packet, and was closest to the destination radio. Each data packet has the list of radios, and packets placed in the front. The list saves space in each packet by using radio numbers rather than IP addresses. Then, the sending radio broadcasts the first batch of data packets. It starts a timer. Radios that receive a packet but are not in the list in the packet ignore the data packets. These radios throw away the packets as soon as the packets are received. Radios that are in the packet's list of radios save the data packets that they receive. They also update their batch map. When a radio times out, it transmits the packets that no radio closer to the destination has retransmitted. These packets include the radio's best available information about the progress of the packets in the batch (i.e. its batch map). In particular, each packet's batch map contains the retransmitter's radio number for each packet that it retransmits. When a radio receives a packet sent from a radio that is closer to the destination, it erases its own copy of that packet. There's no need for it to retransmit that packet. However, it also updates its batch map about the progress of the packets in the batch. In this way, the information about the progress of the packets flows backward toward the source as radios farther from the destination update their batch maps by eavesdropping on retransmissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fhrpg
|
how do skin grafts work?
|
[
{
"answer": "\" how does that help the area you took it from.\"\n\nIt doesn't hurt it because you only take a small amount. It's more like gary has two apples, and both of your apples explode, so now you're going to starve. Gary gives you one apple so you won't starve, and now only has one apple. \n\nBUT NEITHER YOU OR GARY WILL DIE AND THE FUCKING APPLES GROW BACK",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "64993",
"title": "Skin cancer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Reconstruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Skin grafting is patching of a defect with skin that is removed from another site in the body. The skin graft is sutured to the edges of the defect, and a bolster dressing is placed atop the graft for seven to ten days, to immobilize the graft as it heals in place. There are two forms of skin grafting: split thickness and full thickness. In a split thickness skin graft, a shaver is used to shave a layer of skin from the abdomen or thigh. The donor site regenerates skin and heals over a period of two weeks. In a full thickness skin graft, a segment of skin is totally removed and the donor site needs to be sutured closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740468",
"title": "Graft (surgery)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Grafting refers to a surgical procedure to move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another creature, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed. A similar technique where tissue is transferred with the blood supply intact is called a flap. In some instances a graft can be an artificially manufactured device. Examples of this are a tube to carry blood flow across a defect or from an artery to a vein for use in hemodialysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "920238",
"title": "Peroneal nerve paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Tendon graft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Grafting is a surgical procedure to move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another person, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed. A similar technique where tissue is transferred with the blood supply intact is called a flap. In some instances a grafting can be an artificially manufactured device. Examples of this are a tube to carry blood flow across a defect or from an artery to a vein for use in hemodialysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740468",
"title": "Graft (surgery)",
"section": "Section::::Types of grafting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The term grafting is most commonly applied to skin grafting, however many tissues can be grafted: skin, bone, nerves, tendons, neurons, blood vessels, fat, and cornea are tissues commonly grafted today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20177552",
"title": "Transplantable organs and tissues",
"section": "Section::::Main tissues and cells.:Skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Skin grafts are often employed after serious injuries when some of the body's skin is damaged. Surgical removal (excision or debridement) of the damaged skin is followed by skin grafting. The grafting serves two purposes: it can reduce the course of treatment needed (and time in the hospital), and it can improve the function and appearance of the area of the body which receives the skin graft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740463",
"title": "Skin grafting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "There are two types of skin grafts, the more common type is where a thin layer is removed from a healthy part of the body (the donor section) like peeling a potato, or a full thickness skin graft, which involves pinching and cutting skin away from the donor section. A full thickness skin graft is more risky, in terms of the body accepting the skin, yet it leaves only a scar line on the donor section, similar to a Cesarean section scar. For full thickness skin grafts, the donor section will often heal much more quickly than the injury and is less painful than a partial thickness skin graft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740463",
"title": "Skin grafting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Skin grafts are often employed after serious injuries when some of the body's skin is damaged. Surgical removal (excision or debridement) of the damaged skin is followed by skin grafting. The grafting serves two purposes: reduce the course of treatment needed (and time in the hospital), and improve the function and appearance of the area of the body which receives the skin graft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sujc0
|
if a planet or meteor the size of pluto collided with earth what would it be like for the people on the opposite side of earth? what would they see or feel?
|
[
{
"answer": "We would all be dead",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "to simply put it, have you ever seen one of those newtonian toys where the metal ball hits one side and the other side flies out? well, imagine the same thing, except, earth being made of chunks of rocks and mud and squishy magma. First, the colliding planet would create a huge creator and have itself begin to mush flat into ours and explode outwards. On earth, we'd begin to feel a pancake like deformation and a bunch of the energy is transferred outwards and directly to the opposite side of impact. This will likely create projectiles with humans on board to fly outwards into space. (sweeeet) Not only will people fly outwards... you will also likely to feel a great sense of inertia that will instantly kill you. (less than a fraction of a millisecond). Your position in space... will be accelerated at an extreme rate, such that humans cannot survive. All in all, we become one with the universe once again. back to bits of carbon and poop floating away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We'd all die, pretty much instantly. An object that size would be large enough to knock a considerable chunk off of the planet (an impact of that kind is believed to be responsible for our moon), and would leave the surface of Earth molten for many millennia. Hell, even the *debris* from such an impact would be pretty significant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "391434",
"title": "Impact winter",
"section": "Section::::Necessary impact factors.:Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "A large asteroid or comet could collide with the Earth's surface with the force of hundreds to thousands of times the force of all the nuclear bombs on the Earth. For example, the K/T boundary impact has been proposed to have caused extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Early estimates of this asteroid's size put it at about in diameter. This means it hit with nearly a force of 100,000,000 MT (418 ZJ). That is over six billion times larger than the atomic bomb yield (16 kilotons, 67 TJ) that was dropped on Hiroshima during WW2. This impactor excavated the Chicxulub crater that is in diameter. With an object this size, dust and debris would still be ejected into the atmosphere even if it hit the ocean, which is only deep. An asteroid, meteor, or comet would remain intact through the atmosphere by virtue of its sheer mass. However, an object smaller than would have to have a strong iron composition to breach the lower atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38623877",
"title": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Throughout recorded history, hundreds of Earth impacts (and exploding bolides) have been reported, with some small fraction causing deaths, injuries, property damage, or other significant localised consequences. Stony asteroids with a diameter of enter Earth's atmosphere approximately once per year. Asteroids with a diameter of 7 meters enter the atmosphere about every 5 years, with as much kinetic energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima (approximately 16 kilotons of TNT), of which their air burst represents about one third or 5 kilotons. These relatively small asteroids ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere and most or all of the solids are vaporized. Asteroids with a diameter of strike Earth approximately twice every century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52838",
"title": "Charon (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Simulation work published in 2005 by Robin Canup suggested that Charon could have been formed by a collision around 4.5 billion years ago, much like Earth and the Moon. In this model, a large Kuiper belt object struck Pluto at high velocity, destroying itself and blasting off much of Pluto's outer mantle, and Charon coalesced from the debris. However, such an impact should result in an icier Charon and rockier Pluto than scientists have found. It is now thought that Pluto and Charon might have been two bodies that collided before going into orbit about each other. The collision would have been violent enough to boil off volatile ices like methane () but not violent enough to have destroyed either body. The very similar density of Pluto and Charon implies that the parent bodies were not fully differentiated when the impact occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14819546",
"title": "2007 WD5",
"section": "Section::::Mars encounter: chance of impact.:Estimates of resulting impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "If the asteroid had collided with Mars, it would have hit with a velocity of about 13.5 km/s (8.4 miles per second), and would have produced an explosion equivalent to about 3 megatons of TNT. Due to the thin atmosphere of Mars, it was predicted that the asteroid would have reached the surface intact and blasted out a crater approximately in diameter. A crater this size would be equal to the size of the Meteor Crater in Arizona, United States. NASA officials say if it had hit Mars, it would have done so north of the location of the Opportunity rover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47402",
"title": "Titan (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Prebiotic conditions and life.:Panspermia hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth's surface may have caused fragments of microbe-laden rock to escape Earth's gravity, suggesting the possibility of transpermia. Calculations indicate that these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System, including Titan. On the other hand, Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4446977",
"title": "Pluto in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pluto appears in several works by Larry Niven. In his novel \"World of Ptavvs\" (1966), it is theorized to have been a moon of Neptune knocked out of orbit by an interstellar craft moving near the speed of light. A fusion-driven spacecraft landing on Pluto in this story releases the frozen methane, oxygen, etc., and causes the entire planet to be engulfed in flames. In Niven's short story \"Wait It Out\" (1968), an astronaut is stranded on Pluto and enters a strange state of suspended animation. The short story \"The Borderland of Sol\" (1975), which takes place circa 2640, Pluto is considered an escaped moon of Neptune. The solar system's outer planets are listed as Neptune, Persephone, Caïna, Antenora and Ptolemea with \"Judecca\" reserved for the next discovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57134450",
"title": "2018 GE3",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Diameter and albedo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "This asteroid is about three to six times the diameter of the meteor that exploded in the skies above Chelyabinsk, Russia in February 2013, which damaged over 7,200 buildings and injured 1,500 people, mostly from flying glass. If an asteroid of this size were to enter Earth's atmosphere, a good portion of it would likely disintegrate due to friction with the air. The remnants could survive entry however and impact the surface, thus causing regional damage dependent on various factors such as composition, speed, entry angle, and location of impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26wu8q
|
washington dc
|
[
{
"answer": "Well... for one the whole point of the thing is that *it isn't a state or a part of a state*.\n\nIts a neutral ground. Beholden to no state so that the Federal Government (representing all 50 states) can conduct its business.\n\nSo the reason no state (basically Virginia and Maryland) is trying to annex DC is because that's the whole point of the place and the other 49 states might get pissed about that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since it's the national capital, having it be part of one of the fifty states would create an unfair advantage for that state. Better to keep it separate, so that all the states are on equal footing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was part of the compromise required to get the Constitution ratified.\n\nThe Virginians, like Jefferson, Washington, etc. were the powerbrokers in the early United States. They had land, slaves, natural resources, trade, etc. They acted like the American Aristocracy, and if Washington had decided to be a King, they would have really been aristocrats. They were the original 1%.\n\nThe location of the National Capitol was a Big Deal. Prestige would attach to wherever it was located. Plus, the further you had to travel in an age of horses and carriages, the harder it was to do business with the federal government. Getting the capitol placed strategically close to your home was a meaningful political and economic advantage.\n\nThe delegates to the Constitutional Convention deadlocked on a number of issues. One of the few things that was possible to use as a \"sweetener\" in a deal was the location of the capitol. Eventually it was decided that no state would have the capitol within its borders - the prestige of **that** was just too much to bear for every state that didn't get it. But if it wasn't going to be in a state, then some land would have to be carved out of some state to put the capitol on - and that meant losing precious territory, something a bunch of farmers were very loathe to do. The location eventually chosen was close to Virginia and to New York (the other power center in early United States history), effectively in a swamp (i.e. land that people weren't willing to die to own) and votes were traded between various state delegations to resolve other issues once the Compromise was cooked up to situate the capitol where it is today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2359082",
"title": "Crime in Washington, D.C.",
"section": "Section::::Criminal justice.:Law enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Law enforcement in Washington, D.C. is complicated by a network of overlapping federal and city agencies. The primary agency responsible for law enforcement in the District of Columbia is the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD). The MPD is a city agency headed by the Chief of Police, currently Peter Newsham, who is appointed by the mayor. The Metropolitan Police has 3,800 sworn officers and operates much like other municipal police departments elsewhere in the country. However, given the unique status of Washington as the United States capital, the MPD is adept at providing crowd control and security at large events. Despite its name, the MPD only serves within the boundaries of the District of Columbia and does not have jurisdiction within the surrounding Washington Metropolitan Area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979243",
"title": "Geography of Washington, D.C.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Washington, D.C., in the United States, is located at (the coordinates of the Zero Milestone, on The Ellipse). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a geographical area of , of which is land, and the remaining (10.16%) of which is water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "108956",
"title": "Washington, D.C.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States. Founded after the American Revolution as the seat of government of the newly independent country, Washington was named after George Washington, the first president of the United States and a Founding Father. As the seat of the United States federal government and several international organizations, Washington is an important world political capital. The city, located on the Potomac River bordering Maryland and Virginia, is one of the most visited cities in the world, with more than 20 million tourists annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2642853",
"title": "Institutions in the Southern Victory Series",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:United States of America.:Capital cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Washington, D.C., remained the \"de jure\" capital of the United States, but its proximity to the Confederate States made governing impractical from there. Philadelphia is the functional capital of the United States. Powel House is the home of the President. A side-effect is that Washingtonians are still denied, under the Constitution, having a representative of their own in Congress – without having (as they do in our timeline) the compensation of being at the center of the national decision-making.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1887358",
"title": "United States Army Military District of Washington",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The United States Army Military District of Washington (MDW) is one of nineteen major commands of the United States Army. Its headquarters are located at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington, D.C. The missions of the units in the Military District of Washington include ceremonial tasks as well as a combat role in the defense of the National Capital Region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2914034",
"title": "Washington metropolitan area",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The Washington metropolitan area is the metropolitan area centered on Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The area includes all of the federal district and parts of the U.S. states of Maryland and Virginia, along with a small portion of West Virginia. It is part of the larger Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45276658",
"title": "O'Neill House Office Building (2014)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The O'Neill House Office Building is an office building in Washington, D.C., that houses offices of both the House of Representatives and the Department of Health and Human Services. It is named after former United States Congressman from Massachusetts and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Thomas P. \"Tip\" O'Neill Jr. and located at 200 C Street Southwest in the Southwest Federal Center district, at the foot of Capitol Hill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t58zf
|
when the internet goes down in my neighbourhood, what normally happened? how is it fixed?
|
[
{
"answer": "You probably have a router or a switch that lets you connect several computers at once to your single internet connection. Simply put, your ISP has larger, more powerful routers and switches that Connect the neighbourhood to a larger part of the internet.\n\nsomething with these probably failed. it could be a software error, broken hardware that they had to replace, or a power failiure. \nThe ISP usually notices it pretty fast, though, as it is common to have surveillance tools pay attention to whenever or not their boxes are alive and talking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "296636",
"title": "Power outage",
"section": "Section::::Protecting the power system from outages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Under certain conditions, a network component shutting down can cause current fluctuations in neighboring segments of the network leading to a cascading failure of a larger section of the network. This may range from a building, to a block, to an entire city, to an entire electrical grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300602",
"title": "Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Natural disasters and access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At Hurricane Katrina's peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without power, while around 14% of Louisiana's networks were disrupted. Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”. Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two explanations for the long delay in returning service. The company Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39127116",
"title": "Sheep dip (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Typical sheep dip system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Network connections are avoided for two reasons. Firstly, an Internet connection is a potential attack vector via which the computer could be compromised. Secondly, there is a risk that a worm on a removable device might escape into a local area network if the sheep dip computer is connected to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159632",
"title": "Link-state routing protocol",
"section": "Section::::Distributing maps.:Notes about this stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The link-state message giving information about the neighbors is recomputed, and then flooded throughout the network, whenever there is a change in the connectivity between the node and its neighbors; e.g., when a link fails. Any such change will be detected by the reachability protocol which each node runs with its neighbors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16922849",
"title": "Over Logging",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Meanwhile, the government has attempted to find a way to fix \"the internet,\" a large machine resembling a giant Linksys wireless router, which has stopped functioning for an unknown reason. Several fruitless attempts are made to repair it: negotiating with it, communicating with it musically, and even shooting at it. Acting on a hunch, Kyle disconnects and reconnects its power cord. The network indicator now glows green to indicate that nationwide Internet access has been re-established, much to everyone's surprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31806484",
"title": "Copyright (Infringing File Sharing) Amendment Act 2011",
"section": "Section::::Graduated response provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "When the Bill was originally introduced to parliament it provided that a District Court could order the disconnection of internet subscribers for up to six months in certain circumstances. This provision has been amended and the new section 122PA provides that internet subscribers can not be disconnected until an Order in Council is made by the Governor General on the recommendation of the Justice Minister. It is anticipated that disconnection of internet subscribers will be considered in 2013, as part of the five year review of the amendments to the Copyright Act 1994 made in 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36157031",
"title": "Open Garden",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Automatic path choice - Once connected, devices find a path to the Internet also completely automatically. If a path fails, a new one will be chosen and, if necessary, new connections will be established with other devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6j9v7t
|
why is the law to own a pistol 21, while to own a long gun is 18?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know the exact specifics, but pistols are more dangerous than long guns like hunting rifles because they're easier to hide and carry. Long guns also have non-combative uses (like, well, hunting) whereas pistols really don't, thus you can make the argument that an 18 year old should be able to hunt but not necessarily be allowed to carry around a more dangerous weapon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't everywhere, it varies by State. As far as potential\nJustifications for it, Long guns can be used for hunting, and are good for self defense in the home as well. Hand guns are good for concealement, and are the weapon most likely to be used in crimes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, the federal law is that you have to be 18 to own a handgun or handgun ammo (there is no age limit for long guns).\n\nIn America, ~65% of gun homicides are committed with handguns, ~30% with shotguns and ~5% with rifles, meaning that handguns are by far the most likely type of weapon to be used in a crime.\n\nShotguns are up there too, but they are very common hunting weapons. It's not unusual in rural areas for kids to start hunting in their early teens. Rifles, despite what the media wants you to believe about AR-15's are very uncommon murder weapons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a minor thing, but owning a handgun before 21 is OK in some states. It's a federal law that you can't purchase a handgun through a registered dealer (FFL) before you're 21 (see [GCA of 68](_URL_0_)).\n\nA decent amount of states don't have laws against 18 year olds owning handguns though, so if they were gifted a handgun or if they bought one in a legal private non-FFL sale it's completely fine. They just can't buy one from a FFL.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34027606",
"title": "Gun laws in Michigan",
"section": "Section::::Purchasing firearms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "At the age of 18 or up, it is legal to buy a pistol with a purchase license from a private seller, at the age of 21, it is legal to buy a firearm from a Federally licensed (FFL) dealer. No purchase license is required to purchase a long gun (a firearm that is more than 26 inches long) in Michigan. According to state law, a long gun may be purchased by anyone aged 18 or over who is not subject to restrictions based on criminal history, mental health history, or other disqualifying factor. A person must be at least 18 years old to purchase a long gun from a federal dealer or a private seller under Michigan law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31007329",
"title": "Gun laws in Oklahoma",
"section": "Section::::Buying, selling, and owning firearms.:Minors and firearms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Minors may own firearms that are given to them by their parents, relatives, or legal guardians. However, they may not generally possess firearms unsupervised until they are 18 years of age. There are exceptions to this rule, such as when a minor possessing a hunting license (and having passed a hunter's safety course) is hunting, possession of firearm(s) on certain types of private property, and possession of firearm(s) in one's own home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320600",
"title": "Gun Control Act of 1968",
"section": "Section::::Prohibited persons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Additionally, 18 U.S.C 922 (x) generally prohibits persons under 18 years of age from possessing handguns or handgun ammunition with certain exceptions for employment, target practice, education, and a handgun possessed while defending the home of the juvenile or a home in which they are an invited guest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48823059",
"title": "National Firearms Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The law created a national firearm registry, a 28-day waiting period for firearm sales, and tightened firearm licensing rules. The law requires anyone wishing to possess or use a firearm with some exceptions, be over the age of 12. Owners must be at least 18 years of age, have secure storage for their firearms and provide a \"genuine reason\" for doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14148860",
"title": "Firearms regulation in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Ownership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Rifle and shotgun ownership permission can be given to \"sober and responsible\" persons 18 years or older. The applicant for the permission must document a need for the weapon. Two exceptions exist to this age qualification. Persons under the age of 18, but over 16 may apply for rifle or shotgun ownership licence with the consent of parents or guardian. For handguns, the lowest ownership age is 21 with no exceptions allowed. For inherited weapons, it is up to the local police chief to make a decision based on the individual facts of the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34158190",
"title": "Gun laws in Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::Purchasing a firearm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Pennsylvania state law refers to a handgun as a firearm, while long gun is used to describe a shotgun, or rifle of a certain length or longer. Below the age restriction for purchasing a long gun is 18, and the age restriction for purchasing a handgun is 21. Although someone can own a handgun if they are 18 and gifted the handgun. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34010465",
"title": "Gun laws in Indiana",
"section": "Section::::Ownership and purchase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Firearms dealers or private individuals may not sell any firearm to someone less than 18 years old, or less than 23 years old if the buyer was \"adjudicated a delinquent child for an act that would be a felony if committed by an adult\", or to a person who is mentally incompetent or is a drug or alcohol abuser.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
biydmg
|
How far do slugs travel?
|
[
{
"answer": "Based on a quick google search, a slug can travel .013 meters per second, and typically lives for 18 months. At this rate if it slept 1/3rd of it's life (based on snail numbers, didn't see anything in 5 seconds of searching around for slugs), it would travel a maximum total of 254 miles in it's lifetime. Slugs like to travel underground though, so I'd say it's likely total travel much less than this number.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23650655",
"title": "Onchidoris bilamellata",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "These sea slugs sometimes occur in abundant numbers during breeding time, swarming with over 1,000 individuals per square metre, as has been observed on numerous occasions. These swarms are all oriented in the same direction, determined by the flow of the tide. They follow each other at the same speed, forming columns, in different close-knitted rows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1383616",
"title": "Shotgun slug",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Wad slugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Accuracy of wad slugs falls off quickly at ranges beyond 75 yards (70 m), thereby largely equaling the ranges possible with Foster slugs, while still not reaching the ranges possible with traditional sabot slugs using thicker-walled sabots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2055289",
"title": "Slug (railroad)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Hump slugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "A hump slug is designed for even slower operation than a yard slug. They are often 6 axle slugs and are often paired with lower powered six axle locomotives. They are designed for the specialized purpose of pushing a long cut of cars over a hump at 2 to 3 miles per hour, while yard slugs would normally operate at up to 10 to 15 mph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1924150",
"title": "Slugcatcher",
"section": "Section::::Slugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Slugs formed by terrain slugging, hydrodynamic slugging or riser-based slugging are periodical in nature. Whether a slug is able to reach the outlet of the pipeline depends on the rate at which liquids are added to the slug at the front (i.e. in the direction of flow) and the rate at which liquids leave the slug at the back. Some slugs will grow as they travel the pipeline, while others are damped and disappear before reaching the outlet of the pipeline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1531560",
"title": "List of Star Wars creatures",
"section": "Section::::D.:Duracrete slug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Having been spread throughout the galaxy by freighters and cargo ships, Duracrete slugs dig tunnels into building foundations and feed off of the concrete in there. Some specimens have been known to reach 10 m (32.8 ft) in length. They can consume almost any kind of concrete because the parts they cannot digest are excreted into armor nodules on their bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20219664",
"title": "Bombus hortorum",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Movement behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "\"B. hortorum\" have been found to fly distances up to 2.5 kilometers in a relatively short period of time, approximately one to four days. Queens in particular travel long distances in dispersal flights in order to positively influence gene flow in the species. When traveling long distance, bumblebees occasionally stop to rest, often taking their breaks on prominent structures in their landscape, such as trees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18387201",
"title": "Selenochlamys ysbryda",
"section": "Section::::Description and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "This slug can reach in size, with its body extended. It has no eyes, and is white in colour. It is predominantly burrowing, living up to a metre underground, and rarely, at night, coming to the surface. Unlike the majority of slugs, it is a carnivore, feeding on earthworms using its blade-like teeth. Both the mantle and the breathing hole are found at the tail end of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
441njm
|
one of the primary enemies of nazis were communists. so why did stalin ever make a pact with hitler in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "The pact wasn't an alliance. It was a non-aggression pact, so that each would keep out of the other's business.\n\nIt didn't work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because at the point that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-aggression pact was made, neither party could afford to be dragged into the eastern front. Germany was trying to knock out the west first, Russia was had severe problems in terms of state of readiness. So, they signed a Non-aggression pact (not exactly an alliance, just a promise not to attack each other) that both parties thought they would benefit enough from. \n\nThe backstab was inevitable: there was inherent mistrust (the ideologies were opposing) and sooner or later, one party or the other would determine that waiting any longer would benefit the other side much more than it would benefit themselves. The eastern front was inevitable. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46398998",
"title": "United front",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "As Stalinism came to dominate the Comintern, the united front strategy was dropped. In the period preceding Adolf Hitler's electoral victory in Germany, the Comintern argued that the social democrats were \"social fascists\" and that they, rather than the Nazis, represented the real danger. Following Hitler's victory, the Comintern argued for popular fronts drawing in forces far beyond the working class movement. Trotsky, now exiled from the Soviet Union, argued that the first conclusion was disastrous because it prevented unity against the far-right and that the second, emphasizing popular fronts, was disastrous because the terms of the struggle would be dictated by mainstream liberal parties. He feared that the communists would have to subordinate their politics within the alliance. Trotsky continued to argue for a workers' united front against fascism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528780",
"title": "International relations (1919–1939)",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Soviet Union.:Popular Front.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1425,
"text": "Communists and parties on the left were increasingly threatened by the growth of the Nazi movement. Hitler came to power in January 1933 and rapidly consolidated his control over Germany, destroyed the communist and socialist movements in Germany, and rejected the restraints imposed by the Versailles treaty. Stalin in 1934 reversed his decision in 1928 to attack socialists, and introduced his new plan: the \"popular front.\" It was a coalition of anti-fascist parties usually organized by the local Communists acting under instructions from the Comintern. The new policy was to work with all parties on the left and center in a multiparty coalition against fascism and Nazi Germany in particular. The new slogan was: \"The People's Front Against Fascism and War\". Under this policy Communist Parties were instructed to form broad alliances with all anti-fascist parties with the aim of both securing social advance at home and a military alliance with the USSR to isolate the fascist dictatorships. The \"Popular Fronts\" thus formed proved to be successful in only a few countries, and only for a few years each, forming the government in France, Chile and Spain, and also China. It was not a political success elsewhere. The Popular Front approach played a major role in Resistance movements in France and other countries conquered by Germany after 1939. After the war it played a major role in French and Italian politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452225",
"title": "Foreign relations of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::1917–1939.:Popular Fronts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1426,
"text": "Communists and parties on the left were increasingly threatened by the growth of the Nazi movement. Hitler came to power in January 1933 and rapidly consolidated his control over Germany, destroyed the communist and socialist movements in Germany, and rejected the restraints imposed by the Versailles treaty. Stalin in 1934 reversed his decision in 1928 to attack socialists, and introduced his new plan: the \"popular front.\" It was a coalition of anti-fascist parties usually organized by the local Communists acting under instructions from the Comintern. The new policy was to work with all parties on the left and center in a multiparty coalition against fascism and Nazi Germany in particular. The new slogan was: \"The People's Front Against Fascism and War\". Under this policy, Communist Parties were instructed to form broad alliances with all anti-fascist parties with the aim of both securing social advance at home and a military alliance with the USSR to isolate the fascist dictatorships. The \"Popular Fronts\" thus formed proved to be successful in only a few countries, and only for a few years each, forming the government in France, Chile and Spain, and also China. It was not a political success elsewhere. The Popular Front approach played a major role in Resistance movements in France and other countries conquered by Germany after 1939. After the war it played a major role in French and Italian politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47246185",
"title": "History of socialism",
"section": "Section::::The inter-war era and World War II.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Hitler's regime swiftly destroyed both the German Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party, the worst blow the world socialist movement had ever suffered. This forced Stalin to reassess his strategy, and from 1935 the Comintern began urging the formation of Popular Fronts, which were to include not just the Social Democratic parties but critically also \"progressive capitalist\" parties which were wedded to a capitalist policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4107999",
"title": "Anglo-Polish military alliance",
"section": "Section::::Failed Soviet-Franco-British alliance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Meanwhile, Stalin simultaneously was secretly negotiating with the Germans. He was attracted to a much better deal by Hitler, the control of most of Eastern Europe, and decided to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47246185",
"title": "History of socialism",
"section": "Section::::The Post-war era (1945–1985).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "As a result of the failure of the Popular Fronts and the inability of Britain and France to conclude a defensive alliance against Hitler, Stalin again changed his policy in August 1939 and signed a non-aggression pact, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, with Nazi Germany. Shortly afterwards World War II broke out, and within two years Hitler had occupied most of Europe, and by 1942 both democracy and social democracy in central Europe fell under the threat of fascism. The only socialist parties of any significance able to operate freely were those in Britain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. But the entry of the Soviet Union into the war in 1941 marked the turning of the tide against fascism, and as the German armies retreated another great upsurge in left-wing sentiment swelled up in their wake. The resistance movements against German occupation were mostly led by socialists and communists, and by the end of the war the parties of the left were greatly strengthened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "757718",
"title": "Third Period",
"section": "Section::::\"Social fascism\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Trotskyists have blamed Stalin's line for the rise of Nazism because it precluded unity between the German communists with the German Social Democrats. Hitler's rise to power, consequently, was also a reason for the abandonment of the policy in favor of the Popular Front strategy because Germany became the biggest security threat to the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
353bjq
|
how to buy stocks(from a company)?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can buy stocks from any brokerage, some of the bigger national ones are Charles Schwab, etrade, Scottrade, Morgan Stanley, and even many of the major retail banks. \n\nI think at your current knowledge level, you should consider buying index mutual funds, instead of trying to day-trade stocks, or other more advanced trading techniques. Otherwise it's gambling, not investing.\n\nI would check out /r/personalfinance for more information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Buying and selling stock isn't a business per-se. Stocks of a company are actually little pieces of the business. You're literally buying part ownership in the company. It sounds like you want to buy/sell stocks for a profit. That's the investing equivalent of high school. You should start with the basics of personal finance. I suggest you check out /r/personalfinance. For books, I suggest \"The Richest Man in Babylon\" and \"The Millionaire Next Door.\" \n\nIf you've got a good handle on your personal finances, you can graduate to the \"high school\" texts. I recommend \"A Random Walk Down Wall Street\" and \"The Intelligent Investor.\"\n\nTo actually buy/sell stock you'll need to open a brokerage account. It's like a bank account, but it can hold stocks (and other securities) in addition to plain money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By the way, if you have an iphone, this process could be very easy to begin (after you've read up and decided how you want to invest) by setting up a Robinhood account. They have absolutely zero commissions or account minimums, so it's perfect for beginners. Just take it easy and learn all you can!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are also DRIPs (Dividend Reinvestment Plans) you can buy directly from the company without a \"broker\". These usually have little to zero fees for each purchase. Most have a minimum to start. The good thing is, when your shares earn a dividend, it goes directly back into buying more shares (again with little to no fees). The only downside is, you have to report those dividends as income (just like most earnings) even though you never really got the money b/c you reinvested it. Another good thing is that it can all be set up to occur automatically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Buying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "There are other ways of buying stock besides through a broker. One way is directly from the company itself. If at least one share is owned, most companies will allow the purchase of shares directly from the company through their investor relations departments. However, the initial share of stock in the company will have to be obtained through a regular stock broker. Another way to buy stock in companies is through Direct Public Offerings which are usually sold by the company itself. A direct public offering is an initial public offering in which the stock is purchased directly from the company, usually without the aid of brokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Buying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "When it comes to financing a purchase of stocks there are two ways: purchasing stock with money that is currently in the buyer's ownership, or by buying stock on margin. Buying stock on margin means buying stock with money borrowed against the value of stocks in the same account. These stocks, or collateral, guarantee that the buyer can repay the loan; otherwise, the stockbroker has the right to sell the stock (collateral) to repay the borrowed money. He can sell if the share price drops below the margin requirement, at least 50% of the value of the stocks in the account. Buying on margin works the same way as borrowing money to buy a car or a house, using a car or house as collateral. Moreover, borrowing is not free; the broker usually charges 8–10% interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Buying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "There are various methods of buying and financing stocks, the most common being through a stockbroker. Brokerage firms, whether they are a full-service or discount broker, arrange the transfer of stock from a seller to a buyer. Most trades are actually done through brokers listed with a stock exchange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges, and such transactions are typically heavily regulated by governments to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options, issued by many companies as part of employee compensation, do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option is exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32956655",
"title": "Bought out deal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "A bought out deal is a method of offering securities to the public through a sponsor or underwriter (a bank, financial institution, or an individual). The securities are listed in one or more stock exchanges within a time frame mutually agreed upon by the company and the sponsor. This option saves the issuing company the costs and time involved in a public issue. The cost of holding the shares can be reimbursed by the company, or the sponsor can offer the shares to the public at a premium to earn profits. Terms are agreed upon by the company and the sponsor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53595317",
"title": "Securities market participants (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Parties to transactions.:Stock exchanges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "A stock exchange is a physical or digital place to which brokers and dealers send buy and sell orders in stocks (also called shares), bonds, and other securities. Price discovery is optimized by bringing together at one point in time and place all buy and sell orders for a particular security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2785607",
"title": "Stock trader",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Stock traders can trade on their own account, called proprietary trading, or through an agent authorized to buy and sell on the owner’s behalf. Trading through an agent is usually through a stockbroker. Agents are paid a commission for performing the trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
opizb
|
Is this a meteorite? (Here are pictures and surface x-ray results)
|
[
{
"answer": "The high ferrite composition and the mix of some heavier elements(though in fewer percentages) would lead one to believe it might be a meteorite. The resource places are going to do the exact same thing you did. They're gonna use probably a higher end x-ray spectrograph and get more accurate results. Your best bet is to go to your local university physics/chemistry/astronomy department and talk with an administrator or professor. The weight of 225oz (14lbs) seems very low since the surface composition contains a lot of iron. It could be very porous on the inside.\n\nOne thing you could do.. is measure the volume (immersing in water, measuring the displaced water (1g of water = 1cm^3 ) using this you could estimate the weight if it were a solid piece of 70%iron ie. rho_iron*0.7*V etc.) using this you could hesitate a guess as to if the sample is porous on the inside, though this is just to estimate and should only be used for a general idea.\n\nAlso.. i noticed 3.4% of it is Palladium.. considering Palladium is a very rare earth metal and super expensive.. if we assume this is true.. we have between 6-8(8-10 troy oz) of palladium which is selling around 600-700 a troy oz.. You seem to have a lot of money worth of rare minerals.. indium, rhodium, cadmium,silver.\nI would hesitate to say it's space junk due to the heavier elements involved, but the weight is what concerns me.. most meteors (A chunk they have at the Arizona crater, is about 4-5basketballs big and weights 200+lbs if i recall correctly..) are very heavy.\n\n\n*edit*\nadded some additional ideas/thoughts\n*Note* im currently an undergrad physics student, i have read a lot about meteorites and other information, but i cannot say for certain i am an authority, i would estimate myself between layman and knowledgeable on this topic, feel free to correct/disregard this information (if mods want me to remove this i will)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Treat the results of the hand held XRF (X-ray fluorescence analyser)with some caution. They are normally configured to analyse metal alloys and will not detect light elements such as silicon. They can be configured to detect light elements, and you would need to verify if this was the case for these measurements. \n\nWe have analysed silicate samples with one of these instruments and the results reported only metallic elements because the system we used was set up to identify alloys.\n\nIf the XRF results are omitting silicon, aluminium and oxygen, then that could explain the low density. The rock mat not be predominantly iron as indicated. As mihaig suggested, get a proper analysis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few people seem to have mentioned getting in touch with a university. I can personally (as a student) recommend getting in touch with [PRIME Lab](_URL_0_) at Purdue University in West Lafayette, IN. They have a few faculty who specialize in meteorites and could test a sample to verify it's source. If the meteorite's of interest to them, they may even want to run spectrometer tests and other in-depth analyses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The trouble here is that when you consider the minerals and region it was found in, this rock could easily be an ultramafic igneous rock. Asteroids [have](_URL_4_) been found to be quite porous in some cases but considering that you don't know the exact density of the rock or the percentage of silicon contained within, it would be near impossible to give an honest and accurate answer. \n\nI'm *leaning* towards terrestrial on this one for a couple of reasons. \n\n1. Iron meteorites usually run in the [7-8 gm/cm^3 area](_URL_0_) and I don't see that happening after looking at that hole in the side of the rock. \n2. Iron meteorites are quite rare, roughly [5%](_URL_2_) of the meteorites that fall to Earth are considered iron meteorites and to find one of this size with such little magnetic attraction would have a good bit of luck involved.\n\n3. Lastly, the rock in question is round. Meteorites just [don't](_URL_3_) do that. Sure, the rock may have weathered but that's another rarity to add to the list.\n\nThis could be of some use if you have some free time and would like to attempt a more detailed study:\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll cut straight to the chase: I think you have a chunk of terrestrial rock rich in an iron ore (e.g. hematite), unless there was a steel mill nearby in which case I'd say mill waste. I'm afraid that's what mysterious slightly magnetic meteorites usually end up being, in my experience. Here's what I can offer in support of that, with suggestions at the end:\n\nFirst off, thank you for posting photos with a scalebar (the can). While size itself is irrelevant, density is not. Based on the photos, I would call it softball sized. 225 oz for \"slightly smaller than a basketball\" would be odd, let alone for an iron-based meteorite (which would be quite heavy), but for softball sized isn't unreasonable.\n\nIf it's a meteorite, it will probably not be hollow inside. You are correct: during the descent and impact, a meteorite would break along weak planes (e.g. the hollow part). Meteorites also generally are not very porous compared to terrestrial rocks.\n\nThe fact that it is very slightly magnetic works against the meteorite hypothesis, unfortunately. Chondrites tend not to be magnetic at all; iron- and iron-nickel meteorites are very magnetic. This doesn't rule out the possibility that it is \"stony-iron\", but the expectation would still be a pretty strong magnetic signature.\n\nThe other thing working to your disadvantage, I'm afraid, is surface texture. It doesn't have any noticeable surface characters consistent with partial melting during entry. Iron meteorites tend to have a distinctive metallic surface. This does not, but is still high in iron...that would be atypical. \n\nI'm also afraid that the X-ray gun isn't very informative. You'll notice that it's only showing metallic elements, as you said it's calibrated for checking out melted bars. It isn't registering any nonmetals - just from looking at the rock, that seems wrong. So you'd want to see what else is in there - oxygen content, for example, would probably provide a great deal of clarity: if your rock has a lot of iron and a lot of oxygen but isn't very magnetic, that suggests that it has a lot of iron oxide. Meteorites don't. Powder XRD, EDS tool, an ICP-MS...any of those could help answer this question, but they'll all cost.\n\nThe next question I'd have may be one that you can't answer: are there any iron mines within 20 miles or so of the farm, or an old railway that passed near the farm? Or, can you draw a line on a map along a glacial migration path from the farm to an iron mine. Since I don't know Pleistocene glacial paths in Idaho, we could use \"from the north\" or \"from a nearby mountain\" as a proxy. If you can answer yes to any of those, that would support the iron ore hypothesis.\n\nAll that said, mihaig made a fair suggestion: ask at a local university. Most faculty will be willing to give it a quick look and give you their thoughts for free, whereas the meteorite resources might charge you. Your best bet would be the geology department because astronomy departments don't often have meteorite experts, but geologists spend a lot of time looking at rocks. If there's a petrologist or economic geologist on the faculty, or if the department has a museum curator, those are your best bets. When I worked at a geology museum during grad school, we had at least one similar question a week. Usually a few minutes looking at it and some cursory analysis (e.g. nothing that costs money) was enough to rule out the possibility. I think we had 2-3 \"maybes\" over a few years. Most of the faculty I worked with would be happy to throw a sample in the SEM for you, maybe at no charge, if the instruments are available. At worst, SEM and XRD time usually aren't too pricey ($20-30). A petrologist might be able to give you a satisfactory answer after throwing a thin section under an optical scope, but that would involve slicing a chunk off and grinding it down. \n\nWithout getting it under a hand lens and giving it a heft, I don't think I can offer more. Good luck!\n\nEDIT: Replaced ECS (elemental capture spectroscopy, a well-log tool) with EDS (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, a system often attached to an SEM). My bad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24842130",
"title": "2009 Latvian meteorite hoax",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Caroline Smith, meteorite curator at the Natural History Museum in London, stated that the pictures and video footage of the burning crater indicated that it was not a meteorite crater: meteorites are not aflame when they strike Earth. Smith also pointed out that there were no other reported sightings of any fireball in the sky, which would have been very clearly visible had the \"meteorite\" been real.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41759375",
"title": "EETA 79001",
"section": "Section::::Macroscopic descriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The meteorite is a nearly completely crystalline rock, with a composition typical of volcanic lava crystallized from molten silicate. The sample closely resembles that of basalts collected from Earth and the Moon. Close examination of this sample shows glassy feldspar, which can be shown to have formed under unique conditions, common with impact shock. This glass retains its original structure, showing evidence for no flow having occurred. This process is likely caused due to intense shock waves, such as a large meteoric impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "433393",
"title": "Kecksburg UFO incident",
"section": "Section::::Initial reports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Authorities discounted proposed explanations such as a plane crash, errant missile test, or reentering satellite debris and generally assumed it to be a meteor. Astronomer Paul Annear said the fireball was likely a meteor entering the Earth's atmosphere. Geophysicist George Wetherilo discounted speculations that it was debris from a satellite and agreed the reports were probably due to a meteor. Astronomers William P. Bidelman and Fred Hess said it undoubtedly was a meteor bolide. A spokesman for the Defense Department in Washington said first reports indicated the reported fireball was a natural phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12637912",
"title": "Peekskill meteorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The Peekskill meteorite is among the most historic meteorite events on record. Sixteen separate video recordings document the meteorite burning through the Earth's atmosphere, whereupon it struck a parked car in Peekskill, New York. Peekskill is an H6 monomict breccia; its filigreed texture is the result of the shocking and heating following the impact of two asteroids in outer space. The meteorite is of the stony variety and approximately 20% of its mass is tiny flakes of nickel-iron. When it struck Earth, the meteorite weighed and measured one foot (0.30 m) in diameter. The Peekskill meteorite is estimated to be 4.4 billion years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34661222",
"title": "Tissint meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Petrology and origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "The meteorite fragments were recovered within days after the fall, so it is considered an \"uncontaminated\" meteorite. The meteorite displays evidence of water weathering, and there are signs of elements being carried into cracks in the rocks by water or fluid, which is something never seen before in a Martian meteorite. Specifically, scientists found carbon and nitrogen-containing compounds associated with hydrothermal mineral inclusions. One team reported measuring an elevated carbon-13 (C) ratio, while another team reported a low C ratio as compared to the content in Mars' atmosphere and crust, and suggested that it may be of biological origin, but the researchers also noted that there a several geological processes that could explain that without invoking complex life-processes; for example, it could be of meteoritic origin and would have been mixed with Martian soil when meteorites and comets impact the surface of Mars, or of volcanic origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60544485",
"title": "Nōgata meteorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The Nōgata meteorite is an L6 chondrite meteorite fragment, found in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is believed to be the oldest fragment associated with a sighting of a meteor fall. Witnessed by a young boy on May 19, 861, who led others to the impact site, it was accepted as having come from the sky. It was analyzed and described by Masako Shima of the National Science Museum of Tokyo and accepted by the Nomenclature Committee of the Meteoritical Society in 1979. Shima published a complete analysis of the chemical makeup of the fragment in 1983. It is on display in a Shinto shrine in Nōgata.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37523967",
"title": "Novato meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Meteorite.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The first fragment of the meteorite (N01) was recovered by Lisa Webber on 20 October after reading a story in the San Francisco Chronicle that described the NASA/CAMS meteor trajectory predicting a fall area in the North Bay. Lisa recalled hearing a sound on her roof the night of the meteor and went outside and located a 62 gram stone. Analysis of fragment N01 by Dr. Alan Rubin came back as a L6 breccia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
584jmg
|
what is that bright halo around light that we always see?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have two components in your eyes that actually \"see\". They are called \"Rods\" and \"Cones\". \"Rods\" are spread throughout your retina while \"Cones\" are almost exclusively found in your Fovea (the middle of your visible range where there is a dense cluster of cones). The perception of these different components actually varies quite a bit. Rods see a very limited range of color and are typically thought of as black and white vision although this isn't completely true. Cones can see color, but they aren't as sensitive to low light conditions as Rods. So, if you focus on an object, you are looking at it mostly with Cones. If you saw a picture of what you actually see, it would look like two pages that are mostly bluish gray blurry with a small circle in each that is in focus and in color. There would also be a black spot in each where the optic nerve connects (your blind spot). What we perceive is a trick. The back lobe of our brain does nothing but process what we see into a more usable image that our conscious mind works with. This is why you may see something move out of the corner of your eye that turned out to be nothing like what you thought you saw. \n\nAnyway, when you look at a bright light, your rods and cones are picking it up, but the rods pick it up more intensely. This is why in the transition between the rods and cones, you actually see a re intensifying of the light or a \"halo\". Another neat trick, if it's really dim, you can actually see better by focusing on a point near where you are looking than actually on what you want to see. (like look 10 degrees away from the object) This is because you will be using more rods than cones, and they are more sensitive to low light conditions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44665",
"title": "Arago spot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "In optics, the Arago spot, Poisson spot, or Fresnel bright spot is a bright point that appears at the center of a circular object's shadow due to Fresnel diffraction. This spot played an important role in the discovery of the wave nature of light and is a common way to demonstrate that light behaves as a wave (for example, in undergraduate physics laboratory exercises).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28779877",
"title": "Atmospheric optics",
"section": "Section::::Halos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "A halo (ἅλως; also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole) is an optical phenomenon produced by the interaction of light from the sun or moon with ice crystals in the atmosphere, resulting in colored or white arcs, rings or spots in the sky. Many halos are positioned near the sun or moon, but others are elsewhere and even in the opposite part of the sky. They can also form around artificial lights in very cold weather when ice crystals called diamond dust are floating in the nearby air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979227",
"title": "Rings of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Halo ring.:Appearance and structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The halo ring appears brightest in forward-scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by \"Galileo\". While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than , the halo's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form \"z\" to \"z\", where \"z\" is altitude over the ring plane. The halo's appearance in the back-scattered light, as observed by Keck and HST, is the same. However its total photon flux is several times lower than that of the main ring and is more strongly concentrated near the ring plane than in the forward-scattered light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516757",
"title": "Video camera tube",
"section": "Section::::Image orthicon.:Dark halo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "The mysterious dark \"orthicon halo\" around bright objects in an IO-captured image is based on the fact that the IO relies on the emission of photoelectrons, but very bright illumination can produce more of them locally than the device can successfully deal with. At a very bright point on a captured image, a great preponderance of electrons is ejected from the photosensitive plate. So many may be ejected that the corresponding point on the collection mesh can no longer soak them up, and thus they fall back to nearby spots on the target instead, much as water splashes in a ring when a rock is thrown into it. Since the resultant splashed electrons do not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "345035",
"title": "Halo (optical phenomenon)",
"section": "Section::::Circular halo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Among the best-known halos is the 22° halo, often just called \"halo\", which appears as a large ring around the Sun or Moon with a radius of about 22° (roughly the width of an outstretched hand at arm's length). The ice crystals that cause the 22° halo are oriented semi-randomly in the atmosphere, in contrast to the horizontal orientation required for some other halos such as sun dogs and light pillars. As a result of the optical properties of the ice crystals involved, no light is reflected towards the inside of the ring, leaving the sky noticeably darker than the sky around it, and giving it the impression of a \"hole in the sky\". The 22° halo is not to be confused with the corona, which is a different optical phenomenon caused by water droplets rather than ice crystals, and which has the appearance of a multicolored disk rather than a ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252572",
"title": "Glory (optical phenomenon)",
"section": "Section::::In culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In China, the phenomenon is called Buddha's light (or halo). It is often observed on cloud-shrouded high mountains, such as Huangshan and Mount Emei. Records of the phenomenon at Mount Emei date back to A.D. 63. The colorful halo always surrounds the observer's own shadow, and thus was often taken to show the observer's personal enlightenment (associated with Buddha or divinity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5684672",
"title": "Circumhorizontal arc",
"section": "Section::::Frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "How often a circumhorizontal arc is seen, depends on the location and the latitude of the observer. In the United States it is a relatively common halo, seen several times each summer in any one place. In contrast, it is a rare phenomenon in northern Europe for several reasons. Apart from the presence of ice-containing clouds in the right position in the sky, the halo requires that the light source (Sun or Moon) be very high in the sky, at an elevation of 58° or greater. This means that the solar variety of the halo is impossible to see at locations north of 55°N or south of 55°S. A lunar circumhorizon arc might be visible at other latitudes, but is much rarer since it requires a nearly full Moon to produce enough light. At other latitudes the solar circumhorizontal arc is visible, for a greater or lesser time, around the summer solstice. Slots of visibility for different latitudes and locations may be looked up here. For example, in London, England the sun is only high enough for 140 hours between mid-May and late July, whereas Los Angeles has the sun higher than 58 degrees for 670 hours between late March and late September.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1se8uh
|
el15: how many fps does the human eye see?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not a piece of digital equipment so there's no \"frame rate\" of the human eye. Each light receptor is on its own activate-recharge-activate cycle.\n\nYou'll usually notice the choppiness in frame rates that dip below 30 or framerates that vary significantly.\n\nThe resolution of the game and the speed of the action determine when the frame rate becomes noticeable. Slower, blurrier games can get away with lower frame rates.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This article goes into great detail about how the human eye interprets movies and the real world.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFor those that don't want to read, this quote pretty much sums it up.\n\n\" Seeing framewise is simply not the way how the eye\\brain system works. It works with a continuous flow of light\\information.\"\n\nAn example they use is that a movie of a slow moving fog can seem fluid at extremely low framerates ( < 10) because of it's lack of sharp edges and fast movement. \n\nOn the other hand, fluidity a game, where quick movement and high detail are present, can be greatly affected by framerate. It's pretty easy to see a difference between 30 and 60 fps, and higher refresh smooth things out even more. \n\nThe human eye can discern fluid movement at a wide range of fps, but when viewing the real world, it does not see in \"fps\", as light is constantly streaming into it and being processed.\n\n***apologies for poor formatting. Mobile user***",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070221",
"title": "Human eye",
"section": "Section::::Vision.:Dynamic range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The human eye can detect a luminance range of 10, or one hundred trillion (100,000,000,000,000) (about 46.5 f-stops), from 10 cd/m, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per square meter to 10 cd/m or one hundred million (100,000,000) candelas per square meter. This range does not include looking at the midday sun (10 cd/m) or lightning discharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513128",
"title": "Airy disk",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:The human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The fastest f-number for the human eye is about 2.1, corresponding to a diffraction-limited point spread function with approximately 1 μm diameter. However, at this f-number, spherical aberration limits visual acuity, while a 3 mm pupil diameter (f/5.7) approximates the resolution achieved by the human eye. The maximum density of cones in the human fovea is approximately 170,000 per square millimeter, which implies that the cone spacing in the human eye is about 2.5 μm, approximately the diameter of the point spread function at f/5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38192076",
"title": "Nikon 1 J3",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Featuring a 14 megapixel image sensor and further increased autofocus (hybrid autofocus with phase detection/contrast-detect AF and AF-assist illuminator) speed to 15 frames per second (fps), the maximum continuous shooting speed stays at 60 fps for up to 40 frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37428421",
"title": "Nikon 1 V2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Featuring a new 14 megapixel image sensor and further increased autofocus (hybrid autofocus with phase detection/contrast-detect AF and AF-assist illuminator) speed to 15 frames per second (fps), the maximum continuous shooting speed stays at 60 fps for up to 40 frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979771",
"title": "LG G Pro Lite",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Cameras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The LG G Pro Lite has an 8 MP back-illuminated camera sensor and a single LED flash. The phone is also capable of recording FullHD 1080p video at 30 FPS. The phone also features a front-facing 1.3 MP camera, capable of recording HD 720p video at 30 FPS. The camera supports digital zoom of up to 8X magnification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5260112",
"title": "Fine guidance sensor",
"section": "Section::::James Webb Space Telescope FGS.:JWST FGS functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The FGS will be sensitive enough to reach 58 µJy at 1.25 µm (~Jab = 19.5), and has a 2.4×2.4 arcminute square field of view. This combination of sky coverage and sensitivity ensures that an appropriate guide star can be found with 95% probability at any point in the sky, including high galactic latitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648954",
"title": "Visual acuity",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The maximum angular resolution of the human eye is 28 arc seconds or 0.47 arc minutes, this gives an angular resolution of 0.008 degrees, and at a distance of 1 km corresponds to 136 mm. This is equal to 0.94 arc minutes per line pair (one white and one black line), or 0.016 degrees. For a pixel pair (one white and one black pixel) this gives a pixel density of 128 pixels per degree (PPD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cqc3x
|
Why doesn't all the hydrogen in the sun undergo fusion simultaneously?
|
[
{
"answer": "When two hydrogen nuclei (protons) managed to slam together hard enough to fuse, they form a \"diproton\" (effectively a Helium-2 nucleus). This is a hideously unstable particle, and the vast majority of them simply immediately decay back into two protons, to no net effect. The tiny fraction that instead decay into deuterium (one proton becomes a neutron) is what drives the [proton-proton fusion cycle](_URL_0_). The incredible slowness of this first step is what lets the Sun continue shining for billions of years; if it was faster, it would've burnt out long ago (although it probably still wouldn't happen *instantly*, due to the effects mentioned by others in this thread). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two-body nuclear reactions (such as the first part of the [proton-proton chain](_URL_0_) in the Sun) consume ions at a finite rate given by \n\ndn/dt ∝ n^2 < σv > \n\nwhere n is the number density of reactant ions (protons in the case of the Sun) and < σv > is the reaction rate for the reaction, computed by averaging the product of the cross section σ for the nuclear reaction and the center-of-momentum-frame relative velocity of the reactants over the distribution function of reactants. Typically, for stellar fusion processes, < σv > is a rapidly increasing (though finite valued) function of temperature. Even from this equation, you can see that since all the terms on the right hand side of the equation are finite (one can't have infinite density over a finite volume, like that of a stellar core), the time rate of consumption of fuel can't be arbitrarily fast. \n\nIn the Sun, the process of burning up protons is in fact a many-step chain that proceeds very slowly. It begins with the binary fusion reaction p + p - > He2 + gamma. The diproton (He2) product normally decays quickly back into a pair of protons. However, a tiny fraction of the time, one of the protons in the He2 nucleus will beta-plus-decay by barfing out a neutrino and positron (antimatter electron), turning the nucleus into a deuterium ion (a nucleus with one neutron and one proton). This deuteron fuses with another proton to make He3. From this point, there are multiple ways that He3 can be used up. One way, e.g., is for two He3 ions to fuse, making a pair of protons and a He4 ion. These protons can go off and start the process anew. The He4 is \"ash.\" It doesn't fuse with anything until most of the star's hydrogen is burnt up, at which point the stellar core collapses and three-body nuclear reactions (triple-alpha reactions) begin.\n\nThe upshot is that in the Sun the conversion of He2 to deuterons is very slow, acting as a throttle on the rate of consumption of protons in the Sun's core and preventing this burnup from occurring arbitrarily fast. \n\nEdit: slight reword",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191185",
"title": "Neutron cross section",
"section": "Section::::Within stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Because lithium-8 and beryllium-12 form natural stopping points on the table of isotopes for hydrogen fusion, it is believed that all of the higher elements are formed in very hot stars where higher orders of fusion predominate. A star like the Sun produces energy by the fusion of simple H-1 into helium-4 through a series of reactions. It is believed that when the inner core exhausts its H-1 fuel, the Sun will contract, slightly increasing its core temperature until He-4 can fuse and become the main fuel supply. Pure He-4 fusion leads to Be-8, which decays back to 2 He-4; therefore the He-4 must fuse with isotopes either more or less massive than itself to result in an energy producing reaction. When He-4 fuses with H-2 or H-3, it forms stable isotopes Li-6 and Li-7 respectively. The higher order isotopes between Li-8 and C-12 are synthesized by similar reactions between hydrogen, helium, and lithium isotopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21544",
"title": "Nuclear fusion",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical description of cross section.:Fusion under classical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "This would imply that for the core of the sun, which has a Boltzmann distribution with a temperature of around 1.4 keV, the probability hydrogen would reach the threshold is formula_7, that is, fusion would never occur. However, fusion in the sun does occur due to quantum mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8524",
"title": "Deuterium",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "This is discussed below. It is notable that although most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements, such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion that occurs in so-called hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (either tritium or deuterium, or both) in order for the process to work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27952019",
"title": "Deuterium fusion",
"section": "Section::::In protostars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "If there were no deuterium fusion, there would be no stars with masses more than about two or three times the mass of the Sun in the pre-main-sequence phase, as the more intense hydrogen fusion would occur and prevent the object from accreting matter. Deuterium fusion allows further accretion of mass by acting as a thermostat that temporarily stops the central temperature from rising above about one million degrees, a temperature not hot enough for hydrogen fusion, but allowing time for the accumulation of more mass. When the energy transport mechanism switches from convective to radiative, energy transport slows, allowing the temperature to rise and hydrogen fusion take over in a stable and sustained way. Hydrogen fusion will begin at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21784",
"title": "Nova",
"section": "Section::::Stellar evolution of novae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Hydrogen fusion may occur in a stable manner on the surface of the white dwarf for a narrow range of accretion rates, giving rise to a super soft X-ray source, but for most binary system parameters, the hydrogen burning is unstable thermally and rapidly converts a large amount of the hydrogen into other, heavier chemical elements in a runaway reaction, liberating an enormous amount of energy. This blows the remaining gases away from the surface of the white dwarf surface and produces an extremely bright outburst of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21544",
"title": "Nuclear fusion",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Fusion powers stars and produces virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. The Sun is a main-sequence star, and, as such, generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen and makes 606 million metric tons of helium each second. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.7% of the mass is carried away in the form of kinetic energy of an alpha particle or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. Within the core, the proportion of helium has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere towards the center of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of metals (heavier elements) is unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fp3sw
|
why do fat/obese/overweight people generally have a lot of strength even if they do not work out?
|
[
{
"answer": "They gotta carry their fat ass everywhere they go ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you're carrying around a backpack with 100 pounds of weight. Imagine climbing 2 flights of stairs, or walking 1/2 a mile. Just to maintain a day to day existence, you're going to have to be much stronger than you are today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Farmer's walk. Everywhere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Endomorph chiming in.\n\nOf the [three basic body types](_URL_0_), muscle growth behaves very differently. The Ectomorph can't keep muscle very long. The Mesomorph builds it up almost without even trying. The Endomorph grows muscle at a slower rate than a Mesomorph, but also keeps it longer than an Ectomorph.\n\nA Mesomorph may *look* physically strong in a gym, put into practice they are far outpaced by Endomorphs who have bulked up. Even though a Mesomorph may be able to lift a 500lb barbell, for example, they have a tougher time lifting a 500lb refrigerator because they have gained only a *specific combination* of muscles designed to lift the barbell. The Endomorph, however, builds smaller amounts of muscle over a larger surface area within the body, so they have an easier time lifting a 500lb refrigerator because they use *more muscles* than the Mesomorph to do the same job.\n\nThose are extreme examples, but the same rates of growth apply for when a person of any body type doesn't add excess exercise to their daily routine.\n\n**tl;dr: Mick Foley is totally stronger than The Rock.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26557458",
"title": "Lack of physical education",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Obesity induced from lack of exercise also contributes to a decrease in general mental health. Overweight children and teens are more likely to suffer from poor self-esteem, negative body image, teasing, and bullying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3357557",
"title": "Social influences on fitness behavior",
"section": "Section::::Obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Obesity is a physical marker of poor health, increasing the likelihood of various diseases. Due to social constructs surrounding health, the belief that being skinny is healthy and discrimination against those perceived to be 'unhealthy', people who are considered overweight or obese on the BMI scale face many social challenges. Challenges can range from basic things such as buying clothes, pressure from society to change their body, and being unable to get a job. This can lead to various problems such as eating disorders, self-esteem issues, and misdiagnosis and improper treatment of physical ailments due to discrimination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "565501",
"title": "Status symbol",
"section": "Section::::Body modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Dieting to reduce excess body fat is widely practiced in Western society, while some traditional societies still value obesity as a sign of prosperity. Development of muscles through exercise, previously disdained as a stigma of doing heavy manual labor, is now valued as a sign of personal achievement. Some groups, such as extreme bodybuilders and sumo wrestlers use special exercise and diet to \"bulk up\" into an impressive appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2810349",
"title": "Underweight",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Being underweight is associated with certain medical conditions, including anorexia, type 1 diabetes, hyperthyroidism, cancer, or tuberculosis. People with gastrointestinal or liver problems may be unable to absorb nutrients adequately. People with certain eating disorders can also be underweight due to lack of nutrients/over exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Nutrition, food, and drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "BULLET::::- There is no evidence that obesity is related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Weight gain and loss are directly attributable to diet and activity. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56435",
"title": "Obesity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive food intake, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibility. A few cases are caused primarily by genes, endocrine disorders, medications, or mental disorder. The view that obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is not medically supported. On average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their normal counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26398232",
"title": "Android fat distribution",
"section": "Section::::Health Consequences.:Psychological consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Body fat can impact on an individual mentally, for example high levels of android fat have been linked to poor mental wellbeing, including anxiety, depression and body confidence issues. On the reverse, psychological aspects can impact on body fat distribution too, for example women classed as being more extraverted tend to have less android body fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3li2ev
|
if a 5 year old were to fall into a coma and wake up 20 years later, how would they act?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably like a two year old.\n\nYou don't spend 15 years in a coma and come back without some severe mental deficits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.:Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual, and psychological difficulties that need special attention. It is common for coma patients to awaken in a profound state of confusion and suffer from dysarthria, the inability to articulate any speech. Recovery usually occurs gradually. In the first days, patients may only awaken for a few minutes, with increased duration of wakefulness as their recovery progresses and may eventually recover full awareness. That said, some patients may never progress beyond very basic responses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31315770",
"title": "Disorders of consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Chronic coma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "A person in a state of coma is described as comatose. In general patients surviving a coma recover gradually within 2–4 weeks. But recovery to full awareness and arousal is not always possible. Some patients do not progress further than vegetative state or minimally conscious state and sometimes this also results in prolonged stages before further recovery to complete consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.:Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "A brain-damaged man, trapped in a coma-like state for six years, was brought back to consciousness in 2003 by doctors who planted electrodes deep inside his brain. The method, called deep brain stimulation (DBS) successfully roused communication, complex movement and eating ability in the 38-year-old American man who suffered a traumatic brain injury. His injuries left him in a minimally conscious state (MCS), a condition akin to a coma but characterized by occasional, but brief, evidence of environmental and self-awareness that coma patients lack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48465353",
"title": "Lord of Miracles of Buga",
"section": "Section::::Catholic Church.:Beliefs and miracles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "10. In 2005, a youngster from Cundinamarca, Andean Colombia, suffered an accident that left her in a coma. After some months of prayer by her family using Our Lord of Miracles novena, she recovered consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Comas can last from several days to several weeks. In more severe cases a coma may last for over five weeks, while some have lasted as long as several years. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a vegetative state, and others die. Some patients who have entered a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness and in some cases, may remain in vegetative state for years or even decades (the longest recorded period being 42 years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57549256",
"title": "Giulia Millanta",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "At the age of thirteen, a life-threatening horse accident caused her to spend a month and a half in the hospital to recover from a coma due to a skull fracture. That event left a mark and, even though she was just a little girl, she promised herself she would always live her life at the fullest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11558356",
"title": "Jan Grzebski",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Jan Grzebski (1942 – 12 December 2008) was a Polish railroad worker who fell into a coma in 1988 and woke up in 2007. He actually stayed in coma for four years but fully recovered only 19 years after.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yj8rp
|
Who actually wrote the Magna Carta?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think that the first problem would be which Magna Carta--I'm assuming you mean the 1215 one. I just went to see an exhibit at the Alberta Legislature with the Magna Carta from 1300. There was also one in 1297 and the first one 1215. Many replicas were made. If no one knows here, perhaps you could contact the Alberta Legislature since it is finishing up there tomorrow, or you could contact one of the Cathedral's that own a copy: Durham and Salisbury are two that I remember reading. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was going to summarise [this lecture](_URL_1_) from May but fortunately _URL_2_ has it online! The person giving this paper is one of the leads on the AHRC-funded [Magna Carta Project](_URL_0_), which represents the culmination of several years of study by scholars from the University of Easy Anglia and Kings College London including several notable authorities on thirteenth-century England such as Nick Vincent and David Carpenter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15195865",
"title": "History of human rights",
"section": "Section::::Ancient and pre-modern eras.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Magna Carta is an English charter originally issued in 1215 which influenced the development of the common law and many later constitutional documents, such as the 1689 English Bill of Rights, the 1789 United States Constitution, and the 1791 United States Bill of Rights. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33773392",
"title": "1215: The Year of Magna Carta",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "\"1215: The Year of Magna Carta\" is a rare documentation because it is a work of creative non-fiction, a method of writing which is rarely used in writing a historical text. Based on the title, one may expect to read a book entirely about the Magna Carta, the document that changed the course of England's history. However, the book goes into detail about life in the Middle Ages, specifically in the year 1215. The book begins by explaining the everyday life of someone of royalty, then of the average peasant. It explains school, the countryside, hunting, tournaments, battles and the church. Throughout the book, several references to the Magna Carta are intertwined with everyday events. For example, the chapter entitled \"Family Strife\" begins with the quotation from clause 62 of the Magna Carta: “We have completely remitted and pardoned to all any ill will, grudge and rancor that have arisen between us and our subjects.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1139599",
"title": "History of Hertfordshire",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The first draft of the Magna Carta was written at St Albans Abbey in 1213. It contained significant provisions still in force to this day, including the principle of \"habeas corpus\" (which was first invoked in court in 1305). Two years later, King John was in St Albans when he learned of the Archbishop of Canterbury's suspension. Though John agreed to the Magna Carta, he did not adhere to it, and Hertfordshire was the main battlefield in the civil war that followed. On 16 December 1216, during the First Barons' War, Hertford Castle surrendered after a siege from Dauphin Louis (later Louis VIII of France), whom the English barons had invited to England to replace John as King. Berkhamsted Castle surrendered around the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958",
"title": "Magna Carta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1654,
"text": "At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as \"habeas corpus\". Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958",
"title": "Magna Carta",
"section": "Section::::History.:16th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 193,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 193,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the \"Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis\" of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15195865",
"title": "History of human rights",
"section": "Section::::Ancient and pre-modern eras.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Magna Carta was originally written because of disagreements between Pope Innocent III, King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the King to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered—most notably the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33773392",
"title": "1215: The Year of Magna Carta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "1215: The Year of Magna Carta is a historical documentation of life in Medieval England written by author and journalist Danny Danziger and emeritus professor of history at the London School of Economics John Gillingham. It was originally published in 2003 by Hodder & Stoughton, a division of Hodder Headline. In 2004, it was published in the United States by Touchstone. This book is a sequel to Danziger's previous work, \"The Year 1000\", which he co-authored with author Robert Lacey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dbwfww
|
Magnitude or depth, which is more important to strength of an earthquake?
|
[
{
"answer": "In terms of perceived strength at a location (i.e. the [intensity of an earthquake](_URL_1_)), both the depth and magnitude will matter, as will horizontal distance from the epicenter (this together with depth will determine how far seismic waves have had to travel to reach your location and generally waves attenuate with distance), [seismic site effects](_URL_3_) and the [directivity](_URL_7_) of the earthquake rupture with respect to the location. Generally (if we were standing on the epicenter so depth = distance from the [hypocenter](_URL_5_)) we could say that as depth increases or magnitude decreases, the perceived intensity of the earthquake at a point on the surface will decrease, but given the variability and the importance of the details for any particular rupture, there is no unique answer as to which one would be the larger determinant. Anecdotally, I would probably argue that depth has a potentially larger importance given the huge depth range over which earthquakes can occur. For example, this [M 8.2, 600 km deep earthquake](_URL_4_) was [barely felt](_URL_6_) where as this [M 8.2, 47 km deep earthquake](_URL_8_) was [widely felt](_URL_0_) and indeed [killed 78 people](_URL_2_). The 600 km deep earthquake is definitely an anomaly (we don't see too many earthquakes that deep, let alone that big at that depth), but it illustrates that extreme depth can really attenuate shaking felt at the surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31711112",
"title": "Depth of focus (tectonics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "In seismology, the depth of focus or focal depth refers to the depth at which an earthquake occurs. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than are classified as shallow-focus earthquakes, while those with a focal depth between and are commonly termed mid-focus or intermediate-depth earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths in the mantle, ranging from up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679582",
"title": "Hypocenter",
"section": "Section::::Earthquakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The focal depth can be calculated from measurements based on seismic wave phenomena. As with all wave phenomena in physics, there is uncertainty in such measurements that grows with the wavelength so the focal depth of the source of these long-wavelength (low frequency) waves is difficult to determine exactly. Very strong earthquakes radiate a large fraction of their released energy in seismic waves with very long wavelengths and therefore a stronger earthquake involves the release of energy from a larger mass of rock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20663",
"title": "Modified Mercalli intensity scale",
"section": "Section::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.:Correlation with magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The correlation between magnitude and intensity is far from total, depending upon several factors including the depth of the hypocenter, terrain, distance from the epicenter. For example, a 4.5 magnitude quake in Salta, Argentina, in 2011, that was 164 km deep had a maximum intensity of I, while a 2.2 magnitude event in Barrow in Furness, England, in 1865, about 1 km deep had a maximum intensity of VIII.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31211773",
"title": "Earthquake casualty estimation",
"section": "Section::::Pinpointing the hypocenter and magnitude.:Depth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The depth is important, but uncertain in the top 50 km. The depths of earthquakes range from 0 to about 700 km. Generally, only the earthquakes in the top 100 km are close enough to settlements to cause casualties. The decrease of the wave amplitudes as a function of distance (Figure 2) shows that dangerous intensities, I≥VII, do not exist beyond 30 to 50 km for major earthquakes. Thus, deep earthquakes are usually not of interest for alerts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230732",
"title": "Charles Francis Richter",
"section": "Section::::Richter scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Richter chose to use the term \"magnitude\" to describe an earthquake's strength because of his early interest in astronomy; stargazers use the word to describe the brightness of stars. Gutenberg suggested that the scale be logarithmic so an earthquake of magnitude 7 would be ten times stronger than a 6, a hundred times stronger than a 5, and a thousand times stronger than a 4. (The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that shook San Francisco was magnitude 6.9.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Logarithmic scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake. This is used in the moment magnitude scale or the Richter magnitude scale. For example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 32 times and a 6.0 releases 1000 times the energy of a 4.0. Another logarithmic scale is apparent magnitude. It measures the brightness of stars logarithmically. Yet another example is pH in chemistry; pH is the negative of the common logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions (the form hydrogen ions take in water). The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 10 mol·L, hence a pH of 7. Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3. The difference of 4 corresponds to a ratio of 10 of the activity, that is, vinegar's hydronium ion activity is about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631494",
"title": "Moment magnitude scale",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Richter\" scale: the original measure of earthquake magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "The Local magnitude scale was developed on the basis of shallow (~ deep), moderate-sized earthquakes at a distance of approximately , conditions where the surface waves are predominant. At greater depths, distances, or magnitudes the surface waves are greatly reduced, and the Local magnitude scale underestimates the magnitude, a problem called \"saturation\". Additional scales were developed – a surface-wave magnitude scale () by Beno Gutenberg in 1945, a body-wave magnitude scale () by Gutenberg and Richter in 1956, and a number of variants – to overcome the deficiencies of the scale, but all are subject to saturation. A particular problem was that the scale (which in the 1970s was the preferred magnitude scale) saturates around , and therefore underestimates the energy release of \"great\" earthquakes such as the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan earthquakes. These had magnitudes of 8.5 and 8.4 respectively but were notably more powerful than other M 8 earthquakes; their moment magnitudes were closer to 9.6 and 9.3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cjfsp
|
Baltic and North Seas meet but don't mix because of the differing density. Is a difference in density sufficient to cause immiscibility?
|
[
{
"answer": "They may have a boundary like that but diffusion happens between the two bodies. It is not correct to think they wall each other off. Keep in mind that this is a surface picture only.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are you sure that's in Europe? It seems strikingly similar to the appearance of [this halocline off the coast of Alaska](_URL_1_).\n\nI can find no evidence that there is a sharp boundary such as this [between the Baltic and North Seas](_URL_0_). There is a salinity difference, but it is quite gradual.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3335",
"title": "Baltic Sea",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Salinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land (rivers, streams and alike), combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about and yearly runoff is about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53900308",
"title": "Nordic Seas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "The Nordic Seas include the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the Iceland Sea. The Greenland and the Norwegian Sea are separately distinguished by Mohn’s Ridge. The Greenland and Iceland Sea are separated by the Jan Mayen fracture zone, and the Norwegian and Iceland Seas have the Aegir Ridge between them. The Nordic Seas have varying and diverse features as a result of each sea having separate water mass structures and circulation patterns. The Greenland Sea produces dense waters because of its high salinity and cooler temperatures from winter cooling. Higher salinity is present as a result of the Greenland Sea’s close proximity to the salinity inflow that occurs from the Atlantic Ocean. Another dense water source comes from the Arctic waters that also flow into the Greenland Sea. These water source mixtures are important because they play a role in the overflows that occur in the North Atlantic. The water that overflows from the Greenland ridge becomes the North Atlantic Deep Water dense water, even though this body of water does not make up the deep waters of the Nordic Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3336",
"title": "Brackish water",
"section": "Section::::Brackish water habitats.:Brackish seas and lakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Originally the confluence of two major river systems prior to the Pleistocene, since then it has been flooded by the North Sea but still receives so much freshwater from the adjacent lands that the water is brackish. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is denser than freshwater, the water in the Baltic is stratified, with salt water at the bottom and freshwater at the top. Limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species only found in deep water in the Baltic, while pike are confined to the less saline surface waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3335",
"title": "Baltic Sea",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Salinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The open surface waters of the Baltic Sea \"proper\" generally have a salinity of 0.3 to 0.9%, which is border-line freshwater. The flow of fresh water into the sea from approximately two hundred rivers and the introduction of salt from the southwest builds up a gradient of salinity in the Baltic Sea. The highest surface salinities, generally 0.7–0.9%, is in the southwestern-most part of the Baltic, in the Arkona and Bornholm Basins (the former located roughly between southeast Zealand and Bornholm, and the latter directly east of Bornholm). It gradually falls further east and north, reaching the lowest in the Bothnian Bay at around 0.3%. Drinking the surface water of the Baltic as a means of survival would actually hydrate the body instead of dehydrating, as is the case with ocean water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53900308",
"title": "Nordic Seas",
"section": "Section::::Water masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The water masses that encompass the Nordic Seas are always changing in response to the local variations that occur between atmosphere-ocean fluxes and convection of intermediate to deep water. The Nordic Seas are found between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean, both having variable surface water conditions. The Nordic Seas are complex in the variety of water masses it contains: two surface waters, three intermediate waters, and three deep waters. Figure 3 shows the water mass circulations that occur in the Nordic Seas, displaying the surface waters, the intermediate waters, and the deep waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24684259",
"title": "Climate change in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Future climate in Sweden.:Baltic Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The surface temperature of the Baltic Sea will increase as the air temperature increases. Some models predict up to 4 °C increases in surface water temperature. Sea ice cover is expected to decrease and be localized to the northern Gulf of Bothnia by the end on the century. The salinity of the Baltic Sea is predicted to fall in some climate models as a result of increased influx of freshwater from the mainland, though other models differ significantly with some even showing an increase in salinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3335",
"title": "Baltic Sea",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology. The remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen and in species. Thus, statistically, the more of the entrance that is included in its definition, the healthier the Baltic appears; conversely, the more narrowly it is defined, the more endangered its biology appears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g2734
|
how does pi contain every word or combination of words?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a common misconception.\n\nPi is an irrational number. Irrational numbers are numbers that can't be expressed as a quotient of two whole numbers. One minor property of irrational numbers is that when you try to write them as decimal fractions, you get an infinite and non-repeating sequence of digits.\n\nThere are a lot more irrational numbers, for example e (euler's constant), the square roots of 2, 3, 5 (and every other number that isn't a whole square) and many others - in fact, there are more irrational numbers than rationals.\n\nA special subset of irrationals are *normal* numbers. In the decimal expansion of a normal number, sequences of digits are distributed uniformly - so for example every possible digit appears about 1/10th of the times, and every possible pair of digits appears 1/100th of the times, etc. (it's a bit more complex, but lets leave it at that). In a normal number, every possible combination of digits appears somewhere. Since we can use numbers to encode letters (a=1, b=2, c=3...) you can say that a normal number contains every possible word or phrase.\n\nHere's an example for a normal number: 0.12345678910111213141516171819202122.....99100101102103104.....\n\nPi is hypothesized to be a normal number, however it is yet to be proven. Not every irrational number is normal - for example, the number 0.101001000100001000001000000... is obviously infinite and not repeating (hence it is irrational), but it doesn't contain the digits 2-9.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has actually never been proven. Just because a number is irrational does not mean it's digits are uniformly distributed. It's entirely possible (though unlikely) that once you get past 10 billion digits the number \"2\" never appears again.\n\nPi is widely believed to be a [normal number](_URL_0_), and if it were, then with an infinite number of digits the probability of finding any finite sequence would be 1. But nobody's been able to prove that pi definitely is normal, so this is just a conjecture for now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40411",
"title": "Mnemonic",
"section": "Section::::Applications and examples.:For numerical sequences and mathematical operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Mnemonic phrases or poems can be used to encode numeric sequences by various methods, one common one is to create a new phrase in which the number of letters in each word represents the according digit of pi. For example, the first 15 digits of the mathematical constant pi (3.14159265358979) can be encoded as \"Now I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics\"; \"Now\", having 3 letters, represents the first number, 3. Piphilology is the practice dedicated to creating mnemonics for pi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43305196",
"title": "BBC Programme Identifier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "All PIDs consist of a lower-case letter, followed by seven or more other characters which may be lower case letters, or digits. Vowels (a, e, i, o, u) are not used, so that offensive words cannot be generated inadvertently. The first letter \"b\" means the content reference identifier (CRID) authority is Red Bee; a \"p\" means that the authority is the BBC's Programme Information Pages database, (PIPs). An \"s\" is used internally, for PIDs identifying partners and suppliers. Other sources, denoted by different opening letters, could potentially be introduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "617167",
"title": "Piphilology",
"section": "Section::::Examples in English.:Piku.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The piku follows the rules of conventional haiku (three lines of 5, 7 and 5 syllables), but with the added mnemonic trick that each word contains the same number of letters as the numerals of pi, e.g.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166728",
"title": "Pi (letter)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Pi (; uppercase Π, lowercase π and ϖ; ) is the sixteenth letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the sound . In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 80. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Pe (). Letters that arose from pi include Cyrillic Pe (П, п), Coptic pi (Ⲡ, ⲡ), and Gothic pairthra (𐍀).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2887980",
"title": "Cadaeic Cadenza",
"section": "Section::::The limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "While in this example each word is the same number of letters as the next digit of pi (and ten letters for the digit 0), some sections use words of more than ten letters as a one followed by another digit:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513248",
"title": "Lakota language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Phonological processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The plural enclitic \"=pi\" is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics \"=kte\", \"=kiŋ\", \"=kštó\", or \"=na\". If the vowel preceding \"=pi\" is high/open, \"=pi\" becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), \"=pi\" becomes [o] (if the preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): \"hi=pi=kte\", \"they will arrive here\", [hiukte]; \"yatkáŋ=pi=na\", \"they drank it and...\", .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57253540",
"title": "Pure inductive logic",
"section": "Section::::Framework.:General case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "In its basic form, PIL uses first order logic without equality, with the usual connectives formula_1 (\"and, or, not\" and \"implies\" respectively), quantifiers formula_2 finitely many predicate (relation) symbols, and countably many constant symbols formula_3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d64nck
|
how can someone with a peanut allergy develop a semi-immunity to peanuts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Immunotherapy has been applied to many allergies, yes. \n\nThere's two general competing mechanisms that drive allergy. \n\nThe first is what you could call the \"pro atopic\" side. This is the allergic response, and in these types of allergies it is mediated by a class of antibody called IgE. To simplify it a lot, more IgE against the allergen = more allergic response. \n\nThe second is the regulatory side. The regulatory side is what inhibits the allergic response and reduces IgE levels. This is mediated, in part, by a class of antibody called IgG4. Also very simplified, more IgG4 against the allergen = less allergic response. \n\nWe know that some factors favor an IgE response. These are: later exposure in life, intermittent exposure, high dose exposure. \n\nWe know some factors favor an IgG4 response / lower IgE response: earlier exposure in life, consistent exposure, low dose exposure. \n\nImmunotherapy works by giving you a low dose, consistent exposure to the allergen to build up a regulatory response. \n\nIt's been proven to work in a lot of clinical trials for many common allergies, but work is still ongoing. Part of the trick is that you have to do the immunotherapy just right, or the allergy may just get worse. The best preventive measure, though, seems to be exposure to the allergen before 1-2-years-old (based on other trials).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically if you are exposed to certain allergens in small doses your body learns they're not actually harmful and that it's over reacting to the substance.\n\nAdditionally there are theories, not sure if proven yet, that the reason we see more peanut allergies in recent decades is due to not exposing children to peanut foods when they are young, so once they are older their bodies react badly. But if you eat peanuts early enough your body never develops this over reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2834063",
"title": "Peanut allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9134346",
"title": "Talizumab",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The clinical trial results indicate that with the administration of TNX-901, patients, who could tolerate an average of half a peanut before the treatment, were able to ingest up to 9 peanuts before they started to have allergic reactions. Therefore, TNX-901 cannot cure peanut allergy, but could protect patients from the often violent and life-threatening reactions upon the accidental exposure to peanut. Note that this clinical study was not done on patients who were known to develop deadly anaphylactic reactions to minute traces of peanut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024211",
"title": "Bamba (snack)",
"section": "Section::::Peanut allergy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "As Bamba is made with peanuts, people allergic to peanuts may be severely affected by it. However early peanut consumption is associated with less prevalence of peanut allergy. In fact, a 2008 study concluded that, due to the extensive consumption of Bamba by infants in Israel, peanut allergy is rare. A control group of Jewish children in the UK had ten times higher rates of allergy; the difference is not accounted for by differences in atopy, social class, genetic background, or peanut allergenicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2834063",
"title": "Peanut allergy",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Timing of exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "When infants consume peanut proteins while 4 to 11 months old, the risk of developing peanut allergy before the age of 5 years decreases by 11-25%, specifically in children with higher allergy risk via their parents with peanut allergy. From these results, the American Academy of Pediatrics rescinded their recommendation to delay exposure to peanuts in children, also stating there is no reason to avoid peanuts during pregnancy or breastfeeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive. Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2834063",
"title": "Peanut allergy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Tree nuts and soy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "People with confirmed peanut allergy may have cross-reactivity to tree nut, soy, and other legumes, such as peas and lentils and lupinus. The cause of cross-reactivity results from similarity in the structures of storage proteins between the food sources. Allergenic proteins are grouped by protein families: cupins, prolamins, profilin and others. Peanuts and soybeans have proteins in the cupin, prolamin, and profilin families, while lentils contain cupin proteins. Reviews of human clinical trials report that 6–40% of people with a confirmed peanut allergy will have allergic symptoms when challenged with tree nuts or legumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ayvtqq
|
why after staring for too long into a light source (i.e. the traffic light), that pattern gets burned onto our sight?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simple answer: overstimulated Rods and cones in your eyes ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Im no expert but I think this is because the cones/rods which sense light in our eyes \"adapt\" when exposed to light and become less activated so when you look away it takes some time to adapt again and you see a negative of that image for a while afterwards",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "885062",
"title": "Min Min light",
"section": "Section::::Appearance and behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Some witnesses describe the light as appearing to approach them several times before retreating. Others report that the lights were able to keep pace with them when they were in a moving motor vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5130276",
"title": "Maco light",
"section": "Section::::Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1630,
"text": "A 1972 article in the \"Wilmington Star-News\" argued that \"most investigators\" had believed the light was traceable to refraction from car headlights on a nearby highway, U.S. Route 74. Reprinting a 1950 long-exposure photograph of the light, the newspaper stated that a bend on the highway was the cause of the phenomenon, noting both that amber and red lights had been seen close to the main light when viewed through a telescope (corresponding to truck turn and brake signals) and that the light had been rarely seen since highway widening in the late 1960s eliminated the bend. Refuting the stories of some locals, who claimed that the light had still appeared while the highway was closed for a period during World War II, the \"Star-News\" researcher noted that a thorough check of archives twenty years earlier to verify this part of the tale had failed to reveal any evidence of such a closure taking place. The newspaper was the scene of a good deal of discussion on the subject, with one resident writing that \"the Maco Light is what [the \"Star-News\"] says it is [...] all the Maco Light is now is just a lovers' lane and a place to start a lot of trouble\". However, the light retained some supporters: in the mid 1970s a reporter for \"The Robesonian\" was eventually, after several failed attempts, able to see the light, which he described as \"chilling\" and \"resembling the light thrown from a kerosene lantern as seen from a distance of about 50 feet [...] primarily white light with an ever so little reddish tint. It tended to travel down the center of the track, swinging to and fro with slight vertical undulations\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10751304",
"title": "Motion-induced blindness",
"section": "Section::::Implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "As the phenomenon was discovered so recently, researchers have speculated about whether MIB occurs outside the laboratory, without being noticed as such. Situations such as driving, in which some night drivers should see stationary red tail lights of the preceding cars disappear temporally when they attend to the moving stream of lights from oncoming traffic may be case points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1412580",
"title": "Science of photography",
"section": "Section::::Motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect. This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8086974",
"title": "Etiquette in Australia and New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Shared expectations.:Driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "BULLET::::- A common experience while travelling on state highways is being 'flashed' by oncoming vehicles. This is when an oncoming vehicle flicks its high beam headlights quickly but noticeably (day or night), and serves to warn drivers they are approaching a hazard: a speed camera or Police vehicle/Radar/Random Breath Test (most commonly), or a motor vehicle accident, or animals/rocks on the road . Many drivers acknowledge this with a return wave or a brief reply 'flash' of their high beam headlights.. It is also done to alert the other driver if they have neglected to turn their own headlights on when necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5508817",
"title": "Traffic-light signalling and operation",
"section": "Section::::Warnings of traffic light ahead.:Flashing yellow lights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "In some areas, a \"prepare to stop\" sign with two alternately flashing yellow lights is installed in locations where a high-speed road (design speed usually at least 55 mph / 90 km/h) leads up to a traffic light, where the traffic light is obscured from a distance (or both conditions), or before the first traffic signal after a long stretch of road with no signals. This is installed so that drivers can view it from a distance. This light begins blinking with enough time for the driver to see it and slow down before the intersection light turns yellow, then red. The flashing yellow light can go out immediately when the light turns green, or it may continue for several seconds after the intersection light has turned green, as it usually takes a line of cars some time to accelerate to cruising speed from a red light. These are relatively common in areas such as the United States, Canada, Western Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand and Liberia. Japan uses a variant signal with two lamps, a green one and a flashing yellow one, for the same purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56657682",
"title": "Flicker (light)",
"section": "Section::::Root causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Flicker can also be perceived from naturally modulated light sources like candle light or a sunlit water surface or it may be experienced while driving along a row of trees lit by the sun. TLMs and resulting flicker can be seen also while driving with a certain speed along a street or through a tunnel lit by lighting equipment positioned with a regular spacing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
174ibv
|
Recycling of International Space Station?
|
[
{
"answer": "To move anything from Earth orbit to Lunar orbit, you need about three times its mass as propellant. To do that for the entire space station, that would mean about 1,350,000 kg of propellant. To get all that to low Earth orbit, would mean about 11 Saturn V launches, or double that for Falcon Heavy.\n\nAs to why small pieces of it couldn't be reused, I'm not sure. If it has a module that would be perfect for a Moon/Mars mission then it would certainly save in fuel costs to have it in orbit already. Most likely has to do with engineering issues, how to separate the right module from the station, then dock it with your space craft and so on. But I wouldn't completely rule out the possibility that something like that might be done.\n\nEdit: Also the space station has a constant upkeep cost. You can't just leave it there and at some later point pick modules out of it when you need them. You need to keep boosting its orbit periodically. Just one of those reboosting missions might as well instead take a new better module to orbit for your other mission to use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "557242",
"title": "STS-98",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "The crew continued the task of building and enhancing the International Space Station by delivering the U.S. Destiny Laboratory Module. It was the first NASA lab to be permanently used ever since the days of Skylab nearly three decades earlier. It was manufactured by Boeing at the Michoud Assembly Facility and the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1997. Upon transport to Kennedy Space Center's industrial buildings, it was fitted with equipment, machines, racks and cables at the Operations and Checkout Building and Space Station Processing Facility. The U.S. laboratory module is long and wide. It is made from stainless steel and aluminum, and comprises three cylindrical sections and two end-cones that contain the hatch openings through which astronauts enter and exit the module. The ends are colored blue and white respectively for the crew to navigate easily. A -diameter window is located on one side of the center module segment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735869",
"title": "Multi-Purpose Logistics Module",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "A Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) was a large pressurized container used on Space Shuttle missions to transfer cargo to and from the International Space Station (ISS). Two MPLMs made a dozen trips in the Shuttle cargo bay and initially berthed to the \"Unity\" module and later the \"Harmony\" module on the ISS. From there, supplies were offloaded, and finished experiments and waste were reloaded. The MPLM was then reberthed in the Shuttle for return to Earth. Three modules were built by the Italian Space Agency (ASI): \"Leonardo\", \"Raffaello\", and \"Donatello\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "938456",
"title": "Interim Control Module",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The Interim Control Module (ICM) is a NASA-constructed module designed to serve as a temporary \"tug\" for the International Space Station in case the Zvezda service module was destroyed or not launched for an extended period of time. It was derived from a formerly-classified Titan Launch Dispenser used to distribute reconnaissance satellites to different orbits. It would have been able to prolong the lifespan of the Zarya module by providing equivalent propulsion capabilities to the Service Module, although not any of the other life support capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29838000",
"title": "Space Shuttle retirement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Hardware developed for the Space Shuttle met various ends with conclusion of the program, including donation, disuse and/or disposal, or reuse. An example of reuse, is that one of the three Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) was converted to a permanent module for the International Space Station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1780366",
"title": "Space manufacturing",
"section": "Section::::History.:ISS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The completion of the International Space Station has provided expanded and improved facilities for performing industrial research. These have and will continue to lead to improvements in our knowledge of materials sciences, new manufacturing techniques on Earth, and potentially some important discoveries in space manufacturing methods. NASA and Tethers Unlimited will test the Refabricator aboard the ISS, which is intended to recycle plastic for use in space additive manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60562746",
"title": "Manufacturing of the International Space Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The project to create the International Space Station required the utilization and/or construction of new and existing manufacturing facilities around the world, mostly in the United States and Europe. The agencies overseeing the manufacturing involved NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency, JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency. Hundreds of contractors working for the five space agencies were assigned the task of fabricating the modules, trusses, experiments and other hardware elements for the station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "557234",
"title": "STS-101",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "STS-101 delivered supplies to the International Space Station, hauled up using a Spacehab double module and an Integrated Cargo Carrier pallet. The crew performed a spacewalk and then reboosted the station from to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8czmky
|
how are the red blood cells separated from your blood during platelet donation?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you want to separate something like blood that's made of water and different types of cells, you put it in a *centrifuge*, which is a machine that simply spins a hollow drum with test tubes in it ***really, really*** fast. As you spin the drum, the red stuff is forced to the bottom of the tube since it's heaviest, then you have the “buffy coat” on top of that, which has platelets and protein bits, and the top layer is the plasma.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I donate plasma on a regular basis but not platelets, it's similar in how they do it, my experience is based on The Australian Red Cross Blood Service. \n\nWhat they'll do is hook you up to a centrifuge that will draw out about 1/3-1/4 of the amount needed in whole blood, spin that blood around to seperate out the plasma/platelets, siphon that off into the donation bag (through a scanner to make sure there isn't any whole blood going through) and then put the leftover red blood cells back into you usually mixed with a saline soultion. There is usually a bit of chilling around the needle site during the feedback due to the saline but that's about the only discomfort over the standard blood donation.\n\nAlso it takes a fair bit longer than a standard donation, a normal donation can be bashed out in 10 minutes but a full plasma donation can take an hour and I assume platelet donation can take even longer",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "88857",
"title": "Blood transfusion",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Processing and testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Donated blood is usually subjected to processing after it is collected, to make it suitable for use in specific patient populations. Collected blood is then separated into blood components by centrifugation: red blood cells, plasma, platelets, albumin protein, clotting factor concentrates, cryoprecipitate, fibrinogen concentrate, and immunoglobulins (antibodies). Red cells, plasma and platelets can also be donated individually via a more complex process called apheresis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Recovery and time between donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. During whole blood donation, blood is drawn from the inner forearm venipuncture area from the right or left arm. The blood goes to the main collection bag located on the shaker which is next to the donor bed and this bag holds one pint of whole blood. After collection the blood bag along with three tubes of blood for testing and typing is sent to the laboratory. Here, the blood bag is separated into its different component parts in a centrifuge process (red cells, platelets, and plasma).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494752",
"title": "Plateletpheresis",
"section": "Section::::Platelet collection.:Leukoreduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Due to their higher relative density, white blood cells are collected as an unwanted component with the platelets. Since it takes up to 3 liters of whole blood (the amount of a dozen blood bags) to generate a dose of platelets, white blood cells from one or several donors will also be collected along with the platelets. A 70 kg (154 lb) man has only about 6 liters of blood. If all of the incidentally collected white blood cells are transfused with the platelets, substantial rejection problems can occur. Therefore, it is standard practice to filter out white blood cells before transfusion by the process of leukoreduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67158",
"title": "Red blood cell",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Separation and blood doping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Red blood cells can be obtained from whole blood by centrifugation, which separates the cells from the blood plasma in a process known as blood fractionation. Packed red blood cells, which are made in this way from whole blood with the plasma removed, are used in transfusion medicine. During plasma donation, the red blood cells are pumped back into the body right away and only the plasma is collected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Obtaining the blood.:Apheresis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "During a platelet donation, the blood is drawn from the patient and the platelets are separated from the other blood components. The remainder of the blood, red blood cells, plasma, and white blood cells are returned to the patient. This process is completed several times for a period of two hours to collect a single donation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196121",
"title": "Platelet",
"section": "Section::::Therapy with platelets.:Transfusion.:Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 1428,
"text": "Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10445054",
"title": "Packed red blood cells",
"section": "Section::::Collection, processing, and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Most frequently, whole blood is collected from a blood donation and is spun in a centrifuge. The red blood cells are denser and settle to the bottom, and the majority of the liquid blood plasma remains on the top. The plasma is separated and the red blood cells are kept with a minimal amount of fluid. Generally, an additive solution of citrate, dextrose, and adenine is mixed with the cells to keep them alive during storage. This process is sometimes done as automated apheresis, where the centrifuging and mixing take place at the donation site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hwvmp
|
why are things cheaper in the countryside?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's not necessarily true. Plenty of things are more expensive in the countryside because there's a lack of infrastructure. High-speed internet, for example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "MUCH cheaper land. Other things may be less expensive (like fruit and meat if you're in a farming area), and some things may be more expensive (like electricity, internet access, and utilities). However, anything you're buying locally has to have a store, and for most stores, rent and property taxes is one of their largest expenses. Rent and property taxes are FAR lower in the country than in the city. This means less overhead and so stores can charge less and still profit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a radio ad where I grew up that said \"Eggs are cheaper in the country and so are the cars!\" I don't know if most things are actually cheaper in the country due to supply/demand but here are some reasons it might be true:\n\n1. Lower rent. Renting or buying a space to sell stuff is going to be cheaper outside of a thriving metro area. Less overhead=lower costs.\n\n2. Lower taxes. State sales tax is going to be the same but you won't have \"economic development zone\" taxes, city taxes, or other fees.\n\n3. Eggs and produce are usually better quality AND cheaper in the country if you're buying them right from a farm. No transport costs, very low advertising fees (a single yard sign!), no need for staff at a farm stand, etc, all contribute to that.\n\n4. There's more room for a warehouse or lots of storage in the country. Maybe places can offer a volume discount.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think this depends on what you are trying to buy.\n\nFor example in London rent is much higher than in the countryssde. But this is because supply has been limited by planning laws, and demand far outstrips this because of the number of people trying to move here. This makes London rents higher than most places in the UK where supply and demand are far more in line.\n\nYou get similiar examples for other goods where supply is limited. For example pub prices; not only are these places paying a higher rent due to point a which increases their prices, but due to alcohol license restrictrions there are a lot of pubs, especially in the main working areas on weekdays, that are full no matter what as there aren't enough pubs for the number of people who work here and want to drink.\n\nConversely you look at items like clothes, DVDs, computer games etc... and they are generally cheaper. I can walk down Oxford Street and multiple places will be having sales as while demand is higher the amount of competition is huge. There are just so many shops that people can go to instead and with a detour of only a couple of minutes. Where as back in my hometown there would only have been half a dozen clothes shops each of which had a smaller selection, and if you wanted a bigger choice it would be an hour drive away. Therefore they could charge higher prices as the savings you make by traveling elsewhere you lose in petrol costs and the value of your time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54672179",
"title": "Food deserts by country",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.:Implications.:Affordability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Smaller communities have fewer choices in food retailers. Resident small grocers struggle to be profitable partly due to low sales numbers, which make it difficult to meet wholesale food suppliers' minimum purchasing requirements. The lack of competition and sales volume can result in higher food costs. For example, in New Mexico the same basket of groceries that cost rural residents $85, cost urban residents only $55. However, this is not true for all rural areas. A study in Iowa showed that grocers in four rural counties had lower costs on key foods that make up a nutritionally balanced diet than did larger supermarkets outside these food deserts (greater than 20 miles away).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324008",
"title": "Local purchasing",
"section": "Section::::Alternative viewpoints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Additionally, organic local food tends to be more costly so this is not an appealing option to consumers who are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more expensive to ship food from outside sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2392838",
"title": "Quilalí",
"section": "Section::::Community Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Goods are also more costly here than in other parts of the country. The town is isolated from its economically prosperous neighbors by rough terrain including mountains and rivers that swell to overtake the highway during rainy season, making transportation of goods to the town costly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3077903",
"title": "Tiebout model",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Towns typically finance their public goods instead through a property tax that is levied in proportion to the value of homes. The problem that this property taxation causes is that the poor chase the rich. Richer people pay a larger share of the public goods bill than do poorer people, so people who value those goods would like to live in a community with people richer than they are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751387",
"title": "Malnutrition in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Income inequality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "This is because while wealthy urban residents have access to better education and food, their rural, chronically poor counterparts are less educated, have lower literacy levels, and have limited food access. In 1997, 900,000 households that were located in formal reserves had no arable land access, 1.4 million had no access to any livestock besides chickens, and 770,000 households had access to neither arable land or other livestock. Unfortunately, many of the rural households that did have access to livestock had to sell the livestock in order to alleviate poverty. All this results in a severe shortage of food among the rural poor, thereby leading to a shortage of nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2270878",
"title": "Small-scale agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Economic efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "There are many economic advantages in farming on a small-scale land. Local farmers generate a local economy in their rural communities. An American study showed that small farms with incomes of $100,000 or less spend almost 95 percent of their farm-related expenses within their local communities. The same study took in comparison the fact that farms with incomes greater than $900,000 spend less than 20 percent of their farm-related expenses in the local economy. Thus, small-scale agriculture supports local economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8365028",
"title": "Bid rent theory",
"section": "Section::::Bid rent theory in the central business district.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "As one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can afford the reduced costs (compared with those in the inner and outer core), they can purchase land here. The farther from the inner core, the cheaper the land. This is why inner-city areas are very densely populated (with, e.g., terraces, flats, and high rises), while suburbs and rural areas are more sparsely populated (with semi-detached and detached houses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zmtlx
|
Accessible Viking Primary Sources
|
[
{
"answer": "There are several possibilities; many translated sources are available [here](_URL_0_). Unfortunately, it does not include famous hagiographic reports (such as the Frankish *Life of St. Philibert*), which often make for the most vivid descriptions (more vivid, at least, than the dry annalistic style of St-Bertin or the ASC). For an introduction to the problems we have with the source material, any description of over-the-top violence by horrified churchmen can do (Alcuin's letter about Lindisfarne is a classic, but it is also kind of boring). For more original choices, you may be interested by Abbasid sources (esp. [Ahmad ibn Fadlan](_URL_1_)); since they describe events in “eastern Europe,” they give a good sense of how far-reaching Viking incursions were, and are probably our best primary description of the relation between commerce and war.\n\n/e sorry, I overlooked the idea of a “Viking perspective”. In this case /u/Mediaevumed summarizes nicely the most exploitable sources we have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the problem with the \"from the Viking's perspective\" part is that they were pre-literate during much if what we call the \"Viking Age\" (c.800-c. 1050). All of the sources from this time period are thus written by Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Arabs, etc. The sagas and later stuff are all pretty far removed from the period of most activity. \n\nFor documents from this period, you can check out [Viking Sources in Translation](_URL_0_) for an online source-book.\n\nThere are a few documents which may be especially useful to you:\n\nThe [Account of Ohthere and Wulfstan](_URL_1_) is an interesting source. It comes from an Anglo-Saxon translation of Orosius' *Historiae Adversus Paganos* but the Anglo-Saxion \"author\" added two brief accounts by two Norse captains about their voyages. They are short and they are probably the closest we have to an actual first person account.\n\nThe [Vita Anskarii](_URL_3_) is a saint's life of the so-called Apostle to the North, Anskar, written shortly after his death by his pupil Rimbert. It is super Christian and long and boring for the most part But there are a few interesting tidbits in there about life in Scandinavia. See esp. chapters 10, 19, 27, and 30. Anyway a quick skim might locate some stuff for your students.\n\nThe [Rök Stone](_URL_2_) is an *actual* viking \"document\" and you might be able with a bit of searching to find more rune stone transcriptions online.\n\nIn terms of sagas and later work someone else can hopefully answer that, as they fall outside of my time period and I don't have them immediately off my head. I'll think a bit more and see if I can find/think of anything useful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I cant find it online I'm afraid, but *The Viking Age: A Reader*, by Andrew McDonald and Angus A. Somerville is an excellent collection that comprises several of the sources mentioned elsewhere in this thread, depictions of runestones and short saga extracts, organised thematically. [Its on google books](_URL_0_), though the preview function dosent appear to be working for me, but it's definetly the best viking primary source collection I know of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12039693",
"title": "Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib",
"section": "Section::::Political purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Modern scholars consider \"Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib\" to be a piece of \"brilliant propaganda\" written in a \"bombastic style and full of patriotic hyperbole.\" Although the chronicle remains a valuable source of information about the Viking Age in Ireland, its accuracy is uncertain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32538",
"title": "Viking Age",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Information about the Viking Age is drawn largely from what was written about the Vikings by their enemies, and primary sources of archaeology, supplemented with secondary sources such as the Icelandic Sagas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10710167",
"title": "Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The text is one of the most important sources of Northern German and Scandinavian history and geography in the Viking Age and the beginning High Middle Ages. It covers the relations between Saxons, Wends (West Slavs) and Danes (Vikings). The third book is focused on the biography of archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2290253",
"title": "The Vikings (reenactment)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "\"The Vikings\" is a British-based society of re-enactors, dedicated to the study and re-enactment of the culture of the Viking Age (790–1066) and the display of authentic Dark Ages living history and combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23914271",
"title": "Arise Volume 3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Arise: From Ginnungagap to Ragnarök – The History of the Vikings Volume III is a concept album by German metal band Rebellion and is the last part of the Viking History Trilogy. This album tells the history of the Norse Gods and Norse religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "A variety of sources illuminate the culture, activities, and beliefs of the Vikings. Although they were generally a non-literate culture that produced no literary legacy, they had an alphabet and described themselves and their world on runestones. Most contemporary literary and written sources on the Vikings come from other cultures that were in contact with them. Since the mid-20th century, archaeological findings have built a more complete and balanced picture of the lives of the Vikings. The archaeological record is particularly rich and varied, providing knowledge of their rural and urban settlement, crafts and production, ships and military equipment, trading networks, as well as their pagan and Christian religious artefacts and practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Post-medieval perceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Until recently, the history of the Viking Age was largely based on Icelandic sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian \"Primary Chronicle\", and \"Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib\". Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources, as historians now rely more on archaeology and numismatics, disciplines that have made valuable contributions toward understanding the period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vk1f6
|
can the shape of earbuds damage your ears/hearing.
|
[
{
"answer": "It could if you decide to jam something that does not fit into your ear. Imagine a ten centimeter diameter hole in piece of paper, now imagine trying to fit a 20cm diameter rod through that same hole, it's going to rip the hole if forced through. TLDR: one size does not fit all and its up to the user to realise this and act on it accordingly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Type.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Dysfunction of the three small bones of the middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes – may cause conductive hearing loss. The mobility of the ossicles may be impaired for different reasons including a boney disorder of the ossicles called otosclerosis and disruption of the ossicular chain due to trauma, infection or ankylosis may also cause hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29806995",
"title": "Auditory fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Affected anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In general, structural damages to any anatomical part of the human ear can cause hearing-related problems. Usually, minor bending of the stereocilia of the inner ear is associated with temporary hearing loss and is involved in auditory fatigue. Complete loss of the stereocilia causes permanent hearing damage and is more associated with noise-induced hearing loss and other auditory diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206877",
"title": "Anotia",
"section": "Section::::Ear development.:Defects of the ear: anotia/microtia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Defects affecting the external ear such as the auricle results from malformation or suppression of the auricular hillocks, which are small swellings on the embryonic visceral arches or the beginnings of the external ears; the small swellings are derived from the first and second pharyngeal arches. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Physical trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "There can be damage either to the ear, whether the external or middle ear, to the cochlea, or to the brain centers that process the aural information conveyed by the ears. Damage to the middle ear may include fracture and discontinuity of the ossicular chain. Damage to the inner ear (cochlea) may be caused by temporal bone fracture. People who sustain head injury are especially vulnerable to hearing loss or tinnitus, either temporary or permanent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8593615",
"title": "Townes–Brocks syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- Abnormalities of the external ears (unusually large or small, unusually shaped, sometimes with sensorineural hearing loss or deafness due to lesions or dysfunctions of part of the internal ear or its nerve tracts and centers or conductive hearing loss from the external or middle ear), dysplastic ears, lop ear (over-folded ear helix), preauricular tags or pits (a rudimentary tag of ear tissue typically located just in front of the ear).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125767",
"title": "Treacher Collins syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The external ear is sometimes small, rotated, malformed, or absent entirely in people with TCS. Symmetric, bilateral narrowing or absence of the external ear canals is also described. In most cases, the bones of the middle ear and the middle ear cavity are misshapen. Inner ear malformations are rarely described. As a result of these abnormalities, a majority of the individuals with TCS have conductive hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Type.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Conductive hearing loss is present when the sound is not reaching the inner ear, the cochlea. This can be due to external ear canal malformation, dysfunction of the eardrum or malfunction of the bones of the middle ear. The eardrum may show defects from small to total resulting in hearing loss of different degree. Scar tissue after ear infections may also make the eardrum dysfunction as well as when it is retracted and adherent to the medial part of the middle ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2792js
|
Why do our mouths fill with saliva right before we vomit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Saliva protects the teeth from the stomach acid.\n\n[Here's a study](_URL_0_) that compared bulimics with teeth erosion to bulimics without. The no-erosion group had different saliva.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To protect your teeth from stomach acid, which essentially turns your enamel into gum. This is also why you shouldn't brush your teeth directly after, and not at all if you don't have fluoride mouthwash to use prior to brushing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42193218",
"title": "Human digestive system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Saliva contains digestive enzymes called amylase, and lingual lipase, secreted by the salivary glands and serous glands on the tongue. The enzymes start to break down the food in the mouth. Chewing, in which the food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach. In the stomach the gastric phase of digestion takes place. The food is further broken down by mixing with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum, in the third intestinal phase of digestion, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and the teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16946852",
"title": "Rabies",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Fear of water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Saliva production is greatly increased, and attempts to drink, or even the intention or suggestion of drinking, may cause excruciatingly painful spasms of the muscles in the throat and larynx. This can be attributed to the fact that the virus multiplies and assimilates in the salivary glands of the infected animal with the effect of further transmission through biting. The ability to transmit the virus would decrease significantly if the infected individual could swallow saliva and water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19159857",
"title": "Remineralisation of teeth",
"section": "Section::::Natural Tooth Remineralisation.:Role of saliva.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Saliva, the watery substance that constantly circulates the oral cavity, is capable of impacting both the remineralisation and demineralisation processes. It is secreted through the major salivary glands including the parotid, submandibular, sublingual and Von Ebner's glands as well as the hundreds of minor salivary glands that are located throughout the oral cavity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204420",
"title": "Saliva",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Lubricant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Saliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204420",
"title": "Saliva",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food bolus. The lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the oesophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207336",
"title": "Salivary gland",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46687712",
"title": "Salivary duct stricture",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Saliva stagnates and forms a mucus plug behind the stricture during sleep when the salivary output of the parotid is reduced. Then, when salivary secretion is stimulated, the mucus plug becomes stuck in the stricture. The backlog of saliva behind the blockage causes the swelling, and the increased pressure inside the gland causes the pain. When the mucus plug is dislodged, the built up saliva is released and the swelling subsides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ern70
|
why do i still need the disk for ps3 games after it's 'installed'?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it's not the entire game being installed. \n\nSome games have a pre-install to store information on your PS3 so loading times in-game will be kept to a minimum. If they were installing the entire game to your PS3's hard drive then you would run out of space after the first game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't installed, really: the most commonly used parts are copied (like the game engine, or the graphics) and the rest isn't. This is to speed up loading times, as a HDD loads *much* faster than a bluray- and while it would be possible to put the whole game on the harddrive, it would be incredibly inefficient as you'd need to delete and install whenever you want to play more than ~10 games.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627189",
"title": "Linux for PlayStation 2",
"section": "Section::::Capabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "The Linux Kit turns the PlayStation 2 into a full-fledged computer system, but it does not allow for use of the DVD-ROM drive except to read PS1 and PS2 discs due to piracy concerns by Sony. Although the HDD included with the Linux Kit is not compatible with PlayStation 2 games, reformatting the HDD with the utility disc provided with the retail HDD enables use with PlayStation 2 games but erases PS2 Linux, though there is a driver that allows PS2 Linux to operate once copied onto the APA partition created by the utility disc. The Network Adaptor included with the kit only supports Ethernet; a driver is available to enable modem support if the retail Network Adaptor (which includes a built-in V.90 modem) is used. The kit supports display on RGB monitors (with sync-on-green) using a VGA cable provided with the Linux Kit, or television sets with the normal cable included with the PlayStation 2 unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18934755",
"title": "Video game console emulator",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:ROM hacking and modification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "Disk image loading is a necessity for most console emulators, as most computing devices do not have the hardware required to run older console games directly from the physical game media itself. Even with optical media system emulators such as the PlayStation and PlayStation 2, attempting to run games from the actual disc may cause problems such as hangs and malfunction as PC optical drives are not designed to spin discs the way those consoles do. This, however, has led to the advantage of it being far easier to modify the actual game's files contained within the game ROMs. Amateur programmers and gaming enthusiasts have produced translations of foreign games, rewritten dialogue within a game, applied fixes to bugs that were present in the original game, as well as updating old sports games with modern rosters. It is even possible to use high-resolution texture pack upgrades for 3-D games if available and possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627189",
"title": "Linux for PlayStation 2",
"section": "Section::::Unofficial support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Through this method it has become possible to use custom Linux distros and other UNIX-like operating systems compiled for the PlayStation 2 and this has enabled users to use more compatible Linux kernels with smaller footprints and programs specially designed for the console. These methods often require the use of PS2 exploits such as Free MCBoot which allows the end user to boot from the PlayStation 2 memory card and launch custom made homebrew applications packaged as ELF files and other exploits such as SwapMagic etc. however these tend to void the warranty as some require the opening of the PlayStation 2 console itself. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "801076",
"title": "PlayStation 2 Expansion Bay",
"section": "Section::::Hard disk drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Unofficial software called HD Loader (later also HD Advance and Open Playstation Loader) allow users to copy entire games to the HDD and run them without the discs. They also allow using some standard consumer hard drives in the PS2, however they will not be compatible with software that is expecting the standard PS2 hard drive. This software combined with a hard drive allows one to play games without using the original disc. This is desirable as it protects the fragile and perhaps rare game discs from harm, in some cases it may improve performance. However, the practice is not without controversy. HDLoader bypasses the usual copy protection mechanisms built into the console, allowing for piracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10526392",
"title": "Shin Onigashima",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The game also utilizes the Disk System's feature of being able to exchange game discs while the device is powered on. The game is divided into two discs, and the player must exchange disks while the Disk System is still powered on in order to activate the second disc (note: Disc 2 is not playable without the first). This format was also used in the game's sequel \"Yūyūki\" and the \"\" series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24951",
"title": "PlayStation 3",
"section": "Section::::Software.:System software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The original PlayStation 3 also included the ability to install other operating systems, such as Linux. This was not included in the newer slim models and was removed from all older PlayStation 3 consoles with the release of firmware update 3.21 in April 2010. The functionality is now only available to users of original consoles who choose not to update their system software beyond version 3.15 or who have installed third-party, modified and unofficial versions of the firmware instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23964",
"title": "PlayStation (console)",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Copy protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Prior to the PlayStation, reproducing copyrighted material for game consoles was restricted to either enthusiasts with exceptional technical ability, or people who had access to CD manufacturers. However, due to the increased availability of cheap CD burners at this time, Sony modified the shape of the first portion of the data track on PlayStation formatted discs: A normal data track follows a smooth spiral path around a disc, whereas the modified portion follows a wavy spiral path. As a result, any discs that did not contain this modification, such as CD-R copies or standard pirated discs, would not boot on the console. This modified portion of the data path is also used to encode the disc \"region\"; for example, a disc distributed in the NTSC-U/C region would encode the letters \"SCEA\"; in Europe, \"SCEE\"; in Japan, \"SCEI\". This served as copy protection as well as region-locking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54ampq
|
if a "double-yolk" egg was fertilized, would it, hypothetically, hatch 2 chiclets? what about a triple-yolk?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on if there was a bird embryo on each yolk. The babby chicken is the little white (or red) goopy wisp thing you see on the yolk. The yolk is just the chick's food supply.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "455653",
"title": "Craniopagus parasiticus",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "In normal monozygotic twin development, one egg is fertilized by a single sperm. The egg will then completely split into two, normally at the two-cell stage. If the egg splits in the early blastocyst stage, two inner cell masses will be present, eventually leading to the twins sharing the same chorion and placenta, but with separate amnions. However, the egg can split into two, but still have one blastocyst. This will lead to one inner cell mass and one blastocyst. Then, as the twins develop, they will share the same placenta, chorion, and amnion. This is thought to be the most likely reason why conjoined twins occur, and could possibly play a role in the development of craniopagus parasiticus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46828",
"title": "Fertilisation",
"section": "Section::::Fertilisation in plants.:Flowering plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Double fertilisation is the process in angiosperms (flowering plants) in which two sperm from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in a female gametophyte (sometimes called an embryo sac) that is inside an ovule. After the pollen tube enters the gametophyte, the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates and the two sperm cells are released; one of the two sperm cells \"fertilises\" the egg cell (at the bottom of the gametophyte near the micropyle), forming a diploid (2n) zygote. This is the point when fertilisation actually occurs; pollination and fertilisation are two separate processes. The nucleus of the other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei (contained in the central cell) in the centre of the gametophyte. The resulting cell is triploid (3n). This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue, inside the seed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58581955",
"title": "Morphokinetics IVF",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "After the egg is fertilized by the sperm, a zygote (single diploid cell) is formed. At this stage, it should have two pronuclei, one of each derived from the egg and the sperm cell respectively and two tiny cells called polar bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3607962",
"title": "Polar body",
"section": "Section::::Twinning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Twinning would occur, in principle, if the egg cell and a polar body were both fertilized by separate sperms. However, even if fertilization occurs, further development would usually not occur because the zygote formed by the fusion of the sperm and polar body would not have enough cytoplasm or stored nutrients to feed the developing embryo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12276398",
"title": "Human embryonic development",
"section": "Section::::Germinal stage.:Fertilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Fertilization takes place when the spermatozoon has successfully entered the ovum and the two sets of genetic material carried by the gametes fuse together, resulting in the zygote (a single diploid cell). This usually takes place in the ampulla of one of the fallopian tubes. The zygote contains the combined genetic material carried by both the male and female gametes which consists of the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the ovum and the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the sperm. The 46 chromosomes undergo changes prior to the mitotic division which leads to the formation of the embryo having two cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472293",
"title": "Yolk",
"section": "Section::::Chicken egg yolk.:Double-yolk eggs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Double-yolk eggs occur when ovulation occurs too rapidly, or when one yolk becomes joined with another yolk. These eggs may be the result of a young hen's reproductive cycle not yet being synchronized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14579043",
"title": "Megaspore mother cell",
"section": "Section::::Developmental processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "In flowering plants, double fertilization occurs, which involves two sperm fertilizing the two gametes inside the megagametophyte (the egg cell and the central cell) to produce the embryo and the endosperm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gn8p5
|
can dogs understand other dogs when they bark?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dogs don't bark in a language like how you speak English. Languages are an invention which must be taught to our children and requires constant care and revision to be mutually intelligible. Dog barks are extremely simple vocalizations. Though it is probable that dogs have a better idea of why another dog is barking than your average human, that doesn't mean that there's any content for the dog to \"understand\". Dogs don't bark to communicate with each other in sentences, they are merely vocalizations that are indicative of aroused emotional states. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2407884",
"title": "Human–animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.:Dogs communicating to humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Stanley Coren identifies 56 signals which untrained dogs make and people can understand, including 10 barks, 5 growls, 8 other vocalizations, 11 tail signals, 5 ear and eye positions, 5 mouth signals and 12 body positions. Faragó et al. describe research that humans can accurately categorize barks from unseen dogs as aggressive, playful, or stressed, even if they do not own a dog. This recognizability has led to machine learning algorithms to categorize barks, and commercial products and apps such as BowLingual, TalkWithYourDog, and TalkDog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1758357",
"title": "Bark (sound)",
"section": "Section::::As nuisance.:Bark control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "BULLET::::3. In her book Barking: The Sound of a Language, Turid Rugaas explains that barking is a way a dog communicates. She suggests signalling back to show the dog that the dog's attempts to communicate have been acknowledge and to calm a dog down. She suggests the use of a hand signal and a Calming Signal called Splitting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "Section::::Auditory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "By the age of four weeks, the dog has developed the majority of its vocalizations. The dog is the most vocal canid and is unique in its tendency to bark in a myriad of situations. Barking appears to have little more communication functions than excitement, fighting, the presence of a human, or simply because other dogs are barking. Subtler signs such as discreet bodily and facial movements, body odors, whines, yelps, and growls are the main sources of actual communication. The majority of these subtle communication techniques are employed at a close proximity to another, but for long-range communication only barking and howling are employed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464447",
"title": "Animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Human behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Dogs have shown an ability to understand human communication. In object choice tasks, dogs utilize human communicative gestures such as pointing and direction of gaze in order to locate hidden food and toys. It has also been shown that dogs exhibit a left gaze bias when looking at human faces, indicating that they are capable of reading human emotions. Dogs do not make use of direction of gaze or exhibit left gaze bias with other dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4269567",
"title": "Dog",
"section": "Section::::Roles with humans.:As pets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445359",
"title": "Australian Cattle Dog",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "While an Australian Cattle Dog generally works silently, it will bark in alarm or to attract attention. It has a distinctive intense, high-pitched bark. Barking can be a sign of boredom or frustration, although research has shown that pet dogs increase their vocalisation when raised in a noisy environment. It responds well to familiar dogs, but when multiple dogs are present, establishing a pecking order can trigger aggression. It is not a breed that lives in a pack with other dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Dog communication is the transfer of information between dogs, as well as between dogs and humans. Behaviors associated with dog communication are categorized into visual and vocal. Visual communication includes mouth shape and head position, licking and sniffing, ear and tail positioning, eye gaze, facial expression, and body posture. Dog vocalizations, or auditory communication, can include barks, growls, howls, whines and whimpers, screams, pants and sighs. Dogs also communicate via gustatory communication, utilizing scent and pheromones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fyy27
|
what was the purpose of the holocaust? why did hitler want to kill millions of people, and how did he select the ethnic/minority groups?
|
[
{
"answer": "He saw the \"Aryan\" race as superior, which was essentially Caucasian and strictly not Jewish. He wanted to wipe out all \"undesirables\". This didn't entail Jews alone. He sought to wipe out Roma and Sinti people, homosexuals, political enemies such as communists, and only wanted chosen individuals within the Aryan race to breed. Someone could probably add more to the minorities he sought to wipe out.\n\nEdit: Also consider that Anti-Semitism was prominent long before Nazi-Germany, so it wasn't exactly difficult for him to persuade the masses into following the regime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. _URL_1_\n\n2. _URL_0_\n\n > The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. \"Holocaust\" is a word of Greek origin meaning \"sacrifice by fire.\" The Nazis, who came to power in Germany in January 1933, believed that Germans were \"racially superior\" and that the Jews, deemed \"inferior,\" were an alien threat to the so-called German racial community.\n\n > During the era of the Holocaust, German authorities also targeted other groups because of their perceived \"racial inferiority\": Roma (Gypsies), the disabled, and some of the Slavic peoples (Poles, Russians, and others). Other groups were persecuted on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds, among them Communists, Socialists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hitler was always anti-semitic, the holocaust was just a result of Hitler furthering his own agenda by convincing the german people that the depression Germany had been experiencing was the fault of the Jews.\n\nThe holocaust then expanded to other minority groups as Hitler was trying to weed out the \"undesirables\" in order to start forming his Arian master race.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6426881",
"title": "Holocaust victims",
"section": "Section::::Ethnic criteria.:Jews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The military campaign to remove certain classes of persons (above all, Jews) from Germany and other German-held territories during World War II, often with extreme brutality, is known as the Holocaust. It was carried out primarily by German forces and collaborators, German and non-German. Early in the war, millions of Jews were concentrated in urban ghettos. In 1941, Jews were , and by December, Hitler had decided to exterminate all Jews living in Europe at that time. The European Jewish population was reduced from 9,740,000 to 3,642,000; the world's Jewish population was reduced by one-third, from roughly 16.6 million in 1939 to about 11 million in 1946. The extermination of Jews had been a priority to the Nazis, regardless of the consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48640148",
"title": "Effects of genocide on youth",
"section": "Section::::Holocaust, Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The Holocaust began in 1933 prior to World War II in Germany when the Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler's rule attempted to wipe out the \"inferior\" people of the country. This primarily included people of the Jewish culture, but also included Gypsies, the disabled, some Slavic people, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals. By the end of the Holocaust in 1945, more than 6 million Jewish people had been killed. Of these 6 million that had been killed, 1.5 million were children between ages zero and eighteen. By killing off many Jewish children, the Nazi regime hoped to exterminate the core and root of the Jewish culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21736",
"title": "Nazi Party",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "To protect the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, Poles and most other Slavs, along with the physically and mentally handicapped. They disenfranchised and segregated homosexuals, Africans, Jehovah's Witnesses and political opponents. The persecution reached its climax when the party-controlled German state set in motion the Final Solution–an industrial system of genocide which achieved the murder of an estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews and millions of other targeted victims, in what has become known as the Holocaust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11075690",
"title": "Responsibility for the Holocaust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The primary responsibility for the Holocaust rests on Hitler, and the Nazi Party leadership, but initiatives to persecute Jews, Gypsies, and others were also perpetrated by the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS), the German military, ordinary German citizens as well as by collaborationist members of various European governments, including their military personnel and civilians alike. A host of factors contributed to the environment under which atrocities were committed across the continent, ranging from general racism (including antisemitism), religious hatred, blind obedience, political opportunism, coercion, profiteering, and xenophobia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61098",
"title": "Ethnic cleansing",
"section": "Section::::Instances.:Germany, 1933–1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Recognized as one of the most extreme cases of ethnic cleansing in history, the Holocaust was the Nazi regime's mass murder of about 6 million Jews during World War II. Accomplished in stages, the Holocaust began with legislation to remove Jews from German society before World War II. Concentration and extermination camps were then created to incarcerate and execute the millions of Jews who were living in Germany and most of them were either shot, killed in gas chambers, or worked to death. Killing approximately 90 percent of the Jews who were living in Poland and 87 percent of the Jews who were living in Germany and Austria, the Nazi regime's motives, the horrific ways in which its victims were executed, and the number of ethnic Jews who were murdered make the Holocaust one of the clearest and least disputed cases of ethnic cleansing in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6426881",
"title": "Holocaust victims",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Holocaust victims were people who were targeted by the government of Nazi Germany for various discriminatory practices due to their ethnicity, religion, political beliefs, or sexual orientation. These institutionalized practices came to be called The Holocaust, and they began with legalized social discrimination against specific groups, and involuntary hospitalization, euthanasia, and forced sterilization of those considered physically or mentally unfit for society. These practices escalated during World War II to include non-judicial incarceration, confiscation of property, forced labor, sexual slavery, medical experimentation, and death through overwork, undernourishment, and execution through a variety of methods, with the genocide of different groups as the primary goal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2731583",
"title": "Adolf Hitler",
"section": "Section::::The Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The Holocaust and Germany's war in the East were based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that \"Lebensraum\" was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The \"Generalplan Ost\" (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or \"Germanised\" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cr3vj
|
Why can a rocket fly straight up without wings and doesn't tip over?
|
[
{
"answer": "Large commercial rockets are actively steered. Either the engines are 'gimbaled' (the angle is adjusted) constantly, or small sideways-pointed rockets are fired as needed, to push the rocket where the computer is programmed to send it.\n\nSmaller rockets without adjustable engines or controls normally cause the rocket to spin as it flies, so any off-angle forces are canceled out. Doing this without fins is tricky, which is why smaller rockets generally do have fins.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "465569",
"title": "Stall turn",
"section": "Section::::Flying technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Another problem in this maneuver is that higher lift from the faster moving outside wing will roll the airplane to the left (or to the right). Most pilots find holding forward right (or left) stick necessary throughout the pivot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2690065",
"title": "Pendulum rocket fallacy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "If the engine kept pushing the nose straight up even as the rest of the rocket swung like a pendulum under it, the rocket would have a possibility to get pulled straight and be stable. However, the engines are fixed to the rest of the rocket, so when the rocket tilts, the engine won't apply an upward, stabilising force, but simply push forward in whatever direction the rocket happens to be pointing, not steering it one way or the other at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63501",
"title": "Paragliding",
"section": "Section::::Flying.:Launching.:Forward launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "It is often easier, because the pilot only has to run forward, but the pilot cannot see his wing until it is above him, where he has to check it in a very short time for correct inflation and untangled lines before the launch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758034",
"title": "Water rocket",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Landing systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Stabilizing fins cause the rocket to fly nose-first which will give significantly higher speed, but they will also cause it to fall with a significantly higher velocity than it would if it tumbled to the ground, and this may damage the rocket or whomever or whatever it strikes upon landing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6038985",
"title": "Crosswind landing",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Forward slip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Airplane approaches the runway in steady sideslip, maintains the sideslip during flare and touch down. Sideslip is maintained by lowering the wing into the wind and applying opposite rudder just enough to prevent the heading from changing. The longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the runway centerline. Though, it is a sideslip but airplane actually doesn't slip in the direction of lower wing because of the crosswind pushing the airplane back on the desired track. This technique is not recommended by Airbus because the bank angle required to fly the steady sideslip is large and places the airplane close to the geometry and roll/rudder limits. Excessive bank angle close to the ground may lead to wing/engine scraping the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888928",
"title": "Spatial disorientation",
"section": "Section::::Non-visible horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Anyone in an aircraft that is making a coordinated turn, no matter how steep, will have little or no sensation of being tilted in the air unless the horizon is visible. Similarly, it is possible to gradually climb or descend without a noticeable change in pressure against the seat. In some aircraft, it is possible to execute a loop without pulling negative G so that, without visual reference, the pilot could be upside down without being aware of it. This is because a gradual change in any direction of movement may not be strong enough to activate the fluid in the vestibular system, so the pilot may not realize that the aircraft is accelerating, decelerating, or banking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18028093",
"title": "Wing configuration",
"section": "Section::::Wing planform.:Wing sweep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are described below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ozons
|
Were the German bunkers on Omaha beach much further from the shire than popularly dramatised in thr film Saving Private Ryan?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the historical 'inaccuracies' about Saving Private Ryan is that the film does shorten the beach considerably. Omaha Beach has a very shallow slope and the distance between the low tide and high tide marks can be as much as 400-500m. The landings were timed to start at low tide in order that the various beach obstacles would be exposed. This would both allow the obstacles to be avoided and for the engineers to blow them in order to clear lanes for the follow on waves.\n\nHowever this meant that the assault waves had a considerable amount of open beach to cross before reaching even the limited cover of the shingle line just above the high tide mark. The German gunner Heinrich Severloh notes that after the troops left their boats he had to wait a while for them to reach the 400m mark which was his range for opening fire. The film fails here by showing German gunners firing down on US troops emerging from boats at what seems to be just 100-200m away. In reality the firing angle would have been much shallower.\n\nVery few, if any, US troops attempted to fight from the open beach. To do so was suicide. Instead they re-grouped and began reducing the defenses from the shingle and rocks at the bottom of the bluffs. In this respect the film does a decent job of showing how the fight went. The bunkers themselves were very close to the high water mark.\n\nPrimary source : Joe Balkoski, *Omaha Beach*\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9468514",
"title": "Aarøsund",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Midway between the old harbour and the camping ground an old German bunker, constructed around the time of World War I, appears on the beach. During World War I, it formed part of \"Sicherungsstellung Nord\", a German line of 900 bunkers spanning the region of Sønderjylland, constructed to halt an eventual English invasion via the coast of Jutland. In the local dialect, Sønderjysk, the bunker is called \"Æ Unnestan\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1139725",
"title": "38th (Welsh) Infantry Division",
"section": "Section::::First World War.:Ypres Salient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Where concrete bunkers were encountered, the troops worked their way around them, cutting the German troops off and forcing them to surrender. Despite their resistance, the German second line was captured without delay. Half of the 13th and 14th Welsh, along with the 15th RWF, then pushed towards Iron Cross Ridge. German troops holding Rudolphe Farm, in the area allocated to the 51st (Highland) Division which had not yet advanced as far, were able to fire into the flanks of the advancing troops. A platoon from 15th Welsh was diverted and assaulted the farm, capturing 15 men and killing or scattering the rest, securing the flank of the advance. The 14th Welsh then rushed Iron Cross Ridge and engaged in hand-to-hand combat to seize the position, before pushing on to capture a dressing station. Their charge had resulted in heavy losses, but yielded 78 prisoners and three machine guns. The 15th RWF had fallen behind the protective creeping barrage to their front and came under fire from a German position known as Battery Copse. Despite many losses, they pushed forward and were able to secure their portion of Iron Cross Ridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "332718",
"title": "Siegfried Line",
"section": "Section::::Westwall construction programmes.:Limes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Its Type 10 bunkers were more strongly constructed than the earlier border fortifications. These had thick ceilings and walls. A total of 3,471 were built along the entire length of the Siegfried Line. They featured a central room or shelter for 10-12 men with a stepped embrasure facing backwards and a combat section higher. This elevated section had embrasures at the front and sides for machine guns. More embrasures were provided for riflemen, and the entire structure was constructed so as to be safe against poison gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56721949",
"title": "Explosion at Prüm",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "When the Siegfried Line (in German the \"Westwall\") was built in 1939, a standby bunker was constructed for the Wehrmacht inside the Kalvarienberg. The underground bunker was located 20 to 30 metres below the top of the hill and consisted of a 100-metre-long and a 60-metre-long tunnel. After the Second World War, French troops dumped 500 tons of ammunition there, which was supposed to be used to blow up the fortifications of the Siegfried Line. The population of Prüm knew about this storage and was concerned about it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42319116",
"title": "Vendsyssel Historical Museum",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bunker Museum Hirtshals: The shorelines around the city of Hirtshals was part of the German Atlantic Wall defence during World War II. The museum presents the only excavated complete WWII bunker system in Denmark and holds 54 bunkers and many artillery nests between radar and lighting facilities spread out over a 3.5 km long strip of shoreline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "121205",
"title": "Wassenaar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "On one of the main routes to the \"Wassenaarseslag\", the main beach for \"Wassenaarders\", a World War II bunker can be found. For safety reasons and the instability of the structure, it was sealed off to prevent entrance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811273",
"title": "2nd Canadian Division",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second World War.:Operation Jubilee (1942).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "On 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, forces of the 2nd Division landed on four beaches. The easternmost, Blue Beach, which was situated at the foot of a sheer cliff, presented the most difficulties; the Royal Regiment of Canada, with a company of the Black Watch, was held at bay by two platoons of German defenders. Only six percent of the men that landed on Blue Beach returned to Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
213q4l
|
how does an automated check-out tell the difference between the different notes (eg: £5, £10, £20) and different coins? how does it tell these from regular paper (notes) or items of a similar shape/weight (coins)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Notes have different sizes and color(atleast euros, not sure about other currencies) probably also special markings. \nCoins are weighted, their size and shape is checked and they are tested for their electric properties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nNotes are scanned and matched up to images stored in the software, which also checks for some security features. If you produce a sufficiently good fake, it will be accepted, but it would be easier to pass it to a human.\n\nCoins fall into slots which are the correct sizes. The slots have valves which only open if the coin is the correct weight. For example see _URL_1_ Some coins are magnetic and this is also tested. Any object which doesn't fall into a valid slot will come out into the reject tray.\n\nCoins are made of specific proportions of metals and it is hard to make something which is the same size and weight, unless you use the same materials. Therefore the main way to obtain something that would be accepted as a coin would be another coin from a different country, as there are only so many possible sizes and shapes. This is why the Thai 10-baht used to be accepted as 2-euros in Eurozone vending machines until the owners started realising they were getting scammed, then they upgraded their machines to tell these coins apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12236304",
"title": "Banknote counter",
"section": "Section::::Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Electronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses a LC display with a back light so that the total amount of the notes is shown brightly and is easy to see.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2011",
"title": "Comparison of American and British English",
"section": "Section::::Numerical expressions.:Monetary amounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "In order to make explicit the amount in words on a check (BrE cheque), Americans write \"three and \" (using this solidus construction or with a horizontal division line): they do not need to write the word \"dollars\" as it is usually already printed on the check. On a cheque UK residents would write \"three pounds and 24 pence\", \"three pounds ‒ 24\", or \"three pounds ‒ 24p\" since the currency unit is not preprinted. To make unauthorized amendment difficult, it is useful to have an expression terminator even when a whole number of dollars/pounds is in use: thus, Americans would write \"three and \" or \"three and \" on a three-dollar check (so that it cannot easily be changed to, for example, \"three million\"), and UK residents would write \"three pounds only\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1356597",
"title": "Costa Rican colón",
"section": "Section::::Banknotes.:Banco Central, 1950–.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Whenever a banknote of a specific denomination is changed (design, security features, colour, etc.), a new series is released. Every banknote issued by this bank measures approximately 6.6 cm x 15.5 cm. Every note also has the serial and series numbers printed in red ink. Exceptions occurred with:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40651",
"title": "Scale (music)",
"section": "Section::::Note names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In naming the notes of a scale, it is customary that each scale degree be assigned its own letter name: for example, the A major scale is written A–B–C–D–E–F–G rather than A–B–D–D–E–E–G. However, it is impossible to do this in scales that contain more than seven notes, at least in the English-language nomenclature system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11796533",
"title": "Bank of England note issues",
"section": "Section::::Current banknotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "There are currently four different denominations of notes – £5, £10, £20 and £50. Each value has its own distinct colour scheme and the size of each note increases in length and width as the value increases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40651",
"title": "Scale (music)",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Scales, steps, and intervals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the first degree of the scale. For example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to each other: C and E create an interval of a third (in this case a major third); D and F also create a third (in this case a minor third).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273279",
"title": "Debits and credits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 2274,
"text": "In double entry bookkeeping, debits and credits (abbreviated Dr and Cr, respectively) are entries made in account ledgers to record changes in value resulting from business transactions. Generally speaking (in T-Account terms), if cash is spent in a business transaction, the cash account is \"credited\" (that is, an entry is made on the right side of the T-Account's ledger), and conversely, when cash is obtained in a business transaction, it is described as a \"debit\" (that is, an entry is made on the left side of the T-Account's ledger). Debits and Credits can occur in any account. For simplicity it is often best to view Debits as positive numbers and Credits as negative numbers. When all the debits and credits that are transacted in each account are added up the resulting account total could be a net Debit (positive number) or a net Credit (negative number). If the total of the account is in a net Debit position (positive), it is generally classified in the Asset section of the balance sheet, whereas accounts that total to a net Credit (negative) are shown in the liability section of the balance sheet. Accounts that relate to the company's profit (example: Sales, Cost of Sales, Expenses) are totaled to yield company earnings and are classified in the Equity section of the balance sheet. When recording incoming cash (revenue) a Debit will be made to Cash or equivalent Assets and a Credit will be made on the revenue account in the income statement. If a company has a positive Net Income, the Retained Earnings will receive a Credit when closing out the Income Statement for the year, while a Net Loss will result in a Debit to the Retained Earnings. A net Credit (negative) balance in Retained Earnings in the Equity Section demonstrates that the company has been profitable over time, whereas a Debit (positive) balance in the Equity section, would demonstrate that the company has been unprofitable. In most companies the following accounts end-up in Credit positions: accounts payable, share capital, loans payable; while Debit accounts typically include Equipment, Inventory, Accounts Receivable. Debits (positive numbers) must equal Credits (negatives) in each transaction; individual transactions may require multiple debit and credit \"entries\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qr2xm
|
Has any other ancient civilization/Empire other than from India come up with the Philosophy of Nonviolence?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, sort of. In Java we have this guy, [Surontiko Samin](_URL_0_), who in early 1900s created non-violent traditionalist movement that was against Dutch colonialism and \"fought\" by refusing to pay tax and refusing to acknowledge the Dutch East Indies government, especially Dutch forest laws, which deprived traditional community of their livelihood that depended on teak forest.\n\nTheir beliefs are sort of mix of Ludditism, proto-Socialism, non-violent anti-tax resistance and mysticism. They survived to present day, and they mildly annoyed the Indonesian government because they still refuse to pay tax and acknowledge government even after the Dutchs were overthrown in 1940s.\n\nMore on this: \n\n* [In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History](_URL_2_)\n* [Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gandhi's own belief in non-violence was strongly influenced by Leo Tolstoy's, expressed in his book *The Kingdom of God is Within You*, whose pacifism is credited to his religious views as a Christian. Tolstoy wrote in *A Confession, The Gospels in Brief, and What I Believe*:\n > The passage which served me as key to the whole was Matthew, v. 38, 39: \"Ye have heard that it was said, An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto you, Resist not him that is evil\" ... These words suddenly appeared to me as something quite new, as if I had never read them before. Previously when reading that passage I had always, by some strange blindness, omitted the words, \"But I say unto you, Resist not him that is evil\", just as if those words had not been there, or as if they had no definite meaning.\n > Subsequently, in my talks with many and many Christians familiar with the Gospels, I often had occasion to note the same blindness as to those words. No one remembered them, and often when speaking about that passage Christians referred to the Gospels to verify the fact that the words were really there. '\n\nGandhi was quite receptive to Tolstoy's book, and praised it by writing:\n > Tolstoy's *The Kingdom of God is Within You* overwhelmed me. It left an abiding impression on me. Before the independent thinking, profound morality, and the truthfulness of this book, all the books given me by Mr. Coates seemed to pale into insignificant\n\nPacifist philosophy did exist as a movement within Christianity, with Tolstoy being its most famous advocate. Pacifism was also present in pre-Buddhist Chinese philosophy, but someone more knowledgeable on that topic will have to elaborate on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "310169",
"title": "Indian philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Political philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights, especially those led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577035",
"title": "Nondualism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The Asian idea of nondualism is developed in the Vedic and post-Vedic Hindu philosophies, as well as in the Buddhist traditions. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian thought are found in the earlier Hindu Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, as well as other pre-Buddhist Upanishads such as the Chandogya Upanishad, which emphasizes the unity of individual soul called Atman and the Supreme called Brahman. In Hinduism, nondualism has more commonly become associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Adi Shankara.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4495698",
"title": "Vyasatirtha",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The philosophy of Dvaita or Tattvavada was an obscure movement within Vedanta in medieval India. Philosophically, its tenets stood in direct opposition to Advaita in that its progenitor, Madhva, postulated that the self (Atman) and god (Brahman) are distinct and that the world is real. As Advaita was the prevailing sub-sect of Vedanta at the time, the works of Madhva and his followers came under significant attack and ridicule. Madhva deployed his disciples to promulgate the philosophy across the country, which led to the establishment of a small and diffuse network of \"mathas\", or centres of worship, across the subcontinent. The early years of Dvaita were spent spreading its basic tenets including participating in debates with the Advaita scholars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46006",
"title": "Freedom of religion",
"section": "Section::::History.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304–232 BC) (Ashoka). One of King Ashoka's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society. Later he promoted the principles of Buddhism, and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577035",
"title": "Nondualism",
"section": "Section::::Hinduism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The Hindu concept of \"Advaita\" refers to the idea that all of the universe is one essential reality, and that all facets and aspects of the universe is ultimately an expression or appearance of that one reality. According to Dasgupta and Mohanta, non-dualism developed in various strands of Indian thought, both Vedic and Buddhist, from the Upanishadic period onward. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian thought may be found in the Chandogya Upanishad, which pre-dates the earliest Buddhism. Pre-sectarian Buddhism may also have been responding to the teachings of the Chandogya Upanishad, rejecting some of its Atman-Brahman related metaphysics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577035",
"title": "Nondualism",
"section": "Section::::Hinduism.:Contemporary vernacular Advaita.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "\"Advaita\" is also part of other Indian traditions, which are less strongly, or not all, organised in monastic and institutional organisations. Although often called \"Advaita Vedanta,\" these traditions have their origins in vernacular movements and \"householder\" traditions, and have close ties to the Nath, Nayanars and Sant Mat traditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Religious culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Indian-origin religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all of which are based on the concept of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, a philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi who through civil disobedience brought India together against the British Raj and this philosophy further inspired Martin Luther King, Jr. during the American civil rights movement. Foreign-origin religion, including Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present in India, as well as Zoroastrianism and Bahá'í Faith both escaping persecution by Islam have also found shelter in India over the centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n4w62
|
Why is the ethnic majority of China referred to as "Han Chinese"?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're right in thinking that the Han was a dynasty of China. It lasted from 206BCE to 220CE, and was an incredibly important dynasty in Chinese history in terms of scientific, cultural and political developments. Think of it as the Classical Chinese period.\n\nThe reason that we talk about 'Han Chinese' is because of the Han Dynasty's prominence in international and so people began to call themselves '漢人' (hànrén), 'The People of Han'.\n\nSome groups of Southern Han peoples use a different phrase however, '唐人' (tángcháo) which means 'People of Tan' in reference to the later Tan Dynasty (618-907CE) which was another very important Dynasty.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31745121",
"title": "When China Rules the World",
"section": "Section::::Key arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "11 - 92% of the Chinese believe that they are of one race, the Han Chinese, unlike the other most populous nations such as India, the United States, Brazil, Indonesia and Turkey which recognize themselves to be highly multi-racial and multi-cultural\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372983",
"title": "Chinese people",
"section": "Section::::Ancestry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Han Chinese people, the largest ethnic group in China, are often referred to as \"Chinese\" or \"ethnic Chinese\" in English. The ethnic Chinese also form a majority or notable minority in other countries, and may comprise as much as 19% of the global human population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55063",
"title": "China proper",
"section": "Section::::Extent.:Ethnic perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Ethnic Han Chinese is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han Chinese ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in Chinese, but do not identify as Han Chinese. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156154",
"title": "Chinese culture",
"section": "Section::::Identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In modern China, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups. Throughout Chinese history, many non-Chinese ethnic groups have assimilated with the Han Chinese, retained their distinct ethnic identities, or faded away. At the same time, the Han Chinese majority has maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions throughout the ages. The term Zhonghua Minzu () has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181690",
"title": "Names of China",
"section": "Section::::Sinitic names.:Han.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "During the Qing dynasty, the Manchu rulers also used the name Han to distinguish the local Chinese from the Manchus. After the fall of the Qing government, the Han became the name of a nationality within China. Today the term \"Han Persons\", often rendered in English as Han Chinese, is used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the most populous of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups of China. The \"Han Chinese\" are simply referred to as \"Chinese\" by some.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61184950",
"title": "Civilization state",
"section": "Section::::China.:Continental size: unity in diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Even with its diversity, over 90% of the Chinese population think of themselves as being part of the Han ethnicity, a huge unifying coverall term when in reality the Han are an amalgamation of multiple ethnicities. This also differs from how Brazil and the US think of themselves as multi-ethnic nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372983",
"title": "Chinese people",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Chinese people are the various individuals or ethnic groups associated with China, usually through ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship or other affiliation. Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in China, at about 92% of the population, are often referred to as \"Chinese\" or \"ethnic Chinese\" in English, however there are dozens of other related and unrelated ethnic groups in China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
suj3b
|
Hi Reddit! How fast can the effects of gravity be felt? I don't really know how to word this, check out the text for further description.
|
[
{
"answer": "In a vacuum, it's the same as the speed of light. We wouldn't spin off into space until we saw the sun go out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravitational waves would travel at the speed of light, so we'd move normally for about eight minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24882771",
"title": "Professor Heinz Wolff's Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Critical response for Professor Heinz Wolff's Gravity has generally been lukewarm, receiving an overall score of 63 on Metacritic. The website IGN awarded it 59 out of 100, citing it had potential to be a sleeper hit, but was too light on content for the price tag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2686401",
"title": "Aerospace physiology",
"section": "Section::::g-forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The effects for negative g-force can be more dangerous producing hyperemia and also psychotic episodes. In space, G forces are almost zero, which is called microgravity, meaning that the person is floating in the interior of the vessel. This happens because the gravity acts on the spaceship and in the body equally, both are pulled with the same forces of acceleration and also in the same direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Manned spaceflight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "It is not yet known whether exposure to high gravity for short periods of time is as beneficial to health as continuous exposure to normal gravity. It is also not known how effective low levels of gravity would be at countering the adverse effects on health of weightlessness. Artificial gravity at 0.1\"g\" and a rotating spacecraft period of 30 s would require a radius of only . Likewise, at a radius of 10 m, a period of just over 6 s would be required to produce standard gravity (at the hips; gravity would be 11% higher at the feet), while 4.5 s would produce 2\"g\". If brief exposure to high gravity can negate the harmful effects of weightlessness, then a small centrifuge could be used as an exercise area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Gravitational time dilation is at play e.g. for ISS astronauts. While the astronauts' relative velocity slows down their time, the reduced gravitational influence at their location speeds it up, although at a lesser degree. Also, a climber's time is theoretically passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust. \"A clock used to time a full rotation of the earth will measure the day to be approximately an extra 10 ns/day longer for every km of altitude above the reference geoid.\" Travel to regions of space where extreme gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as near a black hole, could yield time-shifting results analogous to those of near-lightspeed space travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45525978",
"title": "Gravity Hurts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "\"Gravity Hurts\" is a song by Danish rock band Cryoshell featuring the Budapest Art Orchestra, released as the lead single from their upcoming sophomore studio album \"Next to Machines\" on January 12, 2018. Written by Mikkel Maltha, the single was recorded in 2017 and produced by Jacob Hansen. It is a symphonic pop song – the second remake of \"Gravity Hurts\" since its original alternative rock variant was released in 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514028",
"title": "Hafele–Keating experiment",
"section": "Section::::Similar experiments with atomic clocks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Measurements in which the only effect was gravitational have been conducted by Iijima et al. between 1975 and 1977. They carried a commercial cesium clock back and forth from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan in Mitaka, at above sea level, to Norikura corona station, at above sea level, corresponding to an altitude difference of . During the times when the clock stayed at Mitaka, it was compared with another cesium clock. The measured change in rate was (29±1.5)×10, consistent with the result of 30.7×10 predicted by general relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548862",
"title": "Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Lift-off and ascent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The net result is a relatively smooth and constant (then gradually decreasing) gravitational pull due to acceleration, coupled with a diminishing aerodynamic friction as the upper atmosphere is reached and surpassed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16saun
|
Does covering your mouth when you sneeze/cough actually help prevent the spread of disease?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes it does; [while not the best scientific source, a good visual representation](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. The majority of bacteria and virus' which cause infection cannot live on the sleeve of your shirt. They desiccate if they do not find suitable conditions(hosts respiratory, GI, whatever route they infect). When you do not cover a sneeze or cough those particles become airborne and act as aerosols in some cases. They are able to infect people as being airborne allows direct access to any respiratory tract unfortunate enough to breathe them in. They spread through the air and are so light they can travel surprisingly far. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "302755",
"title": "Acute bronchitis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing and flu vaccination may also be protective. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use and is not recommended in children less than six years of age. Salbutamol is not effective in children with an acute cough who do not have restricted airways. There is weak evidence that salbutamol may be useful in adults with wheezing due to a restricted airway; however, it may result in nervousness, shakiness or a tremor. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7038",
"title": "Candidiasis",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Oral hygiene can help prevent oral candidiasis when people have a weakened immune system. For people undergoing cancer treatment, chlorhexidine mouthwash can prevent or reduce thrush. People who use inhaled corticosteroids can reduce the risk of developing oral candidiasis by rinsing the mouth with water or mouthwash after using the inhaler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4176408",
"title": "Photic sneeze reflex",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Symptomatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "In adults short term use of nasal decongestants may have a small benefit. Antihistamines may improve symptoms in the first day or two; however, there is no longer-term benefit and they have adverse effects such as drowsiness. Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine appear effective in adults. Combined oral analgesics, antihistaminics and decongestants are generally effective for older children and adults. Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose but has little effect on stuffiness. The safety and effectiveness of nasal decongestant use in children is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58859",
"title": "Allergen",
"section": "Section::::Fungal allergens.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "In the case of nasal symptoms, antihistamines are normally the first option. They may be taken together with pseudoephedrine to help relieve a stuffy nose and they can stop the itching and sneezing. Some over-the-counter options are Benadryl and Tavist. However, these antihistamines may cause extreme drowsiness, therefore, people are advised to not operate heavy machinery or drive while taking this kind of medication. Other side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, difficulty with urination, confusion, and light-headedness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "412753",
"title": "Allergic rhinitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Antihistamines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "It is best to take oral antihistamine medication before exposure, especially for seasonal allergic rhinitis. In the case of nasal antihistamines like azelastine antihistamine nasal spray, relief from symptoms is experienced within 15 minutes allowing for a more immediate 'as-needed' approach to dosage. There is not enough evidence of antihistamine efficacy as an add-on therapy with nasal steroids in the management of intermittent or persistent allergic rhinitis in children, so its adverse effects and additional costs must be considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232411",
"title": "Sneeze",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "While generally harmless in healthy individuals, sneezes spread disease through the infectious aerosol droplets, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 5 µm. A sneeze can produce 40,000 droplets. To reduce the possibility of thus spreading disease (such as the flu), one holds the forearm or the inside of the elbow in front of one's mouth and nose when sneezing. Using one's hand for that purpose has recently fallen into disuse as it is considered inappropriate, since it promotes spreading germs through human contact (such as handshaking) or by commonly touched objects (most notably doorknobs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bc6iso
|
Why did we have to send a probe to Pluto to get a photo of it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The photo of the black hole is not a \"photo\" in the sense you are thinking. It is a visualization of very high-frequency radio waves. While these are still electromagnetic waves just like visible light, they are way outside of our visible range. This is necessary to \"penetrate\" through all of the super-heated matter that surrounds the black hole. In the visible spectrum, all we would see is a big ball of light ([_URL_0_](_URL_0_)).\n\nPluto does not emit radio waves on the scale of a supermassive black hole (if at all), so we cannot get a similar image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New Horizon's images had a better resolution than the Event Horizon Telescope would have, even if Pluto would emit enough radio waves to get an image that way. In addition it was not limited to radio waves.\n\nWe had images of Pluto before. [They looked like this](_URL_1_). New Horizon made [this](_URL_0_) - get the high resolution image and zoom in!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all a question of resolution. To get a good image of a very small object, you need to be able to resolve it. But the nature of light means that there's a practical limit to how small you can resolve for a given sized telescope.\n\nRadio waves have longer wavelengths than visible light. This normally means that you get better resolution in visible than radio from a telescope of the same size. But, you can build bigger radio telescopes than you can visible light telescopes - because the longer wavelength of radio means you don't need to be quite as accurate with the shape of the telescope mirror or reflector to get a good image.\n\nAnd it turns out that you don't need the entire mirror there to get the resolution benefits of a bigger mirror. You can even link together telescopes in different places on Earth and combine the light together to make an Earth sized telescope, vastly improving the resolution.\n\nHowever, these Earth-sized telescope arrays are extremely difficult to put together in visible light, since you need to get the positions accurate to a few nanometers, but in radio waves, you only need to get them accurate to millimeters or centimeters. Plus then you've got to deal with the unsteadiness of the atmosphere making it even more difficult in optical.\n\nThe M87 black hole was \"imaged\" with a large radio array which would have a better resolution than a single optical telescope. By sending a probe to Pluto, you increase the apparent size of the object meaning that you can resolve smaller features. This gets around the limitations of light when trying to observe from Earth. Plus it's a bit impractical to try and send a probe to M87!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23140545",
"title": "Mordor",
"section": "Section::::Allusions in other works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In July 2015 NASA published photographs taken as the New Horizons space probe passed within 7000 miles of Pluto. A photo of Pluto's largest moon, Charon, shows a large dark area near its north pole. The dark area has been unofficially called Mordor Macula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390905",
"title": "New Horizons",
"section": "Section::::Journey to Pluto.:Pluto approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "On February 12, 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken from January 25 to 31) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. The exposure time was too short to see Pluto's smaller, much fainter, moons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::\"New Horizons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Photographs of Pluto taken on 14 July 2015 taken 15 minutes after \"New Horizon\" closest approach, from a distance of 18,000 kilometers and sent to Earth on 13 September 2015 show a near-sunset on Pluto with details of the surface and a haze in the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390905",
"title": "New Horizons",
"section": "Section::::Journey to Pluto.:Inner Solar System.:First Pluto sighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The first images of Pluto from \"New Horizons\" were acquired September 21–24, 2006, during a test of LORRI. They were released on November 28, 2006. The images, taken from a distance of approximately , confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::\"New Horizons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "On 4 February 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken on 25 and 27 January) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. On 20 March 2015, NASA invited the general public to suggest names for surface features that will be discovered on Pluto and Charon. On 15 April 2015, Pluto was imaged showing a possible polar cap. Between April and June 2015, \"New Horizons\" began returning images of Pluto that exceeded the quality that the Hubble Space Telescope could produce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390905",
"title": "New Horizons",
"section": "Section::::Mission extension.:Kuiper belt object mission.:Target background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "Mission planners searched for one or more additional Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) of the order of in diameter as targets for flybys similar to the spacecraft's Plutonian encounter. However, despite the large population of KBOs, many factors limited the number of possible targets. Because the flight path was determined by the Pluto flyby, and the probe only had 33 kilograms of hydrazine propellant remaining, the object to be visited needed to be within a cone of less than a degree's width extending from Pluto. The target also needed to be within 55AU, because beyond 55AU, the communications link will become too weak, and the RTG power output will have decayed significantly enough to hinder observations. Desirable KBOs would be well over in diameter, neutral in color (to contrast with the reddish Pluto), and, if possible, have a moon that imparts a wobble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390905",
"title": "New Horizons",
"section": "Section::::Journey to Pluto.:Outer Solar System.:Observations of Pluto and Charon 2013–14.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "Images from July 1 to 3, 2013, by LORRI were the first by the probe to resolve Pluto and Charon as separate objects. On July 14, 2014, mission controllers performed a sixth trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM) since its launch to enable the craft to reach Pluto. Between July 19–24, 2014, \"New Horizons\" LORRI snapped 12 images of Charon revolving around Pluto, covering almost one full rotation at distances ranging from about . In August 2014, astronomers made high-precision measurements of Pluto's location and orbit around the Sun using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) to help NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft accurately home in on Pluto. On December 6, 2014, mission controllers sent a signal for the craft to \"wake up\" from its final Pluto-approach hibernation and begin regular operations. The craft's response that it was \"awake\" arrived to Earth on December 7, 2014, at 02:30 UTC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bxjnj8
|
how do programs like ccleaner clean the windows registry?
|
[
{
"answer": "Registry cleaners are pretty much useless these days, as Windows is pretty good about keeping the registry clean itself. Regardless, cleaning the registry doesn't really result in much of a performance impact.\n\nOne of the big things that registry cleaning does is remove entries that refer to files/folders that no longer exist. Poor software uninstallers do not remove all of the programs registry entries, that's the biggest contributor to unnecessary registry data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36390214",
"title": "Dconf",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Most Windows applications still store their user settings in individual .ini (initialization) files spread across the disk. They additionally use the Windows Registry to store information which might be of interest for other software. For such programs the Windows Registry acts rather as a bulletin board, than as a user settings system. When such an application is removed (uninstalled), it is also rather the default than the exception, that its registry entries are not being purged and remain in the database. The Windows Registry is rather extensive and with time becomes more and more bloated. Without the user knowing exactly what to look for, a simple search can be compared to finding the \"needle in a haystack.\" Therefore, with regards to purpose and volume, dconf cannot be compared to the Windows Registry. In fact the only commonality between dconf and the Windows Registry is the usage of a database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "984882",
"title": "Windows NT 3.1",
"section": "Section::::Platform.:System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The Windows registry, introduced with Windows NT 3.1, is a central, hierarchical configuration database designed to allow configuration of computers over the network and to replace the commonly-used text-based configuration files, like INI files, AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS. Using the undocumented registry editor, the Windows registry can be viewed and edited by the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33941",
"title": "Windows 2000",
"section": "Section::::New and updated features.:System utilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Windows 2000 comes with two utilities to edit the Windows registry, \"REGEDIT.EXE\" and \"REGEDT32.EXE\". REGEDIT has been directly ported from Windows 98, and therefore does not support editing registry permissions. REGEDT32 has the older multiple document interface (MDI) and can edit registry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT's REGEDT32 program could. REGEDIT has a left-side tree view of the Windows registry, lists all loaded hives and represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32 has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys and it represents values as a list of strings. REGEDIT supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32 requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. Windows XP is the first system to integrate these two programs into a single utility, adopting the REGEDIT behavior with the additional NT features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164933",
"title": "Windows Registry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Windows Registry is a hierarchical database that stores low-level settings for the Microsoft Windows operating system and for applications that opt to use the registry. The kernel, device drivers, services, Security Accounts Manager, and user interface can all use the registry. The registry also allows access to counters for profiling system performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16575118",
"title": "Windows Search",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Windows Search supports IFilters, components that enable search programs to scan files for their contents and metadata. Once an appropriate IFilter has been installed for a particular file format, the IFilter is used to extract the text from files which were saved in that format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8302008",
"title": "Archive bit",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "The operating system never clears the archive bit unless explicitly told to do so by the user. Even when a user explicitly tells the operating system to copy a file for the purpose of archiving it, the archive bit will still not be cleared. A specific command for clearing or setting the bit must be executed. In MS-DOS as well as nearly all versions of Windows, the archive bit's status can be viewed or changed with the attrib command-line utility, or by viewing the properties of a file with the Windows shell or Windows Explorer. The archive bit's status can also be viewed or changed with the GetFileAttributes, GetFileAttributesEx, and SetFileAttributes Windows APIs. The archive bit can be set or cleared with the attributes property in VBScript or JScript.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20295077",
"title": "Desktop Cleanup Wizard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The Desktop Cleanup Wizard is a component included with Microsoft's Windows XP operating system. It aims to reduce the clutter in a user's desktop environment by moving unused shortcuts to a separate directory called \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\". When run it shows a list of shortcuts, and the user can select which shortcuts to move to the \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\" directory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57t84w
|
I've just read a very short article about Old French Sign Language. What we do know of deaf life, culture and community in 18th century Paris? How was deafness depicted in general in France in this period?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you have a link to the article?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1561553",
"title": "History of sign language",
"section": "Section::::Development of sign language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In France, the first sign languages developed in the 18th century. Old French Sign Language was used in Paris' deaf community, before l'Abbé Charles Michel de l'Épée started his deaf school in 1760 in Paris. L'Épée's lessons were based upon his observations of deaf people signing with hands in the streets of Paris. Synthesized with French grammar, it evolved into the French Sign Language. Laurent Clerc, a graduate and former teacher in Paris, went to the United States with Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet to found American School for the Deaf at Hartford.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1785645",
"title": "Old French Sign Language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Old French Sign Language is the language of the deaf community in 18th-century Paris at the time of the establishment of the first deaf schools. The earliest records of the language are in the work of the Abbé de l'Épée, who stumbled across two sisters communicating in signs and, through them, became aware of a signing community of 200 deaf Parisians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383308",
"title": "French Sign Language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "French Sign Language is frequently, though mistakenly, attributed to the work of Charles Michel de l'Épée (l'abbé de l'Épée). In fact, he is said to have discovered the already existing language by total accident; having ducked into a nearby house to escape the rain, he fell upon a pair of deaf twin sisters and was struck by the richness and complexity of the language that they used to communicate among themselves and the deaf Parisian community. The abbé set himself to learning the language, now known as Old French Sign Language, and eventually he established a free school for the deaf. At this school, he developed a system he called \"methodical signs\", to teach his students how to read and write. The abbé was eventually able to make public demonstrations (1771–1774) of his system, demonstrations that attracted educators and celebrities from all over the continent and that popularised the idea that the deaf could be educated, especially by gesture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47640",
"title": "British Sign Language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "In 1815, an American Protestant minister, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, travelled to Europe to research teaching of the deaf. He was rebuffed by both the Braidwood schools who refused to teach him their methods. Gallaudet then travelled to Paris and learned the educational methods of the French Royal Institution for the Deaf, a combination of Old French Sign Language and the signs developed by Abbé de l’Épée. As a consequence American Sign Language today has a 60% similarity to modern French Sign Language and is almost unintelligible to users of British Sign Language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1785645",
"title": "Old French Sign Language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "From the few descriptions that exist, modern linguists are unable to build up a complete picture of Old French Sign Language, but ongoing research continues to uncover more pieces of the puzzle. It is not known how the language was acquired or how long the language had been developing before Épée established his school. However, evidence suggests that whenever a large enough population of deaf people exists, a sign language will spontaneously arise (cf. Nicaraguan Sign Language). As Paris had been the largest city in France for hundreds of years (and with 565,000 inhabitants in 1750), French Sign Language is a good candidate for one of the oldest sign languages in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383308",
"title": "French Sign Language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "From this time French Sign Language flourished until the late 19th century when a schism developed between the manualist and oralist schools of thought. In 1880 the Milan International Congress of Teachers for the Deaf-Mute convened and decided that the oralist tradition would be preferred. In due time the use of sign language was treated as a barrier to learning to talk and thus forbidden from the classroom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2382221",
"title": "Pierre Desloges",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The Abbe de l’Épée has often been credited with the invention of sign language, but this is incorrect. Desloges' book proves that French Sign Language predates the establishment of the famous school for the Deaf in Paris and is truly the invention of deaf people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
osvsc
|
Someone told me it was "too cold to snow". How?
|
[
{
"answer": "The amount of moisture in the air is dependent upon its temperature, below a certain point there is too little moisture for precipitation.\n\nThere are various large stretches of the Antarctic that qualify as deserts because they have so little precipitation due to this principle. But -2 is certainly warm enough to snow.\n\nCan anyone put a name to this principle?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a big QI fan I remember this being a question on one show. The question was \"You know how it can sometimes be too cold to snow, yeah?\", and if someone said yes they would get a forfeit. Stephen Fry went on to explain that it can never be too cold to snow unless the temperature is \"absolute zero\", and then it's too cold for anything to happen. But he also mentioned that it is less likely to snow when there is little moisture.\n\nNot a big science-y answer but I hope it helps.\n\nEdit: found the [episode](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My expertise is in computers/electronics, but as a life-long resident of the Canadian Prairies, I feel qualified to weigh in.\n\n > Someone told me it was \"too cold to snow\". How?\n\nAs has been noted, there is no temperature that snow is impossible. But snow is formed from ice crystals that are bounced back and forth in the upper atmosphere, growing with condensation until eventually they fall. This process requires humidity (moisture suspended in the air). Those of you who have experienced extreme cold (-40°C/-40°F) will realize that the cold tends to freeze moisture out of the air, creating very dry conditions. When it gets that cold, I tend to run a humidifier in my house lest my skin start to crack and bleed. So obviously a lack of atmospheric moisture makes snow much less likely to form.\n\n > This was only at about -2°C\n\nI have vast experience to assure you that -2°C is plenty warm enough for snow. Snow here regularly occurs from -10°C to -15°C and colder. You need to be quite cold, below -20°C, before seeing snow become rare.\n\n > How then does the Earth have so much snowfall in extremely cold places?\n\nSome of those places are in areas that receive humidity from nearby sources, counteracting the moisture pulled from the atmosphere by cold temperatures. Those places will snow just fine. But there are many places covered with snow where precipitation of any kind is a rare event. But because that snow never melts, when it does fall, it never goes away. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Repentia did a good job of answering your first question. As for the second portion, places on Earth that are consistently cold (Mountains, Antarctica) often will not snow frequently because of the lack of air moisture. However, some moisture still exists, and fluctuations in temperature as well as precipitation from elsewhere can accumulate small amounts of snow overtime. Because these places are always cold, all the time, this snow stays put and accumulates over time at a very slow rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My mum uses this phrase and what she means is that there's no cloud cover. Clear skies = colder = no snow. Why she can't just say 'there's no clouds' is beyond even askscience I fear ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It *can* in fact be too cold to snow. Temperature does lower the atmosphere's ability to retain moisture but there are other variables to consider:\n\nFirst - The atmosphere has a vertical profile. The surface temperature does not reflect what the temperature might be at 10,000 Feet AGL. You can have warm humid air on a layer of cold/dry/dense air.\n\nSecond - Snow requires sufficient humidity, but it also requires sufficient warmth. Water that freezes at extremely low temperatures simply turns into small ice crystals (do not confuse with sleet, which is freeze-melt-freeze). A warm layer in the upper atmosphere adds that extra 'element' that allows denditric growth - Or allows snow to form 'branches'. \n\nThird - Nuclei such as particles in the atmosphere. This requirement is also needed for regular rain as well.\n\nAreas like Antarctica lack the warmth to form 'fluffy snow', so the snow/icepack there is much different than what one might see in New England. Snow in the interior is mostly 'crystals' with minimal dendritic growth. This snowfall is basically humid/warmer air that managed to penetrate the Continental airmass... A very rare occurrence.\n\nRight before it snows a significant amount, you can often feel a slight 'warming' which is tied to a rising humidity. The more drastic this change, the higher your 'snow ratio' tends to be. Snow ratio is basically the ratio of liquid water to 'snow'. Usually that ratio is 1 inch of liquid water to 10 inches of snow, though it can be much higher than that, especially in dynamic storm system. Nor'Easters are such 'dynamic systems' - They are essentially tropical humid airmasses that move up the coast and converge with cold dense air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a common misconception that it can be \"too cold to snow.\" While lower temperatures do lower the amount of moisture the atmosphere can hold, and thus make it snow or rain at lower humidity, it is still possible for precipitation to occur anywhere on the Earth given the correct circumstances (an influx of moisture). It is certainly true that it does not get \"too cold for snow\" anywhere people actually live, although, as has been mentioned in other comments, this is why areas of Antarctica receive very low precipitation and are considered deserts. However, the snowy, icy areas that we think of when we think Antarctica are not the desert areas. The desert areas actually look like rocky deserts with very little snow or ice except under the surface. They are actually used for practice Mars missions because they are so cold, so dry and so rocky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only time that I've heard it's \"Too cold\" for anything, is when there are no clouds.\n\nI explain: A high pressure system during the winter that brings in bitterly cold temperatures does not allow for the formation of clouds. So if it feels really cold and the sky is bright blue during the winter, when you walk outside it will be REALLY cold. And that's just old Montana country wisdom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42523368",
"title": "Badou Ndiaye",
"section": "Section::::Club career.:Bodø/Glimt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "After a successful trial with Norwegian club Bodø/Glimt he joined them on initially on loan in 2012. Having moved from Senegal to the Arctic Circle, Ndiaye admitted it was a culture shock.—\"When I got up on the first day and opened the front door I was terrified. I had never seen snow before, or at least only on TV. Gradually I learned not to care about the weather. If it’s cold, then it’s cold. I have received that attitude from my parents; it’s important to adapt.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31289501",
"title": "The Magpie (Monet)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "We have only seen him once. It was in the winter, during several days of snow, when communications were virtually at a standstill. It was cold enough to split stones. We noticed a foot-warmer, then an easel, then a man, swathed in three coats, his hands in gloves, his face half-frozen. It was M. Monet, studying a snow effect. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244878",
"title": "Winter storm",
"section": "Section::::Ice pellets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Out ahead of the passage of a warm front, falling snow may partially melt and refreeze into a frozen rain drop before it reaches the ground. These ice pellets are called \"sleet\" in most of the US. Because it is easily seen and does not accumulate ice, it is not as dangerous as freezing rain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35329778",
"title": "Cold wave of January 1977",
"section": "Section::::Meteorological history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "It was reported that people stopped their cars and emerged from their homes to see the snow in great numbers, many having never seen snow flurries in their lifetimes. That day the high only reached 47 °F (8 °C) in Miami. The associated cold air began to subside on January 21.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6657578",
"title": "Abbots Ripton rail accident",
"section": "Section::::Narrative.:The First Collision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "On the afternoon of 21 January, the Peterborough-Huntingdon area was experiencing a very bad snow storm; more than one witness at the Inquiry said they had never known worse: \"\"freezing blowing and snowing .. bad for seeing signals\"\". Crucially, the snow/sleet fell onto already cold ground and equipment, freezing on them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54503712",
"title": "Concerns and controversies at the 2018 Winter Olympics",
"section": "Section::::During the Games.:High winds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Many snow events were plagued by high winds, causing dangerous conditions. An opening ceremony took place in extreme cold with a wind chill temperature of -22°C and some visitors left early because of the harsh cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4331120",
"title": "Winter of 1886–1887",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The first snows fell earlier than usual, in November, and were reported as some of the worst in memory. Extreme cold killed humans and animals. Some people got lost near their houses and froze to death very near their front doors. The winter weather even reached the West Coast, with snowfall of 3.7 inches in downtown San Francisco setting an all-time record on February 5, 1887.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a1nb17
|
what keeps movies unreleased? what stops any movie studio employee from just downloading a movie that hasn’t come out and leaking it to the internet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because theft and distribution are crimes. People aren't keen on having their lives ruined to show off some movie.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As mentioned most people don't want to throw away their careers and personal finances to give away a free movie. But beyond that it simply isn't available to very many people. If a graphic artist is working on a shot they only have access to those files, they can't just download the whole movie because there is no reason they would need to be able to do that.\n\nThere are only a handful of people with full access to the entire movie and those are thoroughly vetted to be trustworthy. They are also quite highly paid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work in a TV studio. I worked on Arrested Development. I could have taken every episode a week before it aired and leaked it. I didn't because:\n\n1) I effing loved my job. The people were super cool, the work was fun, There is no way in goddamn hell I would jeopardize it for a bunch of yahoos on the internet. Not for anything. Y'all aren't important, and certainly not more than my job.\n\n2) I'm proud of my work. I want you to support it. That means watching it on TV and paying for movie tickets etc. I know many of you won't do that and I don't think piracy hurts our business, but you can imagine why I wouldn't want to aid people not supporting my shows. If you love our work so much you should watch it when it airs, it helps us stay on the air.\n\nSo forget about how easy it would be or the risk of getting fired. What's in it for me? Anonymous internet fame? It makes no sense.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5275733",
"title": "You can click, but you can't hide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55447",
"title": "Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith",
"section": "Section::::Releases.:Leaked workprint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "A copy of the film leaked onto peer-to-peer file sharing networks just hours after opening in theaters. The film was a time-stamped workprint, suggesting it may have come from within the industry rather than from someone who videotaped an advance screening. Eight people were later charged with copyright infringement and distributing material illegally. Documents filed by the Los Angeles District Attorney allege that a copy of the film was taken from an unnamed Californian post-production office by an employee, who later pleaded guilty to his charges. The illegal copy was passed among seven people until reaching an eighth party, who also pleaded guilty to uploading to an unnamed P2P network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41861349",
"title": "Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales",
"section": "Section::::Release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Shortly before release, \"Dead Men Tell No Tales\" was allegedly stolen by a group of piracy hackers, who demanded a large sum of money from Disney in order for them not to leak the unreleased film. The company refused to do so and worked with the FBI in order to uncover the identity of the group. Disney CEO Bob Iger reported that hackers did not steal their movie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45453032",
"title": "Sultan (2016 film)",
"section": "Section::::Piracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "On 6 July 2016, the film's digital copy was reported to be available in the darknet. Confirming that the copy was created from the sample sent by the producers to the CBFC board for review, cyber crime experts investigating the leak said, \"The leak is confirmed. The copy of the movie is available on the darknet and soon it will be available on torrent.\" However, Yash Raj Films, the film's producer, denied such development. Kislay Chaudhary, a private investigator, claimed that the links of the 2-hour-36-minute-long movie were available, and shared the screenshot of the same with Mail Today. \"Many websites have been blocked since Tuesday evening and links were removed immediately,\" he added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6697032",
"title": "Steal This Film",
"section": "Section::::Festivals, cinema and other screenings.:Online distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "\"Steal This Film (Part 2)\" was distributed in a similar manner, but with more trackers and indexes involved, including Isohunt and Mininova. Estimates of the total current downloads of the film hover at around the 6 million mark via bittorrent alone. Since the creators have not attempted to restrict copying, the film is also available on YouTube, Google Video and many other web-based video services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555636",
"title": "Workprint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "There are also director's cut versions of films that are only available on bootleg; for example, the workprint version of Richard Williams' \"The Thief and the Cobbler\". Although movie studios generally do not make full-length workprints readily available to the public, there are exceptions; examples include the \"Work-In-Progress\" version of \"Beauty and the Beast\", and the Denver/Dallas pre-release version of \"Blade Runner\". Deleted scenes or bonus footage included on DVD releases are sometimes left in workprint format as well, e.g. the \"Scrubs\" DVD extras. A workprint as source for a leaked television show is rather unusual, but it happened with the third season's first episode of \"Homeland\" a month before it aired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47737755",
"title": "Heneral Luna",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Unauthorized releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Upon learning that bootleg copies of the film were already circulating, the cast and crew of the film campaigned on social media to discourage potential viewers from buying or downloading unlicensed copies of the film, and were soon joined by fans posting image macroes and other such memes encouraging viewers to support the film instead of unauthorized copies. The Optical Media Board and the Philippine National Police made raids against the distribution of illegal DVD copies of the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
52ggy1
|
how is it that the mars curiosity rover is able to go years without fuel/recharging and how are we able to send such a strong signal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Curiosity, the MSL rover that was successfully landed in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012, uses one MMRTG to supply heat and electricity for its components and science instruments. Reliable power from the MMRTG will allow it to operate for several years.\nIn February 20, 2015, a NASA official reported that there is enough plutonium available to NASA to fuel three more MMRTG like the one used by the Curiosity rover. One is already committed to the Mars 2020 rover. The other two have not been assigned to any specific mission or program, and could be available by late 2021.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Communication between Earth and rovers is done using extremely high gain antennas on the ground. A high gain antenna is kind of like a telescope for radio waves -- they focus the radio waves in a direction. The higher the gain, the more focused it is. The gain of an antenna increases as you increase the size of the antenna. Another important thing about antennas is they have the same gain when transmitting and receiving, and this is how we can listen to the rover from such long distances as well. While the antenna on the rover itself is probably not very high gain or high power, the ones on the Earth can be built arbitrarily large and transmit with lots of power. \n\nBut even though we have these high gain antennas, the distances involved are still astronomical (literally!). This makes the data transfer very slow -- we communicate with a mars rover at data rates that are probably slower than a 56k modem, but that's still good enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "252908",
"title": "Mars Exploration Rover",
"section": "Section::::Rover design.:Power and electronic systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "When fully illuminated, the rover triplejunction solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol). The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two rechargeable lithium ion batteries weighing each, that provide energy when the sun is not shining, especially at night. Over time, the batteries will degrade and will not be able to recharge to full capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:November.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 694,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 694,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "BULLET::::- 25 November – NASA reports that the Curiosity rover on Mars has resumed full science operations, with no apparent loss of capability, after completing the diagnosis of an electrical problem first observed on 17 November. Apparently, an internal short in the rover's power source, the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, caused an unusual and intermittent decrease in a voltage indicator on the rover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "421049",
"title": "Spirit (rover)",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:2010.:Mars winter at Troy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "On January 26, 2010 (sol ), after several months attempting to free the rover, NASA decided to redefine the mobile robot mission by calling it a stationary research platform. Efforts were directed in preparing a more suitable orientation of the platform in relation to the Sun in an attempt to allow a more efficient recharge of the platform's batteries. This was needed to keep some systems operational during the Martian winter. On March 30, 2010, Spirit skipped a planned communication session and as anticipated from recent power-supply projections, had probably entered a low-power hibernation mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42307048",
"title": "Opportunity mission timeline",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:2012.:Greeley Haven.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "On May 8, 2012 (Sol 2947), the rover moved . On that day the Solar energy production was 357 watt-hours with a solar array dust factor of 0.536. \"Opportunity\" had been stationary on Greeley Haven for 130 Sols (Mars' days), with a 15 degrees tilt to the North to help survive the winter; after the drive the northerly tilt decreased to 8 degrees. The drive marked the end of the geodynamics science experiment, which used radio Doppler measurements while the rover was stationary. By June 2012, it studied Mars dust and a nearby rock vein christened \"Monte Cristo\" as it headed North.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42307048",
"title": "Opportunity mission timeline",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:2005.:Shoulder troubles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "The safety mechanism worked until \"Opportunity\" approached the first winter on Mars. As the Sun began to retreat lower in the sky and solar power levels dropped, it became clear that \"Opportunity\" would not be able to keep the batteries charged with a heater draining power all night long. On Sol (May 28, 2004), rover operators began using a procedure known as \"deep sleep,\" during which \"Opportunity\" disconnected the batteries at night. Deep sleep prevented the stuck heater (and everything else on the rover except the clock and the battery heaters) from drawing power. When the Sun came up the next morning and sunlight began hitting the solar arrays, the batteries automatically reconnected, the robotic arm became operational, the shoulder joint warmed up, and the thermostatic switch opened, disabling the heater. As a result, the shoulder joint was extremely hot during the day and extremely cold at night. Such huge temperature swings, which tend to make electric motors wear out faster, were taking place every sol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42307048",
"title": "Opportunity mission timeline",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:2012.:Greeley Haven.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The mission of Mars rover \"Opportunity\" continued, and by May 1, 2012 (Sol 2940), energy production had increased to 365 watt-hours, with the solar array dust factor at 0.534. The team prepared the rover for movement and finished up collecting data on Amboy rock. 60 Doppler radio passes were completed over the winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22774009",
"title": "Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator",
"section": "Section::::Usage in space missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In February 20, 2015, a NASA official reported that there is enough plutonium available to NASA to fuel three more MMRTG like the one used by the \"Curiosity\" rover. One is already committed to the Mars 2020 rover. The other two have not been assigned to any specific mission or program, and could be available by late 2021.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k90r2
|
We all hear about species being extinct. But how often does a new species "evolve" into a new one?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This article](_URL_0_) (PDF) seems to put it at about 3 new species per year but it is very debatable. Speciation may occur in burst and there are many other factors. Hopefully someone else can dig up more information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This article](_URL_0_) (PDF) seems to put it at about 3 new species per year but it is very debatable. Speciation may occur in burst and there are many other factors. Hopefully someone else can dig up more information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "942048",
"title": "Adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Extinction and coextinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then obviously, it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation—where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche—and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396078",
"title": "Bernard Germain de Lacépède",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "\"The species can undergo such a large number of modifications in its forms and qualities, that without losing its vital capacity, it may be, by its latest conformation and properties, farther removed from its original state than from a different species: it is in that case metamorphosed into a new species.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Predation, competition, and disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1707,
"text": "In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premature extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the \"overkill hypothesis\", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10029",
"title": "Timeline of the evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Species go extinct constantly as environments change, as organisms compete for environmental niches, and as genetic mutation leads to the rise of new species from older ones. Occasionally biodiversity on Earth takes a hit in the form of a mass extinction in which the extinction rate is much higher than usual. A large extinction-event often represents an accumulation of smaller extinction- events that take place in a relatively brief period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wzmof
|
why do i get sleepy when i get nervous?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might have some kind of chemical imbalance, disease, or infection. You should get that checked out. There isn't really an ELI5 answer to this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4080078",
"title": "Worry",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Seriously anxious people find it difficult to control their worry and typically experience symptoms like Restlessness, Fatigue, Difficulty in concentrating, Irritability, Muscle tension and Sleep disturbance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365001",
"title": "Hypnic jerk",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine there is a wide range of potential causes, including anxiety, stimulant like caffeine and nicotine, stress and strenuous activities in the evening. It also may be facilitated by fatigue or sleep deprivation. However, most hypnic jerks occur essentially at random in healthy people. Nevertheless, these repeated, intensifying twitches can cause anxiety in some individuals and a disruption to their sleep onset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18936256",
"title": "Sundowning",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- An individual may experience an increase in their restlessness while trying to sleep. Restlessness can often lead to pacing and or wandering which can be potentially harmful for an individual in a confused state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499038",
"title": "Falling (sensation)",
"section": "Section::::Hypnic jerk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Studies showed that there is a correlation between the frequency of hypnic jerks and anxiety. Fatigue, discomfort of the bed, highly intense exercise and stress might cause people to jerk during sleeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45413769",
"title": "Safety behaviors (anxiety)",
"section": "Section::::Associated conditions.:Insomnia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "People with insomnia tend to excessively worry about getting enough sleep and the consequences of not getting enough sleep. These people use safety behaviors in an attempt to reduce their excessive anxiety. However, the use of safety behaviors serves to increase anxiety and reduce the chances that the affected person will disconfirm these anxiety-provoking thoughts. A common safety behavior used by affected people is attempting to control the anxiety-provoking thoughts by distracting themselves with other thoughts. The affected person may also cancel appointments and decide not to work because the person believes that he or she will not function properly. The affected person may take naps to compensate for the lack of sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2476314",
"title": "Smith–Magenis syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Disrupted sleep patterns are characteristic of Smith–Magenis syndrome, typically beginning early in life. Affected people may be very sleepy during the day, but have trouble falling asleep and awaken several times each night, due to an inverted circadian rhythm of melatonin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170803",
"title": "Mood (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Lack of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "However, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has sometimes been used as a treatment for major depressive disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lcgbz
|
how come chinese words in english are spelled funky?
|
[
{
"answer": "Zhou is not pronounced like Joe. Chinese words are generally spelled according to their pinyin (phonetic system) which has correlates English letters to pronunciation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5751",
"title": "Chinese language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Modern borrowings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, \"Israel\" becomes \"Yǐsèliè\", \"Paris\" becomes \"Bālí\". A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including / \"shāfā\" \"sofa\", / \"mǎdá\" \"motor\", \"yōumò\" \"humor\", / \"luóji\"/\"luójí\" \"logic\", / \"shímáo\" \"smart, fashionable\", and \"xiēsīdǐlǐ\" \"hysterics\". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghai dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, / \"sofa\" and / \"motor\" in Shanghainese sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as \"so faa\" \"sofa\" and \"mo daa\" \"motor\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3332238",
"title": "Head-directionality parameter",
"section": "Section::::Particular languages.:Chinese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Standard Chinese (whose syntax is typical of Chinese varieties generally) features a mixture of head-final and head-initial structures. Noun phrases are head-final. Modifiers virtually always precede the noun they modify. For examples of this involving relative clauses, see .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5751",
"title": "Chinese language",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic without compounding, as in \"kūlong\" from \"kǒng\" 孔; this is especially common in Jin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Adaptation to other languages.:Japanese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1572,
"text": "Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with Chinese characters, while native Japanese words could also be written using the character(s) for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Most kanji have both the native (and often multi-syllabic) Japanese pronunciation, or the kun'yomi, and the (mono-syllabic) Chinese-based pronunciation, or the on'yomi. For example, the native Japanese word \"katana\" is written as in kanji, which uses the kanji's kun'yomi since the word is native to Japanese, while the Chinese loanword \"nihontō\" (meaning \"Japanese sword\") is written as , which uses the on'yomi of each character. While nowadays loanwords from non-Sinosphere languages are usually just written in katakana, one of the two syllabary systems of Japanese, loanwords that were borrowed into Japanese before the Meiji Period were typically written with Chinese characters whose on'yomi had the same pronunciation as the loanword itself, words like \"Amerika\" (kanji: , katakana: , meaning: America), \"karuta\" (kanji: , , katakana: , meaning: card, letter), and \"tempura\" (kanji: , , katakana: , meaning: tempura), although the meanings of the kanji used often had no relation to the words themselves. Kanji that are used to only represent the sounds of a word are called ateji. While foreign loanwords in Japanese words are usually written only in kana, there are some words that normally use ateji to this day, like \"kurabu\" (ateji: , katakana: , meaning: club) and \"sushi\" (ateji: , katakana: ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147533",
"title": "Yue Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "While most Chinese varieties form compounds consisting of a qualifier followed by a qualified element, Yue dialects use the reverse order. For example, the Standard Chinese word for \"guest\" is 客人 \"kèrén\" \"guest-person\", but the same morphemes are interchanged in Cantonese \"jɐn ha:k\", Taishanese \"ŋin hak\" and Tengxian \"jən hɪk\". This is generally attributed to the influence of Tai languages, in which modifiers normally follow nouns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11547",
"title": "Furigana",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Punning and double meaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the furigana represent sound, one can combine the two to create puns or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for \"blue\", but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word \"blue\"; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name (such as \"Firebolt\" in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to clarify extended meanings. For example, in a work of science fiction, some astronaut could use the word , \"furusato\", meaning \"my hometown\", when referring to planet Earth. To clarify that for the reader, the word \"furusato\" (hometown) might be written in hiragana over the kanji for \"chikyuu\" (Earth).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37042",
"title": "Indonesian language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Loan words of Chinese origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 203,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 203,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The Chinese loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively Chinese. Words of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying Hokkien/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as traditional and simplified characters) include \"pisau\" (匕首 bǐshǒu – knife), \"loteng\", (樓/層 = lóu/céng – [upper] floor/ level), \"mie\" (麵 面 Hokkien mī – noodles), \"lumpia\" (潤餅 (Hokkien = lūn-piáⁿ) – springroll), \"cawan\" (茶碗 cháwǎn – teacup), \"teko\" (茶壺 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [Hokkien] = teapot), 苦力 kuli = 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) and even the widely used slang terms \"gua\" and \"lu\" (from the Hokkien 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝 – meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cii5jc
|
During the California gold rush why didn't the American government at the time leave it for other immigrants
|
[
{
"answer": "The gold of the California gold fields - as it was understood in 1849 and the early 1850s - was an extensive resource, meaning that it was broadly distributed in small amounts. It took tens of thousands of people to process hundreds of thousands of tons of dirt to find the gold they were seeking, and at that, $4 - roughly a quarter of an ounce - was considered a good day.\n\nThe General Government (as the US federal government was known) did not have the resources - human or otherwise - to work the gold fields and process all that material. Most miners were only making a living wage to do the work and very few people ended up with surplus wealth. If the government had nationalized the gold fields, which is what you're suggesting, it would have had to pay all those workers, and it would not likely have profited much.\n\nBy the mid 1850s, California miners were seeking underground \"intensive\" gold deposits in the form of gold veins. These were concentrated, but their retrieval required a great deal of technology and supplies as well as skilled labor. Again, the government could have nationalized the mines, but it would have been a tremendous challenge to harness the people and to find the money to invest in a highly speculative, risky undertaking. It was best left to the private sector to shoulder the cost and to take the risk.\n\nBecause of all this, the national mining acts of 1866 and then, 1872, outline an approach to mineral resources, particularly on federally managed land. Because the risk of failure was so great, the federal law basically offers the resource to anyone who can find it and develop it. The perceived common good was in the mineral wealth being pumped into the economy and in the development of remote locations in North America. Although there have been many attempts to amend the generous aspects of the 1872 Mining Law, it remains the statute that governs mining to this day: it has not been possible to built a consensus around any alternative.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31869752",
"title": "Squatting in the United States",
"section": "Section::::California Gold Rush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "In January 1848, two weeks after California was ceded to the United States, gold was discovered in California, resulting in a flood of fortune seekers gravitating to the state in the following months and years. Due to the ambiguity of existing laws regarding squatting on federal land, individual mining camps developed squatting laws to fill the legal void. Policies relating to abandonment and work requirements were established on a camp-by-camp basis. As extraction became more capital-intensive, the share of mining camps that allowed a company to own land increased significantly. Mining laws for mining on federally-owned land passed in 1872 and helped develop the western states in America, but as time passed, their effectiveness and appropriateness waned. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615438",
"title": "General Mining Act of 1872",
"section": "Section::::Western miners' codes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Miners and prospectors in the California Gold Rush of 1849 found themselves in a legal vacuum. Although the US federal government had laws governing the leasing of mineral land, the United States had only recently acquired California by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and had little presence in the newly acquired territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865472",
"title": "Australian gold rushes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "After the California Gold Rush began in 1848, which caused many people to leave Australia for California to look for gold there, the New South Wales government rethought its position, and sought approval from the Colonial Office in England to allow the exploitation of the mineral resources and also offered rewards for the finding of payable gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5700935",
"title": "Anti-Coolie Act",
"section": "Section::::Coolie clubs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1380,
"text": "In the wake of the 1853 recession, many Californians who owned the rights to the land on which the gold was mined were looking for cheap labor to maximize profits. Chinese immigrants came to America for a variety of reasons, including longstanding trans-Pacific economic connections, a culture of migrant work in the Pearl River delta region, and the presence of reasonably fast trade routes to the United States, and the allure of gold. Many Chinese immigrants made the voyage on credit, and upon arrival in California had no choice but to accept lower wages to repay their creditors. As a result of their lower demand for wages, and their tendency to form self-supporting communities without much support from their employers, Chinese immigrants became the preferred option of labor for many landowners. Domestic miners responded with the creation of “anticoolie” clubs that sought to create clear divisions between white workers and Chinese workers. The clubs almost served like white unions that represented the interests of the white miners in the west, and they expanded in prominence as manufacturing jobs moved to the west and Chinese workers continued to play the role of cheap labor. In 1857, just a few years prior to the passage of the Anti-Coolie Act in California, Chinese workers were accepting wages between one and two dollars less than their white counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58296",
"title": "California Gold Rush",
"section": "Section::::History.:Indigenous driven out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "By 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve, Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained. The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ($ per month as of 2020), and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign miners, particularly Latin Americans and Chinese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16264386",
"title": "Walnut Heights, California",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "During the Gold Rush era, the white men from the east coast captured the ranchos and more ranches and farms plus corrals were built. However, the new people did not like California as an unorganized unincorporated land, and that prompted California to join the union as a state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2569717",
"title": "Camp Lincoln (California)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "When the California Gold Rush began, people from all over the country ran to Gold Country to try to make their fortunes. Likewise in northwestern California, many men headed that way, leaving their wives, children, and homes. The Tolowa were being forcibly resettled in the region and were beginning to take their vengeance on those who stayed behind. Settlers petitioned the Army for protection, but their pleas were not well received by the Department of the Pacific, whose troops were already stretched thin from protecting stagecoach travelers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ddo4cp
|
Were there any European explorers prior to 1700 who attempted to cross the pacific ocean from Asia?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you are asking if Europeans had been crossing the Pacific before 1741, the answer is a ***clear yes***. Magellan's expedition in 1519-1522 was the first to cross the Pacific in from east to west direction, going from Magellan's straits to Phillipines. And it was followed up by many more till 1741 \n\nIf you are asking if other Europeans had been crossing the Pacific in a specifically from west to east direction - from Asia to Americas - prior to 1741, the answer is ***also a clear yes***. In the follow up to Magellan's voyage, Spanish sent numerous expeditions to try to establish a commercial route from Americas to Asia, with the problem being that contrary winds prevented an easy return to American continent. \n\nIt wasn't until 1565 when following the conquest of Philippines by Miguel López de Legazpi, ships under Alonso de Arellano and Andrés de Urdaneta returned to America by first going north to 38th parallel where they found (as they had expected to find) winds blowing in the eastern direction which they used to steer the ships back to America. Sadly I do not know enough information about the expedition to go into more details, but suffice to say the ships headed from the Philippines, steered north to 38th parallel, then changed course due east, reaching first California and then heading south to Mexico where Spanish settlements were to be found. The discovery of this route was then been immediately taken advantage of by the Spanish. For the next several centuries, pretty much every year several ships were crossing the Pacific from Acapulco to Manila and then back, carrying New World's silver to be exchanged for Far Eastern goods. A system which is nowadays most commonly referred to as \"Manila Galleons\" and on which plenty of literature exists.\n\nSo the answer is that without any doubt, Europeans were regularly crossing the Pacific from Asia for almost two centuries before 1741. The reference you quote, of a Russian ship being the \"first Europeans to arrive in Northwestern North America\" can then only be considered serious if we limit the scope to just Northwestern North America (whatever that means) and definitely not implying they were the first to go from Asia to Americas",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "690842",
"title": "Age of Discovery",
"section": "Section::::Atlantic Ocean (1419–1507).:A New World: Americas.:The \"True Indies\" and Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In 1519, an expedition sent by the Spanish Crown to find a way to Asia was led by the experienced Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan. The fleet explored the rivers and bays as it charted the South American coast until it found a way to the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Magellan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219878",
"title": "Exploration",
"section": "Section::::History and notable periods of human exploration.:European Age of Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In the second half of the 16th century and the 17th century exploration of Asia and the Pacific Ocean continued with explorers such as Andrés de Urdaneta (1498–1568), who discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas; Pedro Fernandes de Queirós (1565–1614), who discovered the Pitcairn Islands and the Vanuatu archipelago; Álvaro de Mendaña (1542–1595), who discovered the Tuvalu archipelago, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands and Wake Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219878",
"title": "Exploration",
"section": "Section::::History and notable periods of human exploration.:European Age of Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "António de Abreu (c.1480–c.1514) and Francisco Serrão (14?–1521) led the first direct European fleet into the Pacific Ocean (on its western edges), through the Sunda Islands, reaching the Moluccas. Andres de Urdaneta (1498–1568) discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "506548",
"title": "Spice trade",
"section": "Section::::Age of European Discovery: finding a new route and a New World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "The Crown of Castile organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus to compete with Portugal for the spice trade with Asia, but instead, landed in a New World. The search for a route to Asia was resumed a few years later, after explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and became the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean from the New World, confirming that the Americas were separate continents. The Spanish crown then prepared a great westward voyage with Ferdinand Magellan, in order to reach Asia from Spain across the Atlantic, and then Pacific Oceans. On October 21, 1520, his expedition crossed the strait that bears his name in the southern tip of South America, opening the Pacific to European exploration. On March 16, 1521, the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, ultimately resulting in the Manila Galleon trade, the first westward spice trade route to Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5407",
"title": "California",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonial and Spanish periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "The first European to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Spanish captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147675",
"title": "Northern California",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical events to 1847.:European explorers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "The first European to explore the coast was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, sailing for the Spanish Crown; in 1542, Cabrillo's expedition sailed perhaps as far north as the Rogue River in today's Oregon. Beginning in 1565, the Spanish Manila galleons crossed the Pacific Ocean from Mexico to the Spanish Philippines, with silver and gemstones from Mexico. The Manila galleons returned across the northern Pacific, and reached North America usually off the coast of northern California, and then continued south with their Asian trade goods to Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16910381",
"title": "Portugal–Spain relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Spain was convinced that it had finally reached Asia with the expedition undertaken by Christopher Columbus, this expedition was tremendously important because they arrived in the Americas, an immense and highly unknown territory that began an era of exploration and conquest whose Spanish soldier-explorers called 'Conquistadors' explored much of the interior territory of the New World. The Spanish Vasco Núñez de Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean for the first time crossing the Isthmus of Panama. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, convinced Charles I of Castile (Habsburg) to finance an expedition exploring the Pacific Ocean. Magellan was killed in Mactan (now Lapu-Lapu, Philippines) by its ruler, but the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano and his remaining crew was able to continue the voyage, following Magellan's plan and bringing the good news of their circumnavigation of the world to Castile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i7ijq
|
How important was the Act of Union (1707) to the growth of the already existing English empire? Would England itself have had a comparable empire in size to the British Empire had it not formed the Kingdom of Great Britain with Scotland?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question would be better suited to /r/HistoricalWhatIf ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15850660",
"title": "History of the formation of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Formation of the Union.:Acts of Union 1707.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "In 1707, the Acts of Union received their Royal assent, thereby abolishing the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland and their respective parliaments to create a unified Kingdom of Great Britain with a single Parliament of Great Britain. Anne formally became the first occupant of the unified British throne, and Scotland sent 45 MPs to the new parliament at Westminster. Perhaps the greatest single benefit to Scotland of the Union was that she could enjoy free trade with England and her possessions overseas. For England's part, a possible ally for European states hostile to England had been neutralised while simultaneously securing a Protestant succession to the new British throne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32609472",
"title": "English overseas possessions",
"section": "Section::::Transformation into British Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The Treaty of Union of 1706, which with effect from 1707 combined England and Scotland into a new sovereign state called Great Britain, provided for the subjects of the new state to \"have full freedom and intercourse of trade and navigation to and from any port or place within the said united kingdom and the Dominions and Plantations thereunto belonging\". While the Treaty of Union also provided for the winding up of the Scottish African and Indian Company, it made no such provision for the English companies or colonies. In effect, with the Union they became British colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3176284",
"title": "Treaty of Union",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "After this personal union, the new monarch, James I and VI, sought to unite the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England into a state which he referred to as \"Great Britain\". Nevertheless, Acts of Parliament attempting to unite the two countries failed in 1606, in 1667, and in 1689.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097669",
"title": "British people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Union of Scotland and England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Despite opposition from within both Scotland and England, a Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706 and was then ratified by the parliaments of both countries with the passing of the Acts of Union 1707. With effect from 1 May 1707, this created a new sovereign state called the \"Kingdom of Great Britain\". This kingdom \"began as a hostile merger\", but led to a \"full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world\"; historian Simon Schama stated that \"it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15850660",
"title": "History of the formation of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "By the start of the 16th century, the number of states in Great Britain had been reduced to two: the Kingdom of England (which included Wales and controlled Ireland) and the Kingdom of Scotland. The once independent Principality of Wales fell under the control of English monarchs from the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. The Union of Crowns in 1603, the accidental consequence of a royal marriage one hundred years earlier, united the kingdoms in a personal union, though full political union in the form of the Kingdom of Great Britain required a Treaty of Union in 1706 and Acts of Union in 1707 (to ratify the Treaty).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3736",
"title": "British Isles",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "The Kingdoms of England and Scotland were unified in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. Following an attempted republican revolution in Ireland in 1798, the Kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain were unified in 1801, creating the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands remaining outside of the United Kingdom but with their ultimate good governance being the responsibility of the British Crown (effectively the British government). Although, the colonies of North America that would become the United States of America were lost by the start of the 19th century, the British Empire expanded rapidly elsewhere. A century later it would cover one third of the globe. Poverty in the United Kingdom remained desperate, however, and industrialisation in England led to terrible condition for the working classes. Mass migrations following the Irish Famine and Highland Clearances resulted in the distribution of the islands' population and culture throughout the world and a rapid de-population of Ireland in the second half of the 19th century. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Anglo-Irish Treaty (1919–1922), with the six counties that formed Northern Ireland remaining as an autonomous region of the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43891669",
"title": "Unionism in England",
"section": "Section::::The Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The political union between the Kingdoms of England (also including Wales as an English possession) and Scotland was created by the Acts of Union, passed in the parliaments of both kingdoms in 1707 and 1706 respectively, which united the governments of what had previously been independent states (though they had shared the same monarch in a personal union since 1603) under the Parliament of Great Britain. The Union was brought into existence under the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dd8eqf
|
what can someone do if they have your ip address? can they see all your internet activity and places you've posted? can they identify who you are?
|
[
{
"answer": "If they *only* had your actual IP address, they could DDOS you and potentially locate you within a rough geographic area. But that's about it.\n\nIf they had your IP but also purchased or collected date from cookies and such, they could learn a lot more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This all depends on how sophisticated the party with your IP address is. Having the IP address just is that, an IP address. You can do a lot with it, depending on how sophisticated you are, your connections, access, and resources. It could also be completely meaningless to someone without the knowledge or resources to use it.\n\nThe NSA could try to track you, setup 24/7 spy surveillance, hack your ISP, sneak into your house when you're gone, yadda yadda.\n\nJoe bluejeans can probably see roughly what city the IP address is registered to (which may or may not be your city), which ISP its registered, and not much more interesting than that, other than maybe trying some token DDOS attacks, but they probably won't be successful without a lot of resources.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With your IP address, the average person can figure out who your Internet Service Provider is and what your general location is (like the city), but that's about it.\n\nTo get ahold of your real name and address, they would probably have to contact your ISP, but the ISP won't tell them who you are unless you're harassing or stalking someone, hosting child porn, bragging about planning a terrorist attack, committing copyright infringement, or something else illegal.\n\nDoxxing someone this way is possible, but not that easy. Most people get doxxed by using the same username on a site with their real name on it (like a dating site).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577742",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Little or no censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "In 2010 the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland found that IP addresses are personal information and that under Swiss privacy laws they may not be used to track Internet usage without the knowledge of the individuals involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5708700",
"title": "Cracking of wireless networks",
"section": "Section::::Reconnaissance of the local-area network.:Footprinting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Finding \"relevant\" and \"reachable\" IP addresses is the objective of the reconnaissance phase of attacking an organization over the Internet. The relevant IP addresses are determined by collecting as many [[Domain Name System|DNS]] host names as possible and translating them to IP addresses and IP address ranges. This is called footprinting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1845896",
"title": "Personal data",
"section": "Section::::Conceptions.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "This raises the question of reasonableness: assume it is theoretically possible to identify a person from information which does not include a name or address, but does contain clues which could be pursued to find out who it relates to. How much extra effort does it take to make it unreasonable that such information could be identified? For instance, if the information involves an IP address, and the relevant ISP stores logs which could easily be inspected (if you had sufficient legal justification) to re-link the IP address to the account holder, can their identity be \"reasonably ascertained\"? If such linking used to be expensive, slow and difficult, but becomes easier, does this change the answer at some point?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to cookies.:IP address.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "However, IP addresses are generally not a reliable way to track a session or identify a user. Many computers designed to be used by a single user, such as office PCs or home PCs, are behind a network address translator (NAT). This means that several PCs will share a public IP address. Furthermore, some systems, such as Tor, are designed to retain Internet anonymity, rendering tracking by IP address impractical, impossible, or a security risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1174674",
"title": "Geolocation software",
"section": "Section::::Data sources.:Errors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "If geolocation software maps IP addresses associated with an entire county or territory to a particular location (such as the geographic center of the territory), this can cause considerable problems for the people who happen to live there, as law enforcement authorities and others may mistakenly assume any crimes or other misconduct associated with the IP address to originate from that particular location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40029539",
"title": "Whonix",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "User applications therefore have no knowledge of the user's \"real\" IP address, nor do they have access to any information about the physical hardware. In order to obtain such information, an application would have to find a way \"break out\" of the VM, or to subvert the Gateway (perhaps through a bug in Tor or the Gateway's Linux kernel).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Internet service providers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "While signing up for internet services, each computer contains a unique IP, Internet Protocol address. This particular address will not give away private or personal information, however, a weak link could potentially reveal information from one's ISP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24ou8d
|
why does 'latin' mean hispanic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Likewise, Hispanic means you're from Hispania, or Spain. It doesn't really make sense to call someone from say, Venezula an Hispanic, even if they speak Spanish. That's like saying someone from Minnesota is English.\n\nRegardless, Hispanic is still used that way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Latin does not mean Hispanic. At least not outside the USA. Being a Portuguese, I'm Latin but I'm not Hispanic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18522",
"title": "Latino",
"section": "Section::::Usage in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1146,
"text": "Though often used interchangeably in American English, \"Hispanic\" and \"Latino\" are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. \"Hispanic\", from the Latin word for \"Spain,\" has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. \"Latino\"—which in Spanish means \"Latin\" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word \"latinoamericano\"—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only \"Hispanic\" can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a \"Hispanic\", not a \"Latino\", and one cannot substitute \"Latino\" in the phrase \"the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures\" without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18522",
"title": "Latino",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Latino () is an Italian, Sicilian, Sardinian, Spanish, and Portuguese noun and adjective often used in the United States to refer to people with cultural ties to Latin America, in contrast to \"Hispanic\" which is a demonym that includes Spaniards and other speakers of the Spanish language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3047164",
"title": "Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Ethnicity.:Hispanic and Latino justices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The words \"Latino\" and \"Hispanic\" are sometimes given distinct meanings, with \"Latino\" referring to persons of Latin American descent, and \"Hispanic\" referring to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Spain or to the Iberian Peninsula as a whole, as well as to persons of Latin American descent, whereas the term \"Lusitanic\" usually refers to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Portugal specifically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56120",
"title": "Hispanic",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The term \"Hispanic\" derives from Latin \"Hispanicus\" ('Spanish'), the adjectival derivation of Latin (and Greek) \"Hispania\" ('Spain') and \"Hispanus\"/\"Hispanos\" ('Spaniard'), ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century (and in the late 19th century in American English).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Modern scholarship.:Social constructions.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The term \"Hispanic\" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States. Today, the word \"Latino\" is often used as a synonym for \"Hispanic\". The definitions of both terms are non-race specific, and include people who consider themselves to be of distinct races (Black, White, Amerindian, Asian, and mixed groups). However, there is a common misconception in the US that Hispanic/Latino is a race or sometimes even that national origins such as Mexican, Cuban, Colombian, Salvadoran, etc. are races. In contrast to \"Latino\" or \"Hispanic\", \"Anglo\" refers to non-Hispanic White Americans or non-Hispanic European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not necessarily of English descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23181138",
"title": "Hispanic–Latino naming dispute",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The Hispanic–Latino naming dispute is an ongoing disagreement over the use of the ethnonyms \"Hispanic\" and \"Latino\" to refer collectively to the inhabitants of the United States who are of Latin American or Spanish origin—that is, Latino or Hispanic Americans. The usage of both terms has changed to adapt to a wide range of geographical and historical influences. The term \"Hispanic\" was used first; later, some Hispanics in the western United States came to prefer the term \"Latino\". The Census does not classify persons of Portuguese or Brazilian descent as Hispanic, as those are Portuguese-speaking populations. According to a 2011 study by the Pew Research Center, the majority (51%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans prefer to identify with their families' country of origin, while only 24% prefer the terms \"Hispanic\" or \"Latino\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23181138",
"title": "Hispanic–Latino naming dispute",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "The term \"Hispanic\" actually refers to \"Hispania\"—a large geographical area notably recognized in the Roman era. It consists of the entire Iberian peninsula, not just the modern-day state of Spain. Thus, the more recent division between the modern-day states of Spain and Portugal arguably has no bearing on these terms. (In this manner, Brazilians would be considered Hispanic.) Additionally, the term \"Latin America\" () is a relatively recent invention by the French in the 19th century, intended to promote all Latin-based European interests and influence in the Western Hemisphere—further highlighting a clear and arguably erroneous inconsistency if excluding Quebec, modern French Louisiana, the French Caribbean as Haiti, and French Guiana from the terms \"Latin America\" or \"Latino\" (however, contemporary usage of the term \"Latin American\" in Latin America itself always excludes these regions, and tend to ignore Brazil too). Ultimately, one may use the term \"Hispanic America\" instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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